A Student Guide To Energy PDF

A Student Guide to Energy
A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas,

Coal, and Nuclear
John F. Mongillo
Copyright 2011 by John F. Mongillo
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations
in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mongillo, John F.
A student guide to energy / John F. Mongillo.
v. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Energy : oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear — v. 2. Solar
energy and hydrogen fuel cells — v. 3. Wind energy, oceanic energy, and
hydropower — v. 4. Geothermal and biomass energy — v. 5. Energy efficiency,
conservation, and sustainability.
ISBN 978-0-313-37720-4 (set hard copy : alk. paper) —
ISBN 978-0-313-37721-1 (set ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37722-8
(v. 1 hard copy: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-37723-5 (v. 1 ebook) —
ISBN 978-0-313-37724-2 (v. 2 hard copy : alk. paper) —
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
(v. 3 hard copy : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-37727-3 (v. 3 ebook) —
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
(v. 5 hard copy : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-37731-0
(v. 5 ebook) 1. Power resources — Encyclopedias. I. Title.
TJ163.16.M66 2011
621.042—dc22 2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
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CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Energy and Energy Sources 1

Energy’s Role in Our World 1
Energy Policies Need to Be Addressed 2
History of Energy in the United States 3
What Is Energy? 5
Energy Can Be Converted from One Form to Another 6
Today’s Sources of Energy 8
Electricity, a Secondary Source of Energy 16
How Is Energy Measured? 18
Worldwide Consumption of Energy 18
Worldwide Uses of Energy 19
Future World Energy Consumption 21
Interview
Linda Currie 28
Chapter 2 Petroleum 39
How Do We Use Petroleum Today? 39
Petroleum, a Dominant Energy Source 40
vi a Contents
History of Petroleum 40
What Is Petroleum? 41
How Did Petroleum Form? 41
Searching for Oil 42
Drilling for Oil 43
Crude Oil Refineries 46
The Main Products of Petroleum 47
U.S. Production of Crude Oil 54
Crude Oil Imports to the United States 54
OPEC 56
Oil Shales and Oil Sands 57
U.S. Imports Other Than Refined Crude Oil 59
The Strategic Petroleum Reserve 60
Environmental Issues 60
How Much Oil Is Left? 62
The Future of Petroleum 63
Interviews
Jason Diodati 49
Keats Moeller 64
Chapter 3 Natural Gas 71

World Consumption of Natural Gas 72
History of Natural Gas 73
How Is Natural Gas Formed? 74
The Contents of Natural Gas 74
Locating Natural Gas Deposits 76
Drilling for Natural Gas 76
Delivery of Natural Gas 77
How Is Natural Gas Measured? 78
Global Natural Gas Reserves 79
World Gas Production Countries 81
The World’s Largest Consumers of Natural Gas 82
Liquefied Petroleum Gas—Propane 85
Natural Gas Vehicles 85
Natural Gas Benefits 93
Natural Gas Emissions 93
Future of Natural Gas 94
Interview
Bob Walters 86
Contents a vii
Chapter 4 Coal 103

Coal: A Major Source of the World’s Energy 103
History of Coal 104
Major Uses of Coal 104
What Is Coal and How Is It Formed? 106
Where Is Coal Found? 106
How Is Coal Mined? 106
How Is Coal Transported? 112
How Does a Coal-Fired Power Station Produce Electricity? 113
Major Coal-Producing States 114
Major Global Coal-Producing Countries 115
Exporters of Coal 116
Coal Importers 117
Coal Consumption 118
Environmental Issues 119
Clean Coal Technology 121
The Future of Coal 128
Chapter 5 Nuclear Energy 131

Why the Interest in Nuclear Energy? 132
What Is Nuclear Energy? 133
History of Using Nuclear Energy 134
Concerns about Nuclear Weapons 135
International Atomic Energy Agency 135
World Use of Nuclear Energy 136
Nuclear Fuel 138
The Kinds of Nuclear Reactors 142
Some Major Nuclear Reactor Manufacturers 145
Nuclear Power Plants Generate Waste 145
Cutting-Edge Nuclear Technologies 151
Interview
Dr. Charles Ferguson 154
Books and Other Reading Materials 159

Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites 165
Energy Data 169
Energy Time Line: 3000 B.C. To A.D. 2009 197
Profiles 203
viii a Contents
Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers 209

Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers 213
National Science Education Standards, Content Standards 217
Index 219
About the Author 263
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
First and foremost I would like to thank David Paige, formerly Acquisi-
tions Editor, Health and Science, of ABC-CLIO/Greenwood for his sup-
port and effort in molding the energy series into its current form. Thanks
to the staff at Apex CoVantage for the project management, copyediting,
and proofing services, and Ellen Rasmussen, Senior Media Editor, for her
photo research contributions.
Much of this series would not be possible without the efforts of the
Green Advocates who provided interviews describing their go-green ac-
tivities and their enthusiasm for this series. The Green Advocates included
Ross McCurdy, High School Science Teacher, Ponaganset, Rhode Island;
Linda Currie, Energy Outreach Coordinator, Bay Localize, Oakland,
California; Jason Diodati, Chemistry Teacher, Marc and Eva Stern Math
and Science School, East Los Angeles, California; Bob Walters, Technol-
ogy Education Teacher, DeWitt Middle School, Ithaca, New York; Mark
Westlake, High School Physics Teacher, Saint Thomas Academy, Men-
dota Heights, Minnesota; Bhavna Rawal, High School Science Teacher,
Northbrook High School, Houston, Texas; Rande Gray, Design Project
Manager, Hannaford Supermarkets, Maine; Rick Peck, Science Teacher,
Seneca Ridge Middle School, Sterling, Virginia; Stephanie Harman, Sci-
ence Teacher, Maumee Valley Country Day School, Toledo, Ohio; Tom
Traeger, Science Teacher, La Cañada High School, La Cañada, California;
x a Acknowledgments
Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director of the National Energy Education

Development (NEED); Michael Arquin, Director, KidWind Project, St.
Paul, Minnesota; John W. Lund, Director of the Geo-Heat Center at
Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon; Phillip Cantor,
North-Grand High School, Illinois; Sister Susan Frazer, RSM, MSW, St.
John Bosco Boys’ Home, Jamaica, West Indies; Don Carmichael, Science
Teacher, Adlai E. Stevenson High School, Illinois; Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGrath, Massachusetts; and Marie Norman, Principal, Westwood El-
ementary School, Zimmerman, Minnesota (The Westwood Elementary
School was the first LEED-certified school in Minnesota).
The publisher and the author are pleased to have received permission to
reprint interviews with members of the Spirit Lake Wind Project and the
National Energy Education Development (NEED). The NEED Careers in
Energy interviews included David Chen, Program Manager for the TXU
Energy Solar Academy for TXU Energy, Dallas, Texas; Dr. Charles Fergu-
son, Philip D. Reed Senior Fellow for Science and Technology, Council on
Foreign Relations, Washington D.C.; and Keats Moeller, Senior Advisor
of Recruiting and Staffing, ConocoPhillips Company, Houston, Texas.
The author wishes to acknowledge and express the contribution of
the many government and nongovernmental organizations and corpora-
tions who provided assistance to the author in the research for this energy
series.
A special thanks to the following organizations that contributed techni-
cal expertise and resources, photos, maps, and data: Government organiza-
tions and their representatives included the Department of Energy, Office
of Energy Information Administration, Office of Fossil Energy, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Bureau of Reclamation, National Renewable
Laboratory Agency (NREL), the NREL’s National Wind Technology
Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and
the National Aeronautic Space Administration (NASA). Thanks to other
organizations, including the Alliance to Save Energy, Sandia National
Laboratories, American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), Geothermal
Energy Association, National Gas Association, Nuclear Energy Agency,
American Coal Council, and the National Association for Stock Car Auto
Racing (NASCAR).
In addition, the author wishes to thank Amy Mongillo, George F.
McBride, and Paula Jutkiewicz for their proofreading and typing sup-
port and Edward and Rachel Patrick and Sister María Elena Cervantes,
Acknowledgments a xi
RSM, for their friendship and support, too. Special accolades to Carolyn
Koeniger, Peter Mongillo, and Jane and Gareth Phillips, who provided
invaluable resources such as video Web sites, bibliographies, government
and nongovernment Web sites, science activities, energy timelines, and
much more.
In conclusion, please note the responsibility of the accuracy of the terms
is solely that of the author. If errors are noticed, please address them to the
author so corrections can be made in future revisions.
INTRODUCTION
a
We cannot simply think of our survival; each new generation is re-

sponsible to ensure the survival of the seventh generation. The proph-
ecy given to us, tells us that what we do today will affect the seventh
generation and because of this we must bear in mind our responsibil-
ity to them today and always.
—Great Law of Peace of the Haudenosaunee

(Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy)
Presently, energy drives the global economy by producing much of the

goods and services manufactured and sold in the marketplace. The global
supply and demand for energy influences the major stock markets in all
of the capitals of the world. Energy impacts all of our lives by supplying
the means for transportation, electricity, manufactured goods, and agricul-
tural production. Therefore, any disruption in the energy supply system or
shortages of energy resources will have a major impact on the economies
of all the countries in the world.
The present energy system provides us with many benefits, but it also
impacts and degrades our environment. Fossil fuel supplies will also be
running out before the end of the 21st century. Therefore, a global sustain-
able energy program that includes renewable energy sources, energy con-
servation policies, and energy efficiency programs is needed.
xiv a Introduction
World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international

companies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are de-
bating present and future energy policies. A few of the questions they are
addressing include the following:
• How will fossil fuel shortages, the depletion of nonrenewable energy
sources, and the rising costs of fuels, such as petroleum, impact the
world’s population of energy consumers, particularly those living in
developing countries?
• Will all proposed energy policies and programs be sustainable in
format to balance the future energy needs and demands of people
without damaging the environment?
• How reliable, efficient, and affordable are the renewable energy
sources, such as wind, solar, and hydrogen, that are to power the
future and replace traditional energy sources?
• What implementation plans are best to conserve energy in homes,
businesses, transportation systems, and agricultural production?
The consumption of fossil fuels continues to increase the world green-
house gas emissions and global temperatures. One estimate is that 76 per-
cent of global warming is caused by carbon dioxide alone. As atmospheric
temperatures rise, global temperatures also rise, causing global warming.
These atmospheric conditions cause the potential for major climate change
that may not be reversible.
There is no question that topics concerning energy resources and tech-
nology will continue to be in the news and play a major role in economics,
public policy, science, ethics, and political and environmental issues in the
21st century.
THE STUDENT GUIDE TO ENERGY SET

A Student Guide to Energy is a multivolume reference set and an excellent
research tool for developing a working knowledge of basic energy concepts
and topics. The set provides an interdisciplinary perspective on the study
of energy. Coverage of traditional nonrenewable energy and conventional
sources includes petroleum, natural gas, coal, and nuclear fission. The re-
newable, or alternative, energy sources covered include solar energy, wind
power, geothermal power, hydropower, tidal power, biomass and biofuels,
and hydrogen fuel cells.
Introduction a xv
No one book can keep track of all the changing events and develop-
ments in the energy field or even hope to present the most current infor-
mation about each issue. There is too much going on in the energy research
field to document all events or issues in one set. However, A Student Guide
to Energy provides an excellent tool for developing a working knowledge of
energy-related topics that are important to understanding our present and
future needs for energy resources and energy efficiency.
Organization
A Student Guide to Energy is divided into five volumes.
Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, and Nuclear. Volume 1 highlights
our present dependence on the nonrenewable energy sources such
as petroleum, natural gas, and coal that provide the majority of the
world’s energy needs. The last chapter reports on nuclear energy.
Interviews, suggested video sites, science activities, and a bibliogra-
phy complement each chapter in the volume.
Volume 2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Cells. In volume 2, solar
energy and hydrogen fuel cells are presented as alternative, renewable
energy sources. There are many U.S. schools using solar energy. The
hydrogen economy is discussed in chapters 4 and 5. Interviews, sug-
gested video sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement
each chapter.
Volume 3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Hydropower. Wind
energy, hydropower, and tidal energy are presented in volume 3.
phy complement each chapter.
Volume 4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy. Volume 4 reports on
geothermal energy and geothermal heat pumps. Chapters 4 and 5
report on biofuels and biomass as energy resources. Interviews, sug-
each chapter.
Volume 5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, and Sustainability. The
last volume in the set, volume 5 focuses on the importance of liv-
ing in sustainable society where generation after generation does not
deplete the natural resources or produce excessive pollutants. Energy
conservation, energy efficiency, and energy sustainability are covered.
xvi a Introduction
Additional topics, including carbon and ecological footprints and

global warming issues, are also covered. Interviews, suggested video
sites, science activities, and a bibliography complement each chapter.
Special Features of the Five-Volume Set

• Biographies. Men and women who have made contributions in the
energy field and in energy technologies.
• Interviews. Firsthand reporting of teachers, professors, and business
owners who play a prominent role in the go-green energy field.
• Career information. Suggested careers to assist young people to
explore the possibilities of a go-green career in energy-related fields.
• Energy companies and organizations. A listing of web sites of the
major corporations that are involved in cutting-edge research and in
the development of energy technology for the future.
• University and college resources. Energy resource links and web
sites from schools and colleges.
• Government and nongovernmental resources. Web sites for all of
the major government agencies and nongovernmental agencies that
are conducting energy research and funding.
• Science activities. Suggested student research activities at the end of
each chapter in the volume.
• Video sources. More than 100 approved video web sites intermeshed
within the text for the introduction and enrichment of the chapter
content that is covered.
• Energy time line of events. Important energy and energy technol-
ogy milestones.
• Bibliography. Book titles and articles relating to the subject area
of each chapter, presented at the end of each chapter for additional
research opportunities.
• School energy news. Several go-green U.S. schools have installed
and use renewable energy resources. These resources include photo-
voltaics, geothermal energy and geothermal heat pumps, and wind
power. The teacher interviews discuss how energy projects are part
of their science and math studies. These projects include building
biodiesel autos and pickup trucks and even a 100 percent electric-
powered car.
Introduction a xvii
• National Science Education Standards. The content in A Student

Guide to Energy is closely aligned with the National Science Educa-
tion Standards. A Student Guide to Energy does not fall into a single
traditional discipline but rather supports learning in a range of disci-
plines, including physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineer-
ing, and technology.
• Hundreds of illustrations. Diagrams, photos, charts, and tables that
enhance the text and provide additional information for the reader.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PRESENT

AND FUTURE ENERGY RESOURCES
Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Petroleum
Presently, 90 percent of the world’s energy is derived from the consump-
tion of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. According to government reports,
fossil fuels will continue to be the major source of energy for the transpor-
tation, industrial, and residential sectors. For example, the world’s demand
for petroleum will have increased to 91 million barrels per day by 2015,
from 85 million barrels per day in 2006. By 2030, consumption will have
reached 107 million barrels per day. Overall, global energy consumption is
projected to grow by 44 percent over the 2006 to 2030 period.
Ten countries produced 60 percent of total world production of oil. Fol-
lowing are the top five, which produced 42 percent of the world total, and
their share of total world production:
• Russia, 13 percent
• Saudi Arabia, 12 percent
• United States, 7 percent
• Iran, 5.4 percent
• China, 5.1 percent
Following are the top five exporting countries, accounting for 59 percent
of U.S. crude oil imports in 2009:
Canada, 1.854 million barrels per day
Mexico, 1.177 million barrels per day
Saudi Arabia, 1.021 million barrels per day
xviii a Introduction
Venezuela, 0.803 million barrels per day

Nigeria, 0.673 million barrels per day
Natural Gas
According to government studies, worldwide natural gas consumption will
increase to 158 cubic feet in 2030, from about 100 trillion cubic feet in
2005. Natural gas will probably replace petroleum and coal wherever pos-
sible. The reason is that natural gas combustion produces less carbon diox-
ide than coal or petroleum production and products. Therefore, natural gas
is expected to remain a key energy source for the industrial sector. Today,
natural gas is used extensively in residential homes, commercial buildings,
and industrial plants in the United States. In fact, it is the dominant energy
used for home heating. Natural gas supplies nearly one-fourth (23%) of all
of the energy used in the United States, with more than 66 million homes
in the United States using it. The use of natural gas is also rapidly increas-
ing in electric power generation and cooling.
Worldwide, natural gas remains a key energy source for the industrial
sector and for electricity generation. The biggest consumers of natural gas
in 2005 were the United States, Russia, Germany, and the United King-
dom. However, since 2000, the demand for natural gas in Spain had grown
by 92 percent, putting Spain in sixth place in Europe, behind the United
Kingdom, Germany, Italy, France, and the Netherlands.
Coal
Coal accounts for approximately 49 percent of electricity output in the
United States. It is the world’s most abundant and widely distributed fossil
fuel. Although coal deposits are widely dispersed, more than 59 percent
of the world’s recoverable reserves are located in five countries: Australia,
China, India, United States, and Canada. The world’s largest producers and
consumers of coal are China, Poland, Russia, India, and the United States.
Major hard-coal producers include China, the United States, India, Aus-
tralia, South Africa, Russia, Indonesia, Poland, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.
According to a study by International Energy Outlook, coal’s share of
world energy consumption is projected to increase by 29 percent by 2030.
Coal’s share of the electric power sector will reach 46 percent in 2030.
China is the world’s largest coal producer, accounting for nearly 28 percent
of the world’s annual production and about 70 percent of China’s total
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy
In 2010, President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal loan
to build two new reactors in Georgia. “We’ll have to build a new genera-
tion of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America,” said President Obama.
The United States is still the largest single producer of nuclear energy in
the world, with 104 units supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt-hours.
This is a 25 percent increase in total power over the course of 15 years, as a
result of improving equipment, procedures, and general efficiency, without
a new reactor order. (As of 2010, Watts Bar Unit 1, finished in 1996, was
the latest completed U.S. reactor.)
According to the Nuclear Energy Agency, as of 2009, France had the
second-largest number of commercial reactors with 59, and it was build-
ing one new reactor at Flamanville, with plans for another new reactor at
Penly. France is a major global producer of nuclear power for electricity.
France’s first nuclear reactor began operating in 1974, and the most recent
reactor prior to Flamanville came into use in 2000. About 78 percent of
France’s electricity is produced by nuclear energy. France is a major ex-
porter of electricity to other countries in Europe.
Renewable Energy Resources

Solar Energy
Presently, several solar technologies have been developed to use the sun’s
energy as renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The major
technologies include photovoltaic cells, concentrating solar power systems,
and special solar collectors for space heating and hot water.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, made of semiconductors such as crystalline
silicon or various thin-film materials, convert sunlight directly into elec-
tricity. According to Vicki Mastaitis of the Interstate Renewable Energy
Coalition, more than 400 schools in the US now have PV systems on their
buildings. The typical grid-tied PV system installed in a school is one or
two kilowatts.
In fall 2009, President Barack Obama visited the DeSoto Next Genera-
tion Solar Energy Center in DeSoto County, Florida. The solar plant, lo-
cated in the southwest area of Florida, has more than 90,500 photovoltaic
cells that can generate 40,000 megawatts of electricity. Other states are
also exploring solar power, including Michigan, California, Texas, Utah,
New York, and Colorado
xx a Introduction
In all, more than 80 countries are making plans to use solar energy as
part of their renewable energy portfolio, which also includes wind power,
biofuels, geothermal energy, tidal power, and wave power. As of 2010,
China is the world’s leading manufacturer of solar cells; it claims to have
more than 400 PV companies and manufactures approximately 18 percent
of the photovoltaic products worldwide. Additionally, there are now more
than 300,000 buildings with PV systems in Germany. Spain is a major
country investing and installing solar energy as well, and Brazil, Italy, Korea,
India, Taiwan, and Saudi Arabia are developing solar energy projects.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use special-shaped mir-
rors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto receivers. The solar energy is
converted to heat in the receiver. This heat energy then is used to produce
steam that powers a steam turbine or heat engine to generate electricity.
The Department of Energy states that CSP could be a major contributor
to solving our nation’s energy problems now and in the future.
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Acciona En-
ergy’s Nevada Solar One is the third-largest CSP plant in the world and
the first plant built in the United States since 1999.
Overseas, in 2009, Spain installed the largest solar tower in the world.
The 500-foot-high solar tower, located near Seville, Spain, has the capacity
to supply electricity to 10,000 homes.
Solar water heaters are another innovation. The state government of
California has approved a $350 million program to subsidize the installa-
tion of solar water heaters to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Today,
many countries use solar hot-water systems for a wide variety of purposes,
including for household needs and for heating swimming pools.
Solar hot-water heating systems are very popular in countries with
plenty of daylight solar radiation. Some of these countries include Cyprus,
Israel, Greece, Japan, Austria, and China, the latter of which is the number
one user of solar water heaters. At least 30 million Chinese households
now have solar hot-water heaters. In 2009, the country accounted for ap-
proximately 80 percent of the world’s market for solar hot-water heaters.
According to the Department of Energy, solar water heaters, also called
solar domestic hot-water systems, can be a cost-effective way to generate
hot water for your home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they
use—sunshine—is free.
Today, many experts believe that a major switch to solar energy is the
best answer to reducing fossil fuel use and emissions. Many solar energy
Introduction a xxi
companies in the United States and around the world are researching,
planning, and using technologies to harness the sun’s energy to generate
electricity for businesses, homes, schools, and large communities.
Fuel Cells
The United States and other countries are continuing to explore fuel cell
technology and applications because of its benefits. “The fuel cell industry
in 2007 reported that there had been substantial job growth and gains in
sales and research,” according to the Worldwide Industry Survey. Fuel cells
are clean, efficient, and economical.
A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and
oxygen or other fuel to create electricity through an electrochemical pro-
cess. According to the Department of Energy, there are several types of
fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limi-
tations, and potential applications. They include polymer electrolyte mem-
brane (PEM) fuel cells, direct methanol fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and
phosphoric acid fuel cells.
Presently, hydrogen fuel cells are used in a variety of ways. Fuel cells
are now powering bicycles, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, and
even buses. Police stations, hospitals, banks, wastewater treatment plants,
and telecommunication companies use fuel cells for cellular phones and
radios.
The world’s leading automakers are working on alternative technologies
using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks. According to Allied Business
Intelligence, “The current $40 million stationary fuel cell market will grow
to more than $10 billion by 2010. Fuel cells are currently being developed
in sizes appropriate for use in homes and other residential applications.”
Wind Power
In 2008, the United States became one of the fastest-growing wind-power
marketplaces in the world. That year, wind power accounted for approxi-
mately 40 percent of all new U.S. electricity-generating capacity. The De-
partment of Energy reported that wind power could generate 20 percent
of all U.S. electricity needs by 2030.
The global picture for countries using more wind power looks very
promising. The Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy
could easily provide 20 to 30 percent of the electricity needed by many
xxii a Introduction
countries, and the development of wind power technology is not unique

to the United States. Many countries are developing this renewable en-
ergy resource. As an example, according to the American Wind Energy
Association (AWEA), Denmark leads the world, producing more than
20 percent of its electricity needs at home from wind energy.
Most economists predict that the largest growth markets for wind tur-
bines are in Germany, India, Spain, Great Britain, and China. In 2010,
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines. But let’s
look at Europe: Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines
generate more electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than
in the United States. In the early twenty-first century 40 percent of the
world’s wind farms will be in Europe. In addition to wind farms, Europe-
ans are encouraged to invest in wind-power installations for their homes
and businesses in an effort to conserve energy resources.
Hydropower
In Norway, hydroelectric power meets more than 90 percent of the coun-
try’s electricity needs. Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about
24 percent of the world’s electricity. This is enough electricity to sup-
ply more than 1 billion people with electrical power for their household
needs. “The world’s hydroelectric power plants, output a combined total
of 675,000 megawatts, the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil,”
according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Much of the electricity used in Brazil, Canada, Norway, Switzerland,
and Venezuela is generated from hydroelectric power plants. These coun-
tries generate more than 170,000 megawatts of electricity. That is an enor-
mous amount of energy—enough power to support the electrical needs of
more than 110 million households in the United States.
Some of the major hydroelectric power dams in the world, include the
Three Gorges Dam in China, the Itaipu Dam on the border of Paraguay
and Brazil, and the Guri Dam in Venezuela.
Tidal Power Energy

Many countries are examining the potential to harness tidal energy to
drive turbines for electricity. However, only a few sites in the world have
been identified as possible tidal power stations. Presently, tidal power sta-
tions are operating in France, Canada, Russia, and China. The largest is the
one in France.
Introduction a xxiii
Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear

power plants, the country has a tidal power plant as well. The Rance tidal
power plant is in operation on the estuary of the Rance River, in the north-
west corner of France. The power plant went online in 1966 and became
the world’s first electrical generating station powered by tidal energy. The
plant produces 240 megawatts of power. Canada, China, and Northern
Ireland are developing tidal energy plants as well. Presently, Nova Scotia’s
tidal power plant uses the Bay of Fundy tides to produce enough electricity
for 6,000 nearby homes.
Geothermal
Presently, geothermal energy is the fourth-largest source of renewable en-
ergy in the United States, where about 3,000 megawatts of geothermal
electricity are connected to the grid. According to the Department of En-
ergy, energy generated from geothermal sources accounted for 4 percent of
renewable energy–based electricity consumption in the United States. The
United States continues to produce more geothermal electricity than any
other country, making up approximately 30 percent of the world’s total.
And two countries alone, the United States and the Philippines, together
account for 50 percent of the world’s use of geothermal energy. As of Au-
gust 2008, geothermal capacity in the United States totaled nearly 3,000
megawatts, produced in several states such as Alaska, California, Hawaii,
Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. California alone produces more
megawatts of geothermal energy than any country in the world.
Biomass and Biofuels

In 2009, as part of the ongoing effort to increase the use of domestic renew-
able fuels, U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced plans to pro-
vide $786.5 million from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act to
accelerate advanced biofuels research and development and to provide ad-
ditional funding for commercial-scale biorefinery demonstration projects.
Global biofuel production tripled between 2000 and 2007 but still
accounts for less than 3 percent of the global transportation fuel supply.
However, global demands for biofuels are expected to more than double
between 2009 and 2015, according to a new global analysis released.
Major new contributors to the growth of global biofuels between 2009
and 2015 will include Indonesia, France, China, India, Thailand, Colom-
bia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Argentina.
xxiv a Introduction
Energy’s Future
Most energy experts believe that at least midway through the twenty-first
century we will continue to depend heavily on fossil fuels for transporta-
tion and electricity needs. Therefore, it is necessary to be more efficient in
using these energy sources.
However, energy conservation and energy efficiency are not enough to
cut the growth of emissions. To get deeper reductions, more clean and
renewable energy sources must be used.
As we look into the future, we need to inspire our young people, who
hopefully will be more involved in being energy-efficient, exploring
hands-on green energy projects, and investigating and shadowing careers
in go-green vocations.
Global governments, research laboratories, and other groups will con-
tinue their efforts to provide a renewable energy sustainable future. How-
ever, it will be the young people of today who are needed to champion the
cause in order to reach the goal. Motivating them to reach the goal is the
responsibility of their teachers, communities, mentors, peers, and parents.
Energy Data
Please note that energy data and statistics are constantly being revised
by worldwide government agencies and nongovernmental organizations.
However, the author has made a constant effort to include the most current
data and statistics that were available to him at the time of publishing.
Chapter 1
a
Energy and
Energy Sources
The Northeast Blackout of 1965 was a significant disruption in the supply

of electricity on November 9, 1965, that left people without electricity for
up to 13 hours in Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. states of New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New
Jersey.
Paralyzing New York City in the middle of rush hour, the 13-hour
blackout left 800,000 trapped in subways. People were isolated in elevators
without lights or power. Airport lights on runways were out. The fire de-
partment and police officers had to set up temporary lights and barricades
and stand at the intersections waving and directing cars and buses on their
way. The blackout affected around 25 million people and stretched 80,000
square miles. This was the first time an enormous blackout occurred in the
United States, and the events of the blackout help dramatize how much we
depend on energy resources.
ENERGY’S ROLE IN OUR WORLD

Energy influences all aspects of our lives, and energy resources influence
our current standard of living. Energy issues affect consumers, environ-
mentalists, government leaders, investors, energy producers, and large
and small businesses. Major energy news stories are reported each day in
2 a A Student Guide to Energy
In New York City, 42nd Street is lit by floodlights and automobile headlights
during the massive power failure of November 9, 1965. The blackout affected
New York State, most of New England, parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
and Ontario, Canada. (AP Photo)
magazines, newspapers, periodicals, newsletters, radio, and television and

on the Internet.
Energy drives the global economy by producing much of the goods and
services that are manufactured and sold in the marketplace. The global sup-
ply and demand for energy influences the major stock markets in all of the
capitals of the world. Energy is at least a $7 trillion-per-year business, and it
is expanding. Energy impacts all of our lives through its importance to trans-
portation, electricity, manufactured goods, and agricultural production. As
the historical blackout of 1965 proved, any disruption in an energy supply
system or shortages of energy resources would have an impact on transporta-
tion, communications, national security, and economies in many countries.
ENERGY POLICIES NEED TO BE ADDRESSED

Presently, world governments, nongovernmental organizations, interna-
tional companies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are
Energy and Energy Sources a 3
debating present and future energy policies. Following are a few of the
questions they are addressing:
• By 2030 the world’s population will have increased to more than

8 billion people. How will fossil fuel shortages, the depletion of non-
renewable energy sources, and the rising costs of fuels, such as petro-
leum, impact the world’s population of energy consumers?
• Will all proposed energy policies and programs be sustainable in for-
mat to meet the future energy needs and demands of people without
damaging the environment?
sources such as wind, solar, and hydrogen?
• What implementation plans are best to conserve energy usage in
homes, businesses, transportation systems, and agricultural produc-
tion?
There is no question that energy resources and technology will play a

major role in global economics, public policy, science, ethics, and environ-
mental issues as the 21st century continues.
HISTORY OF ENERGY IN THE

UNITED STATES
In the United States, wood played a key role as an energy source in the
early colonies until the mid-1880s. After this time period, coal replaced
fuel wood in many states. Hydropower became another energy source in
the 1930s, and by the 1950s petroleum had surpassed coal as the dominant
energy source in the nation. The 1950s also saw the appearance of nuclear
energy power plants. The most recent developments in energy resources
include wind and wave energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and bio-
mass technologies.
VIDEO
U.S. Energy: To view U.S. energy use, go to www.teachersdomain.org/resource/
tdc02.sci.life.eco.energyuse/.
Much of the energy demand in 2030 will still come from nonrenewable fos-
sil fuels. These fuels will include the petroleum fuels, natural gas, and coal.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Inter-
national Energy Outlook 2008)
Nonrenewable energy sources like petroleum will continue to play a major

role in energy consumption at least until 2020. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration)
WHAT IS ENERGY?
Energy is the capacity for doing work or a force that produces an activ-
ity. Energy exists in many forms and can be converted from one form to
another.
Forms of Energy
Energy can be discussed as either potential energy or kinetic energy. Simply
stated, potential energy is the result of position and kinetic energy is en-
ergy of motion. Potential energy and kinetic energy are all around us and
each has various forms.
Potential energy. There are several forms of potential energy, including:
Chemical energy. Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of atoms
and molecules. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal are good examples
of stored chemical energy.
Stored mechanical energy. Stored mechanical energy is the kind of
energy that you would find in compressed springs in a grandfather
clock or in a mechanical wristwatch.
Nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is stored in the nuclear structure of
atoms. Energy can be released when the nuclei in atoms are split
apart or combined or fused together.
Kinetic energy. The energy a substance or object possesses as a result
of its motion is called kinetic energy. A moving train possesses
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is expressed as MV2/2, a function of
velocity (V) and mass (M). There are several forms of kinetic energy,
including:
Radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. Radi-
ant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse
waves through empty space. Radio waves, visible light, and X-rays
are examples of radiant energy.
DID YOU KNOW?

The sun has produced energy for billions of years. In fact, all energy on Earth
can be traced back to the sun except geothermal energy, which is derived from
Earth’s core.
Electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy consists of waves

of electric and magnetic energy radiating through space and trav-
eling at the speed of light.
Thermal energy or heat. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal
energy. The more atoms and molecules move in a gas, liquid, or solid,
the more thermal energy there is in the material or substance.
Sound. Sound is a form of kinetic energy in which molecules of air
vibrate in a repeated pattern, causing the molecules to move in
longitudinal wave patterns. Sound is produced from a force strong
enough to make an object vibrate.
Motion. Everything in the universe exhibits some form of motion.
Wind is a good example of energy in motion. Motion is when
objects move from one point to another.
And, of course, gravity is another source of energy, depending on posi-
tion or the place of an object. Hydropower energy is a good example of
gravity energy.
ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED

FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
When energy is used, it does not disappear—it changes from one form of
energy to another. For example, when natural gas is burned, it is converted
to heat and light. This transfer of energy is based on the law of conserva-
tion of energy.
The Law of Conservation of Energy

The total quantity of energy available in the universe is a fixed amount, and
there is never any more of it or less of it. Therefore, the law of conservation of
energy (the first law of thermodynamics) states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed, but energy can be transformed from one form to another—heat
energy is transformed to light energy. As another example, when someone
DID YOU KNOW?

People confuse the meanings of temperature and heat. Temperature is the mea-
sure of the average kinetic energy in a substance. Heat, on the other hand, is the
total kinetic energy in a substance and can be measured with a thermometer.
strikes a match to ignite wood in a stove, the burning wood releases chemi-
cal energy that generates heat and light. A toaster uses electrical energy and
converts it to thermal energy to toast food. Heat, light, and electricity are the
most common byproducts of these conversions and the transfer of energy.
Multiple Conversions of Energy

Energy can also go through multiple transformations or conversions. Let’s
look at one example of a multiple conversion—wind energy. The motion of
wind causes the mechanical energy of a wind turbine to spin a generator to
produce electrical energy for consumers. The electricity can then be used
in homes for thermal energy, light energy, and even mechanical energy to
run a power tool.
Energy Loss in Conversions

Converting one form of energy into another form always involves a loss of
usable energy that results in some of the energy changing into heat. This is
the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. In most cases, heat from
an energy conversion simply warms the surrounding air or solid material.
The heat, which is not used to do work, is referred to as waste heat. Because
of waste heat, some energy is lost in conversions; therefore, no machine is
100 percent efficient.
Cars and trucks jam a crowded free-

way during the morning commute in
Dallas, Texas. (iStockPhoto)
For example, today’s gasoline internal combustion engines are not very
efficient. The purpose of using the gasoline in the engine is to get the car
moving. However, only about 15 percent of the chemical energy in the
gasoline tank is used to power the motion of the car. What happens to the
other 85 percent? It is wasted heat that escapes into the environment as
the car moves along.
TODAY’S SOURCES OF ENERGY

According to the Department of Energy there are two major sources of
energy that we use today. They include nonrenewable energy and renewable
energy. Nonrenewable energy sources include oil and petroleum products,
natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy. Renewable energy sources used most
often are wind, solar, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. The following
is a short description of each of these sources of energy.
As you can see, the use of fossil fuels for energy will continue to grow into
2030. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration,
International Energy Annual 2006 [June–December 2008]. Projections: EIA,
World Energy Projections Plus [2009])

The United States and many of the other industrialized nations consume
a large share of the world’s total energy resources. The most common or
conventional energy resources are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are used to pro-
duce electricity and to operate automobiles, buses, trains, airplanes, and
other machines. Approximately 85–90 percent of the energy consumed in
the United States and the world comes from fossil fuels such as petroleum,
natural gas, and coal.
Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5 present more in-depth coverage of fossil fuels
and nuclear energy. The following is a short description of each of these
resources.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are naturally occurring nonrenewable energy sources, such as
petroleum, natural gas, and coal. They are formed in Earth’s crust over
millions of years through the chemical and physical changes that occur
in plant and animal remains. Large demands for fossil fuels began in the
18th century during the Industrial Revolution, and fossil fuels are a domi-
nant energy source in the world today.
Petroleum resources. According to the International Energy Outlook
2009 Report, petroleum is expected to remain the world’s dominant energy
source through 2030. Presently, petroleum dominates the world’s energy
scene. Petroleum provides 40 percent of all of the energy in industrial coun-
tries and is the world’s number one source of energy. The United States con-
sumes approximately 26 percent of the world’s production of petroleum.
Although gasoline is a major product of petroleum, other oil products
manufactured include bottle gas (liquefied petroleum gas), kerosene, diesel
fuel, asphalt, and plastic materials. Oil is especially critical for farmers, the
transportation sector, and the chemical industry.
Natural gas. In the United States, natural gas ranks number three in
energy use, right after petroleum and coal. Natural gas consists mainly of
methane, the simplest hydrocarbon. About 22 percent of the energy we use
in the United States comes from natural gas.
Today, residential and commercial uses account for the largest portion
of natural gas consumed in North America and western Europe. In these
areas, natural gas is commonly used for home heating and cooking. Gas-
eous fuels are convenient to use because they can be readily turned on and
off, produce no smoke, and leave no ash behind.
After residential use, industry is the next-largest consumer, and electric-

power generation is third. Major industries are the big consumers of natu-
ral gas, using it mainly as a heat source to manufacture goods and products,
including fertilizers, paints, plastics, laundry detergent, and insect repel-
lents. Many synthetic fibers such as those used in tires could not be made
without the chemicals derived from natural gas. Natural gas can power
vehicles, too. Some energy experts believe that the supplies of natural gas
will be depleted by 2040.
Coal resources. According to a study by the U.S. Energy Information
Agency (EIA), world consumption of coal is projected to increase from
123 quadrillion Btu in 2005 to 202 quadrillion Btu in 2030. The EIA also
reports that by 2030 China will account for 71 percent of the world’s con-
sumption of coal. Worldwide, coal provides 40 percent of total electricity
generation. The United States relies heavily on coal for electricity. Approx-
imately 49 percent of U.S. electricity is from coal-powered generators. The
top producers of coal in the world include China, the United States, India,
Australia, and South Africa.
Today, coal’s primary use is for the generation of electricity. However,
coal is also used in the manufacturing of steel and cement.
Nuclear Energy
As of 2009 nuclear energy provided almost 20 percent of all electricity
used in the United States and constituted about 15 percent of the world’s
electrical energy output according to the World Nuclear Industry Report.
The current conventional sources of electric power, such as coal, natural
gas, and hydropower, may not be able to supply all of the world’s electri-
cal needs by 2030. The renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and
geothermal may still lag behind as major sources of electricity in the next
20 years. In fact, presently, the renewable non-hydropower fuels are used
to meet less than 3 percent of electrical energy needs in the United States,
according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal mining in Pennsylvania fueled the Industrial Revolution in the United States in
the mid-1700s.
On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries included nuclear power as

part of their energy portfolio. These countries include the United States,
Brazil, Egypt, China, Finland, India, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, Iran, South
Korea, and Vietnam. According to the World Nuclear Association, as of
2007 there are 442 nuclear power reactors worldwide. These reactors sup-
ply approximately 15 percent of the world’s electrical needs for more than
1 billion people without emitting any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases during their operation.
One of the major benefits of nuclear energy is that nuclear power plants
can operate without contributing to climate change. Although the com-
plete nuclear fuel cycle emits small amounts of greenhouse gases because
of the fossil fuels used to mine uranium, transport nuclear fuel, and pro-
vide some of the electrical energy to run uranium enrichment plants, the
amount of greenhouse gases emitted for the measure of electricity gen-
erated is lower for nuclear energy than for virtually all other electricity
generation sources.
According to the World Nuclear Association, mainland China has 12 nuclear

power reactors in operation and 24 under construction as of 2010. However,
80 percent of mainland China’s electricity is produced from fossil fuels, mostly
coal. (Shutterstock)

Wind Energy
The fastest-growing renewable power source is wind energy. Wind en-
ergy, or wind power, is an alternative energy resource that uses the re-
newable energy in moving air to generate electricity. Although wind
power currently produces less than 2 percent of the world’s electricity, the
Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy could easily provide
20–30 percent of the electricity needed by many countries. In the United
States, the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) estimates that
by the year 2025, wind power will produce more than 10 percent of the
electricity in the United States. Wind energy is discussed in more detail
in volume 3.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is conversion of radiant energy from the sun into other forms
of energy to provide solar heating and electricity. Presently, several tech-
nologies have been developed to use the sun’s energy as a renewable energy
resource for heat and electricity. The three key technologies include photo-
voltaic cells, concentrating solar power systems, and special solar collectors
for space heating and hot water.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. The
cells are made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon or various thin-
film materials.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use reflective materials
to concentrate the sun’s heat energy. The heat eventually is used to drive a
generator to produce electricity.
Low-temperature solar collectors, such as active and passive solar energy
systems, absorb the sun’s heat energy. The thermal energy is used directly
for space heating or for hot water for homes and businesses.
Refer to volume 2 in this series for more solar energy information.
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of flowing water to drive
wheels or turbines to generate electricity. The amount of electric energy
produced by the generator depends on potential energy, which is depen-
dent on the pressure and the volume of the water that flows into the tur-
bine. Hydroelectric power accounts for about 22 percent of the world’s
electricity. Some of the largest hydroelectric power producers are Canada,

the United States, Brazil, Norway, Russia, and China. Between 10 and
15 percent of all U.S. electricity is produced by hydropower.
Building small, rather than large, hydroelectric power systems may be
the trend for the future. Today, small-scale hydroelectric power systems,
called “mini-hydro” or “micro-hydro” systems, are being used on rivers and
tributaries and in remote areas where construction is difficult. Such small-
scale systems do not require the damming of rivers. These mini-hydro
systems are used in China and the United States and in several smaller
countries, including Indonesia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Zaire.
Refer to volume 3 in this series for more information about water
power.
Geothermal Energy and Heat Pumps

Geothermal energy refers to the use of natural heat energy that is extracted
from the interior of Earth in the form of steam, hot water, and hot dry
rocks. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy resource that can be used
for the direct heating of buildings or for generating electricity. Geothermal
energy is not always listed as a renewable energy source because in some
locations the depletion rate of sources such as hot water can be higher
than the rate at which the sources replenish or recharge. Italy, Iceland,
New Zealand, Russia, Japan, and France, along with the United States, are
countries using geothermal energy. Other countries using geothermal en-
ergy include the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, countries in Central and
South America, and countries in eastern Africa and in eastern Europe.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more geothermal energy information.
Biomass
The energy from biomass is the oldest fuel used by humans, and fuelwood
is the most widely used biomass fuel. However, there are other sources for
biomass energy, including herbaceous plants and excess food crops that
can be burned as a direct source of energy. Unused parts of sugar cane,
cornstalks, peat, and even cattle dung have been used as biomass fuels.
Even municipal solid wastes, a form of biomass, can be burned directly as
fuel. In Europe processing plants use up to 50 percent of municipal trash
for energy production. Trash-to-energy plants are also located in several
American cities in Maryland, California, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, and
Washington.
As of 2007, less than 10 percent of the United States’ supply of energy was
derived from renewable energy sources. Petroleum was by far the major
source of energy for the country. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy
Information Administration, Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity
Preliminary 2007 Statistics. Note: The sum of the components may not equal
100 percent due to independent rounding.)
Fuelwood. As noted previously, fuelwood is the most widely used bio-

mass fuel. For thousands of years, human populations have harvested wood
as the most common source of energy. Today, fuelwood is used as a com-
mon source of energy for cooking and heating by as many as 3 billion
people throughout the world. In fact, only in the last few hundred years,
since the Industrial Revolution, have people started using other sources of
energy, such as fossil fuels.
Biofuels. Biofuels are solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels derived from biomass
sources, which contain stored energy. Biofuels are used as an alternative to
fossil fuels and include biogas, biodiesel, and methane. About 5 percent of
the energy consumed in the United States is provided by biofuels. Most
of the biofuels are produced from wood waste from logging operations,
but they can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. In France, Italy,
and Germany, biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds and
cottonseeds. Biofuels are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release few
greenhouse gases, sulfur, and particulate matter into the atmosphere.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more information about biomass and
biofuel energy.
DID YOU KNOW?

The International Energy Agency reports that less than a third of the households in
many oil- and gas-rich nations have access to electricity or clean fuels for cooking.
It is estimated that approximately 150,000 people, mainly women and children, die
prematurely each year because of indoor air pollution from burning traditional fuels
such as fuelwood and charcoal in inefficient stoves or open fires. The number of
deaths will rise as population grows.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is an alternative energy re-
source that uses the natural temperature differences between various layers
of ocean water to produce electricity. The idea of using OTEC to produce
electricity is not new. A small OTEC plant was built off the coast of Cuba
in the 1930s. The plant produced electricity for the island country until it
was destroyed by a hurricane. Another plant was built in 1956 off the coast
of Africa. Later, a dam that generates electricity via hydroelectric power at
a lower cost replaced this plant.
OTEC systems work best in the tropical waters of the central Pacific
Ocean and the Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Mexico region of the
Atlantic Ocean.
Refer to volume 4 in this series for more information on hydropower,
ocean tidal power, ocean wave power, and ocean thermal energy.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Some energy consultants state that someday a hydrogen fuel cell will be
used to produce electricity to power automobiles, machines, and even
homes. Hydrogen is the lightest and most common element in the world.
Today, hydrogen is used primarily in ammonia manufacturing and petro-
leum refining.
Hydrogen fuel cells are also used by NASA, which has installed fuel
cells aboard the space shuttles. The fuel cells provided heat, electricity, and
drinking water for the astronauts. The good news is that when hydrogen is
used as an energy source, it generates no emissions other than water, which
can be recycled to make more hydrogen.
Refer to volume 2 in this series for more information about hydrogen
fuel cells.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses hydrogen

fuel cells in its space shuttle program. Someday, fuel cells the size of a
refrigerator may be used to provide electricity and heat for homes and other
buildings. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
ELECTRICITY, A SECONDARY
SOURCE OF ENERGY
Electricity is named as a secondary source of energy because it is gener-
ated by other energy sources such as petroleum, wind, solar power, coal, or
natural gas.
What Sources of Energy Are Used

to Produce Electricity?
In the United States, the three kinds of power plants that produce most of
the electricity are those using fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and hydropower.
Coal power plants produce almost 50 percent of all electricity used in the
United States. Solar power plants, wind farms, geothermal plants, and the
burning of biomass such as trash for electrical power generate only about
2 percent of all electricity.
The thermal power plants use coal, petroleum, and natural gas to convert
water into steam. The steam is pumped through a pipe at high pressures to
spin a generator, which makes the electricity. The nuclear power plant uses
View of the massive Hoover Dam

from a helicopter. Originally known
as Boulder Dam, Hoover Dam is
located on the Nevada–Arizona bor-
der in the Black Canyon of the Colo-
rado River. (iStockPhoto)
fission to produce the heat. The hydropower plants use fast-moving water
to spin the blades of a generator to produce electricity.
How Is Electricity Transmitted

to Homes and Businesses?
The electric utility company uses generators to produce much of the elec-
tricity we use today in homes, businesses, schools, and farms. For electricity
to reach all of these places, the electrical energy needs to be transmit-
ted over long distances at very high voltages, between 11,000 volts and
700,000 volts. Special step-up transformers are used to transmit the high-
voltage electrical energy along transmission lines from the power plants.
Special step-down transformers are used to decrease the voltage, so that
the electricity can be used safely in our homes and schools. The high voltage
is eventually reduced to 220 volts for appliances such as stoves and clothes
dryers and to about 120 volts for lights and other smaller appliances.
DID YOU KNOW?

Step-up transformers are installed in television sets because they require higher
voltages than the current in your home.
HOW IS ENERGY MEASURED?

Energy can be measured using a variety of units. The amount of heat con-
sumed or generated from various types of energy can be measured by both
the calorie unit and the British thermal unit (Btu).
Calorie. A calorie is a measure of heat energy. Using the International
System of Units (SI) for measurement, a calorie is the amount of heat en-
ergy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsius.
British thermal unit (Btu). The Btu is also commonly used to measure
the amount of heat consumed or generated from various types of energy.
The English unit of measurement defines the Btu as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahr-
enheit at a normal atmospheric pressure. One Btu is the energy equivalent
of one burning match tip; or, 1 Btu equals 252 calories or 1,055 joules.
Each gallon of petroleum produces about 12,500 Btu. One cubic foot
of natural gas produces between 900 and 1,200 Btu of energy. One pound
of bituminous coal is equal to 12,000 Btu. Propane has a heating value of
2,500 Btu per cubic foot. About 100 cubic feet of natural gas would con-
tain 100,000 Btu and is referred to as a “therm.”
Kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is a common unit in which electricity is mea-
sured. It is equal to 1,000 watts or 1,000 joules per second. A kilowatt-
hour (kWh) is a unit of electrical energy equal to 1,000 watt-hours. One
kWh is equal to 3,413 Btu. Utility companies bill their customers in cents
per kilowatt-hour. The average home in the United States uses about
9,400 kWh of electricity a year.
Quad. A quad is a unit of measurement equal to 1 quadrillion Btu, or
1,000,000,000,000,000 Btu (or 1015 Btu). Scientists measure large quanti-
ties of energy using quad measurements. The United States averages one
quad of energy about every 3.7 days.
Cubic foot. A cubic foot is a measure of volume. One cubic foot of natu-
ral gas contains about 1,020 Btu. One thousand cubic feet of natural gas
for residential consumers costs between $10 and $15.
WORLDWIDE CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY

The world population is expected to grow to 10 billion people by the
middle of the 21st century. At the same pace, it is expected that world-
wide consumption of energy will have increased by 50 percent in 2030,
U.S. energy consumption by quad. A quadrillion is equal to 1 trillion megawatts

(MW). (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration/
Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity Preliminary Statistics 2009)
in comparison with 2005 consumption. Through 2030, fossil fuels such as

petroleum and coal are expected to continue to supply much of the energy
used worldwide, according to the International Energy Outlook report,
published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2008. World energy con-
sumption is projected to increase 40–50 percent from 2005 to 2030. The
following resources will produce this energy:
• Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum (78%)
• Renewables such as hydropower and wind (18%)
• Nuclear (4%)
WORLDWIDE USES OF ENERGY

The growing world population will continue using energy for many rea-
sons, including for transportation, electricity, heating needs, and industry.
According to the EIA, as of 2007 the industrial sector uses more en-
ergy globally than the transportation and building sectors. The industrial
Members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD) include the United States, Japan, Australia, Turkey, Chile, and many
of the European countries. Two non-OECD countries are Brazil and China.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Inter-
national Energy Annual 2006 [June–December 2008]. Projections: EIA, World
Projections Plus [2009])
sector consumes 50 percent of the world’s total energy. This sector in-
cludes manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and construction. Some of the
major energy-intensive industries according to their statistics, include the
following:
Petroleum. Oil refineries use a lot of energy to convert crude oil into a
variety of products, including gasoline, diesel fuel, heating fuel, and
chemicals. In fact, 50 percent of a refinery’s operating costs are for
energy.
Steel manufacturing. The steel industry uses energy to produce steel for
hundreds of products. Steel is made from iron ore and other materi-
als at very high temperatures. Steel products include home appli-
ances and automobile parts. Producing these high temperatures with
coal-fired furnaces is very costly; however, 66 percent of new steel is
made from recycled scraps, making steel the leading recycled product
in the United States.
Aluminum manufacturing. The manufacture of aluminum, like steel
production, requires large amounts of energy to produce a variety of
products, including beverage containers, food trays, and automobile
parts.
Paper manufacturing. The manufacture of paper products includes a
number of steps such as chopping, grinding, and cooking the wood or
recycled materials into pulp. All of these steps require energy.
Other large industrial energy users include the chemical manufacturing
industries and cement manufacturing companies. These industries use coal,
oil, and natural gas to produce the energy needed for high-temperature
manufacturing processes.
The transportation sector uses energy that is consumed for moving peo-
ple, goods, and fuels, using a variety of transportation systems that include
trucks, cars, buses, subways, railroads, ships and barges, airplanes, and pipe-
lines. Almost 30 percent of the world’s total energy is used for transporta-
tion, and most of that energy is used in the form of liquid fuels.
The building sector, which consists of homes and commercial buildings,
accounts for about 20 percent of the world’s total energy consumption.
This energy is used for heating, lighting, air conditioning, and for powering
appliances used for cooking, refrigeration, and entertainment systems. As
of 2007, 40–50 percent of all global electricity production is generated at
coal-fired power plants. Natural gas is also used for heating and hot water
needs for homes and businesses.
FUTURE WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION

As of 2009, according to government reports and energy studies, petro-
leum, natural gas, and coal are expected to remain the world’s dominant
energy source throughout the next 20 years. The reason is that these fossil
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2007 there are, worldwide, more than 700 million cars and other vehicles on
the road.
fuels will still be the major sources of energy for transportation and for
industrial production of goods and products.
According to a report by Europe’s Energy Portal Organization, global
energy consumption is projected to grow by 44 percent from 2006 to
2030. Total world energy use rises from 472 quadrillion British thermal
units (Btu) in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and then to 678 qua-
drillion Btu in 2030. In 1980 the world consumption was approximately
283 quadrillion Btu. If this is true, the world’s energy use will increase by
150 percent in less than 50 years.
Environmental Concerns and Implications

for Climate Change
The rising consumption of fossil fuels will increase the world greenhouse
gas emissions and global temperatures. These conditions will cause the po-
tential for major climate change that may not be reversible.
Carbon dioxide is the major pollutant in fossil fuel emissions. (Source: U.S.
Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas 1998:
Issues and Trends)
DID YOU KNOW?

Among industrialized and developing countries, Canada consumes per capita the
most energy in the world; the United Sates ranks second, and Italy consumes the
least among industrialized countries.
Carbon Dioxide and Greenhouse Gases

Many gases exhibit so-called greenhouse properties. Such gases absorb
infrared radiation, trapping it within Earth’s atmosphere. Some green-
house gases occur naturally, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, water
vapor, and nitrous oxides. Others are produced exclusively by manufactur-
ing activities. They include chlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and
perfluorocarbons.
However, the major greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
a colorless odorless gas that plays a key role in controlling temperatures at
Earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide contributes to the greenhouse effect much
as the glass walls of a greenhouse trap heat, and that is good because it
keeps Earth warm so that humans and other organisms can survive. But
too much CO2 building up in the atmosphere can be a problem.
As global energy consumption increases, so will CO2 emissions. Ac-
cording to some environmental reports, CO2 emissions are projected to
rise from 30 billion tons in 2006 to 36.1 billion tons in 2015 and 44 billion
metric tons in 2030—an increase of 39 percent over this projection period,
if the data is correct.
“The International Energy Outlook 2006 foresees a rise of global en-
ergy consumption by 71% between 2003 and 2030, resulting in an increase
of world-wide carbon dioxide emissions by 75% over the same period.”
Approximately 75 percent of the projected increase in emissions will be in
China, India, and the Middle East. Only in Europe and in Japan will the
emissions be lower in 2030 than they were in 2003.
In the future, more and more carbon dioxide will be released into the
atmosphere than ever before and thus could contribute to a much warmer
Earth in the future. Some studies of carbon dioxide levels in the atmo-
sphere support this view. As atmospheric temperatures rise, global tem-
peratures also rise, causing global warming.
Global Warming
Global warming is a recent, ongoing elevation in global surface air tem-
perature primarily resulting from human-caused increases in the con-
centrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the lower
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are used to
generate energy and when forests are cut down and burned. It is esti-
mated that 76 percent of global warming is caused by carbon dioxide
alone. The average concentration of carbon dioxide increased from about

275 parts per million (ppm) before the Industrial Revolution to 315 ppm
when precise monitoring stations were set up in 1958 to 361 ppm
in 1996. If increased concentrations of carbon dioxide get to approxi-
mately 1,000 parts per million of carbon dioxide, an eventual global
temperature increase of up to 12 degrees Fahrenheit would result.
Global average temperatures have remained relatively stable over the
last 10,000 years. But since 1880, when reliable temperature records started
to be kept worldwide, the global average temperature has risen by nearly
15 degrees Fahrenheit. Snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and float-
ing ice in the Arctic Ocean have decreased, and cold-season precipitation
has increased in the high latitudes. According to some reports, globally, sea
level has risen 4–10 inches over the past century. Earth’s northern latitudes
have become much greener during the growing seasons since 1980, and
the spurt in plant growth may be associated with warmer temperatures
and higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which plants take in.
These satellite images were used

to compare Arctic ice mass in 1979
and 2007. Notice the differences in
the ice mass in the western sec-
tion of the Arctic over this 28-year
period. (National Aeronautics and
Space Administration)
VIDEO
Energy versus Fossil Fuels: This 02:09 minute video lays the foundation for fossil
fuels and their impact on global warming. For more, go to http://videos.howstuff
works.com/hsw/6189-energy-fossil-fuels-video.htm.
What Are Some of the Plans to Reduce

Climate Change and Global Warming?
Tracking the climate change and global warming issue and at the same
time providing energy resources for a growing global population will re-
quire some innovative solutions. Some of these plans include curbing car-
bon emissions, investing more research in renewable energy technologies,
and promoting energy efficiency and energy conservation programs.
Saving Resources and Saving Energy

There are many ways to save energy and conserve our natural resources via
energy conservation and energy efficiency. Many people think these terms
mean the same thing, but they are different. The Department of Energy
describes the distinction in these terms:
The terms energy conservation and energy efficiency have two dis-
tinct definitions. There are many things we can do to use less energy
(conservation) and use it more wisely (efficiency).
• Energy Conservation is any behavior that results in the use of
less energy. Turning the lights off when you leave the room and
recycling aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.
• Energy Efficiency is the use of technology that requires less en-
ergy to perform the same function. A compact fluorescent light
bulb that uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce
the same amount of light is an example of energy efficiency.
However, the decision to replace an incandescent light bulb
with a compact fluorescent is an act of energy conservation.
The Department of Energy report goes on to show how recycling func-

tions as a type of energy conservation:
Recycling means to use something again. Newspapers can be used to

make new newspapers. Aluminum cans be used to make new alumi-
num cans. Glass jars can be used to make new glass jars. Recycling
often saves energy and natural resources.
Natural resources are things of value provided by the Earth. Natu-
ral resources include land, plants, minerals, and water. By using ma-
terials more than once, we conserve natural resources. . . .
It almost always takes less energy to make a product from recycled

materials than it does to make it from new materials. Using recycled
aluminum scrap to make new aluminum cans, for example, uses 95%
less energy than making aluminum cans from bauxite ore, the raw
material used to make aluminum.
In the case of paper, recycling saves trees and water. Making a ton of
paper from recycled paper saves up to 17 trees and uses 50% less water.
Schools Becoming Energy Smart

Schools can play a leadership role in energy conservation and efficiency.
In addition to the benefits school conservation programs provide to the
environment, some schools have reported savings as high as 25 percent on
their utility bills.
Among the strategies schools have employed in meeting emissions-
reductions targets are introducing passive heating and cooling techniques,
converting to renewable energy sources, and retrofitting buildings for en-
ergy efficiency. Other programs address such practices as composting and
recycling. The most successful programs involve all members of the school
In Chicago, a living, green roof was planted atop the gymnasium at the Tark-
ington Elementary School. The insulation provided by the soil and vegetation
will help keep the building warm in winter and cool in summer. (AP Photo/
Nam Y. Huh)
community, including students, staff, teachers, and administrators, all of

whom play an important role.
One school in Maine, as an example, uses technology to provide
computer-controlled bank lighting in classrooms. When the sunlight is
bright, the lights are dimmed automatically. Occupancy (motion) sensors
in classrooms also turn lights off automatically when the classrooms are
not in use. These lighting strategies help to reduce electricity consumption
and save money.
Another school in Maine reported saving over 9,000 gallons of heat-
ing fuel between September and December 2007 after installing a new
burner control system. The new system has auto flame control with vari-
able frequency drive, which uses the most efficient mix of air and fuel for
the amount of ventilation needed at the time. The school has saved over
$20,000 and prevented over 200,000 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions.
The Maine schools were assisted by the Department of Environmental
Protection workshops and programs.
The Alliance to Save Energy. There are several government agencies and
nongovernmental organizations that assist schools in becoming more
“green” by saving energy and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. One or-
ganization called Alliance to Save Energy has a special program called
Alliance’s Green Schools Program. The associates are businesses and non-
profit organizations committed to greater investment in energy efficiency
as a primary means of achieving the nation’s environmental, economic,
national security, and affordable housing goals.
According to the organization’s Web site: “Founded in 1977, the Al-
liance to Save Energy is a non-profit coalition of business, government,
environmental and consumer leaders. The Alliance to Save Energy sup-
ports energy efficiency as a cost-effective energy resource. It also advocates
energy-efficiency policies that minimize costs to society and individual
consumers, and that lessen greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on
the global climate.”
The Alliance’s Green Schools Program engages students in creat-
ing energy-saving activities in their schools. The students participate in
hands-on, real-world projects, and Green Schools has achieved reductions
in energy use of 5–15 percent among participating schools. Past student
participants in the Green Schools Program have made presentations to
school boards on energy-efficiency retrofit recommendations, authored
pieces for the local newspaper, and conducted energy audits for local small
businesses, among other activities. Several school districts participate in

the program.
In the 2008–2009 school year, the Alliance’s Student Energy Audit
Training (SEAT) program taught students in the District of Columbia.
The training sessions included students using auditing tools such as light
meters, watt meters, and infrared thermometers to detect areas of energy
waste in their schools. The students calculate savings from conservation
activities such as turning off lights, removing bulbs from fixtures, and
switching to more efficient bulbs.
To learn more about the Alliance to Save Energy’s Green Schools Pro-
gram, visit http://ase.org/programs/green-schools-program.
Refer to volume 5 in this set for more information on energy efficiency,
energy conservation, and energy sustainability.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Linda Currie (Linda@baylocalize.org), Energy Outreach Coordina-
tor, Bay Localize, www.baylocalize.org, Oakland, California
Go-Green Project: Energy-Efficiency Methods in Homes
Describe your current position and your responsibilities in your particular program.
I work for Bay Localize (www.baylocalize.org), a nonprofit whose goal is to reduce
reliance on fossil fuels while increasing community resilience and livability in the
nine County San Francisco Bay Areas.
As energy outreach coordinator for the “Green Faith in Action Project,” I am
working with church congregations on home energy-efficiency upgrades per-
formed by graduates of several green jobs training programs.
Where did you grow up, and what schools did you attend?
I grew up in the Midwest, mostly in Indiana and Ohio. My dad was an industrial
engineer and always rigging up systems around the house to save energy, one
of which was a device that would prevent the heating thermostat from being set
above 60 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. My mom was a dietitian, and from an
early age, I learned the downfalls of fast food.
In seventh grade, my Girl Scout troop took a long bus trip throughout the South-
west. We hiked to the bottom of the Grand Canyon and stayed at the Phantom
Ranch by the Colorado River. I will never forget the experiences we had with nature
and the surreal beauty of places like Bryce and Zion Canyons. In scouting we had a
rule about leaving places we stayed in better shape than we found them, a pledge
I try to adhere to in my life and work today. My family camped in many places
around the country including Florida, Maine, and California. The more nature I saw,
the more I loved it and wanted to help preserve it.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects when you attended high
school?
I loved many subjects in school, especially art and science, and had several great
science teachers in high school. One of my favorite classes was anatomy, where
we got to dissect cats.
What college(s) did you attend, and what was your major field?
I went on to attend Bowling Green State University, where I took a variety of
courses including biology classes and was particularly fascinated by marine biol-
ogy and the color and diversity of sea life. I studied art as well and graduated with
a bachelor of fine arts degree, with a specialty in graphic design.
What interested you in seeking a career in your discipline?
I have a lot of varied interests and started my career in the graphic design field,
where I spent many years working as an art director for the University of California
at Berkeley, in the public affairs department. Some of my projects involved highlight-
ing the groundbreaking research projects in the sciences and other disciplines.
In more recent years, as someone who deeply appreciates our interconnected-
ness with nature, I decided to take an active role in helping preserve our planet.
I felt I needed to do whatever I could to help mitigate climate change, so my chil-
dren and future generations could enjoy a safe and healthy environment. I had
always been community-minded, serving on many school committees, so commu-
nity organizing seemed the natural direction for me. I started learning as much as
I could about climate change by going to meetings hosted by the city of Berkeley
when they began to develop their climate action plan in 2007. I also joined an orga-
nization called Green Sangha (www.greensangha.org), where I met others seeking
a positive way to take action on environmental issues.
One action some members of our group took was to go through the “Low Car-
bon Diet” (www.empowermentinstitute.net), a four-session program developed by
David Gershon to analyze your carbon footprint and then take simple steps to re-
duce it. The program was so successful for members of our group and for my family
that I began to form and facilitate other groups within my community. I found that
places such as schools and churches, with natural community affiliations, were
great places to help people make changes in living more sustainably.
Describe the Green Faith in Action Project.
The work I’m doing with the Green Faith in Action Project involves partnering with
Rising Sun Energy Center and its CYES (California Youth Energy Services) program.
CYES trains young people (15–22 years of age) to conduct free “green house calls”
to install energy-efficiency measures during the summer months. At each “green
house call” the youth energy specialist educates the resident about sustainability,
installs free equipment that saves energy and water, and provides personalized
recommendations for further energy savings.
We are also working with Richmond BUILD’s GETS (Green Jobs Training) pro-
gram, using recent graduates to perform home energy-performance tests and more
advanced home energy-efficiency upgrades. Richmond BUILD (Pre-apprenticeship
California Youth Energy Services (CYES) youth energy specialists Alexandria Parr
and Jordan Flores install a compact fluorescent lightbulb during a “green house
call.” (Courtesy Rising Sun Energy Center [www.risingsunenergy.org])
Construction Skills & Green Jobs Training Academy was first developed to create
employment and career opportunities for Richmond residents and also to imple-
ment a strategy for reducing violence. Richmond BUILD was established in April
2007 and has quickly become a model of effective and broad public–private part-
nership that is focused on developing talent and skills in the high-wage construc-
tion and renewable-energy fields.
Our Green Faith in Action Project will connect the green jobs trainees with faith
communities in Marin and Richmond, California, to have their homes made more
energy-efficient. In order to measure the impact of the program, we will be closely
monitoring and analyzing participant energy use.
Following are outcomes we hope to achieve:
• Make participants’ homes more comfortable in both hot and cold weather
• Help participants save money on energy bills
• Allow participants to take action on climate change and clean up our air
• Give youth and new trainees hands-on experience to launch their green
careers
• Measure the impact of how much money and energy participants have
saved collectively
Even in its initial stages, this program is already being replicated by
the City of Berkeley, and was implemented in 2010. Thanks go to the Frank
Levinson Fund at the Silicon Valley Community Foundation for sponsoring this
program.
How or why did you get interested in selecting this project?
I had done some work with church congregants in helping them learn to live more
sustainably and saw this project as another avenue of continuing that work with
the potential of creating a model for other faith-based groups to follow.
Explain the importance of the project as it relates to real-world issues.
Residential energy-efficiency audits and upgrades are a cost-effective strategy to
reduce energy use, save money for households, help municipalities reach climate
action goals, and promote community development by providing local jobs.
What materials and references (web sites, advisors, periodicals, etc.) did you use
as resources for the project?
Rising Sun Energy Services: www.risingsunenergy.org/cyes.htm
Richmond Build: www.ci.richmond.ca.us/index.aspx?nid=1243
Interfaith Power and Light: www.theregenerationproject.org/
Energy Star for Congregations: www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=small_busi
ness.sb_congregations
PG&E (Pacific Gas and Electric) Energy Savings Tips: www.pge.com/myhome/
saveenergymoney/savingstips/index.shtml
PG&E Rebates: www.pge.com/myhome/saveenergymoney/rebates/
LIHEAP (Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program): www.acf.hhs.gov/
programs/ocs/liheap/
U.S. Department of Energy: www.energy.gov/energyefficiency/index.htm
What advice would you give other teachers who would like to know more about
your program or activity?
Feel free to contact me by e-mail: Linda@baylocalize.org.
Discuss some of the students’ contributions to this project, and describe some of
their reactions or comments.
Students in both the CYES and GETS programs are getting valuable training and
skills that are necessary in California for meeting its climate change goals of mak-
ing homes more energy-efficient. The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC)
has established a goal of making every California home up to 40 percent more effi-
cient by the year 2020. Accomplishing this task will require a massive, coordinated
effort of outreach and marketing to homeowners, offering financing options, and
training and certifying a workforce to carry out the contracts.
How long did it take to complete the project?
This project is in the beginning stages.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or to extend this program? If not, what
are you planning next in the field of energy, conservation, or the environment?
We’ll wait to see the results before planning the next steps.
Global Plans to Reduce Emissions

1997 Kyoto Protocol
For many years, nations have been working on plans to establish global
regulations to reduce overall emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which
authorizes the curbing of emissions, was signed by 182 nations to meet the
goals for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide.
Although the United States did not sign the Kyoto Protocol, many cities
and towns throughout the United States are already moving forward with
carbon-cutting plans on their own. In fact, several states are requiring elec-
tricity producers to reduce carbon emissions by 10 percent by 2018. Other
state governments are requiring that a certain percentage of their electric-
ity be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind and solar.
Countries such as Germany and China are replacing some of their fossil
fuel plants with hydropower and other renewables. Germany is planning to
Kyoto governor Teiichi Aramaki makes a speech during the opening session of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on December 1,
1997, in Kyoto, Japan. The world’s nations convened for an extraordinary 10 days
of negotiations about the Earth’s future. (AP Photo/Katsumi Kasahara)
remove all of its coal-producing plants in the near future. Many countries
in Europe and Asia are installing solar-powered, wind-powered, and geo-
thermal energy systems to reduce their need for fossil fuels.
The United States is also working on plans to use more renewable en-
ergy sources.
U.S. Economic Stimulus Bill, 2009

In 2009 the U.S. government passed a stimulus package, the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act, to jump-start the economy through job
creation and with a heavy focus on energy. According to the Department
of Energy, following are several provisions in the stimulus package:
• Tax credits for the production of renewable energy are extended until
at least 2012.
• Research expenses associated with renewables, conservation, and car-
bon capture and sequestration could result in higher credits in both
2009 and 2010.
• The Department of Energy is authorized to provide grants up to
30 percent of the cost of installation of items such as fuel cells,
solar and small wind power, geothermal heat pumps, and combined
heat and power systems.
• The Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renew-
able Energy was to receive $21.4 billion for research, weatherization
assistance, grants, and other programs.
• The Department of Labor was to receive $750 million for job train-
ing, with significant focus on emerging industry sectors, including
energy efficiency and renewable energy.
• Federal agencies were to receive considerable funds for retrofitting
and upgrading existing facilities to meet federal energy and water-
use requirements and alleviate any maintenance backlogs.
“In 2009, the White House announced that the U.S. Department of
Energy Office of Science will invest $777 million in Energy Frontier Re-
search Centers [EFRC] over the next five years. The EFRCs will bring
together groups of leading scientists to address fundamental issues in fields
ranging from solar energy and electricity storage to materials sciences, bio-
fuels, advanced nuclear systems, and carbon capture.”
FEATURE
U.S. Department of Energy
A department of the federal government established in 1977 to regulate and man-
age the energy policy of the United States, the Department of Energy (DOE) con-
solidated many of the federal government’s responsibilities for energy and national
defense materials into one agency by replacing earlier energy-related agencies of
the federal government.
The main responsibilities of the DOE include providing technologies and de-
veloping policies that achieve efficiency in energy use while maintaining environ-
mental quality and a secure national defense. The department is a world leader
in the research and development of programs and technologies that generate
energy from fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, and alternative energy resources such as
solar energy, wind power, and biofuels. In addition, the DOE administers com-
prehensive environmental management programs involving the cleanup of sites
contaminated with high-level radioactive wastes (HLRW) and other contaminants
resulting from energy generation. The DOE also manages the nation’s hydroelec-
tric power plants, such as the Bonneville Power Administration of the northwest-
ern United States.
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIALS

Berinstein, Paula. Alternative Energy: Facts, Statistics, and Issues. Phoenix:
Oryx Press, 2001.
Boyle, Godfrey, ed. Renewable Energy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Chandler, Gary, and Kevin Graham. Alternative Energy Sources (Making a
Better World). New York: Twenty First Century Books, 1996.
Graham, Ian. Fossil Fuels: A Resource Our World Depends Upon. Chicago:
Heinemann Library, 2005.
Richard, Julie. Fossil Fuels. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media,
2003.
SOMETHING TO DO
Energy has been defined as the ability to do work or change. We can-
not see energy, but we can tell if it is there. Observe a particular environ-
ment and complete a data sheet that answers the following questions about
nonrenewable energy sources in that area.
What nonrenewable energy sources do you observe being used? How
are they being used? Who uses them? How are they produced and distrib-
uted? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? How might
they be used more efficiently?
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, though not inclusive, include government and
nongovernmental organizations.
www.americancoalcouncil.org
The American Coal Council (ACC) is dedicated to advancing the
development and utilization of American coal as an economic, abun-
dant/secure, and environmentally sound energy fuel source.
www.aga.org
The American Gas Association, founded in 1918, represents 195
local energy companies that deliver clean natural gas throughout the
United States.
www.ans.org
The American Nuclear Society’s core purpose is to promote aware-
ness and understanding of the application of nuclear science and
technology.
www.ases.org
The American Solar Energy Society is a leading association of solar
professionals and advocates.
www.awea.org
The American Wind Association promotes wind energy as a clean
source of electricity for consumers around the world.
www.api.org
The American Petroleum Institute is a national trade association that
represents all aspects of America’s oil and natural gas industry.
www.geo-energy.org
The Geothermal Energy Association is a U.S. trade organization
composed of U.S. companies who support the expanded use of geo-
thermal energy for electrical power generation and direct-heat uses.
www.greenpeace.org
Greenpeace is an international organization that campaigns for
climate solutions that will foster prosperity without damaging the
planet.
www.hydro.org
Founded in 1983, the National Hydropower Association is the only
trade association in the United States dedicated exclusively to ad-
vancing the interests of hydropower energy in North America.
www.eere.energy.gov
The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
invests in clean-energy technologies that strengthen the economy,
protect the environment, and reduce dependence on foreign oil.
VIDEOS
The following video and audio selections are suggested to enhance your
understanding of energy topics and issues. The author has made a consis-
tent effort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time, some Web
sites may move or no longer be available.
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plug-
ins. Therefore, you may need to download that software to view the videos.
You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Explanation of E ⴝ mc2: A brief explanation about the relationship
between matter and energy. To learn more, go to www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ejlpfOvLtI4 (02:40 minutes).
U.S. Energy: To view this excellent snapshot video discussing U.S.
energy use, go to www.teachersdomain.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.
eco.energyuse/ (05:00 minutes).
The Political Debate—Nuclear Energy versus Alternative and Car-
bon: Review the Democratic debate on energy in general. For more,
go to www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdMHHIO5tQM&feature=fvw
(03:02 minutes).
Energy versus Fossil Fuels: This video lays the foundation for fos-
sil fuels and their impact on global warming. Go to http://videos.
howstuffworks.com/hsw/6189-energy-fossil-fuels-video.htm (02:09
minutes).
Energy and Fossil Fuel Use: Are fossil fuels relics of the past? An
informative video that challenges the reliance on burning fossil fuels
and their place in the future of energy production. Tough questions

are raised about carbon tax, the electric grid, better storage systems
and battery technologies, and key enablers: www.engineering.com/
Videos/VideoPlayer/tabid/4627/VideoId/1021/Energy-And-Fossil-
Fuel-Use.aspx (08:24 minutes).
Chapter 2
a
Petroleum
Petroleum has been used for thousands of years for various purposes and
by various cultures. For example, early civilizations used petroleum as a
medicine and as a sealant to waterproof their boats, the Chinese discov-
ered a way to use crude oil for fuel in their lamps, and the Egyptians
and Native Americans used oil to treat wounds and for other medicinal
purposes.
HOW DO WE USE PETROLEUM TODAY?

Presently, petroleum dominates the world’s energy scene. Oil provides
40 percent of all of the energy in industrial countries. No question, petro-
leum is the world’s number one source of energy.
Crude oil is measured in barrels. The standard barrel of petroleum con-
tains 42 U.S. gallons of crude oil. What products are made from a barrel
of oil? According to the Department of Energy, a 42–U.S. gallon barrel of
crude oil, after it is refined, produces about 19 gallons of finished motor
gasoline and 10 gallons of diesel. The rest of the oil left in the barrel is used
to make a variety of different products such as vitamin capsules, shampoo,
bicycle tires, tennis rackets, combs, clothes, football cleats, fertilizers, pes-
ticides, detergents, dishes, paints, food preservatives, and heart valves. The
list of petroleum products is endless.
Nonrenewable energy sources such

as petroleum will continue to play a
major role in energy consumption
at least until 2020. (Source: U.S.
Department of Energy/Energy Infor-
mation Administration)
PETROLEUM, A DOMINANT ENERGY SOURCE

According to the International Energy Outlook 2009 Report, petroleum is
expected to remain the world’s dominant energy source throughout 2010
to 2030. Petroleum will continue to be the primary energy source in the
world’s transportation sector. Approximately 68 percent of the petroleum
will be used for vehicles, such as automobiles, buses, and trucks. About
25 percent of petroleum will be used by industry for the production of
steel, chemicals, cement, and other products. Homes and commercial busi-
nesses also use petroleum for energy.
HISTORY OF PETROLEUM
Although the use of petroleum and natural gas is very old, the modern era
of petroleum started more recently. It began in August 1859 at Oil Creek
in northwestern Pennsylvania near Titusville. Edwin L. Drake, also known
as Colonel Drake, used a homemade metal rig with a bit to drill down
approximately 70 feet into the ground. The drill bit came up coated with
oil. This was the first commercial well, and eventually it produced between
Petroleum a 41
DID YOU KNOW?

Until the 1950s the United States produced nearly all the petroleum it needed. But
by the end of that decade, U.S. production of petroleum could not keep up with
demand. Eventually, imported petroleum constituted a major portion of petroleum
used in the United States. Beginning in 1994, the United States imported more pe-
troleum than it produced.
15 and 20 barrels of oil a day. Valuable products were made from oil pro-
duced during the late 1800s and early 1900s, the most important being
kerosene used for fuel in lamps.
Then came the 20th century and the popularity of the new gas-powered
engine automobile. Hundreds of thousands of automobiles and trucks
were sold, and the demand for gasoline increased rapidly. Gasoline quickly
became the most important product of crude oil.
Today, the exploration, drilling, and refining of petroleum continues
throughout the world. Presently, Canada, Saudi Arabia, Mexico, United
States, Venezuela, and Russia are the major oil-producing countries.
WHAT IS PETROLEUM?
Petroleum is a flammable, liquid fossil fuel that occurs naturally in deposits,
usually underground, and is also known as crude oil. The composition of
petroleum varies with locality, but it is mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons,
of 5 to more than 60 carbon atoms each, with sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
as impurities. Petroleum is liquid at Earth’s surface, varying in density, and
is described as heavy, average, or light. The light oils are the most valuable
because they produce the most gasoline
HOW DID PETROLEUM FORM?

Oil was formed from the remains of billions of microscopic marine organ-
isms that lived millions of years ago, long before the dinosaurs.
When these organisms died, they settled to the bottoms of lakes, rivers,
streams, and even the oceans. As the years passed, the organisms were bur-
ied deeper and deeper under layers of sand and silt. The organisms finally
decomposed. The heat, pressure, and bacteria in the deep layers physically
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/U.S. Energy Information Administration/

Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
and chemically changed the organic remains of these organisms into a

thick, dark liquid, which we now call petroleum, crude oil, or simply oil.
The composition and viscosity of crude oil varies from a thin, light-colored
fluid to a thick, dark-colored substance.
SEARCHING FOR OIL

Oil is not found just anywhere. Not all rock formations hold oil. Most
petroleum is found in sedimentary rock basins, of which there are about
700 worldwide. Sandstone and limestone, generally folded and faulted, are
common rocks where oil may be located. The oil lies in the pores of the
rocks, like water in a sponge.
Petroleum a 43
DID YOU KNOW?

The word “petroleum” means “rock oil” or “oil from the earth.”
Much work is needed to search for these underground oil deposits. The
oil search begins with a team of geologists, geophysicists, and petroleum
engineers. Their job is to search, identify, and map rock formations that
may contain quantities of oil and gas.
To do the work, the team uses a variety of tools, technology, and data-
gathering systems to explore, locate, and map underground rock layers
containing oil and gas deposits. Some of their tools for the quest for oil in-
clude satellites, global positioning systems, high-speed computer software
and hardware, and 3-D and 4-D seismic imaging technologies.
DRILLING FOR OIL

Once the oil deposit is located in a particular rock layer, the oil companies
begin the next stage, and that is to bring to the site a drilling rig and an oil
derrick. The derrick contains all of the piping and other materials to pump
out the oil from the well. The typical oil well, both on land and offshore, is
about one mile deep.
Oil drillers use rotary equipment and hardened drill bits, lubricated by
drilling fluids, to penetrate the earth’s surface. To cut through the rock
layers, various types of bits are used, depending on the hardness of the
rock.
Once the bit reaches an oil or gas pool, the process of removing the oil
begins. To regulate and monitor fluid flow and prevent potentially danger-
ous blowouts, oil drillers install a wellhead at the surface. New drilling
technology has, on average, doubled the amount of oil or gas supplies de-
veloped per well since 1985.
DID YOU KNOW?

Primitive rotary drilling rigs, such as the one Drake used, were popular in the 1880s.
However, in 1901, the first modern rotary rig was used at the Spindletop oil field on
a salt dome in Texas.
Horizontal and Directional Drilling

Oil and gas wells traditionally have been drilled vertically, at depths rang-
ing from a few thousand feet to as deep as five miles. Depending on the
rock layers, technology advances now allow wells to change from the stan-
dard vertical position to a completely horizontal one or even to be inverted
toward the surface.
Directional and horizontal drilling enable producers to reach reservoirs
that are not located directly beneath the drilling rig. This kind of drilling is
particularly useful in avoiding sensitive surface and subsurface environmen-
tal features. About 90 percent of all horizontal wells have been drilled into
(Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)

Petroleum a 45
rock layers, which account for about 30 percent of all U.S. reserves. In a given
year, 40,000 wells may be drilled in the search mostly for gas reserves.
Recovery
The process by which oil or gas is removed from the well is called recovery.
Pressure inside the well forces the gas or oil out of the well. However, most
wells do not flow naturally, so pumps are used to force the liquids or gas
out of the ground. The natural flow and the special pumps do not always
remove the gas and oil in the ground.
Enhanced Recovery
A special technology called the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technique
has been developed for increasing the amount of oil that can be extracted
from an oil field.
In U.S. oil fields, producers have attempted EOR techniques that offer
the potential for recovering 30–60 percent or more beyond the usual
amount extracted from the oil well’s original site. Three major categories
of EOR have been found to be commercially successful: thermal recovery,
gas injection, and chemical injection.
Thermal Recovery
Thermal techniques account for more than 50 percent of all U.S. EOR pro-
duction, primarily in California. Simply stated, thermal recovery involves
the injection of steam into a well. The hot steam reduces the thick, heavy
oil’s viscosity—that is, the fluid’s ability to resist flow. The steam thins out
the oil, allowing it to flow through the reservoir to be recovered.
Gas Injection
Another enhanced recovery technique commonly used is called gas injec-
tion. In this technology, a gas such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrogen is
injected into the reservoir. In the reservoir, the gas expands and thereby
pushes additional oil up and out of the rock oil reservoir. CO2 injection
has been used successfully throughout western Texas and eastern New
Mexico. Gas injection is now being evaluated as an EOR process in such
states as Mississippi, Wyoming, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Montana, and
Alaska.
DID YOU KNOW?

In the United States, the average size of a new oil field installed on land is much
smaller than years ago. These new fields do not remain productive for long. More
than 50 percent of them produce fewer than 10 barrels per day.
Chemical Injection
The next type of EOR uses a detergent-like material instead of heat or gas
to recover oil in a reservoir. The use of detergent-like materials reduces the
surface tension of the water in the reservoir that often prevents oil droplets
from moving through a reservoir. The chemical injection technology is not
a major enhancement process. Today, it accounts for less than 1 percent of
U.S. EOR production.
Presently, EOR reports indicate that these techniques are not imple-
mented very often because of their relatively high costs, and in some cases,
these methods are not too efficient. However, because there is a lot of U.S. oil
in the ground that presently cannot be recovered, there will be more research
in enhanced recovery technologies to retrieve this important resource.
CRUDE OIL REFINERIES

Once the petroleum is recovered and piped out of the well, it is transported
by tankers and pipelines and shipped to refineries. The refinery is a huge
complex that separates crude oil into various products, such as gasoline,
kerosene, and asphalt, in a fractional distillation tower. Inside the tower,
the petroleum undergoes distillation produced by steam. The oil is heated
into a vapor, which rises inside the tower. Because the components in the
crude oil vapor, have different boiling points, they condense back to a liq-
uid state at different temperature levels in the tower, producing separate
products such as diesel fuel, gasoline, and jet fuel. The lightest products,
VIDEO
U.S.—Extreme Drilling: This method may recover heavy, thick oil, but at what cost?
To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QP2GejkLdwA&feature=rel
ated (03:03 minutes).
Petroleum a 47
such as gasoline, are removed at the top of the tower. The heaviest por-
tions are removed at the bottom. When all products are completed, they
are pumped from the condensation level in the tower to special storage
tanks.
THE MAIN PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM

Gasoline
As mentioned earlier, gasoline is one of the main products of a refinery.
Gasoline is a light, volatile, highly flammable mixture of hydrocarbons.
These hydrocarbons are obtained in the fractional distillation of petro-
leum, shale oils, or coal and are used as a fuel for internal combustion
engines and as a solvent. Solvents are special liquids that can dissolve other
substances.
Gasoline is a complex mixture, containing hundreds of different hydro-
carbons, most with 3 to 12 carbon atoms per molecule, but varying widely
in structure. It is perhaps the most widely used product refined from petro-
leum. Gasoline is useful as an automobile fuel because it easily evaporates
to a gas, which when burned releases a great deal of energy.
Presently, gasoline is rated by an octane number. The octane rating in-
dicates how much the fuel can be compressed in an engine before it spon-
taneously ignites. When the wrong-rated octane gasoline is used to power
a vehicle, it can cause knocking in the engine—not a good thing. At one
time, until the late 1960s, to increase the octane rating, additives contain-
ing lead were widely used. Because of the health and environmental haz-
ards, manufacturers in the 1970s began to change automobile designs and
gasoline composition to exclude lead. In 1990, the Clean Air Act (CAA)
forced major compositional changes in gasoline; lead additives are now
banned in the United States.
Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel is the common term for the motor vehicle fuel used in com-
pression ignition engines. It was named for its inventor, the German engi-
neer Rudolf Diesel, who patented his original design in 1892.
There are differences in the refining of diesel fuel and gasoline. Petro-
leum diesel is a “distillate” refined from crude oil. A distillate is a purified
liquid produced by condensation from a vapor during distilling. Diesel fuel
differs from gasoline in a number of obvious ways—it is heavier, oilier, and
A diesel-fueled bus takes passengers around the grounds at the Centennial

Park in Nashville, Tennessee. (iStockphoto)
much slower to evaporate. A less obvious quality, however, is diesel fuel’s

efficiency. Diesel car engines get more miles per gallon than do gasoline
engines. In diesel engines, there is a higher compression of the air and
fuel mixture, which results in the production of more power than in their
gasoline counterparts. Diesel engines are common in the United States for
such vehicles as trucks, buses, boats, and tractors. In Europe, where the cost
of gasoline is notably higher, diesel engines are also quite common in cars.
European refineries produce more diesel fuel than gasoline, the reverse of
the situation in North America.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the fuels that Rudolf Diesel originally considered for his engine was vegeta-
ble seed oil, an idea that is now coming back as so-called biodiesel. Biodiesel can
be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease
from fryolators. It is biodegradable and can reduce vehicle emissions of particu-
lates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. For more information about biodiesel,
refer to volume 4.
Petroleum a 49
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Jason Diodati, Chemistry Teacher, Marc and Eva Stern Math and
Science School, East Los Angeles, California
Go-Green Project: Powering the Cars of Tomorrow, Biodiesel
I teach chemistry at the Marc and Eva Stern Math and Science School, a public
charter in the Los Angeles Alliance for College Ready Academies. The school is
located on the California State Los Angeles campus and draws students predomi-
nantly from East Los Angeles. Our school was opened in 2006 with a freshman class
of approximately 150 students. A majority of our students are from low-income,
second-language households (Spanish), and most of them will be the first in their
family to attend college. I teach chemistry to the sophomore class, and I am in
charge of an after-school science club/energy club that is open to all grade levels.
I was born and raised in San Luis Obispo, California. I attended high school at San
Luis High and transferred to the local community college (Cuesta). After two years
of college, I spent the summer in Salamanca, Spain, learning Spanish, and then
transferred to UCLA, where I finished after two more years with a BS in biology.
After college I worked as an environmental biologist for several construction proj-
ects throughout California; then I moved to Las Vegas to build a biodiesel refin-
ery. Later on, I realized teaching was where my heart was, so I moved back to
San Luis Obispo to attend college and earned teaching credentials in biology and
chemistry.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects in high school?
Most of my favorite activities in high school did not involve class, primarily because
I was addicted to sports: soccer, baseball, football, wrestling, handball, golf—the
list goes on and on. I also enjoyed hanging out with friends, going to the beach, and
flirting with girls. Even though I never really had any educational goals or career
plans, I knew that if I worked hard, eventually I would figure things out and be able
to choose a career. I didn’t get excited about science until I was in college.
I have loved to teach or to help others as far back as I can remember. I would tutor
other students in high school and college. I would also help my friends during study
sessions and during group work activities in class.
Describe the biodiesel project.
After seeing the enthusiasm and interest of my chemistry students when exposed
to alternative energy, the English teacher (Christine Powers) and I decided to have
the students work in pairs and apply for alternative energy grants. We had them
read through the BP America web page and follow their rubric, and we gave them
support in scientific writing and producing a budget. The students were very enthu-
siastic about the project, and the English teacher stated it was their highest-level
writing all year.
After the summer, we found out that two of the projects had been selected for
funding. One grant, for $5,000, was to install a weather station on the roof of the
school and to collect and monitor wind and solar data for the possible installation
of a wind turbine or solar panels. (That project was completed in addition to the one
described.) The second grant was for $10,000 to purchase a car and convert it to
run on waste vegetable oil. The students were very empowered and proud of their
projects. They had witnessed that writing could and would get them money (large
amounts of money), a teaching tool that far outweighs anything I have ever done in
class! Their first question, of course, was whether they could keep it.
We started the project by purchasing a 1978 Mercedes Benz 240 Diesel car. We
wanted to compare the fuel economy and emissions of diesel, biodiesel, and waste
vegetable oil and create a chart to educate the school and the community. After two
months of collecting data, the car (and teacher) was in a head-on collision, and the
car was totaled. Thankfully, we were able to purchase a second car, a 1984 Mer-
cedes Benz 300 Turbo Diesel, to finish the project. We had to start the data-collection
process over, and we also coincided this data collection with the car conversion.
The fuel economy data were charted in an Excel graph showing average miles trav-
eled for gallons of diesel used after 10 tanks (we did this for each fuel type).
Jason Diodati, a chemistry teacher, and his students at the Stern Math Sci-
ence School in California, built a biodiesel car powered solely by vegeta-
ble oil. From left to right: Andres Juarez, Daniel Ramirez, Jose Rodriguez,
Jason Diodati, Angel Aleman, Cesar Gomez, Fermin Rojas, Raquel Molina,
Abigail Marquez, Emily Cendejas, Janneth Cervantes, Xiomara Martinez,
Ana Baez, Maricruz Gutierrez, Crystal Mendoza, Stephanie Alonzo, Rosy
Palapa, and Jasmine Vidaca. (Photo by Brendan Vitt)
Petroleum a 51
We purchased the Greasecar conversion kit and began working one hour a day
one day a week converting the car. We also collected data on the emissions of
diesel fuel. After a few months we started running the car on biodiesel that we
purchased from a local gas station. We continued to collect data on fuel economy
for biodiesel.
When the conversion was complete, we began collecting waste vegetable
oil from local restaurants and filtering it for use in the car. The students quickly
learned that getting clean oil meant less filtering, so they tried hard to find the
best oil they could. We used sock filters from 100 to 10 microns prior to using it in
the car.
The students then compared the fuel economy of the three fuels and analyzed
the performance and emissions. We then celebrated by driving the car to Magic
Mountain solely powered by vegetable oil!
Given that my background is in chemistry and biodiesel, which I learned in Las
Vegas, I decided to bring this subject to my chemistry students. I started by intro-
ducing my first year of students to the concept of alternative energy and fuel. When
they showed interest in the subject, I decided to team up with the English teacher
to get funding for a biodiesel type project.
Alternative energy research has become one of the most discussed topics in poli-
tics in the last few years. Both former President Bush and President Obama have
expressed interest in increasing funding for research and education in this area.
Many companies such as BP America have begun dedicating a large portion of
their profits to this field. People have started to realize that alternative energy will
be pivotal in maintaining our current demands for energy and balancing the en-
vironmental needs of the planet. Also, most governments are starting to see that
alternative energy is necessary for financial survival and independence. With
President Obama’s new energy plan and revitalization efforts, the number of “green
collar” jobs is growing exponentially, and our students need the training and desire
to pursue those fields as careers.
What materials and references (Web sites, advisors, periodicals, etc.) did you use
Our main resource was BP America. They provided us with the funding to complete
the project. We also used Greasecar (www.greasecar.com) to purchase the kit to
run the vehicle on waste vegetable oil. The rest of the information came from trial
and error during the project and my background knowledge.
What advice would you give other teachers who would like to do this project?
My advice for other teachers is to make sure you have proper funding and then go
for it. Our project was completed without any auto shop or auto shop teacher, with-
out the proper facilities, without the proper tools, and often without the technical
know-how of the teacher. We all worked together, and we got the job done without
any errors or mistakes, and the car ran perfectly! However, without the grant from
BP America to purchase the car and other supplies, this project would never have
even been considered.
Discuss some of the students’ contributions to this project.
The project was completely driven by the students; I was their guide and inspector,
but they were the workers and the thinkers. The best way to learn about something
is to roll up your sleeves and dive in head first, which is what they did. I was im-
mensely proud of their work and very impressed with their learning curve. Many
of the students who had never held a pair of pliers were eagerly completing many
of the more difficult mechanical steps of the process. Also, many of the girls were
outperforming the boys in their ability to get their hands dirty and crank bolts and
cut metal. Overall, the students were very excited about their creation (modifica-
tion) and were the envy of the school.
Our project was completed in many steps, but overall we needed about six months
to finish the entire project. Our school has no auto shop, no tools, and no place to
park or store a vehicle. We also have students whose primary transportation is the
bus or metro, and often it is dangerous for them to stay late after school and arrive
near their homes in the evening or late afternoon. Therefore, our project consisted
of one hour after school for only one day each week. We met on three different
Saturdays for about four hours each time. This means that we were working very
slowly, and each part of the project and car conversion had to be broken down
into very small parts. The car had to be moved off campus every day, meaning the
car had to be fully functional and running after every one-hour session. We had to
save the major parts of the project, such as the fuel system and heating/cooling
system, for the Saturdays when we had a longer period of time. Also, the students
who participated in this project had never done any mechanical work, increasing
the difficulty of meeting time deadlines. A school that has a shop and students with
some mechanical background should be able to finish the conversion in a much
shorter amount of time.
Sadly, we did not receive funding to continue our research on alternative fuels and
biodiesel. Our goal was to extend the program to build a biodiesel processor on
campus and purchase a school bus. We were then going to produce our own fuel
from waste vegetable oil and use the bus to transport our athletes to games and
our clubs on field trips. We will have to wait for additional funding to complete this
portion of the project.
The goal for the upcoming school year is to use waste vegetable oil and stir-
ring hot plates to research various methods of producing and washing biodiesel.
My goal is to make the students experts in the reaction mechanism and washing
technique, which will be transferred to large-scale production if needed. Essen-
tially, they are going to be chemists and apply their knowledge from my class to a
real-world application.
Petroleum a 53
Petrochemicals
The use of petrochemicals or petroleum-based products extends far beyond
fuels and power for our homes, cars, and factories. The strength, durability,
and flexibility of petroleum-based plastics, resins, and foams make them
inexpensive, resilient, and lightweight.
Petrochemicals are compounds derived from petroleum or natural gas,
nonrenewable resources that are often referred to as fossil fuels. Petro-
chemicals are obtained when crude oil or natural gas is refined, or sepa-
rated, into gasoline, heating oil, asphalt, and other useful substances. Some
petrochemicals, such as fuels, solvents, pesticides, drugs, and cosmetic
preparations, are put to direct use. Most petrochemicals, however, serve as
raw materials, or intermediates, in the production of synthetic substances,
particularly plastics.
Ethylene, a highly reactive gas, is perhaps the most widely used petrochem-
ical. It is used in the production of plastics, synthetic fibers, and antifreeze.
Other important petrochemicals include benzene, which is used to make syn-
thetic rubber and latex paints, and phenols, which are important chemicals
used in the manufacture of perfumes, artificial flavorings, and pesticides.
Petrochemical products are used in just about every industry today,
from agriculture to medicine. Unfortunately, the production and use of
petrochemicals causes a variety of environmental problems. When these
substances are produced, for example, a number of pollutants, including
sulfur dioxide and particulates, are released into the air. Emission of sulfur
dioxide is one of the main contributors to acid rain formation. Certain
petrochemicals themselves, such as benzene and toluene, are also highly
toxic to humans and other organisms.
Other Products
Several other products are made at refineries. These products include liq-
uefied petroleum (LPG), kerosene, fuel oil for furnaces, aircraft fuels, and
asphalt for road building.
In addition to crude oil, refineries and blending facilities add oils and
liquids to produce finished products for sale to consumers. These prod-
ucts include such items as the flammable liquid naphtha and kerosene.
Blending facilities add oxygenates (such as ethanol) and various “blending
components” to produce finished motor gasoline for gas stations. Blenders
also add relatively small but increasing amounts of “biodiesel” (made from
FEATURE
Alaska Pipeline
The U.S. government in 1973 approved construction of the Alaska Pipeline, an 808-
mile-long pipeline that transports petroleum across the state of Alaska, providing
about 10 percent of the oil used in the United States. The Alaska Pipeline, also
known as the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, extends from Prudhoe Bay, near the Arctic
Circle, to the Port of Valdez in southern Alaska. The 5-foot-diameter pipe carries
approximately 2 million barrels of oil each day. Oil flow is maintained by 11 pump
stations located along the pipeline.
To help prevent permafrost damage, more than half of the pipeline is located
above ground. Where the pipeline is below ground, it is refrigerated or buried in
thaw-stable, non-permafrost areas. In total, the Alaska Pipeline is buried under or
crosses over more than 800 rivers and streams. Workers constructed 13 bridges
along the route, including a 2,297-foot bridge that passes over the Yukon River.
The pipeline has been a subject of concern to citizens and environmentalists.
One major concern was how pipeline construction and operation might impact
Alaska’s fragile tundra ecosystem, specifically its permafrost layer.
processed grain oils and other products) to diesel fuel and even heating
fuel.
From the refinery, most petroleum products are shipped out through
pipelines. There are more than 200,000 miles of pipelines in the United
States used for transporting petroleum products.
U.S. PRODUCTION OF CRUDE OIL

Oil-Producing States
Approximately 25 percent of all crude oil produced in the United States
comes from offshore drilling rigs in the Gulf of Mexico. Texas, Alaska, Cali-
fornia, and Louisiana are responsible for 52 percent of total U.S. crude oil
production. Other states that produce crude oil are Oklahoma, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Montana, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, and Nebraska.
CRUDE OIL IMPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES

Because the United States consumes about twice as much crude oil as it
produces, it must import supplies from other countries. The U.S. imports
crude oil from over 60 countries, and in 2000, approximately 70 percent of
net imports of petroleum were from five countries: Canada, Saudi Arabia,
Petroleum a 55
FEATURE
Long Beach, California
Believe it or not, the petroleum industry also drills and produces crude oil and gas
in the midst of some of the nation’s largest cities. In recent decades, the industry
has successfully produced crude oil in urban environments where operations are
frequently visible for all to see.
One urban area where the production of crude oil takes place is Long Beach,
California. The oil company runs a 43,000-barrel-per-day operation at the East
Wilmington unit, located in the city of Long Beach’s scenic harbor. The East Wilm-
ington unit is part of the giant Wilmington oil field, one of the nation’s largest.
Production at East Wilmington occurs on four human-made islands built on
640,000 tons of boulders and 3.2 million cubic yards of sand dredged from the har-
bor and concealed by palm trees, flowers, concrete sculptures, waterfalls, and
colorful nighttime lighting. These islands represent the centerpiece of a solution
between the industry and the city of Long Beach to tap the harbor’s resources
without harming its natural beauty.
To shelter operations from public view, drilling rigs are covered by structures.
They are built to resemble high-rise buildings, and wellheads and other support
facilities are located below ground.
Texas and Alaska are the leading oil-producing states in the United States.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Petro-
leum Supply Annual 2007 )
VIDEO
Global Issues—Peak Oil: The world faces increasing demand for and a shrinking
supply of a finite resource. To learn more about the ultimate fuel supply crisis, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMQd5nGEkr4 (10:00 minutes).
Mexico, Venezuela, and Nigeria. Imports from all OPEC countries made
up 49 percent of total U.S. crude oil imports.
Major Oil-Producing Countries

As of 2007, 10 countries produced 60 percent of the total world produc-
tion of oil. The top five, which produced 42 percent of the world total, and
their share of total world production were as follows:
OPEC
Several countries that make up an organization called Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) produce much of the world’s oil.
OPEC includes Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Ven-
ezuela. In 2007 OPEC produced more than 40 percent of the world’s oil.
Oil reserves are increasingly concentrated in OPEC countries and by
national oil companies. These 13 countries control nearly 80 percent of
the world’s oil reserves. Most oil analysts agree that OPEC members are
major players in the world oil market and can set prices as world oil de-
mand rises.
DID YOU KNOW?

The United States has no national oil company. The largest three U.S.-based inter-
national oil companies are ExxonMobil, Chevron, and ConocoPhillips.
Petroleum a 57
OIL SHALES AND OIL SANDS

Two kinds of materials can be converted into a petroleum-like liquid: oil
shales and oil sands. Oil shales are rock-like in appearance and oil sands
look like the soft asphalt that is used for driveways and roads. Both contain
organic chemicals that can be refined for fuels.
Oil Shales
The term “oil shale” generally refers to any sedimentary rock that contains
solid bituminous materials called kerogen. The kerogen is a mixture of or-
ganic chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter
in sedimentary rocks.
Kerogen can be converted into petroleum-like liquids when the rock is
heated in the chemical process. Oil shales can yield 25 gallons of oil per
ton of rock when heated. Kerogen can be produced as a superior-quality jet
fuel, diesel fuel, and other products as well.
How Was Oil Shale Formed?

The Oil Shale and Tar Sands Programmatic Environment Impact State-
ment (PEIS) describes how oil shale was formed: “Oil shale was formed
millions of years ago by deposition of silt and organic debris on lakebeds
Shale deposits have been discovered in several areas of the United States.
(Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Geology and Resources of Some World Oil-
Shale Deposits, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5294)
and sea bottoms. Over long periods of time, heat and pressure transformed
the materials into oil shale in a process similar to the process that forms
oil. However, the heat and pressure were not as great. Oil shale generally
contains enough oil that it will burn without any additional processing,
and it is known as ‘the rock that burns.’”
Mining of Oil Shale

As described in the PEIS, “oil shale can be mined and processed to gener-
ate oil similar to oil pumped from conventional oil wells. However, ex-
tracting oil from oil shale is more complex than conventional oil recovery
and currently is more expensive. The oil substances in oil shale are solid
and cannot be pumped directly out of the ground. The oil shale must first
be mined and then heated to a high temperature.” This process produces
a liquid that goes to a refinery plant where it is processed as a synthetic
crude oil.
In 1912 the U.S. government established the Naval Petroleum and Oil
Shale Reserves. This office has overseen the U.S. strategic interests in oil
shale. Since that time, some commercial attempts have been made to pro-
duce oil from oil shale. However, these attempts have failed primarily be-
cause the cost of petroleum was lower.
Meaningful federal oil shale policy initiatives have not been undertaken
since the 1980s. In that time technology has advanced, and global eco-
nomic, political, and market conditions have also changed. In the United
States, the richest oil shale deposits are located in Colorado, southeastern
Utah, and southern Wyoming. The nation’s total oil shale resources could
exceed 6 trillion barrels of oil. However, production of the oil shales may
not be economically feasible.
Oil Sands
Oil sands are layers of sticky, tar-like bitumen that are mixed with sand,
clay, and water. Bitumen is a black, oily, liquid material that is a byproduct
of decomposed organic materials. Bitumen is also known as asphalt or tar.
Bitumen has been mixed with other materials throughout history and has
been used as a sealant, adhesive, and building mortar and as a decorative
application on pottery.
Deposits of oil sands occur in several areas of the world, including
the United States, Russia, and the Middle East. The lion’s share of these
Petroleum a 59
deposits, however, can be found in only two countries: Canada and Venezu-
ela. Astonishingly, the oil sands reserves in these two countries are roughly
equal to the world’s remaining total reserves of conventional crude oil. The
oil sands in Alberta, Canada, cover an area the size of North Carolina.
Mining Oil Sands

When oil sands are mined, approximately one hundred feet of topsoil must
be removed to reach the oil sand deposits. Then the production of extract-
ing the oil sands starts at the bottom of the mine. Here a three-story giant
caterpillar machine with a shovel scoops up the sand and dumps it into
huge trucks. Each truck, carrying approximately 400 tons of the oil sand,
transports the material to an extraction plant. In the plant, the bitumen
in the oil sand is washed out and separated from the sand in a bath of
hot water. Leaves and other debris in the wash are removed. The bitumen
material is sent to a refinery plant that converts it to synthetic crude oil.
The leftover water and debris are piped to a special pond where the water
is treated and cleaned to be reused in the mines.
Despite the complexity of this extraction process, oil sands have created
a so-called black gold rush in the Canadian province of Alberta. The Cana-
dian government and oil companies have been quite successful in drawing
oil from Alberta’s sands, producing about 1.1 million barrels daily. Having
committed $80 billion more to intrastructural development, government
and industrial investors hope the sands will be yielding 5 million barrels
per day by 2015.
U.S. IMPORTS OTHER THAN REFINED CRUDE OIL

In addition to crude oil, the United States also imports 2 million barrels
per day of refined products. The refined products are special blends of pe-
troleum fuels such as fuel ethanol. Five countries accounted for 71 percent
of the U.S. imports of refined petroleum products in 2007: Canada, Virgin
Islands, Russia, Algeria, and Venezuela.
DID YOU KNOW?

At room temperature, bitumen is similar to the texture of molasses. Below 50 de-
grees, bitumen is a very hard rubber-like material.
THE STRATEGIC PETROLEUM RESERVE

The United States created the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in the late
1970s with the goal of protecting the country from disruptions in the oil
supply. The reserve held 493 million barrels by 1985, enough oil to replace
about 115 days of net petroleum imports. Although the reserve held 541
million barrels in 2000, that amount now would replace only 53 days worth
of imports in large part because of increased energy consumption.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
When large volumes of petroleum products are burned, greenhouse gases
and other byproducts are released into the air. These gases can cause serious
Crude oil pipes at the Strategic Petroleum Reserve Bryan Mound site near
Freeport, Texas. (U.S. Department of Energy)
DID YOU KNOW?

Of every 10 barrels of petroleum consumed in the United States in 2000, more than
4 barrels were consumed in the form of motor gasoline. The transportation sector
alone accounted for two-thirds of all petroleum used in the United States in 2000.
Petroleum a 61
FEATURE
Biofuels
Biofuels are used as an alternative to fossil fuels and include biogas, biodiesel, and
methane. A biofuel is a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from biomass. About 5
percent of the energy consumed in the United States is provided by biofuels. Most
of the biofuels are produced from wood waste from logging operations, but they
can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. In France, Italy, and Germany,
biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds and cottonseeds. Biofuels
are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release fewer emissions. To learn more
about biofuels, see volume 4 in this series.
environmental problems such as air pollution, smog, acid rain, and an en-
hanced greenhouse effect. Scientists generally believe that the combustion
of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary reasons for the
increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Petroleum products burned to run vehicles, heat buildings, and provide
power for factories are responsible for about 80 percent of the world’s CO2
emissions, about 25 percent of U.S. methane emissions, and about 20 per-
cent of global nitrous oxide emissions.
Processing petroleum and using its products also create many other air
pollutants, including airborne particulate matter. In addition, oil spilled
from tankers and offshore wells has damaged ocean and coastline environ-
ments. The environmentally disruptive effects of oil wells also have some-
times led to strong opposition to new drilling, as in wilderness areas of
northern Alaska and in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).
Oil spill pollution is a particular problem in the world’s oceans, where
it can have devastating effects on wildlife and ecosystems. Oil is toxic and
directly kills small animals, such as fishes, birds, shrimp, crabs, and other
shellfish.
One major oil spill took place on Tuesday, April 20, 2010. An offshore
oil drilling platform, Deepwater Horizon, exploded in the Gulf of Mexico
near Louisiana. It was the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history
of the petroleum industry. The spill has caused extensive damage to marine
and wildlife habitats, and the Gulf ’s fishing and tourism businesses have
also suffered. The Deepwater Horizon well was capped on July 15, 2010,
and is no longer discharging oil into the Gulf of Mexico, according to the
Florida Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Today, laws help protect against oil pollution in the oceans. For example,
the federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990 increases the legal liability of oil
tanker owners by requiring them to adhere to strict regulations regarding
oil transport. The petroleum companies have also made gains in reducing
emissions at their refineries.
HOW MUCH OIL IS LEFT?

Many in the petroleum business have estimated that about 1.3 trillion bar-
rels of oil still exist presently in known oil reserves. If that number of barrels
is accurate, the data show that today’s reserves will last a little more than
40 years. Other experts believe that oil production has already reached its
peak as of 2009 and that reserves will last less than the 20 years or so.
However, some experts believe that new and advanced technologies can
be applied to extract more oil from hard-to-find places like underground
reservoirs. One new idea is to use a third stage of extraction to pump up
more oil from known and existing oil reservoirs. If these technologies
can be developed, there is a possibility that oil could last at least another
century. Following are the current stages and proposed third stage of oil
extraction.
First stage. Presently, according to experts, about 10–15 percent of all
oil in a reservoir is ejected to the surface after drilling. The internal pres-
sure in the well pushes the oil out. This is called the first stage of oil
recovery.
Second stage. Once the oil can no longer be pumped out by internal
pressure in the well, oil companies use a second stage of recovery. In this
stage, water or natural gas is injected into the ground, providing enough
pressure to force more oil out of the well. Between the first stage and this
stage, about 20–40 percent of the original oil is extracted. The remaining
oil (about 60%) is trapped in smaller pockets or is too thick to flow toward
DID YOU KNOW?

Most of the oil and gas producers are independent oil and gas small businesses,
typically employing, on average, 10 full-time and 3 part-time employees. These
companies drill 85 percent of the nation’s wells and produce 65 percent of the natu-
ral gas and nearly 40 percent of the oil consumed by Americans.
Petroleum a 63
the reservoirs or into the wells on its own. So presently all of this oil is
unrecoverable.
Third stage. In order to extract the remaining 60 percent in the original
well, new technologies have to be adopted. Now oil companies are experi-
menting with a new stage to recover the remaining oil. This technology is
still very new and expensive. More experimentation and studies need to be
conducted. But here, briefly, are some of the proposed methods for a third
stage of extracting oil:
• Incendiary. This method would include burning part of the reservoir

to produce heat to thin out the oil so that it could flow easily to the
surface. The heated air would also produce carbon dioxide, a gas that
would add pressure to force the oil to the surface.
• Chemical. Special chemicals called surfactants would be injected
into the oil reservoir. Surfactants are materials that lower the surface
tension of a liquid, allowing the liquid to flow easily and quickly.
These kinds of chemicals would assist the oil in breaking away from
the rocks to flow better. This is similar to the way we use soap to wash
our dishes.
• Biological. In this method, bacteria would be injected into the res-
ervoir, where the microorganisms would grow between the oil and
the rock. In time, the oil would then be released from the rocks to be
extracted.
THE FUTURE OF PETROLEUM

As stated earlier, petroleum will continue to dominate fuel in the energy
marketplace. The U.S. Census Bureau’s world population report states that
the population is expected to increase steadily over the first half of the
21st century. More people means more demand for fuel, energy, plastics,
and food—all highly dependent on oil. In the 10 years from 2002 to 2012,
the world population is expected to increase from 6.23 billion to 6.96 bil-
lion, an extra 12 percent to be fed. Along with population, another factor
is the increasing use of oil in developing countries—countries that, up to
now, had been contributing little to consumption. Therefore, the problems
of oil consumption in the future revolve around two factors: population
and the increasing use by developing countries that want to obtain eco-
nomic progress for their people.
SPECIAL INTERVIEW: CAREERS

IN ENERGY
Green Advocate: Keats Moeller, ConocoPhillips Company, Houston Texas
In this interview, Keats Moeller discusses her career in the energy field. If you
wish to learn more about energy-related careers, refer to the special section in the
appendix “Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers.”
The publisher and the author wish to thank National Energy Education Develop-
ment (NEED) for permission to use the following Keats Moeller interview from their
newsletter Career Currents. To learn more about NEED, visit their web site at www.
need.org
Career Chat: Human Resources

Keats Moeller is a Senior Advisor of Recruiting & Staffing for the ConocoPhillips
Company in Houston, TX. Keats holds several degrees: a BBA in Marketing and a
MS in Management from Texas A&M in College Station, TX, and an MBA in Finance/
Marketing from Southern Methodist University in Dallas, TX.
Describe what you do.
I work in the university-recruiting group at ConocoPhillips. I have an exciting job
working with, and identifying, the next generation of top talent for ConocoPhillips.
I have the opportunity to meet and work with college students from across the na-
tion and around the world.
ConocoPhillips has an amazing internship program for college students from a
variety of disciplines such as accounting and finance, marketing, communications,
human resources, engineering and geo-sciences. While college students are at
ConocoPhillips for their summer internships, the focus is on a meaningful assign-
ment. However, ConocoPhillips also pairs each student with a mentor and provides
learning opportunities, to introduce students to other new hires and to experts in
our company. I coordinate speakers for these events on topics such as the energy
landscape, sustainable development and learning about different aspects of our
company such as exploration, production, and refining, and the importance of com-
municating our energy policy. In addition, I coordinate community service activities
so that our interns are able to participate in a hands-on way.
Describe your typical day of work.
When I first get into my office in the morning, I review my calendar for the day, and
then catch up on e-mails and voicemail. From there, my days vary and may include
preparing for our university recruiting activities, preparing for our summer interns,
or even working with faculty and staff at universities.
Did any special course work or training help you gain your current position?
There are many ways I prepared for my current job. Throughout school, I took a va-
riety of courses that gave me a broad exposure to business and science. In addition,
Petroleum a 65
I got involved in a number of student organizations, which was a great way to build
my ability to work in teams and to hold leadership roles. One of the most valuable
experiences I had while in school was working in internships in my field of study.
Internships gave me the opportunity to get a first-hand look at companies and to
apply what I had learned. The great thing was that I was able to make a real contri-
bution to a company—and then when I went back to school, my coursework made
even more sense! Once I was in industry, I have had the opportunity to continue
learning through each of the jobs that I have held.
Please share some of the opportunities you’ve had.
One of the most amazing opportunities has been all of the people that I have met
from college students and new employees to our experienced employees. I’ve even
had the opportunity to travel with the CEO, Vice President and the Controller of our
company.
What challenges do you face working in human resources?
One challenge of my profession is identifying and preparing for the workforce of
tomorrow. The energy industry is an exciting and interesting place that is always
changing. Students have a number of choices of where to begin their career. My
challenge is in sharing the opportunities available in our company and industry!
Visit www.conocophillips.com/car eers/UnivRecruit/index.htm for information on
university recruiting.
What’s the most rewarding part of your job?
The most rewarding part of my job is working with students. I truly believe in the
opportunities that we have to offer at ConocoPhillips. It is exciting to be able to
introduce and share our company with our newest employees.
What’s the most surprising part of your job?
One of the most surprising aspects of my job has been to see the number of employ-
ees we have who have been at our company for over 20 years—and how engaged
these employees are and how willing they are to share their experiences with new
and potential employees.
Would you follow the same career path again?
The energy industry is an exciting place to work. One of the most rewarding as-
pects is knowing that I am involved in a company that is making a difference in the
world we will live in. I feel very fortunate to work with the phenomenal talent that
ConocoPhillips attracts.
Careers in energy are interesting and dynamic and I would definitely encourage
young people to consider these careers! My advice would be to focus on doing
well in school and to get involved in organizations as a way to learn more about
teamwork, leadership, and an area of interest. Once you are in a company, your
technical skills are important, but so is your ability to interact with others and to
build relationships.

Adelman, Morris A. The Economics of Petroleum Supply. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1993.
Magueri, Leonardo. The Age of Oil: The Mythology, History, and Future of the
World’s Most Controversial Resource. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.
Nakaya, Andrea, ed. Oil: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA: Greenhouse
Press, 2006.
Raymond, Martin, and William Leffler. Oil: Beginner’s Guide. Oxford, UK:
One World, 2008.
Smil, Vaclav. Oil: Beginner’s Guide. Oxford, UK: One World, 2008.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. On a world map locate those geographic areas—land and water—
where crude oil has been discovered and extracted. Research and
report on those areas that have experienced serious environmental
setbacks from oil drilling and/or its delivery systems (supertankers,
pipelines, off-shore platforms).
2. Explore and report on the economic and political impact of having
a small number of countries controlling a natural resource, such as
petroleum, that is needed on a regional or global basis.
3. In the late 1950s, construction began on America’s vast interstate
highway system. Explore the impact of its completion on freight dis-
tribution, population shifts, mass transit systems, nonrenewable fuel
consumption, air quality, and global warming. Use the following Web
sites for references and research: www.eia.doe.gov and www.epa.gov.
WEB SITES
www.api.org
The American Petroleum Institute represents producers, refiners,
marketers, and transporters of oil, natural gas, and products. Its Web
site includes extensive information on topics such as the history of
oil, materials for teachers, petroleum products at home, and petro-
leum museums.
www.ogj.com/index.html
The Oil and Gas Journal focuses on new developments in the oil and
natural gas businesses.
Petroleum a 67
www.usgs.gov/
The U.S. Geological Survey is a science organization that provides
impartial information on the health of our ecosystems and environ-
ment, the natural hazards that threaten us, the natural resources we
rely on, the impacts of climate and land-use change, and the core sci-
ence systems that help us provide timely, relevant, and useable infor-
mation. The Geological Survey Energy Resources Program provides
energy publications and data.
www.usachoice.net/drakewell
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission Drake Well
Museum is located on the site where Edwin L. Drake drilled the first
commercially successful oil well in 1859. The museum documents
the birthplace of the petroleum industry with exhibits, operating
field equipment, an extensive photograph collection, and a research
library.
www.capitalchevron.com
Chevron is one of the world’s largest integrated energy companies.
Headquartered in San Ramon, California, Chevron conducts busi-
ness worldwide. Check out the Exploration Zone for an educational
primer about oil production and refining for students and teachers.
www.bp.com/
British Petroleum (BP) is one of the world’s largest energy compa-
nies, providing its customers with fuel for transportation, energy for
heat and light, retail services, and petrochemical products for every-
day items. BP offers educational materials on energy in six languages
for teachers and students worldwide as part of its Science across the
World Web site.
www.conocophillips.com
ConocoPhillips offers several products and services that provide
businesses with high-quality fuels, lubricants, chemicals, specialty
products, and other solutions. Conoco’s Web site features short on-
line movies about some of the industry’s newest and most innovative
technologies.
http://www.stategeologists.org
The Web site of the Association of American State Geologists in-
cludes an Earth Science Education Source Book for teachers and stu-
dents, a compendium of earth science education materials, and services
available from the 50 State Geological Surveys in the United States,
Puerto Rico, and the Association of American State Geologists.
www.agiweb.org
The American Geologic Institute is a nonprofit federation of 32
geoscientific and professional associations that represent more than
100,000 geologists, geophysicists, and other earth scientists. The In-
stitute maintains a Clearinghouse for Earth Science Education with
an electronic database for elementary school teachers and secondary
school science teachers.
www.agu.org
The American Geophysical Union is an international scientific so-
ciety of more than 35,000 researchers, teachers, and science admin-
istrators in more than 115 countries, over 30 percent of whom are
outside the United States. The society is dedicated to advancing the
understanding of Earth and its environment and making results
available to the public.
www.nef1.org
The National Energy Foundation is a nonprofit provider of educa-
tional materials and programs related to energy, natural resources, and
the environment. It is supported by businesses, government agencies,
professional associations, and the education community.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/energy-channel.htm
See the HowStuffWorks Web site library for numerous energy pro-
duction videos and articles.
VIDEOS
You may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Petroleum (Oil)—Where It Is Located: With oil (and gas) getting
harder to find, this video comprehensively discusses and demon-
strates how reserves were formed and where they might be found.
To learn more about the complex riddle of discovering new reserves
and the technologies and disciplines involved, go to http://www.
metacafe.com/watch/yt-_hwzJUDWIQQ/new_oil_and_gas_
exploration/ (09:54 minutes).
Petroleum a 69
Europe—Petroleum Issues: Is power without fuel Europe’s answer

to the developing petroleum crisis? In terms of advertising, this is
a powerful and compelling video comparing petroleum with wind
power: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/2687883/no_fuel_viable_
energy/ (04:03 minutes).
Global Issues—Peak Oil: The world faces increasing demand for
and a shrinking supply of a finite resource. To learn more about
the ultimate fuel supply crisis, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DMQd5nGEkr4 (10:00 minutes).
U.S.—Extreme Drilling: This process may recover heavy, thick oil, but
at what cost? To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=QP2GejkLdwA&feature=related (03:03 minutes).
U.S.—Chevron Deep-Water Division: View this Reuters report on
drilling deeper than ever for oil in the Gulf of Mexico, below 10,000
ft: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnYELEO1UVM&feature=
related (02:05 minutes).
Chapter 3
a
Natural Gas
The Chinese were using natural gas as an energy source more than 3,000
years ago. They ignited the natural gas to produce heat to evaporate pools
of brine water to make salt. To extract the natural gas, the Chinese dug
wells that extended about 1,500 feet deep. To transport the gas to the sur-
face, the Chinese used pipes made of bamboo.
Today, natural gas is used extensively in residential homes, commercial
businesses, and industrial plants in the United States. In fact, natural gas is
the dominant energy used for home heating. More than 66 million homes
in the United States use natural gas. The use of natural gas is also rapidly
increasing in electric power generation and cooling.
Worldwide, natural gas remains a key energy source for the indus-
trial sector and for electricity generation. This industrial sector is often
divided into such industries as airplane manufacturing; steel produc-
tion; and automobile, textile, consumer product, and electronic product
manufacturing.
Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy and require
factories and machinery to convert the raw materials into goods and prod-
ucts. They also produce waste materials and waste heat that may pose envi-
ronmental problems or cause pollution. The industrial sector is the world’s
largest consumer of natural gas and is expected to account for 43 percent
of projected gas use in 2030.
In the United States, natural gas ranks number three in energy use, right
after petroleum and coal. About 22 percent of the energy we use in the
United States comes from natural gas.
Industry is the biggest consumer of natural gas, using it mainly as a
heat source to manufacture goods. Industry also uses natural gas as an
ingredient in fertilizer, photographic film, ink, glue, paint, plastics, laundry
detergent, and insect repellents. Synthetic rubber and human-made fibers
such as nylon also could not be made without the chemicals derived from
natural gas.
Residences—people’s homes—are the second-biggest users of natural
gas. Six in 10 homes use natural gas for heating. Many homes also use gas
water heaters, stoves, and clothes dryers. Natural gas is used so often in
homes because it is clean-burning.
Like residential use, commercial use of natural gas is mostly for indoor
space heating of stores, office buildings, schools, churches, and hospitals.
Natural gas is also used to make electricity—it is the third-largest pro-
ducer of electricity after coal and uranium. Many people in the energy
industry believe natural gas will play a bigger role in electricity production
as the demand for electricity increases in the future.
Natural gas power plants are cleaner than coal plants and can be brought
online very quickly. Natural gas plants produce electricity about 20 per-
cent more efficiently than new coal plants, and they produce it with fewer
emissions. Today, natural gas generates 15 percent of the electricity in the
United States.
To a lesser degree, natural gas is becoming popular as a transportation
fuel. Natural gas can be used in any vehicle with a regular internal combus-
tion engine, although the vehicle must be outfitted with a special carbure-
tor and fuel tank.
WORLD CONSUMPTION OF NATURAL GAS

Worldwide consumption of natural gas is projected to increase by nearly
64 percent between 2004 and 2030. Among the end-use sectors, the in-
dustrial sector remains the largest consumer of natural gas worldwide,
accounting for 42 percent of the total expected increase in demand for
natural gas between 2004 and 2030. Natural gas also is expected to remain
an important energy source in the electric power sector, particularly for
new generating capacity.
Natural Gas a 73
Natural gas power plant near Ventura, California. The burning of natural gas
at the power plant produces nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide, but in lower
quantities than burning coal or oil. (Georg Henrik Lehnerer/Dreamstime.com)
Electricity generation will account for 35 percent of the world’s natural

gas consumption in 2030. Why the increase in natural gas usage? Natural
gas, although a fossil fuel, is an attractive choice for new power plants be-
cause of its high fuel-efficiency rating and lower carbon dioxide emissions
than other fossil fuels. Also, there have been improvements in pipelines
and new technologies for locating and drilling new wells.
HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS

In the United States, natural gas was first used to light the town of Fredo-
nia, New York, in 1821. However, the fuel’s use remained localized over the
next century because long-distance transportation of gases was difficult.
For most of the 1800s, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a fuel for
lamps. Because there were no pipelines to bring gas into individual homes,
most of the gas went to light city streets.
After the 1890s, however, many cities began converting their street
lamps to electricity. Gas producers began looking for new markets for their
product. It took the construction of pipelines to bring natural gas to new
markets. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, thousands of miles of pipeline

were constructed throughout the United States. Today, the U.S. pipeline
network, laid end-to-end, would stretch to the moon and back twice.
HOW IS NATURAL GAS FORMED?

Natural gas was formed in Earth’s crust over millions of years by the
chemical and physical alteration of organic matter. Oil and natural gas
were created from organisms that lived in the water and were buried under
ocean or river sediments. Long after the great prehistoric seas and rivers
vanished, heat, pressure, and bacteria combined to compress and “cook” the
organic material under layers of silt.
In most areas, a thick liquid called oil formed first, but in deeper, hot
regions underground, the cooking process continued until natural gas was
formed. Over time, some of this oil and natural gas began working its
way upward through the earth’s crust until they ran into rock formations
called “caprocks” that are dense enough to prevent them from seeping to
the surface. It is from under these caprocks that most oil and natural gas
is recovered today.
THE CONTENTS OF NATURAL GAS

The hydrocarbons in natural gas have one to four atoms of carbon each; at
Earth’s surface, these compounds exist as gases. Natural gas is a mixture of
flammable gases, including methane, ethane, propane, and butane. Because
natural gas has no smell of its own, a substance is added to natural gas to
produce an odor so that gas leaks can be detected. The mixture is usually
composed of 70–80 percent methane.
Methane is an odorless, gaseous hydrocarbon formed by the thermal
decomposition or anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. It is the
simplest, lightest, most abundant hydrocarbon. It occurs naturally as the
chief component of natural gas, in association with coal beds, and as
the marsh gas released by the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of veg-
etable matter buried in wetland soils.
Methane is combustible and can form explosive mixtures with air at
concentrations between 5 and 14 percent; explosions of such mixtures
have been the cause of many coal mine disasters. As a component of
natural gas, methane is used for fuel and also in making solvents and
certain Freons, a trade name for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Methane
Natural Gas a 75
is a greenhouse gas whose concentration in the atmosphere has increased

sharply as a result of human activities; in fact, the increase of global meth-
ane has essentially kept pace with increases in world population. Large
quantities of methane are believed to be released by rice paddies, where
vegetation rots in the waterlogged soils. The mining of coal and produc-
tion of natural gas produce lesser amounts of methane, previously trapped
with these deposits.
Other hydrocarbon constituents include ethane and propane, which are
used as nonrenewable fuels. However, the composition of natural gas varies
according to locality; minor components may include carbon dioxide, ni-
trogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and helium. It is the cleanest-burning
of the fossil fuels, yielding little more than carbon monoxide, carbon diox-
ide, and water as combustion products. Although some natural gases can
be used directly from the well without treatment, most must be processed
first to remove undesirable constituents, such as hydrogen sulfide and other
sulfur compounds.
The natural gas that is delivered to many homes and businesses is almost pure
methane. Methane is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydro-
gen atoms and is referred to as CH4. (Vasilyev/Dreamstime.com)
VIDEO
General (Global Uses): Do you know the fundamental difference between propane
and butane? To discover how one carbon atom makes the difference, go to http://
www.ehow.com/video_4756915_what-difference-between-propane-butane.html
(01:29 minute video).
LOCATING NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS

Natural gas is often found in solution with petroleum in sand, sandstone, and
limestone deposits. In order for gas to accumulate, it must be trapped. The un-
derground gas reservoir must be sealed at the top by an impermeable stratum
or cap rock, such as clay or salt. The entire cover structure must be shaped in
such a way as to prevent gas from leaking to the surface. Gas accumulations
are mostly encountered in the deeper parts of sedimentary basins. On the
Gulf Coast of the United States, for example, more than half of the deposits
discovered at depths greater than 10,000 feet are gas fields. Among the largest
accumulations of natural gas are those in Siberia, the Texas Panhandle in the
United States, an area in the Netherlands, and Hassi R’Mel in Algeria.
DRILLING FOR NATURAL GAS

One of the drilling methods for natural gas is known as rotary drilling and
consists of a sharp, rotating metal bit used to drill through Earth’s crust.
This type of drilling is used primarily for deeper wells that may be under
very high pressure.
According to the Natural Gas Organization, drilling for natural gas off-
shore, in some instances hundreds of miles away from the nearest land
area, poses a number of different challenges in comparison with drilling
onshore. The actual drilling mechanism used to drill into the sea floor is
DID YOU KNOW?

The digestive systems of cattle and other grazing livestock are another major
source of methane. It is estimated that the large global cattle population and in-
creasing land areas covered by rice paddies now account for almost 50 percent
of the global release of methane; another 20 percent is produced by the burning of
wood and other vegetation.
Natural Gas a 77
much the same as can be found on an onshore rig. But, with drilling at sea,
the sea floor can sometimes be thousands of feet below sea level, as men-
tioned earlier. Therefore, although with onshore drilling the solid ground
provides a platform from which to drill, out in the ocean a different drill-
ing platform must be constructed. Since 1947, offshore production, par-
ticularly in the Gulf of Mexico, has resulted in the discovery and delivery
of a great number of large natural gas deposits.
New Technologies for Drilling for Natural Gas

According to the Department of Energy, although more than 70 percent of
the natural gas produced in the United States already comes from wells at
5,000 feet or deeper, only 7 percent comes from formations below 15,000
feet. Yet, at these deeper depths, an estimated 125 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas may be available.
Drilling at these depths is expensive and requires new drilling technol-
ogies. For wells deeper than 15,000 feet, as much as 50 percent of drilling
costs can come from penetrating the last 10 percent of a well’s depth. The
rock is typically hot, hard, abrasive, and under extreme pressure. In deeper
wells, it is not uncommon for the drill bit to slow to only two to four feet
per hour, at operating costs of tens of thousands of dollars a day for a land
rig. For deep offshore drilling, the costs can exceed millions of dollars a
day. And it is exceedingly difficult to control the precise trajectory of a
well when the drill bit is nearly three miles below the surface.
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy has plans to
help develop the high-tech drilling tools that the gas industry needs to
use for deep drilling operations. The major goal of the plan is to develop a
“smart” drilling system tough enough to withstand the extreme tempera-
tures, pressures, and corrosive conditions of deep reservoirs, yet economical
enough to make the gas affordable to produce.
DELIVERY OF NATURAL GAS

Methods of pipeline transportation were developed in the 1920s, and be-
tween World War II and the 1980s there was a period of tremendous
residential and commercial expansion that relied increasingly on the use of
pipeline transportation of gas. North American gas pipelines now extend
from Texas and Louisiana to the northeast coast, and from the Alberta gas
fields to the Atlantic seaboard.
Natural gas is delivered to customers through a safe, sound, 2.2-million-

mile underground pipeline system that includes 1.9 million miles of local
utility distribution pipes (1.1 million miles of utility mains, plus 800,000
miles of utility service lines) and 300,000 miles of transmission lines.
HOW IS NATURAL GAS MEASURED?

We measure and sell natural gas in cubic feet (volume) or in British
thermal units (Btus; heat content). Heat from all energy sources can be
measured and converted back and forth between Btus and metric units.
Natural Gas a 79
One Btu is the heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water one degree Fahrenheit. Ten burning kitchen matches release 10 Btu.
A candy bar has about 1,000 Btu. One cubic foot of natural gas has about
1,031 Btu. A box 10 feet deep, 10 feet long, and 10 feet wide would hold
one thousand cubic feet of natural gas.
GLOBAL NATURAL GAS RESERVES

On a worldwide scale, the deposit with the greatest accumulation of natu-
ral gas reserves is a land area between the countries of Qatar and Iran.
Russia is home to the second-largest deposit of natural gas reserves, which
are located in various sections of this large country. Russia is also the leader
in global production of natural gas.
In Europe, the North Sea contains western Europe’s largest oil and
natural gas reserves and is one of the world’s key non-OPEC produc-
ing regions. Consequently, the region is a relatively high-cost producer.
Five countries operate crude oil and natural gas production facilities in the
North Sea: Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and the United
Kingdom.
North America has enormous amounts of potential natural gas in un-
derground reserves. Many sections of Canada have vast fields of natural
Much of the world’s natural gas reserves are located in the Middle East in
the countries of Qatar and Iran and in Eurasia, where Russia has the largest
natural gas reserve. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information
Administration)
Offshore drilling of gas and oil began in 1960 in Europe’s North Sea. These oil
and gas platforms are constructed on a foundation built on the bottom of the
sea or are permanently anchored in place. (iStockphoto)
gas reserves and the country is a major gas producer in the western hemi-
sphere. Most of the natural gas reserves in the United States are located
around Texas and the Gulf of Mexico. The San Juan Basin is the second-
largest deposit of natural gas in the United States. This reserve is found in
the southwestern region of the United States, which includes New Mexico,
Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Utah. The basin contains more than
15 percent of the nation’s natural gas reserves.
Natural gas is produced in 32 U.S. states, but the top five states—Texas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Wyoming—produce 80 percent
of the total. Altogether, the United States produces about 25 percent of the
world’s natural gas each year.
So, how much natural gas is available in the global reserves? Because
natural gas is essentially irreplaceable, it is important to have an idea of
how much natural gas is in the reserves. However, getting those numbers
is not an easy task. In fact, no one really knows exactly how much natural
Natural Gas a 81
A worker checks pipes for the

Portland Natural Gas Transmission
System (PNGTS) in Wells, Maine,
in 1998. PNGTS is a high-capacity,
high-pressure, interstate natural gas
pipeline that began serving New
England’s growing energy needs in
1999. (AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)
gas exists until it is extracted. Measuring natural gas in the ground is com-
plicated, and it involves a great deal of inference and estimation. With
new technologies, these estimates are becoming more and more reliable;
however, they are still subject to revision.
WORLD GAS PRODUCTION COUNTRIES

Worldwide, natural gas is produced by two major coalitions of countries.
The first is the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and consists of three major groups: North America (United
States, Canada, Mexico), much of Europe (Norway, Italy, France, and oth-
ers), and Asia ( Japan, South Korea, Australia/New Zealand). These mem-
ber countries have pledged to work together to promote their economies,
to extend aid to underdeveloped nations, and to contribute to the expan-
sion of world trade.
The second group of major gas producers includes the non-OECD
members. Some of the member countries include countries in the Middle
East, Brazil, Africa, Russia, China, India, and parts of Europe. Let’s look
at the two major natural gas producers—Russia and Norway.
Russia
Russia holds the world’s largest natural gas reserves, the second-largest
coal reserves, and the eighth-largest oil reserves. Russia is also the world’s
largest exporter of natural gas, the second-largest oil exporter, and the
third-largest energy consumer.
In 2007 Russia’s real gross domestic product (GDP) grew by approxi-
mately 8.1 percent, surpassing average growth rates in all other countries
and marking the country’s seventh consecutive year of economic expan-
sion. Russia’s economic growth has been driven primarily by energy ex-
ports as a result of the increase in Russian oil production and the high
world oil prices. Internally, in 2007 Russia received more than half of its
domestic energy needs from natural gas, up from around 49 percent in
1992.
Norway
The vast majority of Norway’s energy output is exported. In 2007 Norway
was the world’s third-largest net exporter of natural gas, behind Russia and
Canada. This is largely attributable to the fact that almost all of Norway’s
electricity is generated by hydropower.
Norway’s energy business sector is a major contributor to its economy.
Exports of crude oil, natural gas, and refined petroleum products accounted
for 68 percent of total exports, and this energy producing sector also con-
tributes around one-third of country’s budget revenue.
Norway’s importance as a global energy supplier has grown steadily
since production first began in the early 1970s. It is now the largest off-
shore oil producer in the world behind Saudi Arabia and Russia, and is the
second-largest supplier of natural gas to continental Europe.
THE WORLD’S LARGEST

CONSUMERS OF NATURAL GAS
The biggest consumers of natural gas in 2006 were the United States,
Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, the demand for
natural gas in Spain grew by 92 percent from 2000, placing Spain in sixth
place in Europe behind the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, France, and
the Netherlands.
Natural Gas a 83
United States
In 2005, according to the Energy Information Administration, Interna-
tional Energy Outlook 2009, natural gas accounted for 19 percent of net
electricity generation in the United States. Coal-powered plants provided
about 50 percent of the electricity demands for the country. In 2010 the
natural gas share of electricity use in the United States was expected to
reach about 21 percent. Natural gas supplies nearly one-fourth (23%) of
all of the energy used in the United States. In 2004 the United States con-
sumed 22.4 trillion cubic feet (Tcf ) of natural gas. Because of its efficiency,
cleanliness, and reliability, natural gas is growing increasingly popular. Con-
sumption of natural gas will increase 20 percent by 2030, according to the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The top natural gas–consuming states
in 2006 were Texas, California, Louisiana, New York, Illinois, and Florida.
Although in 2005, the United States imported more than 65 percent
of the oil it used from abroad. However, in the same year, 97 percent of
the natural gas used in the United States was produced in North America.
The breakdown included 85 percent from the United States and 12 per-
cent from Canada. Natural gas energy advocates report that every gallon
equivalent of natural gas used in vehicles is one less gallon of petroleum
that has to be imported.
Alaska North Slope

One of the United States’ largest deposits of recoverable natural gas is
located on Alaska’s North Slope. Geologists estimate that this region con-
tains an estimated 85.4 trillion cubic feet of undiscovered, technically re-
coverable gas from natural gas hydrates, according to a new assessment
from the U.S. Geological Survey. According to current usage rates provided
by the Energy Information Administration, this would be enough natural
gas to heat more than 100 million average homes for 10 years. However,
further research, including long-term production tests, still is needed to
demonstrate gas hydrates as an economically producible resource.
Germany
Germany is the third-largest consumer of natural gas in the world, and
Germany’s natural gas reserves are the third-largest in the European
Union, after the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Almost all of
Germany’s natural gas reserves and production occur in the northwestern
areas of the country. Germany’s sector of the North Sea also contains siz-
able natural gas reserves. However, environmental regulations have cur-
tailed the complete exploration and development of the area. Despite the
lack of domestic production, Germany is, as previously noted, the third-
largest consumer of natural gas in the world, behind the United States and
Russia.
United Kingdom
Britain’s dependence on natural gas as a source of energy is growing, even
as supplies from the North Sea are running out. With the depletion of gas
from the United Kingdom continental shelf, Britain is becoming depen-
dent on imports, either by pipelines from Norway or as liquefied natu-
ral gas from places farther away, such as Algeria and Qatar. By 2015 the
United Kingdom is expected to import up to 80 percent of its gas sup-
plies. Believe it or not, in 2004 the United Kingdom was a net exporter of
natural gas.
France
France imports almost all of the natural gas it uses from Norway, Rus-
sia, the Netherlands, and Algeria. However, natural gas has a small share
in France’s energy portfolio. France’s share of natural gas consumption in
2009 was estimated at approximately 10 percent.
Netherlands
The Netherlands depends on natural gas for about 60 percent of its domes-
tic electricity. Coal is used for about 25 percent of its electricity needs. The
Netherlands is also a major of exporter of natural gas.
Central and South America

Natural gas is the second-fastest growing energy source after nuclear power
in Central and South America. For example, in Brazil, South America’s
largest economy, natural gas consumption in 2030 will increase by 30 per-
cent from 2009.
Natural Gas a 85
Australia
Natural gas is the fastest-growing fuel in Australia and New Zealand and is
expected to account for approximately 30 percent of the projected growth
between 2005 and 2030. It also is expected be the fastest-growing fuel
in the electric power sector. The country will be displacing more carbon-
dioxide coal power plants with natural gas power generation.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM
GAS—PROPANE
Another product that can be produced from natural gas is liquefied petro-
leum gas (LPG), commonly called propane. Propane is a gas that can be
turned into a liquid and stored in pressure tanks. However, when propane
is drawn from a tank, it changes to a gas. In many parts of the world, this
gas is used as a fuel for cooking and heating or for motor vehicle fuel.
Liquefied petroleum gas is produced during natural gas processing and
crude oil refining. In natural gas processing, LPG, butane, ethane, and pen-
tane are removed prior to the natural gas entering the pipeline distribution
system. About 55 percent of LPG processed in the United States is from
natural gas. The other 45 percent comes from crude oil refining. Liquefied
petroleum gas is the first product that results at the start of the crude oil re-
fining process and is therefore always produced when crude oil is refined.
Liquefied petroleum gas has a long and varied history in transportation
applications. It has been used in rural and farming settings since its incep-
tion as a motor vehicle fuel in 1912, and it is the third most commonly
used fuel in the United States, behind gasoline and diesel. More than
350,000 light- to medium-duty vehicles running on LPG are used in the
United States. Propane-fueled vehicles produce fewer emissions than do
gasoline-fueled vehicles. As an example, propane-fueled vehicles produce
60 percent less carbon dioxide than gasoline-fueled vehicles.
NATURAL GAS VEHICLES

According to the Energy Information Agency (EIA), the greatest potential
for large-scale substitution of natural gas for petroleum is in the transporta-
tion sector, especially in local fleet vehicles refueled at a central facility. Fleets
generally operate a number of vehicles that are centrally maintained and fu-
eled. They also travel more miles daily than the average personal use vehicle
Buses powered by compressed natural gas (CNG) are now common in the
United States. These CNG buses belong to the fleet of the Los Angeles Metro-
politan Transit Authority. (Publicimage/Dreamstime.com)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Bob Walters, Technology Education Teacher, DeWitt Middle
School, Ithaca, NY 14850
Go-Green Project: Designing Solar Sprint Model Cars
Describe your current position and your responsibilities in your particular
program.
I am a technology education teacher and department head at the DeWitt Mid-
dle School in Ithaca, NY. I teach 8th grade and a computer class to 6th-grade
students.
I grew up and attended the Massapequa High School, Massapequa, Long Island,
New York.
school?
I enjoyed the sciences. The typical science sequence was general science, biol-
ogy, and earth science. Most people took earth science, and it had the reputation
Natural Gas a 87
as the “science for dummies.” Because I really enjoyed science, I took physics
in 11th grade and chemistry in grade 12. Ironically, in the middle school in which
I teach, many 8th-grade students accelerate to take 9th-grade earth science. Here
it is an honors course.
In high school I wanted to take auto shop. That required engine mechanics first.
In that class we learned the basics and rebuilt lawn mower engines. Then in auto
shop we worked on teachers’ cars. I was the “brake ace.” I also rebuilt the carbu-
retor on the family car and the transmission in my dad’s van, the old parts of which
have been a pencil holder on my desk for the last 33 years.
What colleges did you attend, and what was your major field?
I received a bachelor of science degree from SUNY Oswego, New York, in industrial arts
and a master of arts degree from Indiana State University in School of Technology.
During this period, the industrial arts programs were starting to change, and
the department was renamed technology education at the university; another grad
student and I developed and taught a new course called communication technol-
ogy. It was very popular.
I just fell into this career. My high school guidance counselor told me that I was
not “college material.” That bothered me to the point that I brought my grades up.
Bob Walters and his students design and construct solar model cars to be used in
the Junior Solar Sprint car competition. The students used a variety of materials
to build their cars, including balsa wood, plastic soda bottles, and even a Pringles
container. (Courtesy Bob Walters)
I went to a college that a friend was going to and found they had an industrial arts
program. It looked fun, so I enrolled. The rest is history.
Describe your current model solar vehicle program.
For the most part, every student in New York State must take a school year’s worth
of technology education by the end of eighth grade. The course is hands-on, and
students learn the design process, how to use tools and machines, and how to
process various materials and information and are given design challenges. Much
of the work is done in groups.
There are two complementary aspects of the Junior Solar Sprint (JSS) project.
One is the JSS in-class activity, and the other is the multi-school competition.
For the Junior Solar Sprint class activity, students usually work in groups of
three, to design and construct a vehicle. Each student is a lead engineer who
designs one of the three subsystems, chassis, power train, or solar collection.
The vehicle is built by the group. The design parameters are spelled out in the
JSS rules available from the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association (NESEA):
http://www.nesea.org/k-12/juniorsolarsprint/. Before they design or build, stu-
dents take an open-book, online quiz to be sure they understand the design
parameters.
The JSS multi-school competition has been held for 10 consecutive years.
I added a design requirement to the rules. Student must submit sketches that show
their ideation, part of the design process. Each student participant receives a com-
memorative t-shirt and has a chance to win trophies and medals.
The materials for constructing the vehicle largely come from the class supply
budget. Other funds are needed for the t-shirts and awards. Some years we have
sold pizza and water to raise money. However, the majority of money comes from
grants. NESEA provides a grant. They are a pass-through agency. For the last sev-
eral years, the money actually has come from the U.S. Army. Other money has also
been secured through a variety of mini-grants. These have been available from
various sources, including the professional association for technology teachers in
New York State, local school district grants, the PTA, and the local power utility as
well as the local universities.
I was always interested in the environment and saving energy. This seemed like a
fun way to engage students in learning about green technology.
Our country uses a disproportionate amount of energy and produces a dispropor-
tionate amount of greenhouse gases and pollution. To reverse this, change has to
“start at home,” beginning with new attitudes.
There are great resources available from the Northeast Sustainable Energy Asso-
ciation: http://www.nesea.org/k-12/. In addition to the JSS rules, there is a wealth
Natural Gas a 89
of curriculum materials. There is a video that I show to students and have them
take a quiz on, just to make sure they understand the challenge. The video is a
bit dated but is available from the NESEA, and they even have the eight-minute
introduction, which is all I show my students, online at http://www.nesea.org/k-12/
juniorsolarsprint/modelsolarracecarteacherresources/.
There are many links at NYSERDA’s site (http://www.getenergysmart.org/De
fault.aspx), including http://www.getenergysmart.org/EnergyEducation/Teachers/
Curriculum.aspx.
Many of the materials for this project are available from Pitsco: http://www.
pitsco.com/tabid/210/default.aspx?art=702. Some are available through Kelvin
Electronics: http://www.kelvin.com/.
Although my own district is updating its web presence, and I have not been able
to update my own site for some time, there are references that have been compiled
there. These include samples of vehicles as well as subsystems of vehicles: http://
www.icsd.k12.ny.us/dewitt/teched/jss.html.
Although not required, if possible you can attend a JSS workshop. NESEA offers
and coordinates these. Consider building some vehicles on your own and/or having
a group of interested students build vehicles for fun or extra credit. Watch the video
clip. The link is mentioned earlier in the interview.
Students come up with some very creative solutions to the problem. Most students
really enjoy this project.
I spend about three to four weeks on this. Our classes meet each school day for
39 minutes.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or to extend this program?
This activity is also done in conjunction with other energy activities. Most recently,
this has been a wind turbine activity: http://www.kidwind.org/. This was coordinated
with the science teachers. They taught about societal impacts of wind energy, and
the tech students designed and made wind turbine blades and conducted experi-
ments of their own design. Other energy activities have involved fuel cell vehicles
and energy conversion activities. This year I may start an energy club of some sort
to provide students with opportunities to go further than they can in class.
and therefore can take better advantage of the lower price per gallon of natural
gas. Among the fleets in which use of natural gas vehicles (NGVs) is already
growing are taxi cabs, over-the-road trucks, street sweepers, transit buses, re-
fuse haulers, school buses, delivery vehicles, airport shuttles, and forklifts.
As of 2010, there are more than 120,000 NGVs on U.S. roads and
more than 8.7 million worldwide. Most NGVs are fueled at some 1,225
compressed natural gas stations throughout the United States, a number
that has increased fourfold since 1991. Natural gas vehicles are the most
commercially advanced of vehicles that are alternatively fueled (the others
being those powered by methanol, ethanol, propane, and electricity).
The benefits of NGVs are most pronounced in congested urban areas
that have air quality concerns, and fleet vehicles in those areas offer the
most promise. Promotional federal initiatives include the Clean Air Act,
the Clean Cities Program, the Congestion Mitigation Air Quality Pro-
gram, the Energy Policy Act, and the Advanced Natural Gas Vehicle
Program.
A number of factors make fleet vehicles—buses, taxis, and delivery
vehicles—the prime target for natural gas. Because natural gas generally
costs less than gasoline, these high-mileage vehicles can realize large sav-
ings in fuel costs. Also, fleet vehicles tend to be centrally located. Thus,
fleets can locate near refueling stations, or they can install their own
facility.
Natural gas vehicles offer tremendous benefits. Highway gasoline-
powered vehicles account for roughly one-third of all carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides emissions and half of all carbon monoxide emissions.
Using natural gas rather than gasoline can produce major reductions in
a number of vehicular emissions. In addition to being cleaner than con-
ventional vehicles, NGVs reduce the nation’s extreme dependence on
imported oil, and the fuel cost is generally less than the cost of gasoline
or diesel fuel.
But despite these benefits, and the fact that a survey of fleet operators
by the Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition showed that NGVs are their favorite
type of alternatively fueled vehicle, NGVs face serious hurdles. Market
growth for these vehicles has not been dramatic. The primary obstacle is
that vehicle production levels are limited, making the purchase price of
an NGV higher than that of a comparable conventionally fueled vehicle.
Even for high-mileage vehicles, it is difficult to offset the extra thousands
of dollars on an NGV’s price tag with fuel-cost savings of 10–20 cents per
gallon. Once the demand for NGVs reaches a level that can sustain full
production, prices will fall. Currently, the natural gas fueling infrastructure
also is limited, but the fueling infrastructure will expand as NGVs gain in
popularity.
Natural Gas a 91
Natural gas costs, on average, one-third less than conventional gasoline

at the pump. More than 50 different manufacturers produce 150 models of
light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles and engines. Roughly 22 percent
of all new transit bus orders are for natural gas. Natural gas is sold in gaso-
line gallon equivalents, or GGEs. A GGE has the same energy content
(124,800 Btus) as a gallon of gasoline.
Drawbacks of Natural Gas for Vehicles
The United States would need a lot more natural gas stations to power a
third of its vehicles. Natural gas is still a fossil fuel: it might be cleaner-
burning than oil, but it is still a hydrocarbon that has to be taken out of
wells and is in limited supply. Natural gas vehicles have a shorter driving
range than regular gas-powered vehicles because natural gas has a lower
energy content compared to gas.
Benefits of Natural Gas Vehicles

Exhaust emissions from a typical NGV are much lower than those from
gasoline-powered vehicles. In addition, dedicated NGVs produce little
or no evaporative emissions during fueling and use. In gasoline vehicles,
evaporative and fueling emissions account for at least 50 percent of a ve-
hicle’s total hydrocarbon emissions.
Typical dedicated NGVs can reduce the following exhaust emissions:
FEATURE
Using Natural Gas to Power Motor Vehicles
Many taxi and bus drivers in Cairo, Egypt, have converted their gasoline-powered
engines to run on natural gas. Cairo is the world leader in the number of privately
owned natural gas–powered motor vehicles, and now the country’s bus and taxi
companies are coming aboard. Egypt has abundant natural gas reserves and can
offer car owners a fuel that is less expensive than gasoline and a cleaner-burning
fuel than gasoline. Natural gas vehicles produce about 80 percent less carbon
monoxide and fewer hydrocarbons than gasoline-powered vehicles. And natural
gas costs less than gasoline in Egypt. A cubic meter of natural gas is 50 percent
less expensive than the equivalent amount of gasoline. By 2010 Egypt is expected
to have more than 25 stations to service natural vehicles.
• Carbon monoxide by 70 percent

• Non-methane organic gas by 87 percent
• Nitrogen oxides by 87 percent
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) by almost 20 percent below those of gasoline
vehicles
Natural gas vehicles also produce far less urban emissions than diesel vehi-
cles. The NGVs produce less amounts of nitrogen oxides than comparable
diesel engines.
Natural gas contains less carbon than any other fossil fuel and thus
produces lower carbon dioxide emissions per vehicle mile traveled. Al-
though NGVs do emit methane, another principle greenhouse gas, any
increase in methane emissions is more than offset by a substantial reduc-
tion in CO2 emissions compared to other fuels. Tests have shown that
NGVs produce up to 20 percent less greenhouse gas emissions than com-
parable gasoline vehicles and up to 15 percent less than comparable diesel
vehicles.
Are Natural Gas Vehicles Safe?

The fuel in NGVs, unlike gasoline, dissipates into the atmosphere in the
event of an accident. On the other hand, gasoline pools on the ground
create a fire hazard. The fuel storage cylinders used in NGVs are much
stronger than gasoline fuel tanks. Natural gas vehicle cylinder designs are
subjected to a number of federally required “severe abuse” tests, such as
heat and pressure extremes, gunfire, collisions, and fires.
Natural gas vehicle fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spills
or evaporative losses. Even if a leak were to occur in an NGV fuel system,
however, the natural gas would dissipate into the air because it is lighter
than air.
Natural gas has a high ignition temperature, about 1,200 degrees Fahr-
enheit, compared with about 600 degrees Fahrenheit for gasoline. It also
has a narrow range of flammability; that is, in concentrations in air below
about 5 percent and above about 15 percent, natural gas will not burn. The
high ignition temperature and limited flammability range make accidental
ignition or combustion of natural gas unlikely. Natural gas is not toxic or
corrosive and will not contaminate ground water.
Natural Gas a 93
A gas station attendant refuels a vehicle with compressed natural gas at one
of Cairo, Egypt’s several fueling stations. As of January 1996, almost all taxi
drivers in Cairo, under a government project, have converted their engines to
work with natural gas. Natural gas is half the price of gasoline and offers a
means of fighting air pollution cheaply and safely. (AP Photo/Leila Gorchev)
NATURAL GAS BENEFITS

Natural gas (largely methane) burns cleaner than the other fossil fuels
(45% less carbon dioxide emitted than coal and 30% less than oil). It is
easily transported via pipelines and fairly easily using tankers (land and
sea). It can be piped into homes to provide heating and cooking and to
run a variety of appliances. Where homes are not piped, it can be supplied
in small tanks. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles (cars, trucks, and jet
engines), where it is cleaner than gasoline or diesel.
NATURAL GAS EMISSIONS

Pollutants emitted in the United States, particularly from the combus-
tion of fossil fuels, have led to the development of many pressing envi-
ronmental problems. Natural gas, emitting fewer harmful chemicals into
the atmosphere than other fossil fuels, can help to mitigate some of these
environmental issues. Natural gas is an extremely important source of en-

ergy for reducing pollution and maintaining a clean and healthy environ-
ment. In addition to being a domestically abundant and secure source of
energy, the use of natural gas also offers a number of environmental ben-
efits over other sources of energy, particularly other fossil fuels.
Natural gas is the cleanest of all the fossil fuels. Because carbon diox-
ide makes up such a high proportion of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions,
reducing carbon dioxide emissions can play a huge role in combating the
greenhouse effect and global warming.
As noted previously, the combustion of natural gas emits almost 30 per-
cent less carbon dioxide than oil and just under 45 percent less carbon
dioxide than coal. Composed primarily of methane, the main products of
the combustion of natural gas are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the same
compounds we exhale when we breathe.
Coal and oil are composed of much more complex molecules, with a
higher carbon ratio and higher nitrogen and sulfur contents. This means
that when combusted, coal and oil release higher levels of harmful emis-
sions, including a higher ratio of carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur dioxide. Coal and fuel oil also release ash particles into the environ-
ment, substances that do not burn but instead are carried into the atmo-
sphere and contribute to pollution. The combustion of natural gas, on the
other hand, releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, virtually no ash or particulate matter, and lower levels of carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other harmful emissions.
FUTURE OF NATURAL GAS

increase from about 100 trillion cubic feet in 2005 to 158 trillion cubic feet
in 2030. Natural gas will probably replace petroleum and coal wherever
VIDEO
U.S. The Natural Gas Star Program: Partnered with the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, this video claims to be a blueprint for resource management.
For more, go to http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/videos/processing.html
(06:32 minutes).
Natural Gas a 95
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration)
possible. The reason is that natural gas combustion produces less carbon
dioxide than coal or petroleum production and products. Therefore, natural
gas is expected to remain a key energy source for the industrial sector. The
industrial sector, made up of such major manufacturing groups as plastics,
chemical, and steel making, will be large consumers of natural gas, account-
ing for 43 percent of the projected natural gas use in 2030. Natural gas will
also be a major supplier of electricity. Electricity generation will account
for 35 percent of the world’s total natural gas consumption in 2030.
The Gas Resource of the Future—Methane Hydrate?

Historically, the United States has produced much of the natural gas it has
consumed, with the balance imported from Canada through pipelines. Ac-
cording to Energy Information Administration, total U.S. natural gas con-
sumption is expected to increase from about 23 trillion cubic feet in 2008 to
26 trillion cubic feet in 2030—a projected jump of more than 18 percent.
However, production of domestic conventional and unconventional
natural gas cannot keep pace with demand growth. So the development
of new, cost-effective resources such as methane hydrate, huge amounts

of which underlie the Arctic polar regions and ocean sediments, can play
a major role in moderating price increases and ensuring adequate future
supplies of natural gas for American consumers.
Methane hydrate is a crystalline combination of natural gas molecules
and water molecules. The caged-like molecules look like ice but burn if they
are lighted with a match. Inside the “ice” are trapped molecules of methane,
the chief product of natural gas. If methane hydrate is either warmed or
depressurized, it will revert back to water and natural gas. When brought
to Earth’s surface, one cubic yard of gas hydrate releases approximately
450 cubic yards of natural gas.
Hydrate deposits may be several hundred meters thick and generally
occur in two types of settings: under Arctic permafrost and beneath the
ocean floor. Methane hydrate is stable in ocean floor sediments at water
depths greater than 930 feet. Estimates on how much energy is stored in
methane hydrates range from 350 years’ worth to 3,500 years’ worth.
More Work Ahead and Concerns about Methane Hydrates

Although methane hydrates have the potential to offer a clean source of en-
ergy, more research needs to be conducted. For example, because methane
Discoveries of methane hydrate deposits, first in polar regions and then

throughout the deep-water shelves of every continent, reveal that natural
methane hydrate occurs on a truly staggering scale. (Source: National Oce-
anic and Atmospheric Administration)
Natural Gas a 97
is also a greenhouse gas, release of even a small percentage of total deposits

could have a serious effect on Earth’s atmosphere. Despite its short atmo-
spheric half-life of seven years, methane has a global warming potential.
Another concern is that unstable hydrate layers could give way beneath oil
platforms, which could cause the freed gas to explode.
Landfill Gas from Biomass

Scientists are also researching ways to produce natural gas (methane) from
biomass. Biomass is a term used to describe the total amount of living mat-
ter in a particular area at any given time. The energy from biomass is the
oldest fuel used by humans.
Drilling in Landfills to Recover Methane

In 2009 more than four billion cubic feet of landfill methane gas was used
for heating and electricity production. Landfill gas is created when microor-
ganisms cause organic waste, such as food wastes and paper, to decompose
in landfills. Landfill gas is composed of about 50 percent methane. Carbon
dioxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) make up the remainder.
Landfill gas escapes into the air unless it is collected and burned. In
landfill gas energy projects, landfill gas is burned in boilers, special engines,
and combustion turbines to produce electricity. The landfill’s size and age,
the quantity of organic waste, and the local climate help determine how
much gas a landfill can produce. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) requires large landfills to collect and burn landfill gas with flares to
destroy the VOCs.
Although some landfills simply burn landfill gas with a flare, as of 2010
more than 380 projects at 365 U.S. landfills are collecting and using landfill
gas to produce energy. The EPA estimates that more than 600 additional
landfills could support landfill gas energy projects cost-effectively.
Landfill gas continues to be produced for 20 years or more after a land-
fill is closed. Therefore, as long as landfills continue to be built, landfill gas
will continue to be a resource for producing electricity.
Some Benefits
Burning landfill gas to produce electricity has little impact on land
resources. Although the equipment used to burn the landfill gas and
generate electricity does require space, it can be located on land already

occupied by the existing landfill, thus avoiding any additional use of
land.
Air Emissions
Burning landfill gas produces nitrogen oxide emissions as well as trace
amounts of toxic materials. The amount of these emissions can vary widely,
depending on the waste from which the landfill gas was created. The car-
bon dioxide released from burning landfill gas is considered to be a part
of the natural carbon cycle of the earth. Producing electricity from landfill
gas avoids the need to use nonrenewable resources to produce the same
amount of electricity. In addition, burning landfill gas prevents the release
of methane, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere.
In Europe, processing plants use up to 50 percent of municipal trash
for energy production. Energy trash processing plants are also located in
several American cities in Maryland, California, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin,
and Washington.
Using Marine Plants

to Produce Methane
Another source of methane may be marine plants, according to a recent
British report. Algae, as well as other marine biomass such as kelp, could
have an important role in the future of energy production. The methane
from this biomass could be used to generate electricity and heat or used as
compressed natural gas for transportation fuel.
In 2009 a team of marine scientists from the United Kingdom and
Ireland received funding to determine the possibility of producing renew-
able fuel using seaweed, through a study of the brown seaweed Laminaria
hyperborean more commonly referred to as kelp. Their goal is to determine
whether large areas of kelp grown through ocean farming could be used
as biomass for the production of methane and ethanol. There are approxi-
mately 386 square miles of kelp forests in the waters around the United
Kingdom that are dense enough to be harvested.
More research is necessary to find better methods for the conversion
step, biomass to methane, on a large scale, but the work already done shows
that methane energy can result from algae biomass.
Natural Gas a 99
DID YOU KNOW?

Kelp grows one and a half feet per day.
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIAL

Burleson, Clyde W. Deep Challenge!: The True Epic Story of Our Quest for
Energy Beneath the Sea. Burlington, MA: Gulf Professional Publish-
ing, 1998.
Natural Gas Supply Association. Natural Gas and the Environment. www.
naturalgas.org/environment/naturalgas.asp
Sietz, John L. Global Issues: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell,
2002.
Snedden, Robert. Energy from Fossil Fuels. Boston: Heinemann Library,
2001.
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. http://
www.eia.doe.gov.
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy. http://www.fe.doe.gov.
U.S. Geological Survey Energy Resources Program. http://energy.usgs.
gov/index.html.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. On a world map locate the 10 largest producers of natural gas, explain
the infrastructure needed to transport and distribute the gas over
long distances, and identify and analyze the political “chokepoints”
that could disrupt the distribution of the gas.
2. Marcellus shale covers most of New York State. Located deep within
the Marcellus shale formations are large deposits of natural gas.
Extracting the gas is a delicate process. Research how it might be
accomplished and the dangers to human and animal inhabitants.
3. Conduct research to discover how we get natural gas, how it is stored
and delivered, and how it impacts the environment. For references
and additional research, visit the following web sites: www.eia.doe.
gov; www.loe.org; www.citizenscampaign.org.
4. Go to the Oil and Gas Journal Online Web site, read a selection of
the articles, and summarize what you determine to be the journal’s
purpose and audience.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government and
www.aga.org
The American Gas Association, founded in 1918, represents 195
local energy companies that deliver clean natural gas throughout the
United States.
www.ngsa.org
The National Gas Supply Association (NGSA) represents suppliers
that produce and market natural gas. Established in 1965, NGSA
encourages the use of natural gas within a balanced national energy
policy.
http://www.iangv.org
The International Association for Natural Gas Vehicles was established
in 1986 to provide the NGV industry with an international forum and
to foster growth, safety, product development, and policy formation. In
June 2010 the Association was renamed to NGV Global.
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/naturalgas.htm
The Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy invests in research
and development of technologies in the areas of natural gas supply,
delivery reliability, and utilization. Through the Strategic Center for
Natural Gas, DOE works with industry to develop technologies to
support this fuel.
VIDEOS
U.S. Texas (Issues): This infrared video reveals that “clean” natural gas is
not always what it seems. Follow this helicopter video of fugitive emis-
sions: http://txsharon.blogspot.com/2009/08/clean-burning-natural-
gas-has-dirty.html (03:15 minutes).
Natural Gas a 101
U.S. Natural Gas Star Program: Created in partnership with the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, this video claims to be a blueprint
for resource management: http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/documents/
videos/processing.html (06:32 minutes).
South America—Natural Gas in Columbia: This short film docu-
ments a project to connect poor homes with natural gas, to improve
the lives of those in this impoverished section of Columbia: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=watcK8hi5RA (13:28 minutes).
General (Global Uses): Do you know the fundamental difference
between propane and butane? To discover how one carbon atom
makes the difference, go to http://www.ehow.com/video_4756915_
what-difference-between-propane-butane.html (01:29 minutes).
Chapter 4
a
Coal
The world’s largest producers and consumers of coal are China, Poland,
Russia, India, and the United States. In the United States, coal accounts
for approximately 49 percent of electricity output. Wyoming is the largest
coal-producing state and Texas is the largest coal-consuming state and it is
also the largest consumer of electricity.
Coal has been used for thousands of years. There is archeological evi-
dence that China was burning coal in 1100 b.c. But not until brick chim-
neys became popular did people burn coal indoors. During the Industrial
Revolution in England, the common use of steam engines led to a surge
in the demand for coal. As an example, approximately 100,000 coal-fed
steam engines were used to power machinery, trains, and steamboats and
for pumping water out of coal mines.
COAL: A MAJOR SOURCE

OF THE WORLD’S ENERGY
world energy consumption in 2006 is projected to increase by 48 percent
in 2030. Coal’s share of the electric power sector will reach 46 percent
by 2030.
HISTORY OF COAL
During the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, the de-
mand for coal surged. The major reason for the growth in the use of coal
was improvement of the steam engine. The steam engine was designed by
James Watt and patented in 1769, and Watt used coal to make the steam
to run his engine. Steamships and steam-powered railroads were becoming
the chief forms of transportation. All of these vehicles and boats used coal
to fuel their boilers for mechanical power.
With the development of electric power in the 19th century, coal’s fu-
ture became closely tied to electricity generation. Thomas Edison devel-
oped the first practical coal-fired electricity-generating power plant. The
coal-fired power plant went into operation in New York City in 1882,
supplying electricity for household lights.
In the second half of the 1800s, more uses for coal were found. By 1875,
coke (which is made from coal) had replaced charcoal as the primary fuel
for iron blast furnaces to make steel.
MAJOR USES OF COAL

Today, coal’s primary use is for the generation of electricity. In the United
States, coal generates approximately 50 percent of the electricity consumed
in America each day, far more than any other energy source. Worldwide,
coal generates 40 percent of total electricity. Coal is also used in retail
businesses and the industrial sector as a fuel for heating and for powering
steel-making plants, cement plants, and other industrial and manufactur-
ing facilities.
Other important users of coal include alumina refineries, paper manu-
facturers, and the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Several chemi-
cal products can be produced from the by-products of coal. For example,
refined coal tar is used in the manufacture of chemicals such as creosote oil,
DID YOU KNOW?

In North America, during the 1300s in what is now the U.S. southwest, the Hopi
Indians used coal for cooking, for heating, and to bake the pottery they made
from clay.
Coal a 105
naphthalene, phenol, and benzene, and ammonia gas recovered from coke
ovens is used to manufacture ammonia salts, nitric acid, and agricultural
fertilizers.
Thousands of different products have coal or coal by-products as com-
ponents: soap, aspirins, solvents, dyes, plastics, and fibers such as rayon and
nylon. Coal is also an essential ingredient in the production of specialty
products, of which the following are examples:
• activated carbon—used in filters for water and air purification and in
kidney dialysis machines
• carbon fiber—an extremely strong but lightweight reinforcement
material used in construction, mountain bikes, and tennis rackets
• silicon metal—used to produce silicones, which are in turn used to
make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair shampoos,
and toothpastes
WHAT IS COAL AND HOW IS IT FORMED?

Coal is a blackish organic substance and the most abundant fossil fuel; it is
used primarily to produce electricity and to a lesser degree to heat buildings.
Environmental issues associated with coal include air pollution from coal-
fired power plants and the impact of coal mining on natural resources.
Coal is a mixture of carbon and various other materials formed from the
accumulation of partially decayed plants in large, shallow swamps, lakes,
and marshes millions of years ago. It is found in beds and seams both near
the surface and underground. The transformation of organic deposits into
coal involved compaction and compression by burial under hundreds and
hundreds of feet of sediments. The formation of peat was the first step
in the coal-making process. Over time, the peat was compacted beneath
other deposits. As a result, water was squeezed out of the peat, and gases
such as methane were expelled into the atmosphere. Over thousands of
years, the continued burial and compression caused the peat to alter into
different grades of coal: lignite, bituminous, and anthracite. Lignite is the
lowest grade, with the highest percentage of volatile matter. Bituminous,
the next grade from lignite, is the most abundant of the three types of
coal. Anthracite, or hard coal, is the highest-grade coal, with high carbon
content and a low percentage of volatile matter.
WHERE IS COAL FOUND?

Coal deposits are found all over the world. Even Antarctica has coal de-
posits. However, most of the coal reserves are found in large deposits in the
midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. There are fewer coal deposits in
the Southern Hemisphere. In all, about 100 countries have coal reserves.
Most of the world’s largest deposits are in North America, eastern Eu-
rope, Russia, China, India, and Africa. In the United States, coal is found
in 38 states, and nearly one-eighth of the country lies over coal beds. Some
of the top coal-mining states include: Montana, Illinois, Wyoming, West
Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Colorado, Texas, and Indiana.
HOW IS COAL MINED?

There are two basic ways to mine coal. Surface mining is used when coal is
found close to the surface or on hillsides. Underground mining, or subsur-
face mining, is used to extract coal deep beneath Earth’s surface or in coal
seams on hillsides.
Coal a 107
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/U.S. Energy Information Administration/

Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Surface Mining and Reclamation

Surface mining is essentially a process that involves removing the over-
burden (earth and rock covering the coal) with heavy earth-moving
equipment, scooping out the coal, replacing the excavated soil, and rees-
tablishing vegetation and plant life, a process known as reclamation.
Much of the reclamation activity in the United States was the result of
legislation passed in 1977 called the Surface Mining Control and Recla-
mation Act. The act requires companies involved in surface mining op-
erations to restore mined lands back to their natural conditions after the
mining operations cease. It also prohibits surface mining on certain lands,
such as national forests. Reclaimed land has been successfully used for
wildlife preserves, golf courses, recreational parks, pasture land, native hab-
itats, productive farmland, and for commercial development.
The advantages of surface mining are many. Where it can be used, it

permits recovery of 90 percent or more of the coal to be mined.
To remove coal from regions located at or near Earth’s surface, large
equipment such as a bulldozer is generally used. Bulldozers remove soil
and rock to expose coal, which is located near the surface. Surface mining
may involve digging up approximately between 30 and 80 feet of topsoil
and rock to reach the underground coal layers. Compared to underground
mining, surface mining generally costs less, is safer for miners, and usually
results in the removal of a greater percentage of the coal underground.
However, it also results in extensive disruption of the land.
Surface mining can cause environmental problems. Common problems
include the destruction of ecosystems and habitats. In addition, the re-
moval of vegetation involved in surface mining makes an area more prone
to soil erosion and landslides. Water pollution can also occur in nearby
streams. As water leaches through tailings leftover from mining opera-
tions, it picks up minerals and carries them into groundwater reserves or
to lakes and streams. Acid mine drainage is also a pollution problem that
results from many types of surface mining. In many countries, including
the United States, government agencies enforce reclamation operations
that restore the land to its pre-environmental conditions once the mining
operations cease.
Underground Mining
Underground mining is used to extract coal lying deep beneath the Earth’s
surface or in seams exposed on hillsides. The coal is reached through the
drilling of two openings into the coal bed to transport workers and equip-
ment and to send coal to the surface. Both openings serve to circulate air
in the mine. Coal is then broken up and mined by one of several methods,
including the following:
Conventional Mining: Conventional mining is an older practice of
using explosives to break up coal seams.
Continuous Mining: In continuous mining, a huge machine with a
large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide teeth
scrapes coal from a seam at high speeds.
Longwall Mining: In longwall mining, a cutting machine with a large
rotating steel drum is dragged back and forth across a “long wall” or
seam of coal. The loosened coal falls onto a conveyer belt for removal
Coal a 109
There are several forms of surface mining; one is the removal of shallow coal
over a broad area where the land is mostly flat. (Airphoto/Dreamstime.com)
from the work area. After coal is extracted, it is removed by automatic

extraction systems that cut the coal, which is loaded onto shuttle cars
in a central loading area in the mine or placed on belt conveyors,
which remove coal to the surface.
Environmental Issues in the Mining of Coal

Acid Mine Drainage
Mining coal can result in environmental problems, including the destruc-
tion of ecosystems and habitats. In addition, the removal of vegetation
involved in surface mining makes an area more prone to soil erosion and
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal is the official state rock of Utah.
landslides. Water pollution can also occur when runoff of wastes enters
nearby streams. Water leaching through mine tailings leftover from min-
ing operations picks up minerals and carries them into groundwater re-
serves or into lakes and streams.
Underground mines and open-pit mines can be a serious environmental
problem if left abandoned. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a water pollution
problem resulting from the discharge into streams or rivers of acidic water
from coal or other mines containing iron, copper, lead, or zinc mineral ores.
Acid mine drainage also results when rainwater leaches through overbur-
den or tailings—the waste materials produced by mining operations. Such
water leaching through mine shafts and tailings causes chemical reactions
to occur. The combination of air, dissolved oxygen in the water, and the
activities of organisms that synthesize nutrients from inorganic chemicals
causes iron-sulfide compounds in ores and waste rock to oxidize, produc-
ing a high concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). When released into
streams, the acidic solution is toxic to aquatic life. The acid can also leach
into and pollute groundwater.
Acid mine drainage is a potential problem in any area with abandoned
coal or metal mines or where deposits of mine tailings are present. Some
states with AMD problems are Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Colorado,
J. Scott Horrell, the environmental

program manager with the Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection’s
(DEP) Bureau of Abandoned Mine
Reclamation, shows acid mine drain-
age flowing from an entrance to an
old mine in Fallston, Pennsylvania,
in May 2005. DEP officials planned
to seal several entries to the mine,
which was abandoned in the 1960s.
(AP Photo/Keith Srakocic)
Coal a 111
Ohio, Wyoming, and Oklahoma. Outside the United States, AMD has
been reported in Indonesia and South Africa. Although not yet reported
elsewhere, AMD is likely a problem in other countries that now have, or
once had, heavy coal, zinc, iron, copper, or lead mining industries.
Reducing Acid Mine Drainage Problems

Acid mine drainage pollution can be reduced. One method involves seal-
ing abandoned mines to prevent water from flowing in or out, thus elimi-
nating the discharge of acidic water into streams. Chemical treatment, in
which limestone or lime is used to neutralize acids that form in mines, is
most often used to eliminate AMD. Another successful method for reduc-
ing AMD involves using natural and human-made bog-type wetlands to
filter sulfuric acid from mine wastewater before it enters streams and riv-
ers. Organic matter, bacteria, and algae all work together to filter, absorb,
and precipitate out the heavy metal ions and raise the pH level. More than
300 wetland water treatment systems have been built in the United States,
many in coal-mining regions.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established reg-
ulations to limit acid levels of mine drainage to no net acidity. The regula-
tions require the pH of discharge to be between 6.0 and 9.0. The average
total iron content of the discharge must be less than 3 mg/L. According to
the EPA standards, new mines must be designed and operated to meet the
standard of zero discharge.
FEATURE
Cleanup Techniques for Acid Mine Drainage
Ohio University’s Mary Stoertz, a professor of geology, and others have developed
a unique way to clean up AMD resulting from tailings surrounding abandoned coal
mines located in southeastern Ohio. A major stream in the area of the study was
highly acidic because of rainwater that leached sulfur from coal mine tailings. The
cleanup organization used flue gas desulphurization (FGD), an alkaline substance,
to neutralize the acid in the stream. Flue gas desulphurization is a waste byproduct
formed when calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is used by power plants to scrub sulfur
dioxide (SO2) from smokestack gases. A local power plant donated the FGD to the
university research team. There are also other experimental trials in Pennsylvania
using fly ash mixed with a solidifier to fill abandoned coal mines.
Coal Ash Slurry Spills

Coal power plants burn a lot of coal per year. Besides producing electricity,
these power plants also produce millions of tons of coal ash waste. The coal
ash wastes are stored in special lagoons or containment ponds in which a
mixture of coal ash and water produces coal ash slurry, which resembles a
thick mud or sludge. There are hundreds of these lagoons or ponds con-
taining ash waste slurry throughout some of the leading coal-mining re-
gions in the United States.
At times, the toxic material in the slurry has leached out of some of
these containment ponds, causing health problems for humans and wild-
life. The toxic material can penetrate into groundwater reservoirs and local
streams as well. A major concern is that some of the dams containing the
slurry could break apart, causing millions of liters of slurry to spill out
into the environment, killing wildlife and damaging homes and businesses.
Now the U.S. government is planning policies to regulate and govern coal
ash waste disposal sites in those coal regions that have coal ash slurry con-
tainment ponds or lagoons.
HOW IS COAL TRANSPORTED?

Once the mining of coal is completed, the coal is ready to be shipped.
Shipping coal to various places in the country and overseas is a major busi-
ness. Most coal sent from mining operations to various geographical areas
travels either by rail or by barges. Trucks and covered conveyor systems are
used to move coal over shorter distances. There is even a coal slurry pipe-
line (which mixes coal with water and sends it through a metal tube to its
destination) connecting a mine in Arizona with a power plant in Nevada
that handles several million tons annually. Lake carriers and ocean vessels
move huge quantities of coal shipments across the Great Lakes and to
countries overseas. Much of this coal is used to produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2008, in Kingston, Tennessee, approximately one billion gallons of coal ash slurry
and sludge spilled out of a containment pond and covered more than 400 acres of
land and contaminated local water resources.
Coal a 113
A Tennessee Valley Authority towboat heads off after pushing a bargeload of

coal into place to be unloaded at the Cumberland City Fossil plant in Cumber-
land City, Tennessee. The plant uses several thousand tons of coal each day.
(AP Photo/The Leaf-Chronicle, Greg Williamson)
HOW DOES A COAL-FIRED POWER

STATION PRODUCE ELECTRICITY?
Fossil fuel power plants using coal or natural gas convert the energy stored
in fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas successively into thermal en-
ergy, mechanical energy, and finally electric energy. The first step toward
using coal as an energy source is to pulverize the coal into fine powder for
proper combustion. The coal is then fed into a boiler to convert water into
steam. The steam is then used to drive steam turbines connected to a gen-
erator shaft, which generates electricity. Then the electricity is distributed
across a wide geographic area through transmission lines.
DID YOU KNOW?

The U.S. coal industry currently employs 80,000 people, down from 700,000 in the
1920s, when production was half of what it is today.
VIDEO
Peabody Energy: What Is Coal? To learn more about Earth’s coal, go to http://www.
schooltube.com/video/39882/Peabody-Energy-What-Is-Coal (02:33 minutes).
Almost 50 percent of all electricity produced in the United States is generated

by coal-fired plants. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
MAJOR COAL-PRODUCING STATES

The United States is the world’s second-largest coal producer after China,
and its coal production is spread throughout the country.
In the United States, coal adds $81 billion a year to the economy and
more than 1 million jobs for Americans. As stated earlier, in the United
States, coal is the major power behind our electricity needs.
More coal is produced in the state of Wyoming than in any other state
in the United States. One of the reasons is the low sulfur content of the coal
found in the Powder River Basin. Every time you turn on a light or turn
on your computer, it is possible that you are using coal, maybe even Powder
River coal. The Powder River Basin in Wyoming accounts for 35 percent of
all the nation’s coal production and produces low-ash, low-sulfur coal suit-
able for use since the Clean Air Act of 1990. West Virginia is responsible
for about 14 percent of all coal production in the United States, followed
by Kentucky, where about 10 percent of U.S. coal production takes place.
Coal a 115
DID YOU KNOW?

Coal mining in Pennsylvania fueled the Industrial Revolution in the United States in
the mid-1700s.
Wyoming is the largest producer of coal in the United States and has the larg-
est number of surface coal mining operations. Some of the country’s largest
underground mining operations are in West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Colorado. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administra-
tion, Coal Reserves 2007)
MAJOR GLOBAL COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Coal is the world’s most abundant and widely distributed fossil fuel. Ac-
cording to the International Energy Agency, by 2030 coal-based power gen-
eration will provide about one-third of all global electricity generation.
Major hard-coal producers include China, the United States, India,
Australia, South Africa, Russia, Indonesia, Poland, Ukraine, and Kazakh-
stan. Although coal deposits are widely dispersed, more than 59 percent
of the world’s recoverable reserves are located in five countries—Australia,
China, India, the United States, and Canada.
Germany
Germany ranks seventh worldwide in coal production and ranks first in
Europe and fourth worldwide in coal consumption. If the last coal-mining
pits are closed by 2018 as planned, it will mark an end to a long chapter in
German coal history. However, the country might have to import coal for
its power plants even though its mines will be closed.
India
India has a long history of commercial coal mining starting from 1774.
India relies mostly on coal to meet the nation’s energy demands, which
are growing along with its economy. Given India’s commitment to reduce
its coal-fired emissions by 25 percent by 2030, the government has set up
plans and programs to search for alternative fuels.
China
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), China
is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world, and many of
China’s large coal reserves have yet to be developed. As of 2006, coal ac-
counts for about 70 percent of China’s total energy consumption.
China is building coal plants that first gasify the coal before it burns.
This process allows coal plants to burn coal between 30 percent and
44 percent more efficiently. However, coal will remain a critical part of
China’s energy mix for decades to come, but growth will slow and then
peak at perhaps 3.4 billion tons per year by 2020, according to China’s
Energy Research Institute.
Poland
Poland is one of the leading coal producers in the world with an annual
coal production of more than 160 million metric tons. Poland has three
major Carboniferous coal basins, namely the Lower Silesian, Upper Sile-
sian, and Lublin basins.
EXPORTERS OF COAL
Australia
According to the Australian Coal Industry, Australia is the world’s biggest
coal exporter, and black coal is Australia’s largest export, worth more than
$A50 billion in 2008–2009. With extensive coal reserves concentrated
along the nation’s eastern seaboard in New South Wales and Queensland,
Australia has more than 76 billion tons of identified black coal reserves,
which will last for more than 200 years at current rates of production.
Coal a 117
United States
As of 2008 the United States will export approximately 70 percent of
its total coal production. The value of U.S. coal exports is approximately
3.75 billion dollars annually. The United States exports to more than
40 countries around the world. Currently, Canada, Japan, and Italy are
among the biggest customers receiving shipments.
COAL IMPORTERS
Japan has continued to rely on coal and is expected to remain the world’s
largest coal importer. South Korea also is expected to continue importing
most of the coal it consumes. With planned increases in coal-fired gener-
ating capacity, South Korea and Taiwan together are projected to maintain
a roughly 16 percent share of world imports in 2030, despite sizable in-
creases in coal imports by other countries. India’s coal imports in 2030 are
projected to be three times the 2007 level.
Italy’s conversion of power plants from oil to coal also is projected to
increase its coal imports, and Germany’s planned closure of its remain-
ing hard coal mines by 2018 is expected to result in increasing imports of
coal for electricity generation. Israel also imports coal to meet approxi-
mately 25 percent of its energy requirements, primarily for electric power
generation.
COAL CONSUMPTION
The biggest market for coal is Asia, which currently accounts for 56 percent
of global coal consumption, although China is responsible for a significant
proportion of this. Many countries do not have natural energy resources
sufficient to cover their energy needs and therefore need to import energy
to help meet their requirements. Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, for ex-
ample, import significant quantities of steam coal for electricity generation
and coking coal for steel production.
According to the World Coal Institute, about 36 percent of the world’s
electricity is produced by burning coal. Coal is a major fuel for generating
electricity in Poland (97% of electricity), South Africa (93%), Australia
(85%), China (80%), India (75%), and the United States (49%). In the year
2010, coal use was expected to rise in Southeast Asia, where coal was to be
the major fuel for producing electricity.
As noted previously, most of the coal reserves are found in large depos-
its in the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, but there are a few
coal deposits in the Southern Hemisphere. About 100 countries have coal
reserves. Most of the world’s largest deposits of coal are located in United
States, Russia, China, Australia, and India. The largest producers and users
of coal are China, the United States, India, and South Africa. Recent esti-
mates indicate that the world’s supply of coal should last for another 250
to 400 years, at current production levels.
Coal a 119
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
All coal-fired plants produce major air pollutants, such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, into the atmosphere. Studies indicate
that about 70 percent of all sulfur dioxide emissions and 35 percent of car-
bon dioxide pumped into the atmosphere come from coal-burning power
plants. Other air pollutants include volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
soot, ash, and other particulate matter. Heavy metals such as cadmium and
mercury are also released from coal-burning plants. They also produce bot-
tom ash that needs to be collected and disposed of in landfills.
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a characteristic acrid odor at high
concentrations that is a common pollutant emitted when fossil fuels con-
taining sulfur are burned.
Major emissions of sulfur dioxide in the United States derive from power
plants east of the Mississippi River, particularly those in the Ohio Valley.
When released into the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor
to form sulfuric acid—a major component of acid rain. Sulfate particles
also can be deposited as a dry contaminant that reacts with moisture in soil
to form sulfuric acid. Acids formed from sulfur dioxide can be damaging
to plants, aquatic ecosystems, and structures made from rock and metal.
Reducing Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

Today coal companies mine in areas where there is low-sulfur coal instead
of high-sulfur coal when economically feasible. Using low-sulfur coals can
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. Washing coal to remove its sulfur is also
effective but expensive. Some power plants use special equipment called
scrubbers to remove most of the sulfur from coal emissions before they
enter the atmosphere. One option that eliminates emissions of sulfur in-
cludes coal gasification, a process used by manufacturing plants to “scrub”
the gas and remove sulfur compounds.
Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Environmental scientists are concerned because the amount of carbon di-
oxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is increasing, and more is being released
into the atmosphere than ever before. As global energy consumption
increases, so will CO2 emissions. According to some environmental re-

ports, CO2 emissions are projected to rise from 30 billion tons in 2006 to
36.1 billion tons in 2015 and 44 billion metric tons in 2030—an increase
of 39 percent over this projection period if the data is correct.
Pulverized coal-fired burners dominate the power industry today, and
a typical power plant can pump out more than six million tons of CO2 a
year—a major cause of global warming and the main greenhouse gas. And
the addition of new power plants could bring an increase in future carbon
dioxide emissions.
As a result of concerns about harmful emissions of coal burning, partic-
ularly the burning of high-sulfur and low-quality coal, the United States,
Europe, and Japan initiated research and development programs in the
1980s to generate technologies, projects, and devices for controlling harm-
ful emissions. These programs also sought ways to increase the efficiency of
coal combustion, such as using clean coal technologies.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration Annual

Outlook 2009 projections)
DID YOU KNOW?

Additional increases in carbon dioxide levels are caused by deforestation. When
trees are cut down and burned to clear land for agriculture, CO2 is released. In
addition, as forests are cut down, there are fewer trees and other green plants to
absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Coal a 121
CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGY

In the United States, the Clean Coal Technology Program legislation was
launched in 1986. Supervised by the U.S. Department of Energy, the pro-
gram directed industry to burn coal more efficiently and to reduce emis-
sions from domestic coal-fired plants. The program also sought ways to
reduce the release of acid rain pollutants. One of the options in clean coal
technology programs is coal gasification, the conversion of coal to a gas-
eous product by one of several available technologies; this is considered an
alternative fuel.
Fluidized Bed Combustion Systems

The new Spurlock Fossil Plant in Maysville, Kentucky, uses clean coal tech-
nology known as the circulating fluidized bed combustion process. The
new 268-megawatt plant is one of the cleanest coal-powered plants in the
United States.
How Does the Fluidized Bed Combustion System Work?

Fluidized bed combustion is a low-polluting technology for burning low-
grade coal in a boiler that traps sulfur dioxide emissions before they are
emitted into the atmosphere. The technology was created through research
and development sponsored by the Department of Energy.
According to the Department of Energy, the fluidized beds suspend
solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process.
A mixture of pulverized coal and limestone is forced into the boiler, where it
“floats” on the air while it burns. The calcium and some magnesium from the
limestone absorb the sulfur dioxide from the sulfur materials in the coal. The
result is a mixing of gas and solids. The tumbling action, much like a bub-
bling fluid, provides more effective chemical reactions and heat transfer.
Fluidized bed combustion evolved from efforts to find a combustion
process able to control pollutant emissions without external emission con-
trols such as scrubbers. The technology burns fuel at temperatures of 1,400
DID YOU KNOW?

America’s coal-based electricity power companies have invested billions of dollars
in technologies to reduce emissions. As a result, the coal-generating plants are
much cleaner on the basis of regulated emissions per unit of energy produced.
to 1,700 degrees Fahrenheit, well below the temperature where nitrogen

and oxygen atoms combine to form nitrogen oxide pollutants.
In summary, it is the mixing action of the fluidized bed that brings the
flue gases into contact with a sulfur-absorbing chemical, such as limestone
or dolomite. More than 95 percent of the sulfur pollutants in coal can be
captured inside the boiler by the sulfur-absorbing chemical.
The popularity of fluidized bed combustion is due largely to the tech-
nology’s fuel flexibility—almost any combustible material, from coal to
municipal waste, can be burned—and the good news is that the process has
the capability of meeting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission stan-
dards without the need for expensive add-on emission control systems.
Other Coal-Cleaning Processes

As part of the Department of Energy’s Clean Coal Technology Program,
Custom Coals International of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is testing coal-
cleaning processes that will produce low-cost coals with low sulfur con-
tent. One such process crushes and screens mined coal and then applies a
separation technique to remove about 90 percent of the sulfur. This special
coal product can reduce sulfur dioxide emissions to levels that meet the
compliance standards set by the new Clean Air Act.
Carbon Capture and Sequestration

Scientists are looking for new ways to use this old fuel and at the same
time find ways to reduce, eliminate, or store the CO2. One promising pro-
gram is called “carbon capture and sequestration.” Carbon sequestration
is a plan for the long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of
carbon. It would take the CO2 out of power plant emissions and store it
deep in the earth.
One method to help reduce the CO2 and store it underground is called
the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC). There are only two
IGCC plants now operating in the country—both gasify coal.
VIDEO
Coal Comeback: A new generation of coal power stations promises zero emissions.
To learn more watch the this video from Hitachi: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/
hitachi/712-coal-comeback-video.htm (03:58 minutes).
Coal a 123
DID YOU KNOW?

Twenty-first-century coal plants emit 40 percent less CO2 than the average 20th-
century coal plants.
Gasification begins when coal slurry is injected with oxygen into a high-
pressure environment to create a gas. A turbine burns it to make power. Pol-
lutants such as sulfur and particulates are stripped from the pressurized gas
during the gasification. The same method could be used to strip out CO2
as well. The leftover CO2 could be buried in the ground or used in some
places to force oil and gas from old wells. The carbon dioxide could also be
pumped deep into formations in the earth where high pressure would make
it a liquid. Small-scale tests show that the liquid CO2 stays underground.
One study found that most parts of the country could store large
amounts of CO2 underground. Some of these places include aquifers, res-
ervoirs, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks. Now, the Department of
Energy’s main coal project is a billion-dollar partnership with coal and
power companies called FutureGen. FutureGen would be the first IGCC
plant with zero emissions.
FEATURE
The National Energy Technology Laboratory
The National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) is part of the Department of
Energy’s national laboratory system, and it runs a project called the Carbon Se-
questration Program. This program is helping to develop technologies to capture,
separate, and store carbon dioxide (CO2) in order to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions without hindering economic growth. Carbon sequestration technologies cap-
ture and store CO2 that would otherwise reside in the atmosphere for long periods
of time.
Worldwide CO2 emissions from human activity have increased from an insignifi-
cant level two centuries ago to annual emissions of more than 33 billion tons today.
The U.S. Energy Information Administration predicts that, if no action is taken, the
United States will emit approximately 7,550 million tons of CO2 per year by 2030, in-
creasing 2005 emission levels by more than 14 percent. The Carbon Sequestration
Program contributes to President Barack Obama’s goal of developing technologies
to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Clean Coal Technology in Germany

As mentioned, the concept of clean coal technology is to prevent car-
bon dioxide emissions from entering into the atmosphere from a power
plant. Instead the carbon dioxide emissions are captured, collected,
and then pumped deep into a natural rock formation for permanent
storage.
In theory clean coal technology sounds good. However, such a system
has not been built until recently.
In 2009 Germany built the first clean coal-fired power plant in the east-
ern region of the country. The pilot plant captures the carbon emissions
before the gases are released into the atmosphere. First the coal is burned,
producing boiling water to make steam that drives a turbine to generate
electricity. The leftover carbon dioxide emissions and other materials are
cycled back into a boiler. Under great pressure, the carbon dioxide is con-
densed into a liquid. The liquid is then transported to a closed natural gas
site and pumped a few thousand feet deep into the depleted gas reservoir
for storage.
Schwarze Pumpe is the world’s first coal-fired plant ready to capture and
store its own CO2 emissions. The Schwarze Pumpe coal power plant is located
in Spremberg, Germany. (AP Photo/Matthias Rietschel)
Coal a 125
U.S. Funding for Sequestration Technology

The United States is also doing research on sequestration technology. In
2009 Energy Secretary Steven Chu announced that more than $8.4 mil-
lion in funding had recently been approved for seven sequestration tech-
nology projects across the country and at some colleges and universities.
“These projects will train workers for a clean energy economy and help
position the United States as a leader in carbon capture and storage tech-
nologies for years to come,” said Secretary Chu.
The National Energy Technology Laboratory of the Department of
Energy (DOE) in the past has also offered numerous grants for carbon
sequestration technologies and research. The national lab is responsible for
advancing carbon storage research and projects. As recently as October
2009, it offered grants for Geological Sequestration Training and Research
for up to $300,000. The Department of Energy also awarded more than
$1 million for Wyoming professors to study carbon dioxide plume move-
ments within storage reservoirs. Officials say the goal is to develop tech-
nologies for underground storage of the carbon dioxide that is emitted by
power plants and other facilities that burn coal and gas.
Coal Gasification Technology: Synthetic

Natural Gas
Coal gasification is the process of converting coal into a gas. The process
results in what is known as synthetic natural gas. Synthetic natural gas fuel
burns cleaner than coal and can be transported by pipeline. Gasification
works by mixing coal with oxygen, air, or steam at very high temperatures
to form methane, the major ingredient of natural gas. As a result, gasifica-
tion plants allow for significant reductions in pollutants. For example, car-
bon dioxide emissions can be reduced by approximately 20 percent using
coal gasification technology.
The Process
Step 1: Gasification. Gasification turns coal into a very hot, up to 3,200
degrees Fahrenheit, synthetic gas, or syngas, which is composed of carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, as well as small amounts of other
gases and particles. This is accomplished by mixing pulverized coal with an
oxidant, usually steam, air, or oxygen.
Step 2: Cooling and Cleaning. Next, the syngas is cooled and cleaned
to remove the other gases and particles, leaving only carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. Syngas is easier to clean than the emissions
from a pulverized coal power plant. During syngas cleaning, mercury, sul-
fur, trace contaminants, and particulate matter are removed.
Step 3: Shifting. Next, the syngas is sent to a “shift reactor.” During the
shift reaction, the carbon monoxide is converted into more hydrogen and
carbon dioxide by mixing it with steam. Afterward, the syngas consists
mostly of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Step 4: Purification. Once the syngas has been shifted, it is sepa-
rated into streams of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen, once
cleaned, is ready for use. The carbon dioxide is captured and sent off for
sequestration.
The heart of a gasification-based system is the gasifier. A gasifier converts

hydrocarbon feedstock such as coal into gaseous components by applying
heat under pressure in the presence of steam. The gasification power plant
can also use feedstocks such as biomass and petroleum to produce synthetic
gas. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Coal a 127
Step 5: Usage. There is now a stream of pure hydrogen ready for a variety
of uses. It can be burned in a gas turbine for electricity generation, con-
verted to electricity in a fuel cell, used as a fuel for an internal combustion
engine, or used as a chemical for making fertilizer, semiconductors, and
many other valuable energy products.
Coal-gasification electric power plants are now operating commercially
in the United States and in other nations, and many experts predict that
coal gasification will be at the heart of future generations of clean coal
technology plants.
Environmental Benefits
The environmental benefits of gasification are that the process can achieve
extremely low sulfur dioxides, nitrogen dioxides, and emission particles
from burning coal-derived gases. During gasification, sulfur in coal, for
example, is converted to hydrogen sulfide and can be captured by pro-
cesses presently used in the chemical industry. In some methods, the sul-
fur can be extracted in either a liquid or a solid form that can be sold
commercially.
In an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant, the syngas
produced is virtually free of fuel-bound nitrogen. Nitrogen oxide from the
gas turbine is limited to thermal nitrogen oxide. Diluting the syngas allows
for nitrogen oxide emissions as low as 15 parts per million.
Using Synthetic Gas for Hydrogen Production:

Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Gasification, in fact, may be one of the most flexible technologies for pro-
ducing clean-burning hydrogen for tomorrow’s automobiles and power-
generating fuel cells for homes and businesses. Hydrogen and other coal
gases can also be used to fuel power-generating turbines, or as the chemi-
cal “building blocks” for a wide range of commercial products.
DID YOU KNOW?

Synthetic fuels, or synfuels, can also be made from oil shale and biomass (animal
and plant wastes), but most are produced from solid coal.
Some energy companies are considering using gasification of coal for

the production of hydrogen. The resulting syngas, when burned, produces
nearly twice as much usable energy as coal.
Although syngas is a cleaner-burning energy source than coal, it does
produce carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas associated with global
warming. So one company plans to break down the syngas into its two
components, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The next step is to chemi-
cally change the carbon monoxide to make carbon dioxide. This process
produces excellent sources of both hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hy-
drogen is used to operate fuel cells. The carbon dioxide could be stored
underground in a process called sequestration.
Not everyone believes that clean coal technologies are sufficient in
reducing air pollutants. Many environmentalists believe the best way to
reduce air pollutants is to replace coal-fired plants with those that use
cleaner-burning fossil fuels or to eliminate the plants entirely and use
renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar energy. But the
problem is that several nations with large coal reserves want to build up
their economies. These countries may find it cheaper to continue to use
coal rather than switch to renewable technologies, which they might feel
cost too much to use or take too long to develop.
THE FUTURE OF COAL

Coal will continue to play a key role in the world’s energy mix, with demand
in certain regions set to grow rapidly. Growth in the coal markets will be
strongest in developing Asian countries, where demand for electricity and
steel for construction and car production will increase as incomes rise.
Environmental Issues Still Prevail

Even though there have been major accomplishments in producing cleaner
coal, some energy experts are predicting less coal use in the future because
of emission regulations. As mentioned earlier, environmental scientists are
concerned because the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in-
creasing; more is being released into the atmosphere than ever before.
Other energy experts favor the installation of new gas plants because
even an efficient coal-fired power plant emits twice the carbon dioxide of
a natural gas–fired plant. And there are a number of people who recom-
mend eliminating coal-fired power plants altogether by 2030. Will coal
be a dominant energy source for the next several decades? There is plenty
Coal a 129
of coal in the ground, and it may last more than 200 years at the present
rate of consumption. But time will tell the story of coal as a major energy
source after 2030.

Burns, Shirley Stewart. Bringing Down the Mountains: The Impact of Moun-
taintop Removal on Southern West Virginia Communities. Morgan-
town: West Virginia University Press, 2007.
Coal Age Magazine. http://coalage.com.
Freese, Barbara. Coal: A Human History. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Book
Group, 2003.
Mahlum, D. D., et al., eds. Coal Conversion and the Environment: Chemi-
cal, Biomedical, and Ecological Considerations. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Energy, 1981.
Riddle, John. Coal Power of the Future. New York: Rosen, 2003.
U.S. Geological Survey National Coal Resources Data System. http:energy.
er.usgs.gov/coalqual.htm.
van Krevelen, D. W. Coal: Typology—Physics—Chemistry—Constitution.
3rd ed. Maryland Heights, MO: Elsevier Science.
SOMETHING TO DO
Synthetic fuels technology has been explained as a means to produce clean,
reliable, and sustainable energy sources for the 21st century. The conver-
sion of coal to liquid forms of energy is one of those technologies. There is
serious debate as to whether liquid coal should be an option for reducing
America’s dependence on oil. Explore the arguments for and against the
transformation of coal into diesel and other liquid fuels. Take a side and
explain your decision. For some references, visit www.futurecoalfuels.org
and www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/solutions.
WEB SITES
non-government organizations.
www.americancoalcouncil.org
The American Coal Council (ACC) is dedicated to advancing the
development and utilization of American coal as an economic, abun-
dant/secure, and environmentally sound energy fuel source.
www.coaleducation.org/miningtv/modern_videos.htm
Kentucky’s coal education Web site presents factual, useful informa-
tion about coal in a fun and productive way.
web.mit.edu/coal/.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) faculty group ex-
amines the role of coal in a world where constraints on carbon diox-
ide emissions are adopted to mitigate global climate change.
http://fossil.energy.gov/
The primary mission of the Department of Energy’s Office of Fossil
Energy is to ensure that we can continue to rely on clean, affordable
energy from our traditional fuel resources.
VIDEOS
understanding of coal energy topics and issues. The author has made a con-
sistent effort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time, some
may move or may no longer be available.
What is coal and how is electricity produced? To learn more about
the earth’s original biofuel, go to http://www.schooltube.com/
video/39882/Peabody-Energy-What-Is-Coal (02:33 minutes).
Coal Energy—Duke Power, United States: Caught between a rock
and a hot place! The CEO of Duke Power, America’s third-largest
energy provider, discusses the daunting challenges ahead for the coal
industry to lower CO2 emissions. Clean coal makes putting a man
on the moon look easy. To learn more about how the United States
could adapt its 200-year reserve to benefit the globe and preserve
the American way of life, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/video/
watch/?id=4969902n (10:00 minutes).
Coal Comeback—A new generation of coal power stations prom-
ises zero emissions. To learn more, watch the following video from
Hitachi: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hitachi/712-coal-come-
back-video.htm (03:58 minutes).
Chapter 5
a
Nuclear Energy
In 2009 U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu announced the selection

of 71 university research project awards. The awards were part of the De-
partment of Energy’s investments in nuclear energy research and devel-
opment.
Under the Nuclear Energy University Program (NEUP), the cost of
these projects will be about approximately $44 million when completed.
The NEUP program will help advance new nuclear technologies in sup-
port of the nation’s energy goals and will play a key role in addressing the
global climate crisis and moving the nation toward greater use of nuclear
energy.
“As a zero-carbon energy source, nuclear power must be part of our
energy mix as we work toward energy independence and meeting the
challenge of global warming,” said Secretary Chu. “The next generation of
nuclear power plants—with the highest standards of safety, efficiency and
environmental protection—will require the latest advancements in nuclear
science and technology. These research and development university awards
will ensure that the United States continues to lead the world in the nu-
clear field for years to come.”
In 2010 President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal
loan to build two new reactors in Georgia. “We’ll have to build a new
generation of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America,” said President
FEATURE
The U.S. Department of Energy
The Department of Energy’s nuclear energy program is designed to promote se-
cure, competitive, and environmentally responsible nuclear technologies to serve
the present and future energy needs of the United States and the world.
Obama. This was significant news given that there have been no new
nuclear units licensed since the near-meltdown at the Three Mile Island
nuclear power plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979.
WHY THE INTEREST IN NUCLEAR ENERGY?

One answer to this question is that the global demand for electricity is
expected to increase by almost 50 percent by 2030, according to the U.S.
Department of Energy. As of 2009, nuclear energy provides almost 20 per-
cent of all electricity used in the United States and is responsible for about
15 percent of the world’s electrical energy output, according to the World
Nuclear Industry Report. However, the construction of new nuclear power
plants in the United States could provide 33 percent of U.S. electricity, ac-
cording to advocates for nuclear power.
The current conventional sources of electric power, such as coal, natural
gas, and hydropower, may not be able to supply all of the world’s electrical
needs by 2030. Additionally, the renewable energy sources such as wind,
solar, and geothermal may still lag behind as major sources of electricity
during this time. In fact, presently, the renewable non-hydropower fuels
supply less than 3 percent of electrical energy needs in the United States,
according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
One of the major benefits of nuclear energy is that nuclear power plants
can operate without contributing to climate change. Although the com-
plete nuclear fuel cycle emits small amounts of greenhouse gases because
of the fossil fuels used to mine uranium, transport nuclear fuel, and pro-
vide some of the electrical energy to run uranium enrichment plants, the
ratio of greenhouse gases emitted to the electricity generated is lower for
nuclear energy than for virtually all other electricity generation sources.
(The possible exceptions may be certain hydropower and geothermal
Nuclear Energy a 133
The dome of the nuclear reactor

of Sizewell nuclear power plant in
eastern England, commissioned in
1995. According to the World Nu-
clear Association, the United King-
dom has 19 reactors generating
about 15 percent of its electricity;
all but one of these will be retired by
2023. (iStockphoto)
plants, but these sources confront geographical and environmental limi-

tations.) When operating, nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse
gases. However, there are safety, security, and environmental issues related
to using nuclear power as a major energy supplier in the future. Nonethe-
less, because of nuclear power’s benefits, several countries are now initiat-
ing new and extensive nuclear energy projects and programs to help supply
more worldwide electricity demands in the future.
WHAT IS NUCLEAR ENERGY?

Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the nuclei of atoms. Atoms are
tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous
energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. However, the energy is very
concentrated, so it is hard to release it unless a nuclear reactor is used.
Inside the nuclear reactor, the nuclei of heavy atoms of an element, such
as uranium or plutonium, are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing
DID YOU KNOW?

Nuclear energy is used to detect and treat certain illnesses.
energy when struck by a neutron. The splitting or “the visioning” of the

nucleus releases more atoms and energy, both at the same time. When
this action occurs, energy is released. The neutrons continue to split other
nuclei to cause a chain reaction, a series of nuclear fissions that produce
enough neutrons to keep the reaction going.
The heat energy given off during fission in the reactor is used to boil
water into steam, which turns the turbine blades. As they turn, they drive
generators that make electricity. Afterward, the steam is cooled back into
water in a separate structure at the power plant called a cooling tower. The
water can be used again and again.
The electricity is transmitted along transmission power lines carried to
communities. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates
the safe and secure operation of all U.S. nuclear power plants.
HISTORY OF USING NUCLEAR ENERGY

The first experimental fission reaction was observed in December 1938
by chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Germany, but the results
were not fully understood until January 1939, when physicists Otto Frisch
and Lise Meitner explained the reaction as fissioning of uranium nuclei.
In 1942 at the University of Chicago, scientists, led by Enrico Fermi, pro-
duced a self-sustaining chain reaction using nuclear fuel.
During World War II, the U.S. government approved “The Manhattan
Project,” a top-secret program conducted between 1942 and 1945 for the
purpose of developing an atomic (nuclear) bomb for use during World
War II. As a result of the Manhattan Project, three atomic bombs (Trin-
ity Test, Fat Man, and Little Boy) were produced. In the summer of 1945,
two atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan.
After World War II, a major effort was made to apply nuclear energy to
nonweapon uses. The world’s first commercial-scale nuclear reactor power
plant began to operate in Britain in 1956. In 1957 in Shippingport, Penn-
sylvania, the first large-scale nuclear power plant, a pressurized water reac-
tor, began operations.
The U.S. program expanded quickly in the 1960s and 1970s. In 2009,
104 power reactors supplied about 800 billion kilowatt-hours of elec-
tricity in the United States, almost 20 percent of total electricity for the
country.
The Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport, Pennsylvania, was

the country’s first large-scale civilian atomic power plant to generate electric-
ity for commercial use. (Library of Congress)
CONCERNS ABOUT NUCLEAR WEAPONS

During the 1960s and 1970s, many nations were concerned about the
buildup of nuclear weapons and the proliferation of these weapons to
other nations. The concern centered on the misuse of nuclear energy—a
dual-use technology—for weaponry. In 1970 the Treaty on the Nonpro-
liferation of Nuclear Weapons went into effect. Nations without nuclear
weapons agreed not to develop them in exchange for the provision of
non-nuclear materials and technology from the nations that already had
nuclear weapons. In a major effort to limit the nuclear arms race be-
tween the United States and the Soviet Union, negotiations such as
the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were pursued during the
1980s.
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) attempts to ensure that
countries do not misuse peaceful nuclear programs to make weapons. It is
a United Nations agency, headquartered in Vienna, Austria, that promotes

safe and secure use of peaceful nuclear energy. The IAEA advises countries
on such matters as nuclear energy, nuclear radioactive waste management,
and nuclear safety and security programs.
WORLD USE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries, including the United States,
have chosen nuclear power as part of their energy needs. Other countries
that use nuclear energy include China, Russia, France, Belgium, Germany,
India, Japan, Poland, and South Korea. According to the World Nuclear
Association, there were 444 nuclear power reactors worldwide in 2009.
These reactors supply approximately 17 percent of the world’s electrical
needs for more than one billion people without emitting any carbon diox-
ide or other greenhouse gases during their operation.
Many of the world’s nuclear power reactors are located in the United States
and in Europe. In recent years France has emerged as a leader in the nuclear
industry. (Source: International Nuclear Safety Center at Argonne National
Laboratory, 2005)
United States
the world, with 104 units supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt (kW)
hours as of 2009. The United States is using more nuclear energy today as a
a new reactor order. (Watts Bar Unit 1, completed in 1996, was the latest
completed U.S. reactor as of 2010.)
There are currently 31 states with nuclear power plants. Some of these
states include Washington, Texas, Tennessee, Illinois, Florida, and Califor-
nia. Most plants go offline for relatively short periods of time—less than one
month annually—for refueling and basic maintenance. However, some plants
may go offline for extended periods to make more substantial repairs.
Of the 31 states, 6 rely on nuclear power for more than 50 percent
of their electricity, and another 13 states rely on nuclear power for up to
25–50 percent of their electricity. However, determining which states use
nuclear power can be difficult. Because power generation is shared across
state lines, it is reasonable to assume a vast majority of states, if not all, use
nuclear power to some extent.
France
France’s first nuclear reactor began operating in 1974; the most recent
one (before Flamanville and Penly) in 2000. About 78 percent of France’s
electricity is produced by nuclear energy. France is a major exporter of
electricity to other countries in Europe.
DID YOU KNOW?

In addition to state nuclear power plants, the U.S. military is a big user of nuclear
power. Submarines and naval ships often have nuclear power plants as their pri-
mary power source. This is particularly true for newer vessels.
VIDEO
France’s Nuclear Energy Program. With nuclear power producing nearly 80 per-
cent of the country’s energy needs, France has more than 55 nuclear reactors in a
country the size of Texas. To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
i-rKBrs7kYE&feature=related (10:00 minutes).
Other Countries
As of 2009, South Korea had 20 reactors providing almost 40 percent of
the country’s electricity. Japan’s 53 reactors produce about 30 percent of
the country’s electrical needs. Russia uses 31 reactors for generating about
16 percent of its electricity. Across Europe there are about 192 reactors in
such countries as Belgium, Germany, Lithuania, and Poland. Today, addi-
tional nuclear power plants are under consideration, in the planning stages,
or under construction in Russia, China, and India, to name a few.
NUCLEAR FUEL
Nuclear plants use uranium fuel, consisting of solid ceramic pellets. The
basic fuel used in nuclear reactors is uranium-235 (U-235). In nature, less
than 1 percent of uranium is in the form of isotope U-235. It occurs mixed
in with uranium’s much more abundant form, U-238, which constitutes
more than 99 percent of natural uranium. For most commercial reactors,
the concentration of U-235 has to be increased through an industrial pro-
cess called enrichment in order to be able to sustain a fission chain reac-
tion. Following is an example of this fission reaction:
92
U235 ⴙ 0n1 → 36Kr90 ⴙ 56Ba142 ⴙ neutrons
This chemical reaction in the fuel releases several neutrons per atom of
U-235, making a chain reaction possible. (Kr-90 and Ba-142 are two ex-
amples of fission products; other common fission products include Cs-137
and Sr-90.) In a nuclear reactor, the fuel’s chain reaction is controlled to
maintain a steady reaction rate.
Mining Uranium
Uranium minerals are widely distributed in Earth’s crust. They are present
in sandstones, in veins within rock fractures, and in placer deposits—ore
Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. In nuclear fission,

atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power
plants use this energy to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
materials that have been transported and deposited in river deltas and
streams.
Most uranium mined in the United States derives from sandstone de-
posits. Worldwide, the richest deposits of uranium are in Russia, Ukraine,
Australia, Canada, and southern Africa. According to the Nuclear Energy
Agency, known uranium deposits could fuel the current global reactor fleet
for at least another 80 years. The total amount of uranium is unknown. As
the price of uranium goes up, there is more incentive for additional pros-
pecting to find more deposits. The world’s oceans could conceivably supply
several hundred years or more of uranium based on current demands for
nuclear-generated electricity.
According to the Department of Energy, in 2008 the major foreign sup-
pliers of uranium to the United States were Australia and Canada (42%),
followed by Kazakhstan, Russia, and Uzbekistan (33%) and finally, Brazil,
DID YOU KNOW?

A single, quarter-ounce pellet of uranium creates as much energy as three and a
half barrels of oil or 1,780 pounds of coal, without carbon dioxide emissions.
Czech Republic, Namibia, Niger, South Africa, and the United Kingdom
(11%). Only 14 percent of the delivered uranium to nuclear power plants
was from uranium ore deposits in the United States. Two of the states
with the largest known uranium ore reserves include Wyoming and New
Mexico.
Processing Uranium to Make Fuel

The major nuclear reactors use essentially the same uranium fuel. However,
before uranium can be used in a reactor, it must undergo several processing
steps to be converted from an ore to solid ceramic fuel pellets. The pellets
are about the size of a human’s fingertip, but each one produces roughly the
same amount of energy as 150 gallons of oil.
The processing steps include mining and milling, conversion, enrich-
ment, and fabrication. Uranium miners obtain uranium ore via surface or
open-pit mining and underground mining. Special liquid cleaners remove
the uranium from the mined ore, and the resulting uranium oxide is called
yellowcake.
The yellowcake is filtered and dried and then is converted in a chemi-
cal processes to uranium hexafluoride. Uranium hexafluoride is a chemi-
cal compound of uranium consisting of one atom of uranium combined
with six atoms of fluorine. The uranium hexafluoride is processed as a gas.
The enriched uranium hexafluoride is stored in cylinders. When it cools,
it condenses into a solid. Through another chemical process, the uranium
hexafluoride is transformed into uranium dioxide, which is used to make
fuel rods.
Fuel Rods
The fuel used in most nuclear reactors is natural uranium oxide or enriched
uranium oxide U-235. (Note: Some reactors are fueled with mixed oxide
fuel, which combines uranium oxide and plutonium oxide.) U-235 is one
of the fissionable isotopes of uranium. The enriched fuel is made into the
ceramic pellets and placed inside fuel rods made of a zirconium alloy, or
other material. The fuel rods are joined together in a reactor core. When
the U-235 is bombarded with neutrons, fission reaction takes place in the
reactor core:
92
U235 ⴙ 0n1 → 36Kr90 ⴙ 56Ba142 ⴙ neutrons
Uranium pellets fill fuel rods in this full-scale model of a nuclear fuel assembly at
the Ulba Metallurgical Plant in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan. These energy-
rich pellets are stacked end-to-end into long metal fuel rods. A bundle of fuel
rods is called a fuel assembly. A reactor core contains many fuel assemblies.
(Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images)
In U-235 atoms, the nucleus is unstable. As the atoms’ nuclei break up,
they release neutrons. When the neutrons hit other uranium atoms, those
atoms also split, releasing neutrons along with heat energy. These neu-
trons strike other atoms, splitting them, and they in turn split other atoms,
until there is a chain reaction. When that happens, fission becomes self-
sustaining.
Moderator and Coolants

The moderator in the nuclear reactor is used to slow down the neutrons.
The right speed is maintained for a steady fission rate. The moderators
contain a variety of materials, including pure water, heavy water or deute-
rium oxide, and graphite. Coolants are piped into and out of the reactor
core, removing excessive amounts of heat that build up in the reactor. The
steam generator is part of the cooling system in which the heat from the
reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.
The list of coolants includes pure water or heavy water, carbon dioxide,
sodium, and helium. Most commercial reactors use water as both coolant
and moderator. The discharges of the heated water are pumped into cool-
ing towers or nearby waterways.
Control Rods
The chain reaction is regulated by control rods made from neutron-
absorbing materials such as cadmium or boron. The control rods in the re-
actor core are raised or lowered to speed up, slow down, or stop the fission.
No combustion occurs in the process of producing nuclear energy, and
therefore, no greenhouse gas emissions are released into the atmosphere.
THE KINDS OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

Commercial nuclear power plants in the United States are either boil-
ing water reactors or pressurized water reactors. Both boiling water reac-
tors and pressurized water reactors are cooled by ordinary water. The water
is the main that carries the heat from the fission reaction to the generator
that produces electricity. The other kind of reactor is the breeder reactor.
The United States does not use breeder reactors.
Boiling Water Reactors

Boiling water reactors use fission to boil water and produce steam. The
steam is transferred by pipes directly to the turbine, which drives the
electric generator to produce electricity. The boiling water reactor obtains
the water it needs from several sources, including rivers, lakes, streams,
and oceans. The radioactive water flows back to the reactor core, where
it is reheated and returned back to the steam generator. Approximately
30 of every 100 nuclear reactors in the United States are boiling water
reactors.
VIDEO
To view an animated boiling water reactor in action, visit http://www.nrc.gov/
reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html.
A boiling water reactor is a light water reactor in which water is used as both
coolant and moderator and is allowed to boil in the core. The resulting steam
can be used directly to drive a turbine to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
Pressurized Water Reactors

Approximately 70 of every 104 reactors in the United States are pres-
surized water reactors. Pressurized water reactors heat water, similar to
the other kinds of reactors. However, the pressurized water reactors keep
the water under high pressure to prevent it from boiling. The hot water is
pumped from the reactor to a steam generator. There, the heat from the
water is transferred to a second, separate supply of water that boils to make
steam. The steam spins the turbine, which drives the electric generator to
produce electricity.
Breeder Reactor
The breeder reactor is quite different from the other reactors. A breeder
nuclear reactor generates at least as much fissionable fuel as it consumes,
while also producing steam that can drive a turbine and generator to pro-
duce electricity. Because they produce fuel, breeder reactors could greatly
extend the useful life of uranium reserves.
A pressurized water reactor is a nuclear reactor in which heat is transferred

from the core to a heat exchanger by water. The water is kept under high
pressure so that high temperatures can be maintained in the system without
boiling the water. Steam is generated in a secondary circuit. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
According to the Department of Energy, a breeder reactor is designed to

produce fissionable plutonium-239 (Pu-239) from uranium-238 (U-238).
The core of the reactor consists of bundles of plutonium-filled fuel rods
surrounded by an outer layer of U-238 fuel rods. The U-238 fuel rods are
bombarded by high-speed neutrons, which split apart the U-238 and cause
a chain reaction in which some U-238 is transformed into Pu-239. This
process can produce plutonium in sufficient amounts for extraction and
processing for later use as fuel.
However, a disadvantage of breeder reactors is that the electricity they
generate is generally more costly than that produced by other nuclear
reactors. Breeder reactors are also expensive to construct and require a
great deal more engineering to be made operational. Another disadvan-
tage is that plutonium is much more radioactive than uranium, making
disposal of breeder reactor wastes difficult and the threat of a nuclear
disaster more imposing. Plutonium can also be used to build nuclear
weapons.
SOME MAJOR NUCLEAR REACTOR MANUFACTURERS

Globally, General Electric and the Westinghouse Electric Company are
some of the major manufacturers and suppliers of nuclear power plant
products and technologies. In 1957, Westinghouse supplied the world’s
first pressurized water reactor in Shippingport, Pennsylvania.
General Electric designs the boiling water reactor that is used through-
out the world. Its newly designed boiling water reactor will be installed in
Japan. Other manufacturers developing newer designs of nuclear reactors
are GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energy Canada, Areva Company in France, and
Mitsubishi in Japan.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS GENERATE WASTE

Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product
wastes such as spent fuels and other radioactive wastes, which are the prin-
cipal environmental concerns for nuclear power.
A nuclear plant can produce up to several hundred pounds of high-
level radioactive wastes each year. Radioactive wastes can fall into sev-
eral categories—high-level radioactive wastes, low-level radioactive waste,
transuranic wastes, and uranium mill tailings.
High-Level Radioactive Wastes

Highly radioactive material waste associated with the production of
weapons and in the operation of nuclear reactors is called high-level
radioactive waste. Th is waste is no longer useful in sustaining a nuclear
reaction.
One form of high-level radioactive waste is spent nuclear fuel. This is a
solid material that is composed of uranium oxide pellets encased in metal
tubes called fuel rods. This material is highly radioactive and very danger-
ous and must be stored safely. Thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel are
stored at commercial nuclear power reactors, and the amount grows each
year. In fact, the average-sized nuclear power plant reactor produces 25 to
30 tons of spent fuel per year.
Low-Level Radioactive Wastes

However, according to the Department of Energy, “most nuclear waste is
low-level radioactive waste. Uranium enrichment processes, contaminated
lab equipment, isotope production, and research and development activi-

ties generate such waste.”
Mostly, low-level wastes (LLW) include materials such as tools, cloth-
ing, rags, papers, filters, equipment, soil, and construction rubble that are
contaminated with low levels of radioactivity. This waste does not include
high-level wastes, transuranic waste, or uranium mill tailings.
Low-level wastes are less hazardous than high-level radioactive wastes
because the radioactivity of most LLW diminishes to harmless levels
through radioactive decay after several years. They require little or no
shielding and no cooling during handling and transporting.
However, a small fraction of LLW are longer-lived radioactive substances
that can pose public health risks for up to a few hundred years. Therefore,
these materials are subject to special regulation that governs their disposal
so that they will not come in contact with the outside environment.
Transuranic Wastes
Transuranic (TRU) waste materials have been generated in the United
States since the 1940s. Most of this waste originates from nuclear weap-
ons production facilities for defense programs. “Transuranic” refers to the
“heaviness” of the element—these elements are heavier, meaning higher in
atomic number in the periodic table, than uranium. Some of these heavy
elements include plutonium, neptunium, americium, and curium. The most
major element in most TRU waste is plutonium.
Some TRU waste consists of items such as rags, tools, glassware, pro-
tective clothing, and laboratory equipment contaminated with radioac-
tive materials. Other forms of TRU waste include organic and inorganic
residues or even entire enclosed contaminated cases in which radioactive
materials were handled. These wastes decay slowly and need long-term
waste storage.
Most of the TRU waste can be packaged and stored in metal drums or
in metal boxes. They can be handled under controlled conditions without
any shielding beyond the container itself. The waste emits primarily alpha
particles that are easily shielded. However, about 3 percent of TRU waste
must be both handled and transported in shielded casks. This TRU waste
emits gamma radiation, which is very penetrating and requires concrete,
lead, or steel to block the radiation.
Other radioactive wastes include uranium mill tailings from the mining
and processing of uranium ore. The tailings consist of rock and soil con-
taining small amounts of radium and other radioactive materials. Uranium
mill tailings become a radioactive waste disposal problem because radon, a
radioactive gas, is produced when radium decays.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an agency established by the U.S.
Congress under the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974. According to the
agency’s objectives, the NRC ensures protection of the public’s health and
safety and the environment in the use of nuclear materials in the United
States. Other responsibilities include the regulation of commercial nuclear
reactors, industrial uses of nuclear materials, and the transport, storage, and
disposal of nuclear materials and waste.
Either the NRC or the States must license low-level waste disposal
facilities in accordance with health and safety requirements. The facilities
are to be designed, constructed, and operated to meet the safety standards
required by the license. Those responsible for operating the facilities must
analyze how the facility will perform for thousands of years into the fu-
ture. As of 2009, the United States is facing a shortage of low-level waste
disposal facilities.
Disposing of Nuclear Waste

Safely disposing of radioactive wastes that may remain radioactive for thou-
sands of years is a major concern and top-priority issue for many countries
that use nuclear energy. According to the IAEA, about 350,000 cubic feet
of high-level waste accumulate each year. Unfortunately, not one country
has any long-term plan or program for where to store radioactive wastes
DID YOU KNOW?

If the waste is transuranic and has a concentration of more than 100 nanocuries
per gram, it is treated as transuranic waste. If the concentration is less than 100
nanocuries per gram, it is treated as low-level waste.
safely. The United States had investigated the possibility of constructing

a high-level waste depository in Yucca Mountain in Nevada. However,
the Obama administration decided not to fund the project in 2009; nev-
ertheless, many members of Congress still favor using the facility. At that
time, President Obama and Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid agreed to
form a blue ribbon senior advisory panel to study other high-level waste
disposal options. Both President Obama and Senator Reid have said that
Yucca Mountain is not a viable option. Meanwhile, the NRC is continuing
to review the license application for Yucca Mountain because as of 2009,
U.S. law requires ongoing consideration of the project. Depending on the
deliberations of the blue ribbon panel, the president and Congress may
formally shut down the project, decide to continue it by itself, or decide
to pursue another disposal facility with or without the Yucca Mountain
option.
Nuclear Waste Policy Act

The U.S. government is responsible for finding a way to safely dispose
of this spent nuclear fuel. In 1982 the U.S. Congress passed the Nuclear
A worker conducts an underground train in 2006 into a tunnel leading to the

proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste dump near Mercury, Nevada. (AP
Photo/Isaac Brekken)
Waste Policy Act, which directed the Department of Energy to find a

site. Although sites in Texas and the state of Washington were consid-
ered, Yucca Mountain, in the southwestern part of Nevada, was selected
in 1987.
More than two decades of work went into making a Yucca Mountain
nuclear facility that would be used as a long-term repository for the na-
tion’s commercial and defense spent fuel and high-level radioactive wastes.
The project is under the supervision of the U.S. Department of Energy,
which, along with the U.S. Geological Survey, conducted studies to evalu-
ate earthquake activity, ways to ensure habitat preservation, and the socio-
economic impact of this potential site. But several environmentalists and
organizations voiced their objections to the Yucca program because they
believe the stored radioactive wastes would be a health risk and a dan-
ger to future populations in the area, and as noted previously, in 2009 the
Obama administration did not request funding for further construction of
the project, leaving its continuation very much in doubt. In the future, a
blue ribbon panel will assess high-level waste disposal options and report
to the president and Congress.
Recycle Nuclear Waste

Can any of the spent fuel be recycled? One of the misconceptions of nu-
clear power is that once the fuel is removed from the commercial nuclear
reactor, it has been used up. It turns out that there is still 95 percent usable
energy in the spent nuclear fuel after it is removed from the light-water
nuclear reactor used today. This spent fuel can be recycled and used in fast
neutron reactors or used in a new generation of nuclear reactors to produce
more energy.
Fast Neutron Reactors or Fast Breeders

According to nuclear experts, the development of fast neutron reactors can
result in the creation of more energy and less nuclear wastes in comparison
with the present conventional nuclear reactors. Fast breeders can also burn
the recycled spent fuel wastes from other nuclear reactors. Therefore, this
kind of reactor is more efficient in using nuclear fuel than other types of
reactors. How is it done? Simply stated, fast neutron reactors extract more
energy from nuclear fuel than other reactors because their fast-moving,
higher-energy neutrons cause atomic fissions more efficiently than the
slow-moving neutrons used in the other reactors. And in the process, a bit
more usable new fuel, plutonium, is also created for use in the reactor.
Several countries have or are considering building fast neutron reactors.
In fact, France is planning for half of its present nuclear capacity to be re-
placed by fast neutron reactors by 2050. China, Japan, and Russia are also
planning on more advanced fast neutron nuclear reactors.
Other Plans to Transform Wastes into Nuclear Fuel

In the United States, scientists at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
Tennessee have worked on plans to transform nuclear leftover wastes into
fuel for a new breed of reactors. The new reactor and fuel, according to
the scientists, could produce up to 100 times as much energy as a conven-
tional reactor and generate 40 percent less waste than the conventional
reactor.
Presently, countries such as France, the United Kingdom, Japan, and
Russia use a process called plutonium uranium recovery by extraction
In the liquid metal fast breeder reactor, the fission reaction produces heat to
run the turbine while at the same time breeding plutonium fuel for the reactor.
(PUREX) to recycle nuclear waste. The United States stopped recycling

waste to support the nonproliferation policy because the PUREX process
can be used to create weapons-grade plutonium.
Many of these technologies to recycle spent fuel are still in the research
phase. The benefits of these technologies would create less waste while
binding the plutonium to other chemicals so that it is much less desirable
for use in weapons.
CUTTING-EDGE NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGIES

Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
Many companies are developing new technologies in building nuclear
reactors. One such technology is called a pebble bed modular reactor
(PBMR).
The PBMR is a steel pressure vessel that holds about 450,000 fuel
spheres. The spheres consist of low-enriched uranium particles that are
encased in graphite and are about the size of a baseball. The coated lay-
ers on the spheres provide a barrier that is dense enough to ensure that
no radioactive products escape. The heat provides energy to the turbine’s
generators to produce electricity. The heat that is transferred by the he-
lium to the power conversion system is converted into electricity through a
turbine. The PBMR system is cooled with helium. More research is being
conducted on this technology.
Floating Nuclear Power Plants

There are more than 200 nuclear reactors powering various kinds of ships.
Russia has designed a plan to build a nuclear power plant on a large barge.
The barge would be permanently moored, and the nuclear power plant
would supply electricity to local shore communities and coastal industrial
VIDEO
Nuclear waste and recycling: For more on nuclear waste recycling, refer to the
following video, “Waste and Recycling,” featuring nuclear engineer Dr. Kathy Mc-
Carthy: www.ne.doe.gov/video/videoGallery.html (2:20 minutes).
FEATURE
“Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy Zone for Students”
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy is extending its outreach
efforts for youth with the launch of a new Web site geared toward students in
grades K–12. The new site features a mythical city known as Neutropolis and was
tested by select target audiences prior to posting.
“Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy Zone for Students” provides information
about nuclear energy and its many uses in separate tracks directed at younger,
intermediate, and advanced students. It also contains games and challenges de-
signed to appeal to students of different ages, ideas for science projects, informa-
tion about colleges that offer studies related to nuclear science, and details about
Department of Energy internships and career opportunities.
Although the primary audience for the site is K–12 students, there is a sec-
tion devoted to providing information to classroom teachers, including suggested
classroom activities targeted to elementary, middle, and high school students.
The Department of Energy hopes the new Web site “will set a new bar for qual-
ity outreach to students, delivering the message that nuclear energy is an impor-
tant current and future part of our national’s energy mix.” For more information see
http://www.nuclear.energy.gov/students/intro.html.
complexes in remote areas of the Russian Far North and East. For more
information about this plan, see http://cns.miis.edu/stories/020624.htm.
Is There a Future for Nuclear Energy?

Most energy analysts would probably agree that a rapid growth of nuclear
energy power plants in the next 20 years looks a bit challenging. Through-
out the world, there is public opposition to new nuclear plants, concerns
about safety standards and regulations, and the potential for accidents in
the present plants. Other concerns include how to remove and dispose of
existing nuclear waste as well as the challenge of decommissioning obso-
lete plants.
In 2008 the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) offered its annual outlook
for the future of nuclear power, and it was optimistic. Today’s 104 nuclear
power plants in the United States generate about 20 percent of the coun-
try’s electricity. Because of rising energy demands and aging infrastructure,
the NRC predicts that industry will need to build 50 new reactors to con-
tinue producing the same proportion of the country’s power over the next
30 years.
Thirty-one reactors, representing 17 power companies and consortia,

are somewhere in the application process. The NEI predicts that only four
to eight of those will be in commercial operation by 2016. By that time,
pressure for an affordable, clean source of energy could inspire a second
wave of applications.
However, other countries are more aggressive in viewing nuclear energy
as another clean energy alternative to fossil fuels. According to the IAEA,
there were several nuclear reactors under construction in 2009; addition-
ally, India was planning to build eight reactors, China and Ukraine were
set to build four each, Japan and the Russian Federation will build three
each, Iran and South Korea will build two each, and Argentina and Roma-
nia are planning to construct one each.
The global demand for electricity is growing rapidly. If this trend con-
tinues, nuclear exponents may resurrect more creative technologies for
developing new kinds of nuclear reactors and power plants to meet the
growing needs for electricity.
Designing New and Different Kinds of Nuclear Reactors

There is a growing international consensus that to be broadly acceptable
for the 21st century and beyond, the next-generation advanced reactor sys-
tem must meet these five criteria:
• provide a long-term energy source not limited by resources
• be passively safe, based on characteristics inherent in the reactor
design and materials
• reduce the volume and toxicity of nuclear waste
• keep nuclear materials unsuitable for direct use in weapons
• be economically competitive with other electricity sources
One type of reactor that can meet all five requirements simultaneously
is the advanced fast reactor mentioned earlier. These fast reactors can ex-
tract more energy from the nuclear fuel than other kinds of nuclear reac-
tors and can recycle spent fuel from other nuclear reactors. The advanced
fast reactor produces extremely hot and high-pressured steam that is used
to turn a steam turbine, which in turn drives generators to produce elec-
tricity. This kind of reactor produces clean, safe nuclear power and less
waste and is unsuitable for use in weapons, according to the Department
of Energy.
This new nuclear power technology may still be developed as the supply
of fossil fuel resources dwindles down in this century. So interest in nuclear
energy is still alive, but whether it will be a major source of future energy
is still open to debate.
INTERVIEW
With the permission of the National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project
and Dr. Charles Ferguson, we have included a comprehensive career article in the
nuclear energy field.
Green Advocate: Charles Ferguson, Philip D. Reed Senior Fellow for Science and
Technology, Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, D.C.
Charles Ferguson holds a BS with distinction in physics from the U.S. Naval Acad-
emy, a master’s degree equivalent in nuclear engineering from the Naval Nuclear
Power School, and a PhD in physics from Boston University. In this interview
Charles shares his unique and diverse involvement in the nuclear industry.
How or why did you choose to work in the nuclear industry?
I entered the nuclear industry through my training as a nuclear engineering officer
in the Navy. I chose the nuclear submarine service because I thought it would be
the most intellectually challenging service within the Navy. I served as a nuclear
engineering officer of the watch on a ballistic missile submarine during the last
years of the Cold War. As a watch officer, I was responsible for a 12-person crew
that operated the power and propulsion systems of the submarine. As a result of
the political changes happening at the end of the Cold War, I became very inter-
ested in nuclear arms control. These experiences about 20 years ago transformed
my life and led to my current career. While the nuclear navy has been a gateway
for many people to work in the commercial nuclear power industry, I am not cur-
rently working in this industry. Instead, I am working as an analyst who assesses
policy options for nuclear power and examines where the industry appears to be
headed. In addition, I research more effective ways for stopping the proliferation of
nuclear weapons to countries and to terrorist groups. Thus, I work on public policy
development on the peaceful and military sides of nuclear energy.
What subjects, courses, internships, or special training were instrumental in
helping you gain your current position?
At the U.S. Naval Academy I majored in physics. When I graduated from the acad-
emy, I worked for a few months at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which is
one of the nuclear weapons laboratories. After this experience, I studied nuclear
engineering at the Naval Nuclear Power School. I then served on a nuclear-
powered submarine where I qualified as an engineering watch officer. After leaving
Dr. Charles Ferguson is a Philip D. Reed

Senior Fellow for Science and Technol-
ogy, Council on Foreign Relations, Washing-
ton, DC. (Courtesy Charles Ferguson)
the Navy, I decided to become a physics professor and earned my doctorate in

physics at Boston University. However, my interest in nuclear nonproliferation and
energy issues convinced me to leave the academic physics job track and take a job
working on nuclear policy. The analytic training of my physics degree program has
been helpful in my current policy work. One of the most influential jobs I had was
working as a physical scientist on nuclear safety issues at the U.S. Department of
State.
Would you follow the same career path again?
I have had a nontraditional career path that I could not have predicted more than
20 years ago when I started down it. I believe that if I had to start all over again,
I probably would follow a similar path. My current career as a nuclear policy ana-
lyst has been very satisfying.
What do you think of the nuclear industry now that you work in it?
Because I analyze the industry rather than work in it, I have had the type of job
in which I can step back and examine the big picture of the industry. On balance,
the industry has made significant contributions to strengthening energy security
and to countering climate change. However, there are still significant risks includ-
ing the potential for terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities, the possibility that some
countries may exploit the peaceful nuclear fuel cycle for military purposes, and the
legacy of nuclear waste.
What opportunities or exciting experiences have you had in your career?
As part of my work, I have traveled to more than two dozen countries, including
China, North Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Turkmenistan. When I worked at the
State Department, I had the exciting experience of helping to secure radioactive
materials that could fuel “dirty bombs” and to negotiate a treaty with Russia and
other European countries to clean up nuclear waste in northwest Russia.
What is the most rewarding part of your job?

The most rewarding part is when I have had some influence on public policy
through my writings, testimonies to Congress, or briefings to government officials.
For example, a recommendation I made at a congressional hearing in 2007 led to
the creation of a government program to improve the security of radioactive mate-
rials used in the nuclear industry and other industries.
What advice can you give to a young person considering a career in the nuclear
industry?
Be intellectually curious about many things. Read deeply about the nuclear field
but also read broadly about a range of subjects, especially science, politics, the
environment, and history. Be disciplined in your studies and always strive to do
your best.

Energy in Brief. Nuclear: What Is the State of the U.S. Nuclear Industry?
Washington, D.C. http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov.
Energy Information Administration. Uranium (Nuclear) Basics. Rockville,
MD: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2008.
Energy Information Administration. Uranium (Nuclear): Nuclear Power
Plants. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy, 2008.
Hodgson, Peter E. Nuclear Power, Energy and the Environment. London:
Imperial College Press, 1999.
Murray, Raymond L. Nuclear Energy: An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems,
and Applications of Nuclear Processes. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1993.
Ramsey, Charles B., and Mohammad Modarres. Commercial Nuclear Power:
Assuring Safety for the Future. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998.
Winnacker, Karl. Nuclear Energy in Germany. La Grange Park, IL: Ameri-
can Nuclear Society, 1979.
Wolfson, Richard. Nuclear Choices: A Citizen’s Guide to Nuclear Technology.
Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Both the Three Mile Island nuclear plant in Pennsylvania and the
Chernobyl nuclear facility in Ukraine suffered meltdowns in their
nuclear reactors. Although the accident at the Pennsylvania plant
was eventually controlled, the Chernobyl accident became a major

disaster to the community and the environment. Compare the
construction of the two plants, the reasons for the meltdowns, the
management of the accidents, and the procedures in place for disas-
ter control. You can use the following web sites for some of your
research: www.loe.org; www.world-nuclear.org; and www.nrc.gov.
2. Contact your local energy companies and find out which types of
reactors are used in your areas (light water reactor, boiling water reac-
tor, and fast breeder reactor) and what their power ratings are. How
do they dispose of their waste?
WEB SITES
www.nrc.gov
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission is headed by five commis-
sioners appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate for
five-year terms. The commission formulates policies, develops regu-
lations governing nuclear reactor and nuclear material safety, issues
orders to licensees, and adjudicates legal matters.
www.ne.doe.gov
The Office of Nuclear Energy promotes nuclear power as a resource
capable of meeting the nation’s energy, environmental, and national
security needs by resolving technical and regulatory barriers through
research, development, and demonstration.
www.nirs.org
The Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS) is an infor-
mation and networking center for citizens and environmental activ-
ists concerned about nuclear power, radioactive waste, radiation, and
sustainable energy issues.
www.ans.org
The core purpose of the American Nuclear Society is to promote the
awareness and understanding of the application of nuclear science
and technology.
www.nei.org
Nuclear Energy Institute’s objective is to ensure the formation of
policies that promote the beneficial uses of nuclear energy and tech-
nologies in the United States and around the world.
VIDEOS
understanding of nuclear energy topics and issues. The author has made
a consistent effort to include up-to-date Web sites. However, over time,
some Web sites may move or no longer be available.
Nuclear Power—How It Works: A video presentation showing how
the atom is used to generate electricity. To learn how 8×1-inch fuel
pellets can generate enough energy to power a house for a whole year,
go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjgdgAhOzXQ&feature=re
lated (03:08 minutes).
How a Nuclear Pressurized Water Nuclear Reactor Works: A com-
prehensive video describing the three circuits involved in producing
energy from U-235 pellets. To get to the heart of the matter, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u0VjHg0juz4&feature=related
(06:03 minutes).
Nuclear Power—France: France meets nearly 80 percent of its
energy needs with its 59 nuclear reactors, in a country the size of
Texas. To learn more, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i-
rKBrs7kYE&feature=related (10:00 minutes).
Nuclear Power—Australia: When it produces a large portion of the
world’s uranium, why is Australia resisting nuclear energy and 80 per-
cent dependent on the carbon economy? For more, view this video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mLPu_xPD8Qo&feature=fvw
(10:09 minutes).
BOOKS AND
OTHER READING MATERIALS
a
VOLUME 1: OIL, NATURAL GAS, COAL, AND NUCLEAR

American Petroleum Institute. Natural Gas Supply and Demand. http://
www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
http://www.tonto.eia.doe.gov.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
160 a Books and Other Reading Materials
naturalgas.org.
2003.
Riddle, John. Coal Power of the Future. New York: Rosen Publishing,
2003.
2002.
Smil, Vaclav. Oil: Beginner’s Guide. Oxford, UK: One World Publications,
2008.
VOLUME 2: SOLAR ENERGY

AND HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS
Craddock, David. Renewable Energy Made Easy: Free Energy from Solar,
Wind, Hydropower, and other Alternative Energy Sources. Ocala, FL:
Atlantic Publishing, 2008.
Ewing, Rex A. Got Sun? Go Solar: Harness Nature’s Free Energy to Heat
and Power Your Grid-Tied Home. Masonville, CO: PixyJack Press,
2009.
Harper, Gavin D. J. Solar Energy Projects for the Evil Genius. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Haugen, David M., ed. Hydrogen. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2006.
Hayhurst, Chris. Hydrogen Power: New Ways of Turning Fuel Cells into En-
ergy. New York: Rosen, 2003.
Jones, Susan. Solar Power of the Future: New Ways of Turning Sunlight into
Energy. New York: Rosen, 2002.
Kachadorian, James. The Passive Solar House. White River Junction, VT:
Chelsea Green, 2006.
Kryza, Frank. The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Man’s Quest to Harness
the Sun. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Oxlade, Chris. Solar Energy. Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2008.
Pieper, Adi. The Easy Guide to Solar Electric. Santa Fe, NM: ADI Solar,
2001.
Ramsey, Dan, with David Hughes. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Solar Power
for Your Home. New York: Alpha Books, 2007.
Smith, Trevor. Renewable Energy Resources. Mankato, MN: Weigh Pub-
lishers, 2003.
Books and Other Reading Materials a 161
Solway, Andrew. Hydrogen Fuel. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens, 2008.

Vaitheeswaran, Vijay V. Power to the People: How the Coming Energy Revo-
lution Will Transform an Industry, Change Our Lives, and Maybe Even
Save the Planet. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003.
Walker, Niki. Hydrogen: Running on Water. St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree,
2007.
VOLUME 3: WIND ENERGY, OCEANIC

ENERGY, AND HYDROPOWER
American Wind Energy Association. Wind Web Tutorial. http://www.
awea.org.
Energy Resources: Tidal Power. http://www.clara.net.
Gasch, Robert. Wind Power Plants: Fundamentals, Design, Construction and
Operation. London: Earthscan, 2004.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Home, Farm or Business.
White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2004.
Koller, Julia. Offshore Wind Energy. New York: Springer, 2006.
Matthew, Sathyajith. Wind Energy Fundamentals. New York: Springer,
2006.
Morris, Neil. Water Power. North Mankato, MN: Apple Media, 2006.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory and U.S. Department of Energy.
Wind Energy Information Guide. Honolulu, HI: University Press of
the Pacific, 2005.
Pasqualetti, Martin. Wind Power in View: Energy Landscapes in a Crowded
World. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2002.
Renewable Energy, UK. Introduction to Tidal Power. http://www.reuk.
co.uk.
Renewable Energy, UK. Severn Barrage Tidal Power. http://www.reuk.
co.uk.
Szarka, Joseph. Wind Power in Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan,
2007.
U.S. Department of Energy. How a Microhydropower System Works. http://
www.energy.gov/forresearchers.
U.S. Department of Interior and the U.S. Geological Survey. Hydroelectric
Power: How It Works. http://www.library.usgs.gov.
Whitcomb, Robert. Cape Wind . . . and the Battle for Our Energy Future on
Nantucket Sound. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.
VOLUME 4: GEOTHERMAL AND BIOMASS ENERGY

Armentrout, David, and Patricia Armentrout. Biofuels. Vero Beach, FL:
Rourke, 2009.
Garza, Amanda de la, ed. Biomass: Energy from Plants and Animals. De-
troit, MI: Greenhaven Press, 2007.
Haugen, David M., ed. Fueling the Future / Biomass. Detroit, MI: Green-
haven Press, 2007.
Hayhurst, Chris. Biofuel Power of the Future: New Ways of Turning Organic
Matter into Energy. New York: Rosen, 2002.
Kemp, William H. The Renewable Energy Handbook: A Guide to Rural In-
dependence, Off-Grid and Sustainable Living. Tamworth, Ontario: Az-
text Press, 2005.
Morris, Neil. Biomass Power. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media,
2007.
Morris, Neil. Geothermal Power. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2007.
Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor, MI: Cherry Lake Publishing,
2008.
Pahl, Greg. Biodiesel: Growing a New Energy Economy. White River Junc-
tion, VT: Chelsea Green, 2005.
Povey, Karen D. Biofuels. San Diego, CA: KidHaven Press, 2007.
Saunders, N. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens, 2008.
Savage, Lorraine, ed. Geothermal Power. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press,
2007.
Sherman, Josepha. Geothermal Power. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press,
2004.
Tabak, John. Biofuels. New York: Facts on File, 2009.
Walker, Niki. Biomass: Fueling Change. New York: Crabtree, 2007.
VOLUME 5: ENERGY EFFICIENCY,

CONSERVATION, AND SUSTAINABILITY
Bauer, Seth, ed. Green Guide. Washington, DC: National Geographic,
2008.
Chiras, Dan. The Homeowner’s Guide to Renewable Energy. Gabriola Island,
BC: New Society, 2006.
Edwards, Andre. The Sustainability Revolution. Gabriola Island, BC: New
Society, 2005.
Freeman, S. David. Winning Our Energy Independence. Salt Lake City, UT:
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
Gore, Al. An Inconvenient Truth. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 2006.
Grant, Tim, and Gail Littlejohn. Greening School Grounds. Gabriola Island,
Krigger, John, and Chris Dorsi. The Homeowner’s Handbook to Energy Ef-
ficiency. Helena, MT: Saturn Resource Management, 2008.
Osmundson, Theodore. Roof Gardens: History, Design and Construction.
New York: Norton, 2000.
Riley, Trish. Guide to Green Living. New York: Alpha-Penguin, 2007.
Roberts, Jennifer. Good Green Homes. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 2003.
Schaeffer, John, ed. Real Goods Solar Living Source Book. Hopland, CA:
Real Goods Trading, 2007.
Schor, Juliet B., and Betsy Taylor. Sustainable Planet: Solutions for the Twenty-
First Century. Boston: Beacon Press, 2002.
Trask, Crissy. It’s Easy Being Green. Salt Lake City, UT: Gibbs Smith,
2006.
U.S. Department of Energy. A Place in the Sun: Solar Buildings. Merryfield,
VA: EERE Clearing House, 2005.
U.S. Green Building Council. Meet the USGBC: Mission Statement. http://
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION WEB SITES
a
Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases: www.atsdr.cdc.gov/contacts.

html
American Gas Association: www.aga.org
American Nuclear Society: www.ans.org
American Oceans Campaign: www.americanoceans.org
American Petroleum Institute: www.api.org
American Solar Energy Society: www.ases.org
American Wind Energy Association: www.awea.org
Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology (CREST),
Solar Energy Research and Education Foundation: solstice.crest.
org/
Clean Air Council (CAC): www.libertynet.org/˜cleanair/
Coal Age Magazine: coalage.com
Coalition for Economically Responsible Economies (CERES): www.
ceres.org
Electric Vehicle Association of the Americas: www.evaa.org
Environmental Defense Fund: www.edf.org
Federal Emergency and Management Agency (FEMA): www.fema.gov
Hazard Ranking System: www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/npl_hrs/
hrsint.htm
Hydrogen InfoNet: /www.eren.doe.gov/hydrogen/infonet.html
166 a Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites
International Atomic Energy Commission: www.iaea.org

International Centre for Antarctic Information and Research: www.
icair.iac.org.nz
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI):
www.iclei.org
Los Alamos National Laboratory: www.lanl.gov/wvu.edu/news/nsamd.
html
National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration and Divisions: www.
noaa.gov/
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: www.nrel.gov/
National Research Center for Coal and Energy, West Virginia Univer-
sity: www.nrcce.wvu.edu
Natural Resources Conservation Service: www.nrcs.usda.gov
National Science Foundation (NSF): www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/
National Weather Service: www.nws.noaa.gov
Noise Pollution Clearinghouse: www.nonoise.org
North Sea Commission: www.northsea.org
Nuclear Energy Institute: www.nei.org
Nuclear Regulatory Commission: www.nrc.gov
Office of Surface Mining: www.osmre.gov
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): www.opec.
org
Ozone Action: www.ozone.org
Resources for the Future (RFF): www.sandia.gov/
Superfund: www.epa.gov/superfund
Union of Concerned Scientists: www.ucsusa.org
United Nations Environment Programme: www.unep.org
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO): www.fao.
org
United Nations Man and the Biosphere Programme (UNMAB): www.
mabnet.org
United States Bureau of Reclamation, Hydropower Information: www.
usbr.gov/power/edu/edu.html
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA): www.usda.gov
United States Department of Defense (DOD): www.defenselink.mil/
United States Department of Education: www.ed.gov/index.jhtml
United States Department of Energy: www.energy.gov/index.htm
United States Department of the Interior: www.doi.gov
Government and Nongovernmental Organization Web Sites a 167
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): www.epa.gov

United States Geological Survey (USGS): www.usgs.gov
United States Geological Survey (USGS), Geology Research: geology.
usgs.gov/index.shtml
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC): www.wcmc.org.uk
World Resources Institute: www.wri.org/wri/biodiv; e-mail: info@wri.
org
ENERGY DATA
a
The eight tables in this section include information about the United
States and the world’s consumption of nonrenewable and renewable en-
ergy sources, and how various sectors use energy. These kinds of statis-
tics are vital to economists, energy theorists, policymakers, engineers, and
environmentalists for predicting future energy demands and assessing to
what extent the world’s remaining resources can meet those energy needs.
In addition, such data show which countries consume the most energy,
produce the most energy, and contribute the most pollution due to energy
intake—all valuable factors to take into consideration as a global economy,
waning natural resources, and growing world population require increasing
worldwide cooperation when it comes to energy policy. Due to the perva-
siveness of energy in our everyday lives, these types of data are important
even to citizens who do not directly work for the energy sector.
Table 1: Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 1949–2008
Data on U.S. energy use, listing the annual consumption amounts by individual energy
sources and categorized into renewable and nonrenewable categories.
Table 2: Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy Source,
1949–2008
Data on U.S. renewable energy production and consumption, divided by source.
Table 3: Energy Consumption by Sector, 1949–2008
Energy use statistics of four main sectors in the United States: residential, commercial,
industrial, and transportation.
Table 4: Household End Uses: Fuel Types and Appliances, Selected Years, 1978–2005
Energy consumption in the U.S. housing sector, including appliance-specific energy use
and energy sources used for household heating and cooling purposes.
Table 5: World Primary Energy Consumption by Region, 1997–2006
Total energy use by world region and country.
Table 6: World Crude Oil and Natural Gas Reserves, January 1, 2008
Amount of oil and natural gas reserves available as of 2008 by world region and country.
Table 7: World Recoverable Reserves of Coal, 2005
Amount of coal reserves technologically and economically feasible to recover as of 2005,
listed by region, country, and type of coal.
Table 8: World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 1997–2006
Data listing the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by each world region and country.
170 a Energy Data
TABLE 1 Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 1949–2008 (Billion Btu)

Fossil Fuels Renewable Energya
Coal Nuclear
Coke Net Electric Hydro-electric
Year Coal Importsb Natural Gasc Petroleumd Total Power Powere
1949 11,980,905 –6,671 5,145,142 11,882,722 29,002,099 0 1,424,722
1950 12,347,109 992 5,968,371 13,315,484 31,631,956 0 1,415,411
1951 12,552,996 –21,452 7,048,518 14,428,043 34,008,105 0 1,423,795
1952 11,306,479 –11,879 7,549,621 14,955,682 33,799,903 0 1,465,812
1953 11,372,684 –9,002 7,906,645 15,555,829 34,826,156 0 1,412,859
1954 9,714,667 –6,746 8,330,202 15,839,176 33,877,300 0 1,359,772
1955 11,167,259 –10,044 8,997,935 17,254,955 37,410,105 0 1,359,844
1956 11,349,723 –13,020 9,613,975 17,937,473 38,888,151 0 1,434,711
1957 10,820,631 –17,459 10,190,753 17,931,667 38,925,592 112 1,515,613
1958 9,533,287 –6,721 10,663,199 18,526,937 38,716,702 1,915 1,591,967
1959 9,518,353 –8,358 11,717,422 19,322,650 40,550,068 2,187 1,548,465
1960 9,837,785 –5,630 12,385,366 19,919,230 42,136,751 6,026 1,607,975
1961 9,623,351 –7,886 12,926,392 20,216,387 42,758,243 19,678 1,656,463
1962 9,906,454 –5,506 13,730,841 21,048,981 44,680,770 26,394 1,816,141
1963 10,412,538 –7,390 14,403,306 21,700,828 46,509,283 38,147 1,771,355
1964 10,964,385 –10,441 15,287,850 22,301,257 48,543,050 39,819 1,886,314
1965 11,580,608 –18,451 15,768,667 23,245,680 50,576,504 43,164 2,059,077
1966 12,143,080 –24,949 16,995,332 24,400,523 53,513,987 64,158 2,061,519
1967 11,913,750 –15,326 17,944,788 25,283,661 55,126,873 88,456 2,346,664
1968 12,330,677 –17,310 19,209,656 26,979,447 58,502,470 141,534 2,348,629
1969 12,381,540 –36,109 20,677,984 28,338,336 61,361,751 153,722 2,647,983
1970 12,264,528 –57,660 21,794,707 29,520,695 63,522,269 239,347 2,633,547
1971 11,598,411 –33,108 22,469,052 30,561,290 64,595,645 412,939 2,824,151
1972 12,076,917 –25,966 22,698,190 32,946,738 67,695,880 583,752 2,863,865
1973 12,971,490 –7,465 22,512,399 34,839,926 70,316,351 910,177 2,861,448
1974 12,662,878 56,098 21,732,488 33,454,627 67,906,091 1,272,083 3,176,580
1975 12,662,786 13,541 19,947,883 32,730,587 65,354,796 1,899,798 3,154,607
1976 13,584,067 –99 20,345,426 35,174,688 69,104,082 2,111,121 2,976,265
1977 13,922,103 14,582 19,930,513 37,122,168 70,989,367 2,701,762 2,333,252
1978 13,765,575 124,719 20,000,400 37,965,295 71,855,989 3,024,126 2,936,983
1979 15,039,586 62,843 20,665,817 37,123,381 72,891,627 2,775,827 2,930,686
1980 15,422,809 –35,018 20,235,459 34,202,356 69,825,607 2,739,169 2,900,144
1981 15,907,526 –15,946 19,747,309 31,931,050 [R] 67,569,939 [R] 3,007,589 2,757,968
1982 15,321,581 –21,650 18,356,222 30,231,608 [R] 63,887,761 [R] 3,131,148 3,265,558
1983 15,894,442 –15,624 17,220,836 30,053,921 [R] 63,153,575 [R] 3,202,549 3,527,260
1984 17,070,622 –11,482 18,393,613 31,051,327 66,504,079 3,552,531 3,385,811
1985 17,478,428 –13,491 17,703,482 30,922,149 [R] 66,090,567 [R] 4,075,563 2,970,192
1986 17,260,405 –16,740 16,591,364 32,196,080 66,031,109 [R] 4,380,109 3,071,179
1987 18,008,451 8,630 17,639,801 32,865,053 [R] 68,521,935 [R] 4,753,933 2,634,508
1988 18,846,312 39,556 18,448,393 34,221,992 [R] 71,556,253 [R] 5,586,968 2,334,265
1989 19,069,762 30,405 19,601,689 34,211,114 72,912,970 [R] 5,602,161 2,837,263
1990 19,172,635 4,786 19,603,168 33,552,534 72,333,123 6,104,350 3,046,391
1991 18,991,670 9,697 20,032,957 32,845,361 71,879,686 [R] 6,422,132 3,015,943
1992 19,122,471 34,621 20,713,632 33,526,585 [R] 73,397,310 [R] 6,479,206 2,617,436
1993 19,835,148 27,106 21,228,902 33,744,490 [R] 74,835,647 [R] 6,410,499 2,891,613
1994 19,909,463 58,330 21,728,065 34,561,665 76,257,523 6,693,877 2,683,457
1995 20,088,727 61,058 22,671,138 34,436,967 [R] 77,257,890 [R] 7,075,436 3,205,307
1996 21,001,914 22,816 23,084,647 35,673,290 [R] 79,782,668 [R] 7,086,674 3,589,656
Energy Data a 171
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
Geothermal Solar/PV Wind Biomass Total Importsb Total
NA NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 5,420 31,981,503
NA NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 6,094 34,615,768
NA NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 7,461 36,974,030
NA NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 7,740 36,747,825
NA NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 6,852 37,664,468
NA NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 7,983 36,639,382
NA NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 13,879 40,207,971
NA NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 15,519 41,754,252
NA NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 12,288 41,787,186
NA NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 11,320 41,645,028
NA NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 12,127 43,465,722
774 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 15,474 45,086,870
2,181 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 7,689 45,739,017
2,331 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,829 47,827,707
3,726 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 334 49,646,160
4,520 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 6,671 51,817,177
4,197 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 –482 54,017,221
4,170 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 3,725 57,016,544
6,886 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 –1,020 58,908,107
9,416 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 –2,152 62,419,392
13,281 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 3,656 65,620,879
11,347 NA NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 6,688 67,844,161
11,862 NA NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 12,046 69,288,965
31,479 NA NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 26,227 72,704,267
42,605 NA NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 48,715 75,708,364
53,158 NA NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 43,311 73,990,880
70,153 NA NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 21,103 71,999,191
78,154 NA NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 29,378 76,012,373
77,418 NA NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 59,422 77,999,554
64,350 NA NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 67,318 79,986,371
83,788 NA NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 69,381 80,903,214
109,776 NA NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 71,399 78,121,594
123,043 NA NA 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 113,406 76,168,488 [R]
104,746 NA NA 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 100,026 73,153,394 [R]
129,339 NA 28 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 120,547 73,039,001 [R]
164,896 55 68 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 135,323 76,715,459 [R]
198,282 111 60 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 139,655 76,492,565 [R]
219,178 147 44 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 122,481 76,758,526 [R]
229,119 109 37 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 158,101 79,175,130 [R]
217,290 94 9 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 108,399 82,821,858 [R]
317,163 55,291 22,033 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 37,450 84,946,248 [R]
335,801 59,718 29,007 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 7,888 84,653,651 [R]
346,247 62,688 30,796 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 66,965 84,608,869 [R]
349,309 63,886 29,863 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 86,733 85,958,380 [R]
363,716 66,458 30,987 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R] 94,910 87,605,453 [R]
338,108 68,548 35,560 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 152,937 89,261,391 [R]
293,893 69,857 32,630 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R] 133,856 91,174,089 [R]
315,529 70,833 33,440 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R] 137,144 94,175,664 [R]
172 a Energy Data
TABLE 1 (Continued )
Coal Nuclear
1997 21,445,411 46,450 23,222,718 36,159,835 [R] 80,874,414 [R] 6,596,992 3,640,458
1998 21,655,744 67,084 22,830,226 36,816,619 81,369,672 7,067,809 3,297,054
1999 21,622,544 57,685 22,909,227 37,838,081 [R] 82,427,536 [R] 7,610,256 3,267,575
2000 22,579,528 65,348 23,823,978 38,264,303 [R] 84,733,157 [R] 7,862,349 2,811,116
2001 21,914,268 29,264 22,772,558 38,186,476 [R] 82,902,566 [R] 8,032,697 2,241,858
2002 21,903,989 60,760 23,558,419 38,226,666 [R] 83,749,834 [R] 8,143,089 2,689,017
2003 22,320,928 50,518 22,897,268 38,809,183 [R] 84,077,896 [R] 7,958,858 2,824,533
2004 22,466,195 137,739 22,931,481 40,294,351 85,829,766 8,221,985 2,690,078
2005 22,796,543 44,194 22,583,385 40,393,325 85,817,446 8,160,028 2,702,942
2006 22,447,160 60,810 22,223,903 [R] 39,958,151 [R] 84,690,024 [R] 8,213,839 2,869,035
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197 23,627,629 [R] 39,773,213 [R] 86,175,506 [R] 8,457,783 [R] 2,446,389 [R]
2008 P 22,420,827 40,771 23,837,695 37,136,675 83,435,968 8,455,236 2,452,073
a
Most data are estimates.
b
Net imports equal imports minus exports. Minus sign indicates exports are greater than imports.
c
Natural gas only; excludes supplemental gaseous fuels.
d
Petroleum products supplied, including natural gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel. Does not include the fuel
ethanol portion of motor gasoline—fuel ethanol is included in “Biomass.”
e
Conventional hydroelectric power.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.0005 and greater than –0.0005 quadrillion Btu.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration Annual Energy Review 2009.
Energy Data a 173
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
324,959 70,237 33,581 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R] 116,203 94,765,811 [R]
328,303 69,787 30,853 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R] 88,224 95,183,293 [R]
330,919 68,793 45,894 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R] 98,924 96,817,452 [R]
316,796 66,388 57,057 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R] 115,199 98,975,100 [R]
311,264 65,454 69,617 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R] 75,156 96,326,089 [R]
328,308 64,391 105,334 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R] 71,595 97,858,314 [R]
330,554 63,620 114,571 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R] 21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
341,082 64,500 141,749 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R] 38,597 100,350,624 [R]
342,576 66,130 178,088 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R] 84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
342,876 72,222 263,738 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R] 62,849 99,875,196 [R]
348,730 [R] 80,943 [R] 340,503 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R] 106,632 101,553,855 [R]
358,497 91,003 514,224 3,884,252 7,300,048 112,381 99,303,634
174 a Energy Data
TABLE 2 Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy

Source, 1949–2008 (Billion Btu)
Productiona Consumption
Biomass Total Renewable Hydro-electric
Year Biofuelsb Totalc Energyd Powere Geo-thermalf Solar/PVg
1949 NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 1,424,722 NA NA
1950 NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 1,415,411 NA NA
1951 NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 1,423,795 NA NA
1952 NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 1,465,812 NA NA
1953 NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 1,412,859 NA NA
1954 NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 1,359,772 NA NA
1955 NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 1,359,844 NA NA
1956 NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 1,434,711 NA NA
1957 NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 1,515,613 NA NA
1958 NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 1,591,967 NA NA
1959 NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 1,548,465 NA NA
1960 NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 1,607,975 774 NA
1961 NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 1,656,463 2,181 NA
1962 NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,816,141 2,331 NA
1963 NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 1,771,355 3,726 NA
1964 NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 1,886,314 4,520 NA
1965 NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 2,059,077 4,197 NA
1966 NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 2,061,519 4,170 NA
1967 NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 2,346,664 6,886 NA
1968 NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 2,348,629 9,416 NA
1969 NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 2,647,983 13,281 NA
1970 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 2,633,547 11,347 NA
1971 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 2,824,151 11,862 NA
1972 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 2,863,865 31,479 NA
1973 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 2,861,448 42,605 NA
1974 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 3,176,580 53,158 NA
1975 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 3,154,607 70,153 NA
1976 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 2,976,265 78,154 NA
1977 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 2,333,252 77,418 NA
1978 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 2,936,983 64,350 NA
1979 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 2,930,686 83,788 NA
1980 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 2,900,144 109,776 NA
1981 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 2,757,968 123,043 NA
1982 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 3,265,558 104,746 NA
1983 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 3,527,260 129,339 NA
1984 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 3,385,811 164,896 55
1985 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 2,970,192 198,282 111
1986 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 3,071,179 219,178 147
1987 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 2,634,508 229,119 109
1988 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 2,334,265 217,290 94
1989 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 2,837,263 317,163 55,291
1990 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 3,046,391 335,801 59,718
1991 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 3,015,943 346,247 62,688
1992 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 2,617,436 349,309 63,886
1993 172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R] 2,891,613 363,716 66,458
1994 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 2,683,457 338,108 68,548
1995 201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R] 3,205,307 293,893 69,857
1996 144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R] 3,589,656 315,529 70,833
Energy Data a 175
Consumption
Biomass Total Renewable
Windh Woodi Wastej Biofuelsk Total Energy
NA 1,549,262 NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984
NA 1,562,307 NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718
NA 1,534,669 NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464
NA 1,474,369 NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181
NA 1,418,601 NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460
NA 1,394,327 NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099
NA 1,424,143 NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987
NA 1,415,871 NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582
NA 1,333,581 NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194
NA 1,323,123 NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090
NA 1,352,874 NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339
NA 1,319,870 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619
NA 1,294,762 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406
NA 1,300,242 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714
NA 1,323,316 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396
NA 1,336,802 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637
NA 1,334,761 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036
NA 1,368,985 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674
NA 1,340,249 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799
NA 1,419,495 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541
NA 1,440,487 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751
NA 1,428,649 2,313 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857
NA 1,430,229 2,094 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335
NA 1,500,992 2,073 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409
NA 1,527,012 2,056 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121
NA 1,537,755 1,902 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395
NA 1,496,928 1,806 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494
NA 1,711,484 1,889 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792
NA 1,836,524 1,808 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002
NA 2,036,150 1,455 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938
NA 2,149,854 2,052 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379
NA 2,473,861 1,639 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420
NA 2,495,563 88,000 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
NA 2,510,048 119,000 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
28 2,684,271 157,000 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
68 2,685,817 208,000 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
60 2,686,765 236,317 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
44 2,562,134 262,861 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
37 2,463,159 289,000 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
9 2,576,663 315,328 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
22,033 2,679,623 354,357 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
29,007 2,216,165 408,078 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
30,796 2,214,083 439,715 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
29,863 2,313,471 473,201 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
30,987 2,259,774 479,336 [R] 172,512 [R] 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R]
35,560 2,323,820 515,324 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
32,630 2,369,869 531,476 [R] 203,875 [R] 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R]
33,440 2,437,027 576,990 145,703 [R] 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R]
176 a Energy Data
1997 190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R] 3,640,458 324,959 70,237
1998 206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R] 3,297,054 328,303 69,787
1999 215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R] 3,267,575 330,919 68,793
2000 237,904 3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R] 2,811,116 316,796 66,388
2001 259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R] 2,241,858 311,264 65,454
2002 314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R] 2,689,017 328,308 64,391
2003 411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R] 2,824,533 330,554 63,620
2004 500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R] 2,690,078 341,082 64,500
2005 580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R] 2,702,942 342,576 66,130
2006 743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R] 2,869,035 342,876 72,222
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R] 2,446,389 [R] 348,730 [R] 80,943 [R]
2008P 1,428,745 3,899,915 7,315,711 2,452,073 358,497 91,003
a
Production equals consumption for all renewable energy sources except biofuels.
b
Total biomass inputs to the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel.
c
Wood and wood-derived fuels, biomass waste, fuel ethanol, and biodiesel.
d
Hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar/PV, wind, and biomass.
e
Conventional hydroelectricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plant’s heat rate).
f
Geothermal electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the geothermal energy plant’s heat rate), and geothermal
heat pump and direct-use energy.
g
Solar thermal and photovoltaic electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plant’s heat rate) and
solar thermal direct-use energy.
h
Wind electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plant’s heat rate).
i
Wood and wood-derived fuels.
j
Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass.
Through 2000, also includes nonrenewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources and tire-derived
fuels).
k
Fuel ethanol and biodiesel consumption, plus losses and co-products from the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.
Note: Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://
www.eia.doe.gov/fuelrenewable.html.
Energy Data a 177
Consumption
33,581 2,370,991 550,602 [R] 187,375 [R] 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R]
30,853 2,184,160 542,295 205,137 [R] 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R]
45,894 2,214,167 540,156 213,232 [R] 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R]
57,057 2,261,715 510,800 [R] 240,523 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R]
69,617 2,005,833 363,874 257,769 [R] 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R]
105,334 1,995,283 402,006 309,456 [R] 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R]
114,571 2,002,040 401,347 413,217 [R] 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R]
141,749 2,121,251 [R] 389,044 [R] 512,571 [R] 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R]
178,088 2,136,351 [R] 403,219 [R] 593,576 [R] 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R]
263,738 2,151,731 [R] 414,226 [R] 794,656 [R] 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R]
340,503 [R] 2,142,417 [R] 430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R]
514,224 2,040,616 430,554 1,413,082 3,884,252 7,300,048
178 a Energy Data
TABLE 3 Energy Consumption by Sector, 1949–2008 (Billion Btu)

End-use Sectors
Residential Commerciala Industrialb
Year Primary Totale Primary Totale Primary
1949 4,475,121 5,613,938 2,660,963 3,660,910 12,626,532
1950 4,847,590 6,006,806 2,824,267 3,883,472 13,881,079
1951 5,124,031 6,399,747 2,727,158 3,862,700 15,118,070
1952 5,178,644 6,580,694 2,661,902 3,862,377 14,661,778
1953 5,074,890 6,581,124 2,500,330 3,758,937 15,328,413
1954 5,286,016 6,869,767 2,444,814 3,720,157 14,305,657
1955 5,633,095 7,303,271 2,547,641 3,881,530 16,090,702
1956 5,866,467 7,689,809 2,592,274 4,008,279 16,562,350
1957 5,771,579 7,739,679 2,434,391 3,945,887 16,512,867
1958 6,155,096 8,230,400 2,541,202 4,103,153 15,797,985
1959 6,223,822 8,447,378 2,630,274 4,353,069 16,518,951
1960 6,688,963 9,077,668 2,702,042 4,588,973 16,977,066
1961 6,814,611 9,325,376 2,743,974 4,706,925 16,993,115
1962 7,122,112 9,825,201 2,901,109 5,013,919 17,589,807
1963 7,135,126 10,034,384 2,896,921 5,226,862 18,365,964
1964 7,161,257 10,290,804 2,949,284 5,438,649 19,426,503
1965 7,328,128 10,688,770 3,150,462 5,819,530 20,123,911
1966 7,549,262 11,218,183 3,383,741 6,299,383 21,029,715
1967 7,740,902 11,669,926 3,738,448 6,870,845 21,012,628
1968 7,963,327 12,368,421 3,866,000 7,296,778 21,872,069
1969 8,276,760 13,205,347 4,045,666 7,795,301 22,653,721
1970 8,352,750 13,798,057 4,196,051 8,307,155 22,974,833
1971 8,456,799 14,277,629 4,282,718 8,681,492 22,732,356
1972 8,655,327 14,890,531 4,369,078 9,144,775 23,532,489
1973 8,250,226 [R] 14,929,771 [R] 4,381,061 9,506,982 24,740,862 [R]
1974 7,927,553 [R] 14,683,314 [R] 4,221,192 9,362,537 23,816,329 [R]
1975 8,005,740 14,841,755 [R] 4,022,853 [R] 9,465,906 [R] 21,454,213 [R]
1976 8,408,252 [R] 15,440,661 [R] 4,332,587 [R] 10,035,225 [R] 22,685,371
1977 8,207,376 [R] 15,688,729 [R] 4,217,258 [R] 10,177,267 [R] 23,192,694 [R]
1978 8,272,389 [R] 16,155,929 [R] 4,268,843 [R] 10,480,604 [R] 23,276,491 [R]
1979 7,933,806 [R] 15,841,970 [R] 4,333,251 10,626,851 24,211,500 [R]
1980 7,453,254 [R] 15,786,781 [R] 4,074,270 10,562,769 [R] 22,610,288 [R]
1981 7,057,589 [R] 15,295,246 [R] 3,805,343 10,601,863 [R] 21,338,216 [R]
1982 7,154,067 [R] 15,557,340 [R] 3,835,241 [R] 10,847,354 [R] 19,075,786 [R]
1983 6,840,628 [R] 15,456,669 [R] 3,806,026 [R] 10,922,977 [R] 18,578,019 [R]
1984 7,220,681 [R] 15,998,041 [R] 3,968,567 [R] 11,436,092 [R] 20,197,515 [R]
1985 7,160,776 [R] 16,088,348 [R] 3,694,740 [R] 11,443,724 [R] 19,467,805 [R]
1986 6,921,722 [R] 16,029,197 [R] 3,656,730 [R] 11,603,742 [R] 19,098,662 [R]
1987 6,940,917 16,321,196 3,736,106 [R] 11,943,383 [R] 19,977,070 [R]
1988 7,372,024 [R] 17,186,278 [R] 3,957,548 [R] 12,575,483 [R] 20,884,381 [R]
1989 7,586,093 [R] 17,858,128 [R] 4,004,442 [R] 13,202,580 20,897,403 [R]
1990 6,570,463 [R] 17,014,681 [R] 3,858,007 13,332,926 21,208,225 [R]
1991 6,758,442 [R] 17,490,321 3,905,836 [R] 13,512,501 [R] 20,854,317 [R]
1992 6,963,482 [R] 17,426,920 [R] 3,951,199 13,453,951 21,786,666 [R]
1993 7,155,529 [R] 18,288,984 3,933,859 [R] 13,835,823 [R] 21,784,999 [R]
1994 6,990,569 18,181,216 3,978,979 [R] 14,111,283 [R] 22,422,272 [R]
1995 6,946,268 18,577,978 [R] 4,063,119 [R] 14,697,525 [R] 22,747,660 [R]
1996 7,471,455 [R] 19,562,439 [R] 4,234,533 [R] 15,181,207 [R] 23,443,770 [R]
Energy Data a 179
End-use Sectors Electric Power

Industrialb Transportation Sectorc,d Balancing
Totale Primary Totale Primary Itemf Totalg
14,716,733 7,879,581 7,990,087 4,339,470 –165 31,981,503
16,232,875 8,383,528 8,492,594 4,679,283 21 34,615,768
17,669,234 8,933,753 9,042,162 5,070,830 188 36,974,030
17,301,575 8,907,235 9,003,096 5,338,183 82 36,747,825
18,200,961 9,030,518 9,123,484 5,730,355 –39 37,664,468
17,146,242 8,823,059 8,903,125 5,779,745 91 36,639,382
19,472,329 9,475,032 9,550,811 6,461,471 30 40,207,971
20,196,256 9,791,039 9,860,083 6,942,296 –174 41,754,252
20,204,730 9,837,442 9,897,017 7,231,035 –128 41,787,186
19,306,571 9,952,797 10,004,893 7,197,936 11 41,645,028
20,315,979 10,298,441 10,349,357 7,794,295 –61 43,465,722
20,823,424 10,560,452 10,596,801 8,158,344 3 45,086,870
20,936,742 10,734,679 10,770,077 8,452,741 –103 45,739,017
21,768,109 11,185,922 11,220,519 9,028,798 –42 47,827,707
22,729,891 11,621,165 11,654,898 9,626,860 124 49,646,160
24,089,579 11,964,508 11,998,284 10,315,765 –140 51,817,177
25,074,894 12,400,149 12,433,906 11,014,449 121 54,017,221
26,397,297 13,069,166 13,101,884 11,984,863 –203 57,016,544
26,615,564 13,718,214 13,752,106 12,698,249 –333 58,908,107
27,888,371 14,831,020 14,865,583 13,886,738 238 62,419,392
29,114,339 15,470,880 15,506,152 15,174,112 –260 65,620,879
29,641,226 16,061,232 16,097,603 16,259,175 119 67,844,161
29,600,938 16,693,481 16,729,212 17,123,917 –307 69,288,965
30,952,764 17,681,086 17,716,273 18,466,362 –75 72,704,267
32,652,616 [R] 18,576,065 18,611,660 19,752,816 7,334 [R] 75,708,364
31,818,721 [R] 18,085,915 [R] 18,119,206 [R] 19,932,789 7,102 [R] 73,990,880
29,447,184 [R] 18,209,133 [R] 18,243,706 [R] 20,306,611 640 [R] 71,999,191
31,429,542 19,065,144 [R] 19,099,331 [R] 21,513,405 7,613 [R] 76,012,373
32,306,559 [R] 19,784,143 [R] 19,819,581 [R] 22,590,665 7,418 [R] 77,999,554
32,733,452 [R] 20,580,415 [R] 20,614,766 [R] 23,586,613 1,619 [R] 79,986,371
33,962,118 [R] 20,436,369 [R] 20,470,711 [R] 23,986,723 1,564 80,903,214
32,077,090 [R] 19,658,353 [R] 19,696,034 [R] 24,326,509 –1,080 [R] 78,121,594
30,756,076 [R] 19,476,200 [R] 19,512,537 [R] 24,488,373 2,766 [R] 76,168,488 [R]
27,656,788 [R] 19,050,580 [R] 19,087,723 [R] 24,033,531 4,189 [R] 73,153,394 [R]
27,481,484 [R] 19,132,451 [R] 19,175,075 [R] 24,679,081 2,796 [R] 73,039,001 [R]
29,624,598 [R] 19,606,799 [R] 19,653,933 [R] 25,719,102 2,794 [R] 76,715,459 [R]
28,877,080 [R] 20,040,687 [R] 20,087,315 [R] 26,132,459 –3,903 [R] 76,492,565 [R]
28,333,363 [R] 20,739,703 [R] 20,788,771 [R] 26,338,257 3,452 76,758,526 [R]
29,443,635 [R] 21,419,125 [R] 21,469,449 [R] 27,104,445 –2,533 [R] 79,175,130 [R]
30,738,557 [R] 22,266,855 [R] 22,318,176 [R] 28,337,687 3,364 [R] 82,821,858 [R]
31,397,833 [R] 22,424,597 [R] 22,478,708 [R] 30,024,713 [4] 8,999 [R] 84,946,248 [R]
31,895,492 [R] 22,366,185 [R] 22,419,888 [R] 30,660,106 –9,335 [R] 84,653,651 [R]
31,486,967 [R] 22,065,034 [R] 22,118,484 [R] 31,024,645 595 [R] 84,608,869 [R]
32,661,236 [R] 22,363,309 [R] 22,415,918 [R] 30,893,368 355 [R] 85,958,380 [R]
32,721,292 [R] 22,716,447 22,769,843 [R] 32,025,108 –10,490 [R] 87,605,453 [R]
33,607,366 [R] 23,311,806 [R] 23,367,224 [R] 32,563,463 –5,698 89,261,391 [R]
34,046,786 [R] 23,793,148 [R] 23,848,651 [R] 33,620,747 3,148 [R] 91,174,089 [R]
34,988,791 [R] 24,383,906 [R] 24,438,890 [R] 34,637,665 4,336 [R] 94,175,664 [R]
180 a Energy Data
End-use Sectors
e e
Year Primary Total Primary Total Primary
1997 7,039,505 [R] 19,025,680 [R] 4,256,507 [R] 15,693,953 [R] 23,721,864 [R]
1998 6,423,825 [R] 19,020,712 [R] 3,963,729 [R] 15,979,296 [R] 23,210,838 [R]
1999 6,783,779 [R] 19,620,860 [R] 4,007,378 [R] 16,383,617 [R] 22,990,578 [R]
2000 7,168,979 [R] 20,487,621 [R] 4,227,143 [R] 17,176,087 [R] 22,870,804 [R]
2001 6,878,917 [R] 20,106,132 [R] 4,036,108 [R] 17,141,259 [R] 21,835,587 [R]
2002 6,938,187 [R] 20,873,763 [R] 4,099,189 [R] 17,366,740 21,857,313 [R]
2003 7,251,896 21,208,021 [R] 4,238,672 [R] 17,351,447 [R] 21,575,582 [R]
2004 7,019,274 [R] 21,177,889 [R] 4,180,422 [R] 17,664,445 [R] 22,454,620 [R]
2005 6,920,879 [R] 21,697,240 [R] 4,013,701 [R] 17,875,276 [R] 21,465,855 [R]
2006 6,190,514 [R] 20,769,777 [R] 3,703,258 [R] 17,723,994 [R] 21,632,057 [R]
2007 6,625,793 [R] 21,619,373 [R] 3,895,928 [R] 18,287,222 [R] 21,454,002 [R]
2008 P 6,778,379 21,636,900 3,972,150 18,541,387 20,630,137
a
Commercial sector, including commercial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and commercial electricity-only plants.
b
Industrial sector, including industrial CHP and industrial electricity-only plants.
c
Electricity-only and CHP plants within the NAICS 22 category whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity
and heat, to the public.
d
Through 1988, data are for electric utilities only; beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities and independent
power producers.
e
Total energy consumption in the end-use sectors consists of primary energy consumption, electricity retail sales, and
electrical system energy losses.
f
A balancing item. The sum of primary consumption in the five energy-use sectors equals the sum of total consumption
in the four end-use sectors. However, total energy consumption does not equal the sum of the sectoral components
because of the use of sector-specific conversion factors for natural gas and coal.
g
Primary energy consumption total.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary. (s) = Less than 0.5 trillion Btu.

Energy Data a 181

35,288,218 [R] 24,697,145 [R] 24,751,817 [R] 35,044,648 6,142 [R] 94,765,811 [R]
34,928,190 [R] 25,203,168 [R] 25,258,473 [R] 36,385,110 –3,378 [R] 95,183,293 [R]
34,855,491 [R] 25,893,727 [R] 25,951,203 [R] 37,135,709 6,281 [R] 96,817,452 [R]
34,757,478 [R] 26,491,500 [R] 26,551,610 [R] 38,214,371 2,304 [R] 98,975,100 [R]
32,806,204 [R] 26,215,564 [R] 26,278,577 [R] 37,365,995 –6,084 [R] 96,326,089 [R]
32,764,483 [R] 26,787,738 [R] 26,848,508 [R] 38,171,067 4,820 [R] 97,858,314 [R]
32,649,843 [R] 26,927,646 [R] 27,002,137 [R] 38,217,654 [R] –2,908 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
33,609,067 [R] 27,820,116 [R] 27,899,279 [R] 38,876,247 [R] –55 [R] 100,350,624 [R]
32,545,253 [R] 28,279,693 [R] 28,361,295 [R] 39,798,935 [R] 5,694 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
32,541,235 [R] 28,761,209 [R] 28,840,577 [R] 39,588,544 [R] –385 [R] 99,875,196 [R]
32,523,120 [R] 29,046,175 [R] 29,134,189 [R] 40,542,007 [R] –10,049 [R] 101,553,855 [R]
31,210,299 27,842,133 27,924,560 40,090,347 –9,512 99,303,634
182 a Energy Data
TABLE 4 Household End Uses: Fuel Types and Appliances, Selected Years, 1978–2005
Year
Appliance 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1987
Total households (millions) 77 78 82 83 84 86 91
Percent of Households
Space heating—Main fuel
Natural Gas 55 55 55 56 57 55 55
Electricitya 16 17 18 17 16 17 20
Liquefied petroleum gases 4 5 5 4 5 5 5
Distillate fuel oil 20 17 15 14 13 12 12
Wood 2 4 6 6 7 7 6
Other b or no space heating 3 2 2 3 3 3 3
Air conditioning—Equipment
Central Systemc 23 24 27 27 28 30 34
Window/wall unitc 33 31 30 31 30 30 30
None 44 45 43 42 42 40 36
Water heating—Main fuel
Natural Gas 55 55 54 55 56 54 54
Electricitya 33 33 32 33 32 33 35
Otherb or no water heating 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Appliances and electronics
Refrigeratord 100 NA 100 100 100 100 100
One 86 NA 86 87 86 88 86
Two or more 14 NA 14 13 13 12 14
Separate freezer 35 NA 38 38 37 37 34
Clothes washer 74 NA 74 73 71 73 75
Clothes dryer—Total 59 NA 61 61 60 62 66
Natural gas 14 NA 14 16 15 16 15
Electric 45 NA 47 45 45 46 51
Dishwasher 35 NA 37 37 36 38 43
Range/stove/oven 99 NA 99 100 99 99 99
Natural gas 48 NA 46 46 47 46 43
Electric 53 NA 57 56 56 57 60
Microwave oven 8 NA 14 17 21 34 61
Television NA NA 98 98 98 98 98
One or two NA NA 85 84 83 80 75
Three or more NA NA 14 14 15 18 23
Personal computer NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
One NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Two or more NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
a
Retail electricity.
b
Kerosene, solar, or other fuel.
c
Households with both a central system and a window or wall unit are counted only under “Central System.”
d
Fewer than 0.5 percent of the households do not have a refrigerator.
R = Revised. NA = Not available. (s) = Less than 0.5 percent.
Note: Data are estimates. For years not shown, there are no data available. For related information, see http://www.
eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs.
Sources: For 1978 and 1979, Energy Information Administration (EIA), Form EIA-84, “Residential Energy Consumption
Survey”; for 1980–2005, EIA, Form EIA-457, “Residential Energy Consumption Survey.”
Energy Data a 183
Year Change
1990 1993 1997 2001 2005 1980 to 2005
94 97 101 107 111 29
55 53 52 [R] 55 52 –3
23 26 29 29 30 12
5 5 5 5 5 0
11 11 9 7 [R] 7 –8
4 3 2 2 3 –3
2 2 2 2 [R] 3 [R] 1 [R]
39 44 47 55 59 32
29 25 25 23 25 –5
32 32 28 23 16 –27
53 53 52 54 53 –1
37 38 39 38 39 7
3 3 3 3 4 0
5 5 5 4 4 –5
1 1 1 0 0 –1
100 100 100 100 100 0

84 85 85 83 78 –8
15 15 15 17 22 8
34 35 33 32 32 –6
76 77 77 79 83 9
69 70 71 74 79 18
16 14 [R] 15 [R] 16 [R] 17 [R] 3 [R]
53 57 55 57 61 14
45 45 50 53 58 21
100 100 99 100 99 0
42 33 35 35 35 –11
59 63 62 62 62 5
79 84 83 86 88 74
99 99 99 [R] 99 [R] 99 [R] 1 [R]
71 70 69 63 56 –29
28 28 29 36 43 29
NA [R] NA [R] 35 56 68 NA
NA NA 29 42 45 NA
NA NA 6 15 23 NA
184 a Energy Data
TABLE 5 World Primary Energy Consumption by Region, 1997–2006 (Quadrillion Btu)

Region and Country 1997 1998 1999 2000
North America 113.13 113.53 115.82 118.26

Canada 12.67 [R] 12.37 [R] 12.96 [R] 12.95 [R]
Mexico 5.68 5.96 6.04 6.32
United States 94.77 95.18 96.82 98.98
Other .02 .02 .02 .02
Central and South America 19.45 20.12 20.27 20.84
Argentina 2.47 2.58 2.61 2.67
Brazil 7.86 8.12 [R] 8.27 [R] 8.55 [R]
Venezuela 2.66 2.85 2.73 2.77
Other 6.46 6.57 6.67 6.85
Europe a 79.87 [R] 80.44 [R] 80.51 [R] 81.53 [R]
Belgium 2.65 [R] 2.70 [R] 2.66 [R] 2.73 [R]
France 10.36 10.58 10.71 10.85
Germany 14.36 14.34 14.13 14.26
Italy 7.22 7.43 7.56 7.63
Netherlands 3.70 3.70 3.69 3.79
Poland 4.09 [R] 3.85 3.98 3.62
Spain 4.76 4.99 5.26 5.62
Sweden 2.32 [R] 2.40 [R] 2.37 [R] 2.27 [R]
Turkey 2.93 3.00 2.91 3.16
United Kingdom 9.75 9.74 [R] 9.79 [R] 9.72 [R]
Other 17.74 17.72 17.47 [R] 17.87
Eurasia b 39.02 [R] 38.73 [R] 39.83 [R] 40.61 [R]
Russia 25.81 [R] 25.93 [R] 27.01 [R] 27.47 [R]
Ukraine 6.07 5.85 5.76 5.75
Uzbekistan 1.88 1.84 1.86 1.94
Other 5.26 5.11 5.19 5.45 [R]
Middle East 15.61 16.28 [R] 16.62 17.32
Iran 4.43 4.58 4.83 5.01
Saudi Arabia 4.37 4.54 4.60 4.85
Other 6.81 7.15 7.18 7.46
Africa 11.40 11.30 [R] 11.62 [R] 12.03 [R]
Egypt 1.79 1.85 1.92 2.00
South Africa 4.56 4.35 4.46 4.59
Other 5.05 5.10 [R] 5.23 5.44 [R]
Asia and Oceaniaa 102.89 [R] 101.98 [R] 105.28 [R] 107.33 [R]
Australia 4.56 4.59 4.82 4.85
China 37.91 37.32 37.23 37.18 [R]
India 11.64 12.17 12.99 13.46
Indonesia 3.66 3.56 3.91 4.06
Japan 21.91 [R] 21.52 [R] 21.97 [R] 22.43 [R]
Malaysia 1.67 1.69 1.74 1.87
Energy Data a 185
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P
115.36 117.25 118.20 120.74 121.62 121.18

12.76 [R] 13.13 [R] 13.56 [R] 13.84 [R] 14.23 [R] 13.95
6.26 6.25 [R] 6.42 [R] 6.53 6.86 [R] 7.36
96.33 97.86 98.21 100.35 100.51 [R] 99.86
.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
21.16 21.12 21.61 22.44 23.40 24.18
2.61 2.48 [R] 2.67 2.78 2.95 [R] 3.15
8.47 [R] 8.58 [R] 8.69 [R] 9.02 [R] 9.37 [R] 9.64
3.03 2.93 2.72 2.93 3.12 [R] 3.19
7.05 7.13 7.54 7.71 7.96 8.20
82.77 [R] 82.50 [R] 84.24 [R] 85.70 [R] 86.18 [R] 86.42
2.70 [R] 2.68 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.81 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.75
11.08 11.00 11.11 [R] 11.39 11.36 [R] 11.44
14.62 14.33 14.59 [R] 14.74 [R] 14.50 [R] 14.63
7.67 [R] 7.70 7.99 [R] 8.08 [R] 8.14 [R] 8.07
3.93 3.94 4.00 4.11 4.23 [R] 4.14
3.45 3.44 3.60 3.70 3.68 [R] 3.86
5.87 5.95 6.26 6.39 [R] 6.51 [R] 6.51
2.40 [R] 2.27 [R] 2.17 [R] 2.30 [R] 2.33 [R] 2.22
2.89 3.15 3.32 3.51 3.73 [R] 3.91
9.86 [R] 9.72 [R] 9.86 [R] 9.88 [R] 9.92 [R] 9.80
18.28 [R] 18.33 [R] 18.56 [R] 18.77 [R] 19.01 [R] 19.10
40.94 [R] 41.59 [R] 43.37 [R] 44.69 [R] 45.79 [R] 45.88
27.72 [R] 27.93 [R] 28.77 [R] 29.60 [R] 30.06 [R] 30.39
5.64 5.82 6.28 6.26 6.32 [R] 5.87
2.03 2.08 2.10 2.22 2.13 [R] 2.21
5.55 [R] 5.75 [R] 6.22 [R] 6.62 [R] 7.27 [R] 7.41
17.95 18.98 19.76 20.89 22.75 [R] 23.81
5.39 5.89 6.18 6.39 7.22 [R] 7.69
5.14 5.38 5.76 6.21 6.59 [R] 6.89
7.42 7.71 7.82 8.29 8.93 [R] 9.23
12.63 [R] 12.72 13.36 [R] 13.97 [R] 14.54 [R] 14.50
2.23 [R] 2.26 [R] 2.44 [R] 2.59 2.73 [R] 2.54
4.66 4.54 4.88 5.21 5.12 [R] 5.18
5.74 [R] 5.91 [R] 6.04 [R] 6.18 [R] 6.69 [R] 6.77
111.34 [R] 116.41 [R] 125.48 [R] 138.71 [R] 147.78 [R] 156.31
5.02 5.13 5.14 [R] 5.26 [R] 5.57 [R] 5.61
39.44 [R] 43.30 [R] 50.62 [R] 59.99 [R] 66.80 [R] 73.81
13.94 13.84 14.29 15.54 [R] 16.34 [R] 17.68
4.46 4.64 4.56 [R] 4.88 [R] 4.91 [R] 4.15
22.24 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.79
2.11 2.18 2.42 2.66 2.58 [R] 2.56
186 a Energy Data
South Korea 7.41 6.83 7.55 7.89
Taiwan 3.21 3.40 3.55 3.77
Thailand 2.60 2.44 2.50 2.58
Other 8.34 [R] 8.47 [R] 9.01 [R] 9.23 [R]
World 381.35 [R] 382.38 [R] 389.95 [R] 397.93 [R]
a
Excludes countries that were part of the former USSR.
b
Includes only countries that were part of the former USSR.
R = Revised. P = Preliminary.
Notes: Data in this table do not include recent updates for the United States or for other countries (see http://tonto.
eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm). World primary energy consumption includes consumption of petro-
leum products (including natural-gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel), dry natural gas, and coal (including
net imports of coal coke) and the consumption of net electricity generated from nuclear electric power, hydroelectric
power, wood, waste, geothermal, solar, and wind. It also includes, for the United States, the consumption of renew-
able energy by the end-use sectors. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. For related
information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Source: Energy Information Administration, “International Energy Annual 2006” (June–December 2008), Table E1.
Energy Data a 187
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

8.10 8.39 [R] 8.64 [R] 8.91 [R] 9.23 [R] 9.45
3.86 4.02 4.21 4.36 4.43 [R] 4.57
2.70 2.94 3.22 3.45 [R] 3.67 [R] 3.74
9.47 [R] 9.80 [R] 10.23 [R] 10.92 [R] 11.52 [R] 11.97
402.15 [R] 410.56 [R] 426.02 [R] 447.15 [R] 462.06 [R] 472.27
188 a Energy Data
TABLE 6 World Crude Oil and Natural Gas Reserves, January 1, 2008
Crude Oil Natural Gas
Oil & Gas
Oil & Gas Journal World Oil Journal World Oil
Region and Country Billion Barrels Trillion Cubic Feet
North America 211.6 57.5 309.8 314.1
Canada 178.6a 25.2b 58.2 58.3
Mexico 11.7 11.1 13.9 18.1
United States 21.3 21.3 237.7 237.7

Argentina 2.6 2.7 15.8 16.5
Bolivia .5 .5 26.5 28.0
Brazil 12.2 12.5 12.3 12.9
Chile .2 .0 3.5 1.0
Colombia 1.5 1.5 4.3 6.7
Cuba .1 .7 2.5 .8
Ecuador 4.5 4.8 NA .3
Peru .4 .4 11.9 12.0
Trinidad and Tobago .7 .6 18.8 16.7
Venezuela 87.0 81.0 166.3 152.0
Otherc .2 .2 (s) (s)
Europed 14.3 13.8 172.0 169.0

Austria .1 .1 .6 1.1
Croatia .1 .1 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.2 1.1 2.5 2.6
Germany .4 .2 9.0 5.2
Hungary (s) .1 .3 .6
Italy .4 .4 3.3 3.0
Netherlands .1 .2 50.0 48.8
Norway 6.9 6.7 79.1 81.7
Poland .1 .2 5.8 4.7
Romania .6 .5 2.2 4.2
Serbia .1 NR 1.7 NR
United Kingdom 3.6 3.6 14.6 14.0
Otherc .8 .7 1.9 2.1
Eurasiae 98.9 126.0 2,014.8 2,104.0

Azerbaijan 7.0 NR 30.0 NR
Kazakhstan 30.0 NR 100.0 NR
Russia 60.0 76.0 1,680.0 1,654.0
Turkmenistan .6 NR 100.0 NR
Ukraine .4 NR 39.0 NR
Uzbekistan .6 NR 65.0 NR
Otherc .3 50.0 .8 450.0
Energy Data a 189

Oil & Gas Oil & Gas
Journal World Oil Journal World Oil
Middle East 748.3 727.3 2,548.9 2,570.2
Bahrain .1 NR 3.3 NR
Iran 138.4 137.0 948.2 985.0
Iraq 115.0 126.0 111.9 91.0
Kuwaitf 104.0 99.4 56.0 66.3
Oman 5.5 5.7 30.0 32.0
Qatar 15.2 20.0 905.3 903.2
Saudi Arabiaf 266.8 264.8 253.1 254.0
Syria 2.5 2.9 8.5 12.1
United Arab Emirates 97.8 68.1 214.4 196.3
Yemen 3.0 2.7 16.9 16.8
Otherc (s) .7 1.3 13.6
Africa 114.8 114.7 489.6 504.2

Algeria 12.2 11.9 159.0 160.0
Angola 9.0 9.5 9.5 5.7
Cameroon .2 NR 4.8 NR
Congo (Brazzaville) 1.6 1.9 3.2 4.1
Egypt 3.7 3.7 58.5 68.5
Equatorial Guinea 1.1 1.7 1.3 3.4
Gabon 2.0 3.2 1.0 2.5
Libya 41.5 36.5 50.1 52.8
Mozambique .0 .0 4.5 .0
Nigeria 36.2 37.2 184.0 184.5
Sudan 5.0 6.7 3.0 4.0
Tunisia .4 .6 2.3 3.5
Otherc 1.9 1.8 7.6 15.4
Asia and Oceaniad 34.3 40.0 415.4 527.6

Australia 1.5 4.2 30.0 151.9
Bangladesh (s) NR 5.0 NR
Brunei 1.1 1.1 13.8 11.0
Burma .1 .2 10.0 15.0
China 16.0 18.1 80.0 61.8
India 5.6 4.0 38.0 31.8
Indonesia 4.4 4.5 93.9 92.0
Japan (s) NR .7 NR
Malaysia 4.0 5.5 83.0 88.0
New Zealand .1 .1 1.0 2.0
Pakistan .3 .3 28.0 29.8
Papua New Guinea .1 .2 8.0 14.7
Thailand .5 .4 11.7 11.2
Vietnam .6 1.3 6.8 8.2
Otherc .2 .2 5.5 10.2
World 1,332.0 1,184.2 6,212.3 6,436.0

190 a Energy Data
a
Comprises 5.4 billion barrels of conventional crude oil and condensate and 173.2 billion barrels of bitumen in Alberta’s
oil sands.
b
World Oil states the following about its Canadian crude oil reserves estimate: “conventional crude reserves are 4.9
Bbbl [billion barrels]. Alberta's estimates of established oil sands reserves of 174 Bbbl are not proved; that would
require at least 350 Tcf [trillion cubic feet] of gas delivered to northern Alberta, and/or implementation of future tech-
nologies. Oil sands reserve estimate is based on 50 years times current production capacity.”
c
Includes data for those countries not separately reported.
d
e
f
Data for Kuwait and Saudi Arabia include one-half of the reserves in the neutral zone between Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia.
NA = Not available. NR = Not separately reported. (s) = Less than 0.05 billion barrels.
Notes: All reserve figures are proved reserves, except as noted. Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of
independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Sources: U.S. data, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Crude Oil, Natural Gas, and Natural Gas Liquids
Reserves, 2007 Annual Report; All other data, PennWell Corporation, Oil & Gas Journal 105, no. 48 (December 24,
2007) and Gulf Publishing Company, World Oil 229, no. 9 (September 2008).
TABLE 7 World Recoverable Reserves of Coal, 2005 (Million Short Tons)

Anthracite and Subbituminous
Region and Country Bituminous Coal Coal and Lignite Total
North America 126,271 [R] 145,206 [R] 271,477 [R]
Canada 3,826 3,425 7,251
Greenland 0 202 202
Mexico 948 387 1,335
United Statesa 121,496 [R] 141,193 [R] 262,689 [R]
Central and South America 7,969 9,973 17,941
Brazil 0 7,791 7,791
Chile 34 1,268 1,302
Colombia 7,251 420 7,671
Peru 154 0 154
Other 529 494 1,023
Europeb 9,296 41,485 50,781
Bulgaria 6 2,195 2,200
Czech Republic 1,844 3,117 4,962
Former Serbia and Montenegro 7 15,299 15,306
Germany 168 7,227 7,394
Greece 0 4,299 4,299
Hungary 219 3,420 3,640
Poland 6,627 1,642 8,270
Romania 13 452 465
Turkey 0 2,000 2,000
United Kingdom 171 0 171
Other 241 1,834 2,076
Energy Data a 191
Eurasiac 103,186 145,931 249,117
Kazakhstan 31,052 3,450 34,502
Russia 54,110 118,964 173,074
Ukraine 16,922 20,417 37,339
Uzbekistan 1,102 2,205 3,307
Other 0 895 895
Middle East 1,528 0 1,528
Iran 1,528 0 1,528
Africa 54,488 192 54,680
Botswana 44 0 44
South Africa 52,911 0 52,911
Zimbabwe 553 0 553
Other 980 192 1,172
Asia and Oceaniab 169,994 113,813 283,807
Australia 40,896 43,541 84,437
China 68,564 57,651 126,215
India 57,585 4,694 62,278
Indonesia 1,897 2,874 4,771
North Korea 331 331 661
Pakistan 1 2,184 2,185
Thailand 0 1,493 1,493
Other 721 1,046 1,767
World 472,731 [R] 456,599 [R] 929,331 [R]
a
U.S. data are as of the end of 2007, 2 years later than the other data on this table.
b
c
R = Revised.
Notes: Data are at end of year. World Energy Council data represent “proved recoverable reserves,” which are the
tonnage within the “proved amount in place” that can be recovered (extracted from the earth in raw form) under
present and expected local economic conditions with existing, available technology. The Energy Information Admin-
istration does not certify the international reserves data but reproduces the information as a matter of convenience
for the reader. U.S. reserves represent estimated recoverable reserves from the Demonstrated Reserve Base, which
includes both measured and indicated tonnage. The U.S. term “measured” approximates the term “proved” as used by
the World Energy Council. The U.S. “measured and indicated” data have been combined and cannot be recaptured as
“measured alone.” Totals may not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related informa-
tion, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Sources: U.S. data based on EIA, Annual Coal Report 2007, Table 15, and unpublished file data of the Coal Reserves
Data Base; All other data, World Energy Council, 2007 Survey of Energy Resources.
192 a Energy Data
TABLE 8 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Consumption, 1997–2006

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide)a
North America 6,492 [R] 6,547 [R] 6,615 [R] 6,810 [R]
Canada 549 [R] 554 [R] 568 [R] 565 [R]
Mexico 350 [R] 372 [R] 364 [R] 383 [R]
United States 5,592 [R] 5,620 [R] 5,682 [R] 5,860 [R]
Other 1 1 1 1
Central and South America 950 [R] 975 [R] 984 [R] 993 [R]
Argentina 130 136 [R] 140 [R] 138 [R]
Brazil 326 [R] 325 [R] 336 [R] 345 [R]
Venezuela 135 [R] 142 133 134
Other 359 [R] 372 [R] 374 [R] 375
Europeb 4,503 [R] 4,487 [R] 4,436 [R] 4,500 [R]
Belgium 146 [R] 151 [R] 143 [R] 149 [R]
France 385 [R] 410 [R] 404 [R] 402 [R]
Germany 889 [R] 872 [R] 841 [R] 857 [R]
Italy 425 [R] 441 [R] 441 [R] 448 [R]
Netherlands 240 [R] 242 [R] 239 [R] 252 [R]
Poland 339 [R] 316 [R] 329 [R] 295 [R]
Romania 120 [R] 101 [R] 91 93
Spain 272 [R] 282 [R] 309 [R] 327 [R]
Turkey 182 [R] 184 [R] 182 [R] 202 [R]
United Kingdom 569 [R] 564 [R] 559 [R] 561 [R]
Other 935 [R] 924 [R] 898 [R] 913 [R]
Eurasiac 2,244 [R] 2,235 [R] 2,320 [R] 2,356 [R]
Kazakhstan 120 [R] 116 [R] 133 [R] 143 [R]
Russia 1,483 [R] 1,482 [R] 1,560 [R] 1,582 [R]
Ukraine 344 [R] 333 [R] 328 [R] 327 [R]
Uzbekistan 103 102 [R] 103 106
Other 194 [R] 201 [R] 195 [R] 197 [R]
Middle East 989 [R] 1,019 [R] 1,057 [R] 1,094 [R]
Iran 291 [R] 295 [R] 317 [R] 321 [R]
Saudi Arabia 255 [R] 258 [R] 264 [R] 291 [R]
Other 443 [R] 467 [R] 475 [R] 483 [R]
Africa 872 [R] 861 [R] 877 [R] 892 [R]
Egypt 112 [R] 115 [R] 117 [R] 119
South Africa 388 [R] 370 [R] 381 [R] 392 [R]
Other 371 [R] 376 [R] 378 [R] 381 [R]
Asia and Oceaniac 7,197 [R] 7,035 [R] 7,247 [R] 7,366 [R]
Australia 334 [R] 340 [R] 359 [R] 360 [R]
China 3,133 [R] 3,029 [R] 2,992 [R] 2,967 [R]
India 878 [R] 914 [R] 971 [R] 1,012 [R]
Indonesia 247 [R] 241 [R] 266 [R] 274 [R]
Japan 1,161 [R] 1,116 [R] 1,158 [R] 1,204 [R]
Energy Data a 193
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

6,697 [R] 6,782 [R] 6,870 [R] 6,970 [R] 7,034 [R] 6,954
554 [R] 573 [R] 602 [R] 615 [R] 632 [R] 614
380 [R] 384 389 385 [R] 407 [R] 436
5,762 [R] 5,824 [R] 5,878 [R] 5,969 [R] 5,994 [R] 5,903
1 1 1 1 1 1
1,016 [R] 1,005 [R] 1,023 [R] 1,066 [R] 1,111 [R] 1,138
128 [R] 121 [R] 134 [R] 141 [R] 152 [R] 162
349 [R] 347 [R] 346 [R] 356 [R] 371 [R] 377
149 [R] 147 [R] 134 [R] 143 [R] 150 [R] 152
389 390 [R] 408 [R] 426 [R] 438 447
4,559 [R] 4,532 [R] 4,679 [R] 4,713 [R] 4,717 [R] 4,721
146 [R] 143 [R] 151 [R] 154 [R] 151 [R] 148
406 [R] 402 [R] 409 [R] 416 [R] 414 [R] 418
878 [R] 857 [R] 874 [R] 872 [R] 853 [R] 858
445 [R] 453 [R] 475 [R] 470 [R] 473 [R] 468
278 [R] 259 [R] 261 [R] 271 [R] 273 [R] 260
279 [R] 276 [R] 289 [R] 295 [R] 290 [R] 303
102 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 98 [R] 99
332 [R] 349 [R] 357 [R] 371 [R] 384 [R] 373
184 [R] 195 [R] 207 [R] 211 [R] 231 [R] 236
575 [R] 564 [R] 575 [R] 582 [R] 585 [R] 586
934 [R] 934 [R] 980 [R] 972 [R] 966 [R] 973
2,332 [R] 2,354 [R] 2,471 [R] 2,529 [R] 2,600 [R] 2,601
148 [R] 154 [R] 166 [R] 185 [R] 203 [R] 213
1,571 [R] 1,572 [R] 1,627 1,663 [R] 1,699 [R] 1,704
319 [R] 327 [R] 357 [R] 347 [R] 350 [R] 329
111 114 [R] 115 [R] 122 [R] 117 [R] 121
184 [R] 188 206 [R] 212 [R] 231 [R] 233
1,119 [R] 1,175 [R] 1,240 [R] 1,330 [R] 1,444 [R] 1,505
334 [R] 365 [R] 387 [R] 407 [R] 446 [R] 471
301 [R] 312 [R] 347 [R] 389 [R] 406 [R] 424
483 [R] 499 [R] 506 [R] 535 [R] 593 [R] 610
923 [R] 924 [R] 975 [R] 1,025 [R] 1,062 [R] 1,057
130 [R] 134 [R] 144 [R] 153 [R] 161 [R] 152
399 [R] 385 [R] 418 [R] 448 [R] 438 [R] 444
394 [R] 405 [R] 413 [R] 424 [R] 463 [R] 461
7,608 [R] 8,050 [R] 8,806 [R] 9,821 [R] 10,517 [R] 11,220
374 [R] 383 [R] 381 [R] 391 [R] 417 [R] 417
3,108 [R] 3,441 [R] 4,062 [R] 4,847 [R] 5,429 [R] 6,018
1,035 [R] 1,034 [R] 1,048 [R] 1,151 [R] 1,194 [R] 1,293
300 [R] 315 [R] 305 [R] 323 [R] 324 [R] 280
1,197 [R] 1,203 [R] 1,253 [R] 1,258 [R] 1,250 [R] 1,247
194 a Energy Data
Malaysia 102 103 [R] 107 [R] 112 [R]
South Korea 435 [R] 375 [R] 433 [R] 446 [R]
Taiwan 210 [R] 225 [R] 224 [R] 252 [R]
Thailand 177 [R] 162 [R] 171 [R] 162 [R]
Other 520 [R] 530 [R] 567 [R] 578 [R]
World 23,247 [R] 23,160 [R] 23,535 [R] 24,011 [R]
a
Metric tons of carbon dioxide can be converted to metric tons of carbon equivalent by multiplying by 12/44.
b
c
Notes: Data in this table do not include recent updates (see http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.
cfm). Data include carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel energy consumption and natural-gas flaring. Totals may
not equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.
gov/international.
Source: Energy Information Administration, “International Energy Annual 2006” (June–December 2008), Table H.1co2.
Energy Data a 195
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

125 [R] 134 [R] 150 [R] 166 [R] 160 [R] 164
452 [R] 468 [R] 478 [R] 489 [R] 497 [R] 515
249 [R] 274 [R] 290 [R] 287 [R] 290 [R] 300
172 [R] 187 [R] 206 [R] 226 [R] 243 [R] 245
594 [R] 612 [R] 633 [R] 683 [R] 714 [R] 741
24,253 [R] 24,823 [R] 26,064 [R] 27,453 [R] 28,485 [R] 29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:
3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a
3000 B.C. Mesopotamians use petroleum for a range of purposes,

including medicine, roads, shipbuilding, and architecture.
2800 Sales of olive oil for use as fuel in lamps and for cooking
are recorded on clay tablets in Sumer.
1100 Written evidence of the use of coal for fuel appears in
various localities.
200 China pioneers the use of natural gas as a fuel, developing
a gas-fired evaporator used to extract salt from brine. Gas
reaches the evaporators from shallow wells by means of
simple percussion rigs and bamboo piping.
250 – 400 A.D. Romans build a 16-wheel watermill in southern France,
which produces more than 40 horsepower.
500 –900 Persians invent the first windmills, using them to pump
water and grind grain.
600 Middle Eastern chemists discover an incendiary
weapon—comparable to modern napalm—derived from
petroleum and quicklime.
874 Iceland is settled. Geothermal energy keeps the new in-
habitants warm.
1400s Coal becomes a viable fuel for common use in home heat-
ing because of the invention of firebricks, which make
chimney construction inexpensive.
198 a Energy Time Line
1626 French explorers document the burning of natural gas

from seeps by Native Americans at Lake Erie.
1769 James Watt patents the steam engine.
1800s Coal becomes the principal fuel used by steam-powered
trains.
1800 –1826 Humphrey Davy builds a battery-powered arc lamp.
The first energy utility in the United States is founded.
The relationship between electricity and magnetism is
confirmed.
The first electric motor is developed by Faraday.
Ohms Law is published.
1816 Natural gas lights up the street lamps of Baltimore.
Through the 19th century, natural gas—at that time still
largely derived from coal, rather than extracted directly
from the earth—is used extensively as a lighting fuel in
North America and Europe.
1830 –1839 Michael Faraday builds an induction dynamo based on
the principles of electromagnetism, induction, generation,
and transmission.
The first industrial electric motors are built.
The first fuel cell is designed.
1860 Auguste Mouchout demonstrates that solar radiation can
be converted into mechanical power.
Wood remains the primary fuel for cooking and heating
and is also used for steam generation in industries and
transportation.
1870–1880 Draft animals account for more than half of the total
horsepower of all prime movers.
The gas turbine is invented.
The first combustion engine is designed to use alcohol,
and gasoline is made.
Edison Electric Light Co. (U.S.) and American Electric
and Illuminating (Canada) are founded.
The first commercial power station opens in San Fran-
cisco using brush generator and arc lights.
Thomas Edison opens the first electricity-generating plant
(in London) in January 1881.
Edison’s Pearl Street Station opens in New York as the
first American plant to generate electricity. A month
after beginning operations, it is feeding 1,300 light bulbs.
Within a year, it is feeding 11,000 bulbs—each a hundred
times brighter than a candle.
Energy Time Line a 199
1878 William Adams constructs a reflector of flat-silvered mir-

rors, arranged in a semicircle, that concentrates solar ra-
diation onto a stationary boiler.
1881–1887 The first hydroelectric station opens (Wisconsin).
The transformer is invented.
The steam turbine is invented.
William Stanley develops the transformer and invents the
alternating current electric system.
Nicola Tesla invents the induction motor with a rotating
magnetic field. This makes unit drives for machines and
AC power transmission economically feasible.
The electron is discovered.
1883 Charles Fritts builds the first solar cell.
1883–1884 John Ericsson (U.S.) invents and erects a solar engine
using the parabolic trough construction.
1885 Robert Bunsen invents the “Bunsen burner,” which pro-
duces a flame that can be safely used for cooking and
heating with the mixing of the right proportion of natural
gas and air.
1888 Charles F. Brush uses the first wind turbine to generate
electricity in Cleveland, Ohio. Brush Electric Co. will ul-
timately be acquired by General Electric.
1890s Electricity begins to replace natural gas for lighting
purposes.
Coal displaces much of the wood used in steam gen-
eration.
1900 Ethanol competes with gasoline to be the fuel for cars.
Rudolph Diesel demonstrates his first engine. It runs on
peanut oil.
1900–1910 The first geothermal electricity commercialization begins
in Italy.
The first electric vacuum cleaner is produced.
The first electric washing machine is sold.
Henry Ford’s Model T is designed to use ethanol, gaso-
line, or any combination of the two fuels.
The first pumped storage plant (Switzerland) opens.
One of the most significant events of the 20th century
is Albert Einstein’s discovery of E = mc2. This eventually
leads to nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medi-
cine, and astrophysics.
1906–1970 U.S. residential demand for natural gas grows 50 times
bigger.
1910 Most rural homes are still heated with wood. In towns,
coal is displacing wood in homes.
1920 The Ford Motor Company manufactures the Model T in
large numbers.
1940s–1960s Thousands of miles of new pipeline are constructed
throughout the United States, leading to rapid growth in
the natural gas market.
1942 The Manhattan Project is formed in the United States
to secretly build the atomic bomb for use in World
War II.
The first controlled nuclear chain reaction is led by Enrico
Fermi (U.S. immigrant from Italy) and other scientists at
the University of Chicago.
1950 Electricity and natural gas displace wood heat in most
homes and commercial buildings.
Oil surpasses coal as the country’s number one fuel
source.
Americans own 50 million cars.
1956 President Eisenhower signs the Federal-Aid Highway Act
of 1956, which establishes the interstate highway system.
Mid-1950s The Bridgers-Paxton Building, now listed in the National
Historic Register as the world’s first solar-heated office
building, is designed.
1957 The first full-scale nuclear power plant (Shippingport,
Pennsylvania) begins service.
1958 Airlines begin replacing propeller planes with jet planes.
1961 Coal has earned its place as the primary fuel for electricity
generation in the United States.
1973 Several Arab OPEC nations embargo the sale of oil to the
United States and Holland.
1986 The Perry power plant in Ohio becomes the 100th U.S.
nuclear power plant in operation.
The world’s worst nuclear power accident happens at the
Chernobyl plant in the former USSR (now Ukraine).
1987 Congress selects Yucca Mountain in Nevada for study as
the first high-level nuclear waste repository site.
1990 More than 2,200 megawatts of wind energy capacity are
installed in California—more than half of the world’s ca-
pacity at the time.
The Clean Air Act amendments require many changes to
gasoline and diesel fuels to make them pollute less. The
use of these cleaner fuels is phased in during the 1990s.

From 1995 on, “reformulated” gasoline is used in places
with the worst pollution problems.
1993–forward For the first time, the United States imports more oil and
refined products from other countries than it produces.
More and more imports are needed because of growing
petroleum demand and declining U.S. production.
1997 The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement for in-
dustrialized nations to cut emissions by 5 percent by 2010,
is adopted. The United States does not sign.
2005 Trucking accounts for 65 percent of energy used for
transporting freight. Water transportation accounts for
18 percent, natural gas pipelines for 9 percent, and Class
I railroads for 8 percent.
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 sets
a new corporate average fleet efficiency (CAFE) standard
for cars and light trucks. The new standard will require car
makers to meet a fleet-wide average of at least 35 miles
per gallon by 2020, a 40 percent increase over the old
standard.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 is responsible for regula-
tions that ensure gasoline sold in the United States con-
tains a minimum volume of renewable fuel.
2007 U.S. wind power produces enough electricity on average
to power the equivalent of more than 2.5 million homes.
The installed capacity of wind-powered electricity-
generating equipment is 13,885 megawatts as of Sep-
tember 30, more than four times the capacity in 2000.
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1 is the first U.S.
nuclear reactor to come online in the 21st century.
2008 In the United States, crude oil price break $100 per barrel
for the first time.
In the United States, gasoline prices break $4 per gallon
2009 The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act includes
billions of dollars for energy-efficiency and renewable-
energy programs and research activities.
2010 China takes the lead as the world’s largest manufacturer
of wind turbines and solar panels.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
Designed solar panels, which tracked sunlight. The electricity was used to
power engines for large-scale power plants.
BACON, FRANCIS T.
British scientist who built the first practical hydrogen–air fuel cell, which
was used to power welding machines. NASA now uses Bacon’s fuel cell for
everyday needs and on spacecraft.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
French physicist who observed the photoelectric effect. He also measured
intensity of light by using photochemical reactions.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
Built the first windmill to generate power on a large scale in Cleve-
land, Ohio. His windmill had 144 blades and was 17 meters in diam-
eter. His windmill design produced 12 kW of power, which he stored in
batteries.
204 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
Built the first system for harnessing energy from the oceans. This paved
the way for Steven Salter, who works with ocean energy systems and is the
inventor of the Salter duck. (See later entry for Salter.)
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
St. Louis University mechanical engineer who developed the first hollow
wind turbine. His development can supply up to 75 percent of the average
home’s energy needs. His turbine wraps around a chimney, tree, or utility
pole and can catch breezes from any direction.
CONLOGUE, FRED
Director of design services for Hannaford Bros. supermarket chain who
was instrumental in creating one of the first stores to meet LEED build-
ing standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM
Conrad, an American, was the first person to pilot an airplane powered by
hydrogen gas as the fuel.
DE SAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT

Swiss physicist and geologist who designed the first solar water heater,
consisting of a wooden box with a black face and a glass top.
DRAKE, EDWIN
Drilled the first oil well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The oil was refined
through fractional distillation to make kerosene to be used in lamps and
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Won the Nobel Prize in physics for his theories explaining the photoelec-
tric effect. A. E. Becquerel observed the photoelectric effect while studying
intensities of light.
Profiles a 205
ERICSSON, JOHN
Expanded on Mouchout’s solar panel design using a parabolic trough
instead of a dish, which became the standard for modern-day parabolic
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
Received patents for engines running on pure hydrogen. His Erren engines
were used to run a fleet of industrial trucks and railroad cars.
FARADAY, MICHAEL
Discovered that a conductor moving through a magnetic field produces an
electric current. In a hydroelectric plant, turbines provide rotational energy
created by the kinetic energy of moving water. The rotational energy spins
an armature in a coil of copper wire, generating electricity.
FERMI, ENRICO
Won the Nobel Prize in physics for his study of the decay of unstable iso-
tope nuclei. He built the first “nuclear pile” under the football stands at the
University of Chicago.
FRITTS, CHARLES
Constructed the first selenium solar cell. His design was inefficient, con-
verting less than 1 percent of received light into usable electricity.
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
Designer of a solar-powered geodesic dome house. He discovered Buck-
minster fullerene, a crystalline form of carbon similar to a geodesic
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
Bell scientist and the first to devise a semiconductor made of phosphorus
and boron, increasing the efficiency of semiconductors to 15 percent.
206 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
A Department of Energy biofuels expert who is experimenting with an
open pond system for producing algae for biofuel.
GRANT, JOHN D.
Drilled a well in a place called The Geysers in California, creating the first
geothermal power plant in the United States.
GROVE, WILLIAM-ROBERT
Devised an electric cell making use of hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity as they combined to form water. His fuel cell is now known as a
hydrogen fuel cell and was used in the spacecraft when NASA astronauts
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
A New Englander who designed a windmill with more than the usual
four blades and with a vane orienting the blades to the wind. The blades
were hinged so that they could fold up in extremely high winds to avoid
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
Director of MIT’s Center for Advanced Nuclear Systems. He says com-
mercial reactors provide 20 percent of the United States’ power but ac-
count for 70 percent of our emission-free energy.
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
A French inventor who designed and patented a disk-shaped solar reflec-
tor that used solar rays to heat water to create steam to power a motor.
MUSK, ELON
South African–born owner of a new company, Tesla Motors. His goal is
to develop a practical car that runs entirely on electricity. His company is
named for Nikola Tesla, who studied ways to get free electricity from the
atmosphere to power America.
Profiles a 207
NAUEN, ANDREAS
CEO of the Siemens wind power unit. The German company is a lead-
ing manufacturer of wind turbines, in the growing field of wind turbine
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
Princeton thermonuclear physicist who was the first to use garbage as a
substitute for gasoline. He calls it P (for Princeton) series fuel, which is a
blend of 45 percent ethanol, 35 percent natural gas, and 20 percent meth-
yltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF).
SALTER, STEVEN
Mechanical engineer who works with ocean energy systems. Inventor of
the Salter duck, a series of flaps, which pivot around a shaft, driving a
hydraulic fluid to produce electricity.
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
Inventor of a wind turbine called the Sky Serpent. His wind turbine is so
compact that it can be carried by hand and adapted for many commercial
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
A battery expert working at Argonne National Laboratory. His mission is
to develop a next-generation electric battery that will meet today’s strate-
gic and industrial requirements.
OPPORTUNITIES IN RENEWABLE
AND NONRENEWABLE ENERGY
CAREERS
a
AMERICAN SOLAR ENERGY SOCIETY—WWW.ASES.ORG

This site presents green-collar jobs forecast in the United States to the year
2030. It explores job opportunities in wind, solar, thermal, photovoltaics,
fuel cells, and biofuels.
CLEAN EDGE JOBS—WWW.JOBS.CLEANEDGE.COM

This is a source of job listings for clean technology job seekers, employers,
and recruiters.
CLEAN LOOP—WWW.CLEANLOOP.COM
Clean Loop lists job opportunities in emerging for-profit companies that
are exploring new technologies to create alternate fuel sources and soft-
ware applications to “revolutionize” the energy industry.
CLEAN TECHNOLOGY JOBS—

WWW.TECHNICALGREEN.NET
This is a green job locater and network for career opportunities in renew-
able energy, sustainable agriculture, and green building technology.
210 a Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy
EERE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY—

WWW1.EERE.ENERGY.GOV
Provides information on clean energy jobs in the public, private, and
nonprofit sectors, ranging from entry-level opportunities to professional
positions.
ENERGY CAREERS—WWW.ISEEK.ORG
A site that explores the question, “What energy career is right for you?” It
focuses on examining career opportunities in engineering, installation and
repair, production, and construction.
ENVIRONMENTAL GREEN CAREERS CENTER—

WWW.GREENCAREERS.COM
This site offers a comprehensive listing of environmental and natural re-
sources job opportunities, with a focus on career news, inside tips and ad-
vice for job seekers, and career research reports.
GET INTO ENERGY—WWW.GETINTOENERGY.COM

The focus of this site is to develop an awareness among students, parents,
and educators regarding career paths in the energy industry.
GREEN BIZ—WWW.GREENBIZ.COM
This site maintains a list of job postings and internships for green jobs
in solar and renewable energy, clean tech, green building, and sustainable
businesses.
GREEN CAREERS GUIDE—

WWW.GREENCAREERSGUIDE.COM
This database displays articles on green jobs and presents career guidance
on jobs, training, and green entrepreneurship.
GREEN CAREERS JOURNAL—

WWW.ENVIRONMENTALCAREER.COM
This is a publication that contains current green jobs listings and infor-
mation as well as articles on environmental careers and a growing green
economy.
Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy a 211
GREEN CORPS—WWW.GREENCORPS.ORG
Green Corps offers hands-on experiences and training for university grad-
uate students to help them find careers with organizations committed to
resolving global environmental issues.
GREEN DREAM JOBS—

WWW.SUSTAINABLEBUSINESS.COM
A sustainable business job service that posts renewable energy jobs in
solar, wind, geothermal, and wave energy and green building technology,
as well as opportunities in government green-job areas.
GREEN ENERGY JOBS—

WWW.GREENENERGYJOBS.COM
Provides a career guide to those wanting an overview of opportunities in
renewable resources: green building, planning, marine energy, wave energy,
hydro energy, bioenergy, solar technology, and micro-renewable energy.
GREEN JOBS NETWORK—

WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
The goal of the network is to connect people seeking jobs that focus on
environmental and social responsibilities to available related opportunities
and services.
TREE HUGGER JOB BOARD—

WWW.JOBS.TREEHUGGER.COM
The job board lists recent green and non-green jobs in a variety of
occupational categories related to environmental sustainability.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, CAREER OPPORTUNITIES—

WWW.DOE.GOV
Features information about job vacancies in the U.S. Department of En-
ergy and its DOE laboratories.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, CAREER VOYAGES—

WWW.CAREERVOYAGES.GOV
This is a site that explores job training opportunities available in various
renewable energy industries.
U.S. GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL—WWW.USGBC.ORG

A career center established to connect applicants to employment oppor-
tunities in green job technology.
USA GREEN ENERGY JOBS—

WWW.USAGREENENERGYJOBS.COM
This site presents a sample of green energy jobs by type in states and cities
VOCATIONAL INFORMATION CENTER—

WWW.KAHKE.COM
An international site that explores careers in energy with links to skill re-
quirements, salary, and training and job opportunities.
ENERGY PRODUCT DEVELOPERS
AND MANUFACTURERS
a
Besides the following product developers and manufacturers, you can also
go to an online buyer’s guide and business directory for renewable energy
businesses and organizations worldwide: www.energy.sourceguides.com
ABENGOA SOLAR, DENVER, CO

Develops and constructs solar power tower systems and photovoltaic cells
for use in the production of electricity. www.abengoasolar.com
ABUNDANT RENEWABLE ENERGY, NEWBURG, OR

Manufactures wind energy generators and towers designed for harsh cli-
mates and low wind-speed areas. www.abundantre.com
ALTA ROCK ENERGY INC., SEATTLE, WA

Develops and commercializes geothermal deep drilling technology. www.
altarockenergy.com
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY RESEARCH, INTERNATIONAL

Automobile manufacturers are exploring engineering strategies to produce
clean and efficient vehicles using biofuels, tire and motor oil technology,
214 a Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers
hydrogen fuel cells, lithium-ion battery technology, fuel-efficiency tech-

nology, and light plastic materials. www.cargroup.org
BP PETROLEUM, WARRENVILLE, IL
Developed a carbon capture and storage technology that extracts carbon
emissions from fossil fuels and processes them into hydrogen to gener-
ate electricity and capture and store carbon elements permanently under-
ground. www.BP.com/EnergyLab
BRIGHT SOURCE ENERGY, OAKLAND, CA

Builds, owns, and operates large-scale solar energy projects. www.
brightsourceenergy.com
CARRIER CORPORATION,
FARMINGTON, CT
Manufactures geothermal heat pumps for use in residential heating and
cooling systems. www.residentialcarrier.com
CETC SOLAR GROUP, CHANGSHA, CHINA

Manufacturer and supplier of all solar products, including solar cells and
panels and photovoltaic systems. www.cetc-solar.com
CHEVRON ENERGY SOLUTIONS CO.,

SAN FRANCISCO, CA
Applies proven energy-efficiency and renewable-power technologies such
as infrastructure systems, energy controls, solar power, biomass, and fuel
cells to meet the facility needs of individual and institutional customers.
www.chevron.com/globalissues
E.I. DUPONT DE NEMOURS,

BREVARD, NC
Manufactures alternate fuel boilers, which convert on-site industrial waste
materials and nonrecyclable by-products into usable steam energy. www2.
dupont.com
Energy Product Developers and Manufacturers a 215
EXXON MOBIL, HOUSTON, TX

Designs and uses equipment for extracting oil and gas reserves while reducing
the environmental impact of energy development. www.exxonmobil.com
FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE FOR SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS,

FEIBURG, GERMANY
Research and production of solar electric power systems and photovoltaic
modules. www.fraunhofer.de
GENERAL ELECTRIC, ATLANTA, GA

Manufactures products for the energy industry incorporating the use of
fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, and wind applications. www.gepower.com
IBM, SAN JOSE, CA

Using nano-membrane technology, it is developing lightweight, high-
energy lithium air batteries. www.almadenibm.com
NANOSOLAR, SAN JOSE, CA

Developed the Nanosolar Utility Panel, the first designed and manufac-
tured solar electricity panel for inclusion in utility-scale solar powered sys-
tems. www.nanosolar.com
NEVADA SOLAR ONE, BOULDER CITY, NV

Constructed and maintains a solar energy plant that concentrates and con-
verts desert sunlight into thermal energy for electric power generation.
www.acciona-na.com
OERLIKON SOLAR, SWITZERLAND

Mass-produces thin-film silicon solar modules. www.oerlikon.com
OXFORD YASA MOTORS, GREAT BRITAIN

Manufactures lightweight, energy-efficient electric motors for the auto-
mobile industry. www.ox.ac.uk
PV CRYSTALOX SOLAR, ERFURT, GERMANY

Manufactures photovoltaic cell materials, solar-grade silicon, silicon wa-
fers, and ingots. www.pvcrystalox.com
SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES, LIVERMORE, CA

Researches and develops commercially viable energy technologies based
on wind, solar, and geothermal resources. www.public.ca.sandia.gov
SIEMENS CORPORATION, NEW YORK, NY

Manufactures wind turbines for onshore, coastal, and offshore sites. www.
energysiemens.com
SOLIX BIOFUELS, COYOTE GULCH, CO

Planned and built a demonstration facility that is anticipated to produce
3,000 gallons of algal biofuels per acre per year. www.solixbiofuels.com
SUNCOR (SUNOCO) ENERGY INC., ALBERTA, CANADA

Maintains an ethanol facility with a capacity to produce 200 million li-
ters per year. The refined ethanol is blended into gasoline products. www.
suncor.com
USDA SOUTHERN RESEARCH STATION, ASHEVILLE, NC

Partners with private industries to use basic and applied science to develop
wood energy products from southern forests. www.srs.fs.usda.gov
XTREME POWER AND CLAIRVOYANT ENERGY,

DEARBORN, MI
These companies have converted an idle Ford Motor Company assem-
bly plant into one of the nation’s largest renewable-energy manufactur-
ing parks. They produce solar power and energy storage systems. www.
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
EDUCATION STANDARDS,
CONTENT STANDARDS
a
Unifying Concepts and Processes, K–12

Systems, order, and organization
Evidence, models, and explanation
Constancy, change, and measurement
Evolution and equilibrium
Form and function
Science as Inquiry, Content Standard A, Grades 9–12

Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
Understandings about scientific inquiry
Physical Science, Content Standard B, Grades 9–12

Structure of atoms
Structure and properties of matter
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces
Conservation of energy and increase in disorder
Interactions of energy and matter
218 a National Science Education Standards, Content Standards
Life Science, Content Standard C, Grades 9–12

The cell
Molecular basis of heredity
Biological evolution
Interdependence of organisms
Matter, energy, and organization in living systems
Behavior of organisms
Earth and Space Science, Content Standard D, Grades 9–12

Energy in the earth system
Geochemical cycles
Origin and evolution of the earth system
Origin and evolution of the universe
Science and Technology, Content Standard E, Grades 9–12

Abilities of technological design
Understandings about science and technology
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, Content Standard F,

Grades 9–12
Personal and community health
Population growth
Natural resources
Environmental quality
Natural and human-induced hazards
Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges
History and Nature of Science, Content Standard G, Grades 9–12

Science as a human endeavor
Nature of scientific knowledge
History of science
INDEX
a
Boldface page numbers refer to volume numbers. A key appears on all

verso pages. An italicized t following a page number indicates a table. An
italicized f following a page number indicates a figure.
A.A. Kingston Middle School, 2:17, Adlai E. Stevenson High School,

5:34, 5:34f 5:38f
Abate, Dee, 5:39 Advanced DC 4001 30 HP electric
Abengoa Solar, 1:213, 2:40, 2:55, motor, 2:96
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Aeroturbine, 3:14
ABI. See Allied Business Intelligence Afghanistan, 3:94
Abu Dhabi, 5:92 – 93, 5:93f, 5:129 Africa: OTEC station off of, 3:122;
Abundant Renewable Energy, 1:213, solar energy used in, 2:26
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Ahuachapán geothermal
ACC. See American Coal Council field, 4:43
Acciona’s Solar One, 2:38f Airborne wind turbines, 3:62
Acid mine drainage (AMD), Aircraft propulsion, 2:105
1:109 – 11, 1:110f Air quality standards, 4:25 – 26,
Active solar heating systems, 2:70 – 74 5:29 – 30
Active solar water heaters, 2:76f Air-to-water heat pumps, 4:74
Active yawing, 3:12 Alamos National Laboratory, 5:115
Adams, William, 1:198, 1:203, 2:5, Alaska: geothermal resources of,
2:168, 2:173, 3:166, 3:171, 4:168, 4:18 – 19; as oil-producing state,
4:173, 5:170, 5:175 1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
220 a Index
American Geologic Institute, 1:68

1: Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, and Nuclear
American Geophysical Union, 1:68
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel American Hydrogen Association,
Cells 2:127
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and American Institute of Architects,
Hydropower 5:91
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy American Nuclear Society, 1:35,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 1:157, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
and Sustainability 5:137
American Petroleum Institute, 1:35,
Alaska North Slope, 1:83 1:66
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 5:17 American Recovery and Reinvest-
Aleman, Angel, 1:50 ment Act, 1:33, 1:201, 2:171,
Aleutian Islands, 4:18 3:169, 4:89, 4:171, 5:120, 5:173
Algae, 2:93f; as biofuel, 4:115; American Solar Energy Society
blue-green, 2:94; high-oil, (ASES), 1:35, 1:165, 1:209, 2:33,
2:93; hydrogen produced by, 2:80, 2:135, 2:179, 3:133, 3:177,
2:92 – 94 4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
All American Homes, 5:23 American Wind Association, 1:35
Alliance to Save Energy, 1:27, 5:42 American Wind Energy Association
Allied Business Intelligence (ABI), (AWEA), 1:165, 2:135, 3:2, 3:26,
2:117, 5:118 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
Alonzo, Stephanie, 1:50 Anaerobic digestion, 4:97
Altamont Pass Wind Farm, 3:32, Animal husbandry, 4:100
3:33f Anode, 2:88
Alta Rock Energy, 1:213, 2:183, Antifreeze, 4:60, 4:66f
3:181, 4:183, 5:185 ANWR. See Arctic National Wildlife
Alternate Fuels and Advanced Refuge
Vehicles Data Center, 5:127 Appliances, 5:50f; efficiency of,
Alternative energy, 5:59 – 62 5:52 – 53; fuel use and, 1:178t – 179t,
Alternative Energy Primer, 4:105 2:148t – 149t, 3:146t – 147t,
Alternative Fuels and Advanced Data 4:148t – 149t, 5:150t – 151t
Center, 2:103, 4:105 AquaBuoy, 3:116f, 3:117f
Aluminum industry, 1:21 Aquaculture, 4:50
AMD. See Acid mine drainage Aramaki, Teiichi, 1:32f
American Coal Council (ACC), 1:35, Arch dam, 3:80
1:129 Archimedes, 2:35
American Electric and Illuminating, Architecture: ecological, 5:24; green,
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170 5:88 – 89; for green roof, 5:81 – 82
American Federation of Teachers, Arctic ice mass, 1:24f
5:37 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
American Gas Association, 1:35, (ANWR), 1:61
1:100, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135, Arizona: geothermal energy in, 4:18;
5:137 geothermal heat pumps tested in,
Index a 221
4:65 – 66; solar power plant in, 2:39; Baring-Gould, Ian, 3:44
Tucson, 5:17 Barrage technologies, 3:107
Arkansas, 4:5, 4:118, 5:91, 5:91f Basics of Energy Efficient Living
Arquin, Michael, 3:47 – 51, 3:48f (Wibberding), 5:61
Arsdell, Brent Van, 2:40f Bates, John, 5:123
Arsene d’Arsonval, Jacques, 3:118 Bats, 3:60
ASES. See American Solar Energy Batteries: fuel cells using, 2:97; future
Society of, 5:122 – 23; NiMH, 5:122 – 23;
Association for the Advancement of thin-film lithium-ion, 5:123, 5:123f
Sustainability in Higher Education, Battersdy, Leah, 5:64f
5:41 Battery storage: for home and busi-
Association of American State ness, 2:15f; PV to, 2:14
Geologists, 1:67 Bay Localize, 1:28
Atoms, 2:10 Bay of Fundy, 3:110
Auburn University, 4:83 Beaufort, Francis, 3:5, 3:6t
Austin, Texas, 5:91 Beaufort scale, 3:5, 3:6t
Australia, 1:85; coal exports of, 1:116; Beaver County power plant, 4:20
geothermal power plants in, 4:42; Becquerel, Edmond, 1:203, 2:2, 2:173,
hot dry rock resources in, 4:47 – 48; 3:171, 4:173, 5:175
photovoltaic technology used by, Belize, 4:34
2:25 Bell Laboratories, 2:5
Austria: biomass energy in, 4:89; hy- Belote, Dave, 2:3f
droelectric power plants in, 3:89 Benz, Daimler, 2:90
AutoDesk, 5:18 Benzene, 1:53
Automotive Industry Research, Bergey Windpower, 3:72
1:213 – 14, 2:183 – 84, 3:181 – 82, Berkeley Biodiesel Collective, 4:126
4:183 – 84, 5:185 – 86 Biliran, 4:33
AWEA. See American Wind Energy Billings, Montana, 5:91
Association Binary power plants, 4:9 – 10, 4:9f,
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f 4:22, 4:40f
Binder, Michael, 2:98
B20 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120 Biodiesel, 1:48, 1:49, 1:51, 1:53 – 54,
Babcock Ranch, 2:22 4:127 – 28; advantages of, 4:121;
Backhus, DeWayne, 3:20 of America, 4:126; Arkansas
Bacon, Francis T., 1:203, 2:90, 2:173, school buses using, 4:118; B20
3:171, 4:173, 5:175 fuel, 4:119f, 4:120; buses using,
Bacteria, 4:103 4:109f; California using, 4:121;
Baez, Ana, 1:50 composition of, 4:112; defining,
Bahrain World Trade Center, 4:109; disadvantages of, 4:121 – 25;
3:55 – 56, 3:55f discarded restaurant oil used
Ballard Power System, 2:90, 2:102 as, 4:116f; grassroots effort in,
Ball State University (BSU), 4:68 4:112; high-oil algae for, 2:93;
Bantam, Doug, 4:1 home heating with, 4:120; Idaho
Bargeloads, of coal, 1:113f projects of, 4:118; petroleum diesel
222 a Index
economic benefits of, 4:104;

electricity capacity of, 4:104;
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Finland using, 4:88; gasification
Cells plant, 4:79, 4:80f; heating system
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and using, 5:25; hybrid poplars as,
Hydropower 4:83 – 85, 4:84f; Indonesia’s energy
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy source of, 4:86; landfill gas from,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 1:97; Philippines’ energy from,
and Sustainability 4:87; reading materials on, 1:162,
2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
emissions compared to, 4:116; interest in, 4:85; Sweden’s energy
production specifications source of, 4:88; switchgrass as,
of, 4:114 – 16; race car using, 4:82 – 83, 4:82f; types of, 4:81f; US
4:107 – 8, 4:108f; school buses government interest in, 4:80; US
using, 4:117 – 20, 4:119, 4:119f; percentage use of, 4:85; Vietnam’s
students building cars using, energy source of, 4:87; wood-
4:121; in US, 5:122; vegetable oil burning boilers and, 4:105
as, 4:116f; vehicles powered by, Biomass Research Center, 4:105
4:110 – 11, 4:117 – 20, 5:75 Biomass Solar Greenhouse Project,
Biodiesel Solutions, 4:107 2:64
Biodigester, 4:98, 4:99f, 4:101 Bioreactors, 2:93f
Bioethanol, 4:91 – 92 Biorefinery plants, 4:90f
Biofuel, 1: xvii, 1:14, 2: xvii, 3: xvii, Biotechnology, 5:123
4: xvii, 4:89 – 90, 5: xvii; algae used Birdsville geothermal power plant,
as, 4:115; bacteria producing, 4:42
4:103; biotechnology used in, Bitumen, 1:58, 1:59
5:123; buses, 5:7, 5:8f; defining, Blackfeet Indian Reservation,
4:90 – 91; dry-milling for, 4:94f; in 5:25 – 26
sustainable development, 5:120 – 22; Blade design, 3:9
US consumption of, 1:61 Blenders, 1:53 – 54
Biogas, 4:96 – 97, 4:128; China’s use Blohm, Margaret, 5:117f
of, 4:102 – 3; CO2 from, 4:96; cow Bloom Energy Corporation,
manure producing, 4:98; digester, 5:121 – 22, 5:121f, 5:128
4:100 – 101; production facilities Bloom Energy Server, 5:121 – 22
for, 4:97f; savings from, 4:101 – 2; Blower door test, 5:56f
technology of, 4:102 – 3 Blue-green algae, 2:94
Biogas plant, components of, 4:98 Bluenergy Solarwind Turbine, Inc.,
Biogen Idec, Inc., 4:64 3:14
Biojet, 4:107 Blue Sun Company, 4:115
Biomass, 1:13 – 14, 2:64 – 65; Asian BMW Mini E, 5:72
countries using, 4:85 – 88; Austria’s Boeing Research & Technology,
energy source of, 4:89; benefits of, 2:105, 2:106f
4:103 – 4; defining, 4:81 – 82; Boiling water reactors, 1:142 – 43,
Denmark’s energy source of, 4:89; 1:143f
Index a 223
Boise State University, 3:46 CaCO3. See Calcium carbonate

Bolluyt, Jan, 3:19 – 23 Cactus Shadows High School, 4:66
Bonneville Dam, 3:97f CAFE. See Corporate aver fleet
Borrego Solar Systems, 2:33 efficiency
Boston, Massachusetts, 5:91 Caithness/COC, 4:20
Boulder, Colorado, 5:91 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 1:111
BP. See British Petroleum CalEnergy Navy I, 4:11
Brazil, 2:113, 3:86 – 87 California: biodiesel used in, 4:121;
Breakthrough Technologies Institute, Energy, 4:20; geothermal energy
2:103 in, 4:14 – 15; go-green projects in,
Breeder reactors, 1:143 – 44; fast, 5:33 – 34; Golden Gate Bridge and,
1:149 – 50; liquid metal fast, 1:150f 3:111, 3:112f; solar energy used in,
Bright Source Energy, 1:214, 2:184, 2:17; wind energy in, 1:200, 2:170,
3:182, 4:184, 5:186 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
British Petroleum (BP), 1:67, 1:214, California Fuel Cell Partnership,
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 2:115 – 16
British thermal unit (Btu), 1:18, 1:78 California Wind Energy Association,
Browning High School, 5:25 – 26 3:32
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant, California Youth Energy Services
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 (CYES), 1:30
Brush, Charles F., 1:199, 1:203, 2:169, Calorie, 1:18
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173, Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
5:171, 5:175 Canada: airborne wind turbines
BSU. See Ball State University in, 3:62; energy consumption
Btu. See British thermal unit per capita of, 1:22; geothermal
Buckley Air Force Base, 2:14 activity in, 4:38 – 39; hydroelectric
Buffalo Ridge Wind Farm, 3:34 generation of, 3:85 – 86; hydrogen
Bunsen, Robert, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167, fuel cell buses in, 2:111
4:169, 5:171 Canadian Hydrogen Highway, 2:111
Burdin, Claude, 3:7 Canola, 4:115
Buses: biodiesel, 4:117 – 20, 4:119f; Cantor, Phillip, 4:122 – 25
biofueled, 5:7, 5:8f; CNG powered, Caprocks, 1:74
1:86f; diesel-fueled, 1:48f; Carbon, 1:94, 5:7
hydrogen fuel cells, 2:111 – 13, Carbon capture and sequestration,
2:112f; soybean-powered, 4:109f 1:122 – 23, 1:124f
Businesses: battery storage for, 2:15f; Carbon cycle, 4:91f
carbon footprint of, 5:18 – 19; wind Carbon dioxide (CO2), 1:75, 4:26;
farms, 3:39 – 40 from biogas, 4:96; from coal,
Butane, 1:74, 1:76 1:119 – 20; coal-fired power station
Buttress dam, 3:80 capture and storage of, 1:124f;
countries with highest emissions
C. reinhartii, 2:92 of, 5:5; deforestation increasing,
CAA. See Clean Air Act 1:120; electricity and reduction
CAC. See Clean Air Council of, 5:48 – 50; emissions, 1:95f,
224 a Index
Carlisle, Anthony, 2:90

Carlson, Jason, 5:38f
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Car maintenance, 5:75 – 76
Cells Carmichael, Don, 5:37 – 40, 5:38f
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Carrier Corp., 1:214, 2:184, 3:182,
Hydropower 4:184, 5:186
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Catalytic filters, 5:124
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Cathode, 2:88
and Sustainability Cattle, 1:76
Cavendish, Henry, 2:90
1:119 – 20, 1:120f; emissions CDM. See Clean Development
increasing of, 5:4 – 5; emissions Mechanism
of fuel, 1:95f; gas injection using, Cendejas, Emily, 1:50
1:45; geothermal energy credits Central America, 1:84
for, 4:51; geothermal heat pump Certification plaque, 5:81f
reducing, 4:68, 4:69; global Cervantes, Janneth, 1:50
emissions of, 1:192 – 95, 2:162 – 65, CETC Solar Group, 1:214, 2:184,
3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, 5:5, 5:105, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
5:164 – 67; as greenhouse gas, 1:23; CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons
long-term storage of, 1:122 – 23; CFL. See Compact fluorescent light
power plant producing, 1:73f; trees bulb
capturing, 5:1; US emissions of, Chaplin, Daryl, 2:5
1:120f; waste creating, 5:51 Charcoal, 4:102
Carbon footprint, 5:5 – 6, 5:104; Charest, Chris, 2:95f
of businesses, 5:18 – 19; of cities, Charging station nozzle, 5:73f
5:15 – 16; cities ranked for, 5:17; Chaudes-Aigues, France, 4:32
cities reducing, 5:17; emissions Chemical energy, 1:5
tracking of, 5:18; estimating your, Chemical injection, 1:46
5:20; of homes, 5:8 – 9; Idaho Chen, David, 2:52 – 54, 2:52f
reducing, 5:11 – 12; individuals, Chena Hot Springs, 4:19
5:6f; legislative efforts reducing, Chernobyl plant, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
5:21; Minnesota reducing, 5:9 – 10; 4:170, 5:172
musicians reducing, 5:6 – 8, Chevron, 1:67, 4:41
5:8f; New Hampshire reducing, Chevron Energy Solutions Co.,
5:10 – 11; reducing, 5:19; of schools 1:214, 2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
and colleges, 5:9 – 12; schools Chevy Volt, 5:71
reduction of, 5:12, 5:14 – 15; Texas Chicago Biofuels, 4:124
reducing, 5:11; two parts of, 5:6; Chief Joseph Dam, 3:75
Virginia reducing, 5:11; Washing- China: biogas use of, 4:102 – 3; coal-
ton reducing, 5:11 fired power station dependence
Carbon monoxide, 4:92 reduced by, 4:39; coal production
Career resources, 1:209 – 12, of, 1:114, 1:116; Dongtan, 5:94;
2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80, 4:179 – 82, energy use of, 5:107; geothermal
5:181 – 84 resources in, 4:39; natural gas
Index a 225
extracted by, 1:71; natural gas use Clean Development Mechanism

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, (CDM), 4:51
5:169; Nuclear reactors in, 1:11f; Clean Edge jobs, 1:209, 2:179, 3:177,
parabolic cookers used in, 2:72; 4:179, 5:181
renewable energy promoted by, Clean Fuels Development Coalition,
3:61f; rooftop solar heaters in, 4:126
2:79f; solar cell manufacturing Clean Urban Transport for Europe
of, 1: xiv, 1:201, 2: xiv, 2:24, 2:171, (CUTE), 2:112
3: xiv, 3:169, 4: xiv, 4:171, 5: xiv, Climate change, 5:14 – 15, 5:16f;
5:173; Three Gorges dam project environmental concerns for,
of, 3:83 – 85, 3:84f; tidal power in, 1:22 – 24; reducing, 1:25 – 33;
3:110; using microhydroelectric United Nations Convention on,
power plants, 3:94; wind turbines 1:32f
in, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:61f, 3:169, Climate Protection Summit, 5:16f
4:171, 5:173 Clinton Climate Initiative, 5:18
China Dome digester, 4:102, 4:103f Closed-cycle systems, 3:119 – 20, 4:26
Chinese Guorui Biogas Company, Closed-loop ground-coupled heat
4:102 pump (GCHP), 4:68
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 1:74 Closed-loop systems, 4:60 – 61, 4:61f
Chrysler ecoVoyager, 5:70 CNG. See Compressed natural gas
Chu, Steven, 1:125, 1:131, 2:85, 3:73, CO2. See Carbon dioxide
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120, Coal, 1: xii, 1:10, 2: xii, 3: xii, 4: xii,
5:129 5: xii; ash slurry, 1:112; bargeload
Churchill, Winston, 3:86 of, 1:113f; carbon ratio of, 1:94;
Churchill Falls, 3:86 China’s production of, 1:114, 1:116;
Cities: carbon footprint ranking CO2 from, 1:119 – 20; consumption
of, 5:17; carbon footprint of, 1:118; countries production of,
reduction of, 5:17; carbon 1:115 – 16; deposits, 1:106; early
footprints of, 5:15 – 16; Solar uses of, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167,
America, 2:21; using solar energy, 5:169; environmental issues of,
2:17 – 21 1:109 – 11, 1:128 – 29; exporters of,
Claude, Georges, 1:204, 2:174, 1:116 – 17, 1:117t; formation of,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
CLC. See College of Lake County future of, 1:128 – 29; gasification,
Clean Air Act (CAA), 1:47, 1:114, 1:125 – 28, 1:126f; Germany
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, and, 1:115 – 16, 5:106; history of,
5:173 1:104; imports of, 1:117; India’s
Clean Air Act Amendments, production of, 1:116; Industrial
4:115 – 16 Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
Clean Air Council (CAC), 1:165, mining of, 1:106 – 12; Poland’s
2:135, 3:133, 4:135, 5:137 production of, 1:116; production,
Clean coal technology, 1:121 – 28 1:115 – 16; products made from,
Clean Coal Technology Program, 1:105f; recoverable reserves
1:122 of, 1:190t – 191t, 2:160t – 161t,
226 a Index
Compact fluorescent light bulb

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Components: of biogas plant,
Cells 4:98; of green buildings, 5:79;
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and of green roofs, 5:84 – 86, 5:85f;
Hydropower of hydroelectric power plants,
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy 3:81 – 83; of microhydroelectric
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, power plants, 3:90 – 93, 3:92f; of
and Sustainability wind turbines, 3:10
Compressed air storage, 2:28; for
3:158t – 159t, 4:160t – 161t, wind energy, 3:69 – 70; for wind
5:162t – 163t; states producing, farms, 3:31 – 32
1:114 – 15; sulfur dioxide from, Compressed natural gas (CNG):
1:119; surface mining of, 1:109; buses powered by, 1:86f; Egypt
transportation of, 1:112 – 13; using, 1:93f
uses of, 1:104 – 5; US industry of, Computers, 5:54
1:113 – 15, 1:115f, 1:117; Utah state Concentrating solar power (CSP),
rock as, 1:109; videos on, 1:130; 1: xiv, 1:12, 2: xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
world consumption of, 1:103 3: xiv, 4: xiv, 5: xiv; environmen-
Coal-fired power stations: carbon tal impacts of, 2:50 – 51; future
dioxide capture and storage at, of, 2:50 – 51; land use of, 2:50;
1:124f; China reducing dependence sustainable development with,
on, 4:39; electricity produced by, 5:113; types of, 2:36 – 47
1:113 – 14, 1:114f; emissions from, Concrete dome homes, 5:46, 5:47f
1:122, 5:124; environmental issues Condoor, Sridhar, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
of, 1:119 – 20; nanotechnology 4:174, 5:176
based catalytic filters for, 5:124; Conduction, 2:68
zero emissions from, 1:122 Congressional Research Service
Coal-generating plants, 1:121 (CRS), 3:24, 3:30
Cob Connection, 4:124 Conlogue, Fred, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
College of Lake County (CLC), 4:174, 5:176
5:39 ConocoPhillips Company, 1:64 – 65,
Colleges: carbon footprints of, 1:67, 3:67
5:9 – 12; Contra Costa Community, Conrad, William, 1:204, 2:174, 3:172,
2:4; green architecture in, 5:88 – 89; 4:174, 5:176
Iowa Central Community, 4:71; Conserv Fuels, 4:109
Middlebury, 4:79 – 80, 4:80f; solar Construction materials, 5:80 – 81
energy installation at, 2:4; Texas Consumer Energy Center, 2:55
State Technical, 3:47 Consumers: of natural gas, 1:82 – 85;
Collins, Patrick, 5:125 – 26, 5:126f wind energy cost to, 3:17f, 3:44,
Colorado: Boulder, 5:91; geothermal 3:68
energy in, 4:17, 4:51f; wind farms Consumption: of biofuel, 1:61; of
in, 3:34 coal, 1:118; of electricity, 5:48,
Columbia, 1:101 5:49f; of energy, 1:4f; of fossil fuels,
Index a 227
2: xiii; household electricity, 5:49f; 3:109 – 11; using wave energy,

natural gas, 1:83 – 84 3:116 – 18
Containment ponds, 1:112 Cow manure, 4:98
Contra Costa Community College, CRS. See Congressional Research
2:4 Service
Controlled burn program, 5:87 Crude oil, 1:60f; global reserves
Controller, 3:11 of, 1:188t – 189t, 2:158t – 159t,
Control rods, 1:142 3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t,
Convection, 2:68 5:160t – 161t; imports of, 1: xi – xii,
Conventional water heaters, 5:67f 2: xi – xii, 3: xi – xii, 4: xi – xii, 5: xi – xii;
Conversion, energy loss from, 1:7 – 8 products from, 1:40f; refineries,
Coolants, 1:141 – 42 1:46 – 47; US imports of, 1:54 – 56
Copenhagen, 3:58f Crystalline silicon solar cells, 2:7 – 8
Corn crops, 4:93, 4:96 CSP. See Concentrating solar power
Corn ethanol, 4:92 – 93 Cubic foot, 1:18
Corn gluten meal, 4:95 Currie, Linda, 1:28 – 31
Corn kernels, 4:94f Custom Coals International, 1:122
Cornwall Geothermal Project, 4:41 CUTE. See Clean Urban Transport
Corporate aver fleet efficiency for Europe
(CAFE), 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, Cut-in speeds, 3:21
4:171, 5:173 CYES. See California Youth Energy
Coso geothermal field, 4:11 – 12 Services
Cost: of FCVs, 2:114; of fuel cells,
2:97, 2:121 – 22; geothermal heat Daimler AG, 2:86, 5:119
pump effectiveness of, 4:69; of Dam gates, 3:81
geothermal power plants, 4:46; of Dams: for hydroelectric energy,
green roofs, 5:87; of microhydro- 3:78 – 80; types of, 3:80
electric power plants, 3:93 – 94; Danube river, 3:87 – 88, 3:88f
of solar energy, 2:30 – 31; of solar Darajat, 4:41
water heaters, 2:79, 5:66 – 67; of Darfur Refugee Camps, 2:72
wind energy, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68 da Rosa, Aldo V., 5:61
Costa Rica, 4:43 – 44 Darrieus wind turbines, 3:13 – 14
Countries: CO2 emissions of, 5:5; Database of State Incentives for
coal production of, 1:115 – 16; Renewable Energy (DSIRE), 3:71
energy efficient, 5:21; geothermal Davenport University, 4:72
energy interest of, 4:45; green Davy, Humphrey, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
cities of, 5:92 – 94; natural gas 4:168, 5:170
production of, 1:81 – 82; nuclear DC. See Direct current
energy in, 5:112; oil-producing, Dearborn, Michigan, 5:86
1:56; using biomass, 4:85 – 88; Deepwater floating wind turbines,
using geothermal energy, 4:32f; 3:63
using geothermal heat pumps, 4:73; Deepwater Horizon well, 1:61
using microhydroelectric power Deforestation, 1:120, 4:102
plants, 3:94 – 95; using tidal power, Delaware, 3:37
228 a Index
bus fueled by, 1:48f; emissions of,

4:116; fuel, 1:47 – 48; functioning
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel of, 4:112 – 13; hydrogen injection
Cells in, 2:113; vegetable oil operation
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and originally for, 4:113
Hydropower Diodati, Jason, 1:49 – 52
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Direct current (DC), 2:8, 3:39
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Directional drilling, 1:44 – 45
and Sustainability Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
Delhaize American organization, Discover Solar Energy, 2:33, 2:56
5:105 DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
Dell-Winston School Solar Dissolved oxygen levels, 3:96
Challenge, 2:45 Diversion power plant, 3:81
Denmark: biomass energy source in, Dixon, Patrick, 4:55
4:89; wind energy production of, DMFCs. See Direct methanol fuel
3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115 cells
Department of Energy (DOE), 1:34, DOE. See Department of Energy
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138; Dongtan, China, 5:94
energy security and, 5:127; Energy Doping process, 2:7
Star program of, 4:73; hydrogen Double-flash power plants, 4:11
research of, 2:100 – 101; hydrogen Double-pane windows, 5:52f
storage research of, 2:123; job Dr. FuelCell Science kit, 2:126
vacancies in, 1:212, 2:182, 3:180, Drake, Edwin L., 1:67, 1:204, 2:174,
4:182, 5:184; net metering 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
information from, 3:43; wind Drilling: horizontal and directional,
energy report of, 3:17, 3:24, 3:71 1:44 – 45; rig, 1:44f
Department of Energy Office of Driving habits, 5:75 – 76
Fossil Energy, 1:100 Dry-milling plants, 4:93
Department of Labor, 1:212, 2:182, Dry-milling process, 4:94 – 95, 4:94f
3:180, 4:182, 5:184 Dry steam powered plants,
Deposits, coal, 1:106 4:8 – 9, 4:8f
De Saussure, Horace Benedict, 1:204, DSIRE. See Database of State
2:174, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 Incentives for Renewable Energy
Desiccant displacement systems, 5:29 Ducks Unlimited National
DeSoto Next Generation Solar Headquarters, 5:87
Energy Center, 1: xiii, 2: xiii, 2:22, DuPont, 2:102
2:22f, 3: xiii, 4: xiii, 5: xiii Durability, 4:70
Desuperheater, 4:69 DVD players, 5:54
Diesel, Rudolf, 1:47, 1:48, 1:199, Dye-sensitized solar cells, 2:11 – 12,
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169, 2:12f
5:171
Diesel engines, 4:112f; biodiesel Earth: ecosystem of, 5:99 – 100;
emissions compared to, 4:116; geothermal heat pump and, 4:57;
Index a 229
global warming of, 5:4 – 5; global Electrical grid system: grid-connected

winds of, 3:3f; Honor the, 2:8; system and, 3:42 – 43; main power
human demands on, 5:7; interior grids in, 5:119; residential system
heat energy of, 4:2 – 5, 4:3f; science, connection to, 3:42 – 43, 3:42f; of
1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190; US, 2:29; US improvement needed
temperatures and pressures of, 4:3; in, 5:119. See also Transmission
temperature underground of, 4:4, grid; Utility grid
4:57; thermal energy of, 4:15 Electricity: biomass’ capacity of,
Eastern Interconnection, 5:119 4:104; CO2 emission reduction
Eastport, Maine, 3:108 and, 5:48 – 50; coal-fired power
Eco-friendly certification, 5:35 station producing, 1:113 – 14,
Eco-friendly materials, 5:8f 1:114f; energy and, 1:16 – 17;
Eco-friendly schools, 4:65f geothermal energy generating,
Ecological architecture, 5:24 4:8 – 13; home’s requirements of,
Ecological footprint, 5:7 3:16, 3:41; home’s use of, 3:44,
Econar, 4:75 3:90, 5:48, 5:49f; household
Economics: biomass benefits of, consumption of, 5:49f; from
4:104; of geothermal heat pump, hydroelectric power plants, 3:83;
4:73 – 74; of solar energy, 2:30; of kWh of, 3:15; light producing, 2:2;
solar water heaters, 2:78; of tidal from photovoltaic power plants,
power, 3:111; of wind energy, 2:16f; solar cells producing, 2:7f;
3:16 – 18 solar energy creating, 2:14 – 15;
Economic stimulus Bill, 1:33 sources producing, 1:16 – 17;
Economy, hydrogen, 2:101 stationary bicycles generating, 5:9;
Eco-Roof Incentive Programs, 5:95 thin-film solar cells production
Eco-roofs, 5:65 of, 2:10; transmission of, 1:17; US
Eco-structure, in Florida, 5:96 infrastructure modernization for,
Ecosystem, of earth, 5:99 – 100 3:68 – 69; wind energy generating,
Ecoversity, 4:127 3:38; wind turbines generating,
ECR Industries, 4:75 3:16, 3:21 – 22
Edison, Thomas, 1:199, 2:1, 2:169, Electric motor, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 4:168, 5:170
Edison Electric Co., 1:198, 2:168, Electric Power Research Institute,
3:166, 4:168, 5:170 3:110
EERE. See Energy Efficiency and Electric power transmission system,
Renewable Energy 3:25
EFRC. See Energy Frontier Research Electric street cars, 5:89f
Centers Electric Vehicle Association of
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
E.I. Dupont De Nemours, 1:214, 4:135, 5:77, 5:126, 5:137
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 Electric vehicles, 5:18f, 5:71 – 74;
Einstein, Albert, 1:199, 1:204, 2:169, benefits and challenges of, 5:73 – 74;
2:174, 3:167, 3:172, 4:169, 4:174, charging station nozzle for, 5:73f;
5:171, 5:176 gas powered vehicle conversion
230 a Index
electricity and, 1:16 – 17; forms

of, 1:5 – 6; fossil fuels for, 1:8f,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 1:24, 1:36 – 37; future of, 5:129;
Cells global consumption of, 1:18 – 19;
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and global role of, 1:1 – 2, 3:vii – viii;
Hydropower homes saving, 5:47 – 48; impact
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy of, 1:vii – viii, 2:vii – viii, 3:vii – viii,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 4:vii – viii, 5:vii – viii; industries
and Sustainability using a lot of, 1:20 – 21; Informa-
tion Administration, 3:66, 4:54;
to, 5:125 – 26; green, 5:71 – 74; landscaping saving, 5:56 – 57; law
hydrogen fuel cell with, 2:86f; of conservation of, 1:6 – 7; manu-
infrastructure needed for, 5:72 – 73; facturers in, 1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86,
miles per gallon estimation of, 5:74; 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88;
Nissan Leaf as, 5:74; Saturn EV-1, measuring, 1:18; nonrenewable
5:72 sources of, 1:9 – 11; policies, 1:viii,
Electrolysis, 2:87, 2:91 – 92, 2:92f 1:2 – 3, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii, 5:viii;
Electrolyte, 2:88 product development in, 1:213 – 16,
Electromagnetic energy, 1:6 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86,
Electrons, 2:92 5:185 – 88; renewable energy
El Paso Solar Pond, 2:81 and, 1:180t – 183t, 2:150t – 153t,
El Salvador, 4:42 – 43 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
Emissions: biodiesel v. diesel, 4:116; 5:152t – 155t; renewable sources of,
carbon footprint tracking of, 5:18; 1:12 – 16; rotor blades involving,
CO2, 1:95f, 1:119 – 20, 1:120f; CO2 3:7 – 9; Savers, 4:54, 4:76; security,
increasing, 5:4 – 5; CO2 reduc- 5:127; sources of, 1:8 – 15; stor-
tion of, 5:48 – 50; coal-fired plants age, 3:69; time line of, 1:197 – 201,
from, 1:122, 5:124; coal-generating 2:167 – 71, 3:165 – 69, 4:167 – 71,
plants with, 1:121; of fossil fuels, 5:169 – 73; US history of, 1:3 – 4,
1:22f; fuel and CO2, 1:95f; of 1:4t; US supply of, 1:14f; world-
greenhouse gases, 4:69; greenhouse wide uses of, 1:19 – 21
gases reduction of, 2:78, 5:16; natu- Energy audits, 5:20, 5:24, 5:54 – 55
ral gas, 1:90 – 94; nitrogen oxide, Energy Clean Cities Program,
1:98; petroleum diesel, 4:116; 4:118
sulfur dioxide, 1:119; sulfur oxide, Energy conservation, 1:25 – 26, 5:107;
4:117; US CO2, 1:120f; zero, 1:122, defining, 5:3; reading materials on,
5:73 – 74, 5:94. See also Carbon 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31,
dioxide 4:132 – 33, 5:134 – 35; in schools,
Empire State Building, 5:82 1:26 – 28
Enel, 4:20 Energy consumption: Canada’s per
Energized Learning, 5:22 capita, 1:22; environmental issues
Energy: careers in, 2:54; China and and, 5:102; future of, 1:21 – 22;
India’s use of, 5:107; consumption global, 1:20f; global and regional,
of, 1:4f; conversion loss of, 1:7 – 8; 1:184t – 187t, 2:154t – 157t,
Index a 231
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, Environmental issues: climate change

5:156t – 159t; lighting strategies and, 1:22 – 24; of coal, 1:109 – 11,
reducing, 1:27; renewable energy 1:128 – 29; of coal-fired power
production and, 1:180t – 183t, station, 1:119 – 20; of CSP, 2:50 – 51;
2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t, design projects responsible to,
4:150t – 153t, 5:152t – 155t; by 5:31 – 32; energy consumption and,
sector, 1:174t – 177t, 2:144t – 147t, 5:102; gasification with, 1:127;
3:142t – 145t, 4:144t – 147t, of geothermal energy, 4:53; of
5:146t – 149t; by source, mining, 1:109 – 11; musicians con-
1:170t – 173t, 2:140t – 143t, scious of, 5:6 – 8, 5:8f; petroleum
3:138t – 141t, 4:140t – 143t, and, 1:60 – 62; surface mining and,
5:142t – 145t; of US, 1:19f 1:108; in tidal power, 3:112 – 13
Energy efficiency, 1:25 – 26, 5:12; Environmentalists, 2:29
audits, 1:31; countries, 5:21; Environmental Protection Agency
defining, 5:3 – 4; dome homes and, (EPA), 1:97, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134,
5:48; in go-green program, 5:3 – 4; 4:136, 5:138; carbon footprint re-
green buildings for, 5:80 – 81; duction tips from, 5:19; electric car
home heating and, 5:50; of homes, mileage from, 5:74; Energy Star
5:51 – 54; home’s outdoor landscap- program of, 4:73; geothermal heat
ing and, 5:56 – 57; reading materials pump efficiency and, 4:57; Green
on, 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, Vehicle Guide from, 5:77; human
4:132 – 33, 5:134 – 35; school health mission of, 4:76; personal
programs for, 5:45; in schools, carbon footprint estimation from,
1:26 – 28; sustainable development 5:20; SmartWay designation of,
and, 5:107; windows and, 5:33 5:75; Space Conditioning: The Next
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Frontier by, 4:69
Energy (EERE), 1:36, 2:104, 4:76, EOR. See Enhanced oil recovery
4:105, 5:22, 5:128 EPA. See Environmental Protection
Energy Frontier Research Centers Agency
(EFRC), 1:33 Equinox Fuel Cell SUV, 5:70
EnergyGuide, 5:50f EREC. See European Renewable
Energy Independence and Security Energy Council
Act of 2007, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, Ericsson, John, 1:198, 1:205, 2:5,
4:171, 5:173 2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
Energy Policy Act of 2005, 1:201, 4:175, 5:170, 5:177
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f, 4:175, 5:177
5:55 Erren engines, 1:205
Enhanced geothermal system, ESHA. See European Small
4:12 – 13, 4:41, 4:46 – 47, 4:47f, Hydropower Association
4:48f Ethane, 1:74 – 75
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 1:45 Ethanol, 4:82f, 4:92; benefits of, 4:96;
Environmental Energy Technologies bio, 4:91 – 92; concerns about, 4:96;
Division, 5:22 corn, 4:92 – 93; corn crops for, 4:96;
232 a Index
Fast neutron reactors, 1:149 – 50

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Faya, Antnio, 3:87
Cells FCHV. See Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and FCO. See Fuel Cell Quadracycle
Hydropower FCVs. See Fuel cell vehicles
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Federal-Aid Highway Act, 1:200,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 2:170, 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
and Sustainability Fenton Wind Farm, 3:34
Ferguson, Charles, 1:154 – 56, 1:155f
gasoline with, 4:93f, 4:96; produc- Fermentation, 2:92, 4:94 – 95, 4:100
tion of, 4:93 – 95; wet-milling pro- Fermi, Enrico, 1:134, 1:200, 1:205,
cess in, 4:95f. See also Methanol 2:170, 2:175, 3:168, 3:173, 4:170,
Ethylene, 1:53 4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Europe: air-to-water heat pumps FGD. See Flue gas desulphurization
in, 4:74; geothermal heat pumps Finland, 4:88
in, 4:72 – 73; hot dry rock project First Solar, Inc, 2:22
of, 4:48 – 49; hydrogen fuel cell Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
research of, 2:112 – 13; wind energy Fish ladders, 3:97f
in, 1: xv – xvi, 2: xv – xvi, 3: xv – xvi, Fission reaction, 1:138
3:57, 4: xv – xvi, 5: xv – xvi Flash-steam power plants, 4:10 – 12,
European Association for Battery, 4:10f
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Flat-plate collector, 2:76
Vehicles, 5:77 Fleet vehicles, 1:85 – 86, 1:90
European Renewable Energy Council Floating nuclear power plants,
(EREC), 3:98 1:151 – 52
European Small Hydropower Asso- FloDesign Wind turbines, 3:56
ciation (ESHA), 3:98 Flores, Jordan, 1:30
European Union, 4:72 Florida: eco-structure in, 5:96; LEED
European Wind Energy Association, certified school in, 5:33
3:59 Florida Solar Energy Center, 2:11,
Evaporator coil, 4:59 2:33
Exide Technologies, 5:2 Flue gas desulphurization (FGD),
Experimental aircraft, 2:106f 1:111
Experimental vehicle team, 2:44 – 45 Fluidized bed combustion systems,
Exporters, of coal, 1:116 – 17, 1:117t 1:121 – 22
Exxon Mobil, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, Food Lion, 5:105
4:185, 5:187 Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
Faraday, Michael, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168, Ford “999,” 2:109
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
5:170, 5:177 2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
Farmers, of wind energy, 3:38, 3:39 5:72, 5:86, 5:172, 5:188
Fast breeder reactors, 1:149 – 50 Forebay, 3:92f
Index a 233
Forklifts, 2:113 1:95f; vegetable oils as, 4:114;

Formula 3 racing car, 4:108f world use of, 1:8f
Fort Atkinson School District, 4:17, Fuel Cell 2000, 2:103
4:66 – 67 Fuel-cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV),
Fortman, Mark, 5:10f 2:109
Fossil Energy Study Guides and Fuel Cell Quadracycle (FCO), 2:99
Activities, 5:128 Fuel cells, 2:116; basic applications
Fossil fuels, 1:9 – 19; coal as, 1:106; of, 2:103; batteries used with,
consumption of, 2: xiii; emission 2:97; benefits of, 2:121; Bloom
levels of, 1:22f; for energy, 1:8f, Energy, 5:121 – 22; concerns
1:24, 1:36 – 37; natural gas cleanest about, 2:121 – 23; cost of, 2:97,
of, 1:94; petroleum as, 1:41; 2:121 – 22; defining, 2:87; draw-
reading materials on, 1:159 – 60, backs of, 2:89 – 90; function-
2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, ing of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
5:131 – 32 2:106 – 7; history notes of, 5:120;
Fourneyron, Benoit, 3:7 home applications of, 2:117 – 19;
Fox River, Wisconsin, 3:78 home installation of, 2:117 – 19,
France: Chaudes-Aigues, 4:32; 2:118f; hydrogen model cars
geothermal district heating with, 2:127; Molten Carbonate,
facilities in, 4:50; natural gas and, 2:119; on-site, 5:119; phosphoric
1:84; nuclear energy in, 1:137 – 38; acid, 2:119; production, 2:104;
tidal power energy in, 1: xvi – xvii, school education on, 2:125 – 26;
2: xvi – xvii, 3: xvi – xvii, 3:109, 3:109f, small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
4: xvi – xvii, 5: xvi – xvii oxide, 2:107, 5:121; space shuttles
France, Brian, 5:1 – 2, 5:2f using, 5:120; stationary systems
Francis, James, 3:82 of, 2:119; telecommunications
Francis reaction turbines, 3:92, 3:94 using, 2:119 – 20; transportation
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar En- applications of, 2:107 – 16; types of,
ergy Systems, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 2:89. See also Hydrogen fuel cells
4:185, 5:187 Fuel Cell Technologies Program,
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 – 102 2:104
Freedom CAR (Cooperative Auto- Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center,
motive Research) Program, 2:108 2:98
Freons, 1:74 Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), 2:89, 2:98,
Fresnel Stirling engine, 2:42 2:99, 2:107, 2:108f, 5:69 – 70; cost
Frisch, Otto, 1:134 of, 2:114; in Germany, 2:110 – 11; in
Fritts, Charles, 1:198, 1:205, 2:168, Japan, 2:109; refueling, 2:114 – 15;
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, in United Kingdom, 2:110; in US,
5:170, 5:177 2:107 – 9
Fruit, solar cells from, 2:13 Fuel economy, 1:51
Fuel: appliances and use of, Fuel rods, 1:140 – 41, 1:141f
1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t, Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 – 72, 4:102
3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t, Fuller, Buckminster, 1:205, 2:175,
5:150t – 151t; CO2 emissions of, 3:173, 4:175, 5:177
234 a Index
General Motors, 2:108f, 2:114 – 15;

Chevy Volt from, 5:71; Equinox
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Fuel Cell SUV of, 5:70; hydrogen
Cells research and development by,
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and 2:109; Saturn division of, 5:71;
Hydropower Saturn EV-1 electric car of, 5:72,
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy 5:122
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Generators: building wind, 3:51; of
and Sustainability hydroelectric plant, 3:82 – 83; of
microhydroelectric power plant,
Fuller, Calvin, 1:205, 2:5, 2:175, 3:90; of wind turbine, 3:9 – 10
3:173, 4:175, 5:177 Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
Fumaroles, 4:52 Geological Survey, US, 1:67
Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Geology, 4:63
Processes (de Rosa), 5:61 GEO Mission, 4:54
Furling, 3:8 GeoThermal, 4:54
FutureGen, 1:123 Geothermal Education Office, 4:29
Geothermal energy, 1:13; air
Gabcikovo Dam, 3:98 quality standards and, 4:25;
Gap headquarters, 5:83 Alaska’s resources of, 4:18 – 19; for
Garden roofs, 5:65, 5:78, 5:84 aquaculture, 4:50; in Arizona, 4:18;
Garner, Mark, 3:74, 5:108, 5:108f benefits of, 4:2, 4:52; binary plant
Garst, Charlotte, 3:65 of, 4:40f; in California, 4:14 – 15;
Gas, 1:45; injection, 1:45; offshore in Canada, 4:38 – 39; Chevron
drilling for, 1:80f; production, largest producer of, 4:41; China’s
1:62 resources in, 4:39; CO2 credits
Gas-fired turbine, 3:32 from, 4:51; in Colorado, 4:17,
Gasholder, 4:98 4:51f; in Costa Rica, 4:43 – 44;
Gasification, 1:123; biomass plant countries interested in, 4:45;
for, 4:79; coal, 1:125 – 28, 1:126f; countries using, 4:32f; defining,
environmental issues with, 1:127; 4:2 – 5; electricity generated from,
of wood, 4:97 4:8 – 13; in El Salvador, 4:42 – 43;
Gasohol, 4:92 environmental issues of, 4:53; Fort
Gasoline, 1:41, 1:47, 4:93f, 4:96 Atkinson School District using,
Gasoline gallon equivalent (GGEs), 4:17; France’s district heating
1:91 facilities with, 4:50; future of,
Gasper, Peter, 3:87 4:27 – 28, 4:53; Germany’s resources
Gas powered vehicle conversion, in, 4:45; greenhouses heated by,
5:125 – 26 4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
GCHP. See Closed-loop Hawaii, 4:16 – 17; heating system
ground-coupled heat pump with, 4:22 – 23, 4:50; history of,
Gearbox, of wind turbines, 3:9 – 11 4:5 – 6; in Iceland, 1:197, 2:167,
General Electric, 1:145, 1:215, 2:185, 3:165, 4:37 – 38, 4:167, 5:169;
3:183, 4:185, 5:187 in Italy, 4:35 – 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 235
4:50 – 51; Kalina system and, 4:49; homes, 5:63; hydrology required
Kenya’s resources of, 4:43; land use for, 4:63; in Idaho, 4:71 – 72; in-
and, 4:24; locations of, 4:6 – 7, 4:29; dustry growth of, 4:58 – 59, 4:58f;
in Mexico, 4:34 – 35; Minnesota in Iowa Central Community
using, 4:66; in Montana, 4:20; in College, 4:71; in Kentucky, 4:65,
national parks, 4:52; in Nevada, 4:70 – 71; land use and, 4:63 – 64;
4:15; in New Mexico, 4:17 – 18; manufacturers of, 4:75; Massa-
new technologies employed in, chusetts’ schools using, 4:67 – 68;
4:18; New Zealand’s resources in, in Michigan, 4:72; in Mississippi,
4:44; Oregon Institute of Technol- 4:72; Nebraska’s schools using,
ogy using, 4:1 – 2; in Philippines, 4:68; in North Dakota, 4:72; as
4:32 – 34; reading materials on, open-loop systems, 4:61 – 63, 4:62f;
1:162, 2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; radial drilling with, 4:59, 4:77;
South Dakota’s schools using, school benefits of, 4:64; schools
4:67; in sustainable development, using, 4:64 – 68; site evaluation
5:109 – 10; tax revenue from, 4:27; for, 4:63 – 64; in Sweden, 4:72; in
in Thailand, 4:39 – 40; Turkey’s US, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; US installed
resources of, 4:41; in US, 1: xvii, capacity of, 4:70; water heaters
2: xvii, 3: xvii, 4: xvii, 4:13 – 20, using, 4:62 – 63
4:31, 5: xvii, 5:110f; US compa- Geothermal power plants: advan-
nies in, 4:20; used in Toledo Zoo, tages of, 4:24 – 25; in Australia,
4:67; uses for, 4:49 – 51; in Utah, 4:42; binary, 4:22; Birdsville,
4:19 – 20; Williston Northamp- 4:42; cost factors of, 4:46; at the
ton School and, 4:66f; Wisconsin Geysers, 4:14f; history of, 4:55; in
using, 4:66 – 67 Iceland, 4:26; in Idaho, 4:15 – 16;
Geothermal Energy Association, in Indonesia, 4:40; in Larderello,
1:35, 4:27 – 28 4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
Geothermal fluids, 4:9f ORC, 4:21f, 4:24f; single-flash,
Geothermal heat pumps: ad- 4:11; in United Kingdom, 4:41 – 42
vantages of, 4:74 – 75; Arizona Geothermal reservoir, 4:10, 4:22
testing, 4:65 – 66; benefits of, Geothermal Resources Council, 4:6,
4:68 – 69; as closed-loop systems, 4:29
4:60 – 61, 4:61f; CO2 reduced Geothermal Steam Act Amendments,
by, 4:68, 4:69; cost-effectiveness 4:27
of, 4:69; countries using, 4:73; Geothermal turbines, 4:35
desuperheater used with, 4:69; Geothermal wells, 4:51f, 4:65f, 4:66f,
disadvantages of, 4:75; durability 4:67, 4:68, 5:104
and maintenance of, 4:70; earth’s Gerdeman, Frederick, 1:206, 2:176,
underground temperature used 3:174, 4:176, 5:178
by, 4:57; economics of, 4:73 – 74; Germany: clean coal technology
EPA and efficiency of, 4:57; in in, 1:124; coal plants removal
Europe, 4:72 – 73; functioning of, in, 5:106; coal production of,
4:59 – 60, 4:60f; geology required 1:115 – 16; FCV’s in, 2:110 – 11;
for, 4:63; growth of, 5:109 – 10; for geothermal resources in, 4:45;
236 a Index
Global warming, 1:viii, 1:23 – 24,

1:25 – 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 5:viii, 5:106f; CO2 increasing
Cells causing, 5:4 – 5; synthetic natural
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and gas and, 1:128
Hydropower Global winds, 3:3f
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Glycerin, 4:112
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Go-green program: energy efficiency
and Sustainability in, 5:3 – 4; of NASCAR, 5:1 – 3
Go-green project: in California,
green roofs in, 5:83 – 84; hydrogen 5:33 – 34; Empire State Building
fuel cells in, 2:117; natural gas and, 5:82; in Kentucky, 5:32
consumption of, 1:83 – 84; photo- Go-green public schools, 5:31 – 36
voltaic systems in, 2:24 – 25; solar Golden Gate Bridge, 3:111, 3:112f
panels in, 2:27f; wind farms in, Gomez, Cesar, 1:50
3:53, 3:57 Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., 5:2
Geysers, 4:4 – 5, 4:52 Gore, Al, 5:129
The Geysers, 4:5 – 6, 4:8 – 9, 4:14, 4:14f Government: organization web-
GGEs. See Gasoline gallon equivalent sites and, 1:165 – 67, 2:135 – 37,
Gill, Dena, 3:65 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39;
Ginori Conti, Piero, 4:36f US, 4:80
Global Biofuels Outlook: 2009 – 2015, Gradient zones, 2:81
5:120 Grand Coulee Dam, 3:75, 3:76f
Global consumption: of coal, Granite quarry, 4:64
1:103; of energy, 1:18 – 19, 1:20f, Grant, John D., 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
1:184 – 87t, 2:154 – 57t, 3:152 – 55t, 4:176, 5:178
4:154 – 57t, 5:156 – 59t; of natural Grätzel, Michael, 2:11
gas, 1:72 – 73, 1:94 – 95; wind energy Gravity dam, 3:80
and, 3:56 Gray, Rande, 5:102 – 5
Global economy: energy driving, Greasecar, 1:51, 4:124
1:1 – 2; energy’s role in, 3:vii – viii Great Geysir, 4:37
Global emissions, of CO2, 1:192 – 95, Great Rift Valley, 4:43
2:162 – 65, 3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, Great Seneca Creek Elementary
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 – 67 School, 5:35
Global installations, 2:78 – 79 Green architecture, 5:88 – 89
Global leaders, 2:24 – 26 Green biz, 1:210, 2:180, 3:178, 4:180,
Global Learning, Inc, 2:33, 5:127 5:182
Global reserves: of crude oil, Green Building Initiatives, 5:95
1:188t – 189t, 2:158t – 159t, Green Building Rating System,
3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t, 5:26 – 27
5:160t – 161t; of natural gas, Green buildings: components of, 5:79;
1:79 – 81, 1:79f, 1:188t – 189t, construction materials for, 5:80 – 81;
2:158t – 159t, 3:156t – 157t, energy efficiency of, 5:80 – 81;
4:158t – 159t, 5:160t – 161t natural environment and, 5:80
Index a 237
Green careers guide, 1:210, 2:180, components of, 5:84 – 86, 5:85f;
3:178, 4:180, 5:182 cost of, 5:87; in Dearborn, Michi-
Green certification, 5:27f gan, 5:86; effectiveness of, 5:84; in
Green cities: in other countries, Germany, 5:83 – 84; of Hanneford
5:92 – 94; ranking criteria of, 5:90; Supermarket, 5:103; for homes,
snapshots of, 5:90 – 92; in US, 5:65 – 66, 5:65f; issues with, 5:87;
5:89 – 92, 5:92t L’Historial de la Vendée with, 5:83,
Green Club, 2:19 – 20 5:83f; maintenance of, 5:86; of
Green Cluster, 5:77 school buildings, 5:38 – 40, 5:38f
Green-Collar Jobs report, 2:80 Greenroofs.com, 5:95
Green community, 4:65f Greensburg, Kansas, 5:47
Green corps, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179, Greensburg tornado, 5:45
4:181, 5:183 Greensburg Wind Farm, 3:34
Green-e, 3:97 Green School Buildings, 5:42
Green energy jobs, 1:211, 2:181, Green Schools Program, 1:27 – 28
3:179, 4:181, 5:183 Green Vehicle Guide, 5:77
Green Existing Tool Kit, 5:41 Green vehicles, 5:68 – 76; car
Green Faith in Action Project, 1:29, maintenance and, 5:75 – 76;
1:30 driving habits and, 5:75 – 76;
Green Grid trays, 5:40 electric, 5:71 – 74
Greenhouse, geothermal heated, 4:23, Green Vision program, 5:90
4:50 GreenWood Resources, 4:84f
Greenhouse effect, 2:62, 2:62f, 2:66, Grid-connected system, 3:42 – 43,
2:77f, 5:4 3:42f
Greenhouse gases, 1:22 – 24, 5:106f; Grieves, Tim, 3:19 – 23
CO2 as, 1:23; emission reduction Groundwater, 4:26 – 27
of, 2:78, 5:16; emissions of, 4:69; Grove, William, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
human caused, 5:4f; law, 3:32; 4:176, 5:120, 5:178
natural gas and, 1:94; nuclear en- Guatemala, 4:34
ergy and, 1:11; solar water heaters Guiding Stars, 5:104
reducing, 2:78; US emissions re- Gulf of Mexico, 1:61
duction target for, 5:16 Gunung Salak, 4:41
GreenLearning Canada, 5:127 Guorui, Luo, 4:103
Greenpeace, 1:36 Guri Dam, 1: xvii, 2: xvii, 3: xvii, 4: xvii,
Green Power Network Net Metering, 5: xvii
3:71 Guri Hydroelectric power plants, 3:87
Green Roof Construction and Mainte- Gutierrez, Maricruz, 1:50
nance (Luckett), 5:40
Green Roof for Healthy Cities, 5:42 H2SO4. See Sulfuric acid
Green Roof Plants (Snodgrass and Hahn, Otto, 1:134
Snodgrass), 5:40 Halliday, Daniel, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 – 43, 5:82; ar- 4:176, 5:178
chitecture for, 5:81 – 82; around the Hancock County Wind Energy
world, 5:83 – 84; benefits of, 5:86; Center, 3:34
238 a Index
heating of, 4:120; blower door

test of, 5:56f; carbon footprints
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel of, 5:8 – 9; concrete dome, 5:46,
Cells 5:47f; efficient heating of, 5:50;
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and electricity requirements of, 3:16,
Hydropower 3:41; electricity use of, 3:44, 3:90,
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy 5:48, 5:49f; energy audits of,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 5:54 – 55; energy efficiency dome,
and Sustainability 5:48; energy efficiency of, 5:51 – 54,
5:56 – 57; energy saving, 5:47 – 48;
Hanneford Supermarket, 5:103 – 4, fuel cell applications at, 2:117 – 19;
5:103f fuel cell installation in, 2:117 – 19,
Harman, Stephanie, 2:62 – 66, 2:63f 2:118f; fuels and appliances used
Harriman, Chris, 4:16f in, 1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t,
Harris, Matt, 2:8 3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t,
Hashimoto, Ryutaro, 5:106f 5:150t – 151t; of future, 5:46 – 47;
Hawaii, 4:16 – 17 geothermal heat pumps for, 5:63;
the Head, 3:91 – 92 green roofs for, 5:65 – 66, 5:65f;
Heat, 1:6 – 8 heating and cooling tips for,
Heating system, 4:22 – 23, 4:50, 5:25 5:51 – 52; home entertainment sys-
Heat pumps, 1:13 tems in, 5:54; hydrogen fuel
Heifer International, 5:91, 5:91f cell applications for, 5:118 – 19;
Heliocentris Solar Hydrogen Fuel landscaping of, 5:57f; lighting sys-
Cell kit, 2:125 tems of, 5:53; microhydroelectric
Heliostats, 2:47, 2:48f power plants and, 3:91f; passive
Henry Sibley Senior High School, solar design of, 2:68 – 69; renewable
5:10f energy for, 5:63 – 64; smaller, 5:55;
Herbert Bryant Conference Center, Solar Decathlon of, 5:64 – 65, 5:64f;
4:72 solar energy for, 5:63 – 64; solar
Herschel, John, 2:5 water heaters for, 5:64; Wind En-
HFC. See Hydrogen fuel cells ergy for, 3:26, 3:72; wind turbines
High-level nuclear waste, 1:145 for, 5:63
High-level radioactive wastes Home Solar Panels, 5:77
(HLRW), 1:34 Honda FCX Clarity, 2:86f, 2:109
High-oil algae, 2:93 Hong Kong ferry boats, 2:6
High pressure, 3:4 Honor the Earth (HTE), 2:8
High Winds Energy Center, 3:32 – 33 Hoover Dam, 1:17f, 3:76 – 77
Hilderbrand, John, 3:39 Hopi Indians, 1:104
HLRW. See High-level radioactive Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies,
wastes 2:127, 5:69
Hobby Lobby, 5:61 Horizontal-axis turbines, 3:12 – 13,
Home entertainment systems, 5:54 3:13f, 3:40 – 41
Homes: appliances in, 5:52 – 53; bat- Horizontal drilling, 1:44 – 45
tery storage for, 2:15f; biodiesel Horizontal ground loops, 4:64
Index a 239
Horrell, J. Scott, 1:110f Hydrogen, 2:104; algae producing,

Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, 2:92 – 94; basics of, 2:87; blue-green
3:31, 3:31f algae producing, 2:94; Canadian
Hot dry rock, 4:12 – 13, 4:12f, highway with, 2:111; diesel trucks
4:41 – 42, 4:49; Australia’s resources injection of, 2:113; DOE research
in, 4:47 – 48; enhanced geother- on, 2:100 – 101; DOE storage re-
mal system v., 4:46 – 47; European search on, 2:123; economy, 2:101;
project of, 4:48 – 49 fuel cell model cars, 2:127; gas
Hot rod, Model T, 2:95 – 99, 2:95f tanks, 2:122, 2:123f; General
Hot Springs, Arkansas, 4:5 Motors’ research and development
Hot springs, outdoor, 4:52f of, 2:109; history using, 2:90; In-
HowStuffWorks web site, 1:68, 2:55 foNet, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133, 4:135,
HTE. See Honor the Earth 5:137; Italy’s power plant using,
Human body, carbon in, 5:7 2:94; Norway’s refueling for, 2:114,
Human health, 4:76 2:115f; power plants, 2:94; produc-
Hurricane Katrina, 2:119 tion of, 2:91 – 100; Riversimple car
Hybrid cars, 5:68, 5:69t, 5:78 using, 2:110, 2:110f, 5:69; storage,
Hybrid poplars, 4:83 – 85, 4:84f 2:122 – 23; technology research on,
Hybrid systems, 3:122 2:99 – 100; temperature and, 2:87;
Hydrocarbons, 1:47, 1:74 – 75 thermochemical, 2:92; uses of,
Hydroelectric energy, 1: xvi, 1:12 – 13, 2:90 – 91; vehicle, 2:116
2: xvi, 3: xvi, 4: xvi, 5: xvi; advantages Hydrogen fuel cells (HFC), 1:xv,
of, 3:95 – 96; Canada’s generation of, 1:15, 2:xv, 2:85 – 86, 2:128, 3:xv,
3:85 – 86; dams built for, 3:78 – 80; 4:xv, 5:xv; aircraft propulsion with,
along Danube river, 3:87 – 88, 3:88f; 2:105; buses using, 2:111 – 13,
defining, 3:77; disadvantages of, 2:112f; Canada’s buses using, 2:111;
3:96 – 98; history of, 3:77; in India, companies making, 2:102; elec-
3:89; kinetic energy from, 3:73 – 74; tric vehicle with, 2:86f; Europe’s
large-scale, 3:100; in Norway, research of, 2:112 – 13; experimental
1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi, aircraft powered by, 2:106f; func-
5:xvi, 5:112; reading materials on, tioning of, 2:88f, 5:120; future of,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; 2:100 – 101; in Germany, 2:117;
in Romania, 3:88 – 89; in sustain- home applications of, 5:118 – 19; in
able development, 5:108 – 9, 5:108f; Japan, 2:118 – 19; model racing cars
tidal power creating, 3:104; tur- with, 2:101 – 2; Model T hot rod
bine improvement in, 3:82; in US, running on, 2:95 – 99, 2:95f; NASA
3:74 – 77, 3:74f using, 1:16f; reading materials on,
Hydroelectric power plants: in Aus- 1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29,
tria, 3:89; components of, 3:81 – 83; 4:130 – 31, 5:132 – 33; sales growth
electricity from, 3:83; global lead- of, 5:116; specialty transportation
ing, 3:83, 3:84f; Guri, 3:87; Itaipú, using, 2:113 – 14; in sustainable
3:86 – 87, 3:86f; in Italy, 2:94; development, 5:116 – 19; synthetic
Simón Bolivar, 3:87; small-scale, natural gas and, 1:127 – 28; trans-
3:89 – 90; types of, 3:80 – 81, 3:82f portation application of, 5:117 – 18;
240 a Index
Illinois, 4:119 – 20
Illinois EPA Green School Checklist,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 5:12f
Cells Imports: of coal, 1:117; of crude oil,
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and 1:xi – xii, 2:xi – xii, 3:xi – xii, 4:xi – xii,
Hydropower 5:xi – xii
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Impoundment hydropower plants,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 3:80, 3:82f
and Sustainability India, 2:72; coal production of, 1:116;
energy use of, 5:107; hydroelectric
US buses using, 2:111; US cutting energy in, 3:89; wind energy in,
funding for, 2:86. See also Fuel cell 3:59 – 60
vehicles Indiana, 4:68, 4:120
Hydrogenics, 2:97, 2:102 Individuals carbon footprint, 5:6f
Hydrogen sulfide, 1:75, 4:25, 4:26f Indonesia: biomass energy source in,
Hydrology, 4:63 4:86; geothermal power plants in,
Hydrophobic nanocoating technolo- 4:40; sugarcane field in, 4:86f
gies, 5:117f Industrial Revolution, 1:10, 1:24,
Hydropower Program, 3:124 1:115
Hydrothermal fluids, 4:8f, 4:10f Industry: aluminum, 1:21; energy
Hyundai Motor Co., 2:86, 2:111, used by, 1:20 – 21; geothermal heat
5:69, 5:119 pumps growth and, 4:58 – 59, 4:58f;
of natural gas, 1:78f; natural gas
IAEA. See International Atomic used in, 1:72; oil, 3:16; station-
Energy Agency ary fuel cell systems in, 2:119;
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185, steel, 1:20 – 21; US coal, 1:113 – 15,
5:187 1:115f, 1:117; Worldwide Fuel
Iceland, 2:112, 4:38f; geothermal Cell, 2:106
energy in, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, Infrastructure: for electric vehicles,
4:37 – 38, 4:167, 5:169; geothermal 5:72 – 73; hydrogen requiring,
power plants in, 4:26 2:101; US modernizing of, 3:68 – 69
ICS. See Integral collector-storage Insulation, 5:52
systems Integral collector-storage systems
Idaho: biodiesel projects of, 4:118; (ICS), 2:77
carbon footprint reduction in, Integrated gasification combined
5:11 – 12; geothermal heat pumps cycle (IGCC), 1:122
in, 4:71 – 72; geothermal power Interior heat energy, 4:2 – 5, 4:3f
plants in, 4:15 – 16 International Association for Natural
Idaho National Laboratory’s Geo- Gas Vehicles, 1:100
thermal Program, 4:76 International Atomic Energy Agency
IGCC. See Integrated gasification (IAEA), 1:135 – 36, 1:166, 2:136,
combined cycle 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
IHA. See International Hydropower International Geothermal Associa-
Association tion, 4:20
Index a 241
International Green Roof Associa- Jiu River, 3:88 – 89

tion, 5:96 John Day Dam, 3:75 – 76
International Ground Source Heat JSS. See Junior Solar Sprint
Pump Association, 4:76 – 77 Juarez, Andres, 1:50
International Hydropower Junior Solar Sprint ( JSS), 1:88, 2:127
Association (IHA), 3:99 Junior Solar Sprint/Hydrogen Fuel
International Journal on Hydropower Cell ( JSS/HFC), 2:127
and Dams, 3:99
International Organization for Stan- K-9 Comfort Cottage, 2:11
dardization (ISO) Technical Com- Kaipara Harbor, 3:111
mittee on Hydrogen Technologies, Kalina system, 4:49
2:124 Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
International Partnership for a Hy- Kazimi, Mujid, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
drogen Economy (IPHE), 2:124 4:176, 5:178
International Renewable Energy Keahole Point, Hawaii, 3:121, 3:121f
Agency (IRENA), 5:93f Keighley, Seth, 4:110f, 4:111
International Solar Energy Society, Kelp, 1:98
2:33, 2:83 Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Interstate Renewable Energy Kentucky: biodiesel school buses in,
Coalition, 2:16 4:119; geothermal heat pumps in,
Inverter, 3:42, 3:90 4:65, 4:70 – 71; go-green projects
Ions, 2:88 in, 5:32
Iowa, 5:35 Kenya, 4:43
Iowa Central Community College, Keros, Alex, 2:108f
4:71 Kerosene, 1:53
Iowa Stored Energy Park, 3:70 Kibaki, Mwai, 4:43
IPHE. See International Partnership KidWind Project, 3:47 – 51
for a Hydrogen Economy Kilauea Volcano, 4:16
IRENA. See International Renewable Kill A Watt, 5:62
Energy Agency Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 1:18, 3:15
Iron Gate Dam I, 3:88, 3:88f Kinetic energy, 1:5; from hydroelec-
Itaipú hydroelectric power plants, tric energy, 3:73 – 74; from oceans,
3:86 – 87, 3:86f 3:103 – 4; temperature and heat as,
Italy: geothermal energy in, 4:35 – 37; 1:6
hydrogen power plant in, 2:94 Kirishima City, Japan, 4:52f
Kirwan, Kerry, 4:108f
James, David, 4:127 Krocker, J. D., 4:6
Japan: FCV’s in, 2:109; geothermal kWh. See Kilowatt-hour
energy sources in, 4:35, 4:50 – 51; Kyoto Box oven, 2:71
hydrogen fuel cells in, 2:118 – 19; Kyoto International Convention,
Kirishima City, 4:52f; rooftop gar- 5:106
den in, 5:84; solar energy and, 2:83; Kyoto Protocol, 1997, 1:32 – 33, 1:201,
solar powered cargo ships of, 2:27; 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:16, 5:105 – 6,
solar systems installed in, 2:25 – 26 5:106f, 5:173
242 a Index
with, 5:33; schools with, 5:28 – 32,

5:82; of Summerfield Elementary
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel School, 5:35 – 36; supermarket with,
Cells 5:102 – 5
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Legislation, on carbon footprint, 5:21
Hydropower Lentz, Timothy, 5:64f
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Lewis, Mike, 2:98
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Lewis, Zane, 2:95f, 4:110f, 4:111
and Sustainability Leyte Geothermal Production Field,
4:33
LaDuke, Winona, 2:8 L’Historial de la Vendée, 5:83, 5:83f
Lake County-Southeast Geysers Ef- Life science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186,
fluent Pipeline Project, 4:6 4:188, 5:190
Landfills: biomass gas from, 1:97; Light emitting diodes (LEDs), 5:53
methane gas recovered from, Lighting strategies, 1:27
1:97 – 98, 2:120, 4:97; nitrogen Lighting systems, 5:53
oxide emissions of, 1:98 LIH. See Low-impact hydropower
Land of Volcanoes, 4:37 facilities
Landscaping: energy efficiency and, Limestone, 1:42
5:56 – 57; of homes, 5:57f; saving Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 1:53,
energy, 5:56 – 57 1:85
Land use: CSP plants and, 2:50; geo- Liquid hydrogen tanks, 2:123
thermal energy and, 4:24; geother- Liquid metal fast breeder reactors,
mal heat pump and, 4:63 – 64; solar 1:150f
energy and, 2:29 Liquid refrigerant, 4:59
La Rance River tidal power plant, Lithium, 5:124
3:109f Little Rock, Arkansas, 5:91, 5:91f
Larderello, 4:36 – 37, 4:36f LLW. See Low-level nuclear waste
Large-scale hydroelectric energy, Local winds, 3:4
3:100 London, England, 5:93
Las Pailas Geothermal Plant, 4:43 Long-term storage, of carbon dioxide,
Lavoisier, Antoine, 2:90 1:122 – 23
Law of conservation of energy, 1:6 – 7 Lorusso, Jarred, 5:125 – 26, 5:126f
Leadership in Energy and Envi- Los Alamos National Laboratory,
ronmental Design (LEED), 5:2, 1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:13, 4:136,
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also 5:138
LEED certification Louisiana, 4:112
LEDs. See Light emitting diodes Low-impact hydropower facilities
LEED. See Leadership in Energy and (LIH), 3:97
Environmental Design Low-level nuclear waste (LLW),
LEED certification: American Feder- 1:145 – 46
ation of Teachers and, 5:37; Florida Low pressure, 3:4
school with, 5:33; plaque of, 5:81f; Low-temperature solar collectors,
Pleasant Ridge Montessori School 1:12
Index a 243
LPG. See Liquefied petroleum McCurdy, Ross, 2:94 – 99, 2:125,

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40 2:126, 4:110 – 11
Luminant, 3:31 McDonough, William, 5:86
Lund, John W., 4:20 – 23 MCFC. See Molten Carbonate fuel
cells
Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria, 4:87 McGrath, Gerald, 5:66 – 68
Macari Family Foundation, 5:125 Meager Mountain, 4:38
Maggs, Steve, 4:108f Medford Township school district,
Maine Public Utilities Commission 4:119f
Program, 5:62 Meitner, Lise, 1:134
Maintenance: car, 5:75 – 76; geother- Mendoza, Crystal, 1:50
mal heat pump, 4:70; of green Mercedes BlueZero F-Cell, 5:70,
roofs, 5:86; wind turbines, 3:41 5:70f
Mak-Ban, 4:41 Mercymount Country Day School,
Malaysia, 4:87 5:71
Mammoth Pacific power plant, 4:10 Meredith, James, 4:108f
Manhattan Project, 1:200, 2:170, Methane, 1:74 – 75, 1:75f, 4:96; cattle
3:168, 4:170, 5:172 source of, 1:76; drawbacks of,
The Manhattan Project, 1:134 4:101; landfills producing, 1:97 – 98,
Manufacturers: China’s solar cell, 2:120, 4:97; marine plants produc-
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, ing, 1:98
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv, Methane hydrate, 1:95 – 97; depos-
5:173; in energy, 1:213 – 16, its of, 1:96f; research needed on,
2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 1:96 – 97
5:185 – 88; geothermal heat pump, Methanol, 2:89, 2:120, 2:120f
4:75; nuclear reactors, 1:145; paper, Methyl esters, 4:112
1:21; wind turbines, 3:16 Mexico, 4:34 – 35
Mariculture, 3:123 Michigan, 4:72
Marine organisms, 1:41 – 42, 3:123 Microhydroelectric power plants,
Marine plants, 1:98 3:89 – 90, 3:91f; China using,
Marquez, Abigail, 1:50 3:94; components of, 3:90 – 93,
Martinez, Xiomara, 1:50 3:92f; cost of, 3:93 – 94; countries
Maryland, 5:35 using, 3:94 – 95; generator of, 3:90;
Masdar City, 5:92 – 93, 5:93f homes and, 3:91f; Shutol, 3:95f;
Massachusetts: Boston, 5:91; terrain required for, 3:93; US
geothermal heat pump used in, potential of, 3:96, 3:98
4:67 – 68 Microsoft Corporation, 5:18
Mastaitis, Vicki, 1:xiii, 2:xiii, 2:16, Microturbines, 2:41
3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii Middlebury College, 4:79 – 80,
Mayer, John, 5:8f 4:80f
Mayors Climate Protection Center, Middle East, 1:79f
5:16 Migratory fish, 3:87
Mazda Premacy Hydrogen RE, Miles per gallon estimation, 5:74
5:70 Military, US, 1:137
244 a Index
Motion, 1:6
Mouchout, Auguste, 1:198, 1:206,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 2:168, 2:176, 3:166, 3:174, 4:168,
Cells 4:176, 5:170, 5:178
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Mount Washington Cog Railway,
Hydropower 4:108
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Mt. Washington, 3:5
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility,
Murphy, John, 2:98
Mining: of coal, 1:106 – 12; envi- Museum of Science, 3:26
ronmental issues of, 1:109 – 11; of Musicians, 5:6 – 8, 5:8f
oil shale, 1:58; surface, 1:107 – 9; Musk, Elon, 1:206, 2:176, 3:174,
underground, 1:108 – 9; uranium, 4:176, 5:178
1:138 – 40
Minnesota: carbon footprint reduc- Nacelle, 3:11
tion in, 5:9 – 10; geothermal systems Nanocoatings Subscale Laboratory,
used in, 4:66; wind farms in, 3:34 5:117f
Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon Nanometers, 2:10
project, 5:9, 5:10f Nanosolar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185,
Miravalles volcano power station, 5:187
4:43 Nano Solar Technology, 2:56
Mississippi, 4:72 Nanotechnology, 4:77, 5:114 – 15,
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36 5:114f, 5:116
Mitsubishi, 2:102, 5:71 Nanotechnology and Energy, 5:128
Mochida, Hiroko, 5:118f Naruse, Masanori, 2:118
Model cars, solar energy, 1:87f, 1:88 NASA. See National Aeronautics and
Model racing cars, 2:101 – 2 Space Administration
Model T hot rod, 2:95 – 99, 2:95f NASCAR, 5:1; France, Bill, of, 5:2f;
Moderators, 1:141 – 42 go-green program of, 5:1 – 3
Modernization, 5:27 – 28 National Aeronautics and Space
Moeller, Keats, 1:64 – 65 Administration (NASA), 1:16f,
Mojave Desert, 2:36 – 38, 2:51, 3:32, 2:90, 5:120
4:11 National Association for Stock Car
Molecules, 2:10 Auto Racing. See NASCAR
Molina, Raquel, 1:50 National Biodiesel Board (NBB),
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127 4:117, 4:127
Molten Carbonate fuel cells National Earth Comfort Program,
(MCFC), 2:119 4:73
Molten salt storage, 2:39, 2:48 – 49 National Energy Education
Monarch School, 5:11 Development (NEED), 1:154,
Mongillo, John, 5:125 – 26, 5:126f 2:52, 3:64 – 68; mission of, 3:66;
Montana, 4:20 real world issues addressed by,
Moos Lake water-treatment plant, 3:66 – 67
5:83 National Energy Foundation, 1:68
Index a 245
National Energy Technology 3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t,

Laboratory (NETL), 1:123, 1:125 5:160t – 161t; greenhouse gases
National Fuel Cell Research Center, and, 1:94; history of, 1:73 – 74;
2:103 industries use of, 1:72; industry of,
National Gas Supply Association 1:78f; industry using, 1:72; locat-
(NGSA), 1:100 ing deposits of, 1:76; measurement
National Geographic Society’s Green of, 1:78 – 79; in Middle East, 1:79f;
Guide, 5:90 Netherlands and, 1:84; new drilling
National Hydropower Association, technologies for, 1:77; Norway’s
1:36, 3:100 reserves of, 1:82; pipeline transpor-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric tation of, 1:77 – 78; power plant for,
Administration (NOAA), 3:124 1:73f; production, 1:81 – 82; Russia’s
National parks, 4:52 reserves of, 1:82; steam reformation
National Renewable Energy Labo- from, 2:91; synthetic, 1:125 – 28;
ratory (NREL), 1:166, 2:9, 2:30, United Kingdom’s consumption of,
2:33, 2:99 – 100, 2:103, 2:127, 1:84; US consumption of, 1:83
2:136, 3:14, 3:44, 3:134, 4:118, Natural Gas Star Program, 1:94
4:136, 5:109, 5:115, 5:138 Natural gas vehicles (NGVs),
National science education standards, 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75; advantages
1:217 – 18, 2:187 – 88, 3:185 – 86, and disadvantages of, 1:91 – 92;
4:187 – 88, 5:189 – 90 safety of, 1:92
National Solar Bike Rayce, 2:45 Natural lighting, 5:37, 5:105
National Wind Technology Center Natural resources, 1:25 – 26
(NWTC), 3:52 Natural Resources Research Institute
Native American tribes, 2:8 (NRRI), 4:83
Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Nauen, Andreas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
Authority, 3:119 4:177, 5:179
Natural environment, 5:80 Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale
Natural gas, 1:xii, 1:9 – 10, 1:71 – 72, Reserves, 1:58
2:xii, 3:xii, 4:xii, 5:xii, 5:124; Alaska NBB. See National Biodiesel Board
North Slope’s deposits of, 1:83; Nebraska, 4:68
benefits of, 1:93; China extracting, NECAR 1, 2:90
1:71; China’s use of, 1:197, 2:167, NEED. See National Energy
3:165, 4:167, 5:169; as clean- Education Development
est fossil fuel, 1:94; in Columbia, NEI. See Nuclear Energy Institute
1:101; consumers of, 1:82 – 85; Nellis Air Force Base, 2:3 – 4, 2:3f,
consumption, 1:83 – 84; contents 2:13
of, 1:74 – 75; drilling for, 1:76 – 77; NESEA. See Northeast Sustainable
emission levels and, 1:90 – 94; for- Energy Association
mation of, 1:74; France and, 1:84; Netherlands, 1:84
future of, 1:94 – 95; Germany’s NETL. See National Energy
consumption of, 1:83 – 84; global Technology Laboratory
consumption of, 1:72 – 73, 1:94 – 95; Net metering, 2:15 – 16, 3:43, 3:71
global reserves of, 1:79 – 81, NEUP. See Nuclear Energy
1:79f, 1:188t – 189t, 2:158t – 159t, University Program
246 a Index
Nonrenewable energy, 1:xi – xiii,

1:9 – 11, 2:xi – xiii, 3:xi – xiii, 4:xi – xiii,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 5:xi – xiii; career resources in,
Cells 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84
Hydropower Non-silicon-based technologies, 2:11
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Norman, Marie, 5:28 – 31, 5:29f
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Northbrook High School, 5:57 – 62
and Sustainability North Dakota, 4:72
Northeast Blackout of 1965, 1:1, 1:2f
“Neutropolis: The Nuclear Energy Northeast Sustainable Energy Asso-
Zone for Students,” 1:152 ciation (NESEA), 1:88
Nevada, 4:15 Northeast US, 3:36 – 37
Nevada Solar One, 1:215, 2:38 – 39, Northern Ireland, 3:110
2:185, 3:183, 4:185, 5:187 North Grand High School, 4:122 – 25
Newell, Craig, 3:20 North Sea, 1:80f
New Hampshire, 5:10 – 11 Norway: hydroelectric energy in,
New Jersey, 4:118, 5:35 – 36 1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 3:84f, 3:87, 4:xvi,
New Mexico, 4:17 – 18 5:xvi, 5:112; hydrogen refueling in,
New Planet Energy, 5:128 2:114, 2:115f; natural gas reserves
Newsom, Gavin, 2:112 of, 1:82; wave energy used in,
New York, 2:17, 2:114 – 15, 5:34, 5:82 3:117 – 18
New York gym, 5:9 NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory
New Zealand, 1:85; geothermal Commission
power station in, 4:44f; geothermal NREL. See National Renewable En-
resources in, 4:44; tidal power in, ergy Laboratory
3:110 – 11 NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
NGSA. See National Gas Supply NRRI. See Natural Resources Re-
Association search Institute
NGVs. See Natural gas vehicles Nuclear energy, 1:xiii, 1:5, 1:10 – 11,
Niagara Falls, 3:76 2:xiii, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii; benefits
Nicholson, William, 2:90 of, 1:132 – 33; in countries, 5:112;
Nickel-metal hydride battery description of, 1:133 – 34; in France,
(NiMH), 5:122 – 23 1:137 – 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 – 41,
Nielsen, Carl, 4:6 1:141f; functioning of, 1:158; fu-
NiMH. See Nickel-metal hydride ture of, 1:152 – 53; greenhouse gases
battery and, 1:11; history of, 1:134; nuclear
NIRS. See Nuclear Information and fission in, 1:139; reading materials
Resource Service on, 1:159 – 60, 2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28,
Nissan Leaf electric car, 5:74 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; in sustainable
Nissan Motor Co., 5:71, 5:72 development, 5:110 – 12, 5:111f;
Nitrogen oxide, 1:98 technologies in, 1:151 – 52; in US,
NOAA. See National Oceanic and 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112; US mili-
Atmospheric Administration tary use of, 1:137; world’s electrical
Index a 247
needs and, 1:11; world use of, Ocean Power Technologies, 3:114
1:136 – 38; as zero-carbon energy Ocean Renewable Power Company
source, 1:131 – 32 (ORPC), 3:124
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), Oceans: kinetic energy from,
1:152, 1:157 3:103 – 4; as solar energy collec-
Nuclear Energy University Program tor, 3:108; thermal energy from,
(NEUP), 1:131, 5:111 3:118 – 23; tidal technologies
Nuclear fission, 1:134, 1:139 and, 3:124 – 25; wave energy from,
Nuclear fuel: cycle, 1:132; nuclear 3:113 – 18
waste transformed to, 1:150 – 51; Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
uranium mining and, 1:138 – 40 (OTEC), 1:15, 3:104, 3:118 – 19,
Nuclear Information and Resource 3:120f; Africa and, 3:122;
Service (NIRS), 1:157 challenges facing, 3:122; defin-
Nuclear power plants, 1:200, 2:170, ing, 3:119; future of, 3:122 – 23;
3:168, 4:170, 5:172; Browns Ferry, technologies in, 3:119 – 22
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173; Octane rating, 1:47
floating, 1:151 – 52; Sizewell, 1:133; OECD. See Organization of
waste generated by, 1:145 – 51 Economic Cooperation and
Nuclear reactors: in China, 1:11f; Development
designing, 1:153 – 54; manufactur- Oerlikon Solar, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183,
ers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 – 44; in 4:185, 5:187
US, 1:136 Office of Energy Efficiency and
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Renewable Energy, 4:73
(NRC), 1:134, 1:147, 1:157, 1:166, Office of Fossil Energy, 1:77
2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138 Offshore drilling, 1:80f
Nuclear waste: disposing of, Offshore wave energy generation
1:147 – 48; high-level, 1:145; low- systems, 3:114
level, 1:145 – 46; nuclear fuel trans- Ohio, 5:33
formed from, 1:150 – 51; of power Ohms Law, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166,
plants, 1:145 – 51; recycling of, 4:168, 5:170
1:149, 1:151; transuranic, Oil: algae high in, 2:93; carbon ratio
1:146 – 47 of, 1:94; deposits, 1:43; discarded
Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 1:148 – 49 restaurant, 4:116f; drilling rig,
Nuclear weapons, 1:135 1:44f; enhanced recovery of,
NWTC. See National Wind Technol- 1:45; extraction of, 1:63; fields,
ogy Center 1:43, 1:55; gas production and,
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1:69;– producing countries,
1:150, 5:123 1:56;– producing states, 1:55f;
Obama, Barack, 1:xiii, 1:51, 1:123, recovery of, 1:45; refineries, 1:20;
1:131, 1:148, 2:3, 2:3f, 2:86, 3:xiii, reserves remaining of, 1:62 – 63;
4:xiii, 4:80, 5:xiii, 5:108f, 5:110 – 11, spills, 1:61; thermal recovery of,
5:124, 5:129 1:45; US fields of, 1:46; US im-
Ocean Energy Council, 3:124 ports of, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
248 a Index
Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC), 1:56, 1:166,
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Cells Organizations, government web-
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and sites and, 1:165 – 67, 2:135 – 37,
Hydropower 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Ormat, 4:20
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, ORPC. See Ocean Renewable Power
and Sustainability Company
Oscillating water column converter,
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 3:115
4:160, 5:162 OTEC. See Ocean Thermal Energy
Oil and Gas Journal, 1:66 Conversion
Oil Pollution Act, 1:62 Overmann, Harold, 3:20
Oil sands, 1:58 – 59, 1:190, 2:160, Oxford Yasa Motors, 1:215, 2:185,
3:158, 4:160, 5:162 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Oil shale, 1:57 – 58; mining of, 1:58; Oxygenates, 1:53
US deposits of, 1:57f
Old Faithful, 4:4, 4:4f Pacific Fuel Cell Company, 2:102
Olive oil, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, Pacific Gas and Electric, 3:67
5:169 Pacific ocean, 4:6 – 7
Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park, 2:24 PAFCs. See Phosphoric acid fuel cells
Online Fuel Cell Information Re- Paint Lick Elementary School, 4:65
source, 2:127 Palapa, Rosy, 1:50
Onshore wave energy systems, Panjshir River, 3:95f
3:114 – 16 Paper manufacturing, 1:21
On-site fuel cells, 5:119 Parabolic cookers, 2:72
OPEC. See Organization of Petro- Parabolic solar oven, 2:71
leum Exporting Countries Parabolic trough system, 2:36 – 39,
Open-cycle systems, 3:121 2:37f, 2:43f
Open-loop systems: disadvantages of, Paraguay, 3:86 – 87
4:61 – 62; geothermal heat pump as, Parr, Alexandria, 1:30
4:61 – 63, 4:62f Passamaquoddy Bay, 3:109
ORC. See Organic Rankine cycle Passive heating and cooling, 1:26
Oregon Institute of Technology, Passive Solar Design, 2:83
4:1 – 2, 4:20 – 23, 4:21f, 4:24f Passive solar energy, 2:62
Organic matter, 1:74 Passive solar heating systems,
Organic Rankine cycle (ORC), 4:21f, 2:67 – 70, 2:67f; benefits of, 2:70;
4:24f home design with, 2:68 – 69; school
Organic vegetable waste, 4:86 design with, 2:69 – 70
Organization of Economic Coopera- Passive solar technology, 2:60 – 61
tion and Development (OECD), Passive solar water heaters, 2:77f
1:20f, 1:81 Passive yawing, 3:12
Index a 249
Paul, Stephen, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175, Photovoltaic cells (PV), 1:xiii, 1:12,
4:177, 5:179 2:xiii, 2:1, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii; to
PBMR. See Pebble bed modular battery storage, 2:14; disposal and
reactor recycling of, 2:30; installation of,
Peak oil, 1:56, 1:69 2:19 – 20, 2:22f; materials used in,
Pearl Street Station, 1:199, 2:169, 2:6; sized and shapes of, 2:12 – 13;
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 uses for, 2:6
Pearson, Gerald, 2:5 Photovoltaic power plants, 2:16f
Pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR), Photovoltaic system, 5:34, 5:34f,
1: 151 5:113
Peck, Rick, 5:13 – 15, 5:13f Photovoltaic technology: Australia
Pelamis Wave Power, Ltd., 3:114 using, 2:25; future of, 2:30 – 31;
Pelton, Lester, 3:93f Germany using, 2:24 – 25; global
Pelton and Turgo impulse turbines, leaders in, 2:24 – 26
3:92 – 93, 3:93f, 3:94 Physical science, 1:217, 2:187, 3:185,
PEM. See Polymer electrolyte 4:187, 5:189
membrane Pickens, T. Boone, 3:27
Pendulor devices, 3:115 Picohydro, 3:91
Penn State Green Roof Research Pipeline transportation, 1:77 – 78
Center, 5:96 Pittsburgh National Corporation,
Pennsylvania, 4:121, 5:31 5:88
Penstock, 3:90, 3:92f Plate-boundary volcanoes, 4:7f
Petrochemicals, 1:53 Pleasant Ridge Montessori School,
Petroleum, 1:9; biodiesel emissions 5:33
compared to, 4:116; defining, 1:43; Plutonium uranium recovery by
drilling for, 1:43 – 45; early uses of, extraction (PUREX), 1:150 – 51
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169; Poland, 1:116
environmental issues concerning, Polymer electrolyte membrane
1:60 – 62; forming of, 1:41 – 42; as (PEM), 1:xv, 2:xv, 2:89, 3:xv, 4:xv,
fossil fuel, 1:41; future of, 1:63; 5:xv
history of, 1:40 – 41; locating, 1:68; Pools, 4:50 – 51
petrochemicals from, 1:53; present Portland, Maine, 3:105f, 5:90 – 91
uses of, 1:39 – 40; products from, Portsmouth Abbey monastery, 3:37
1:47 – 48; recovery of, 1:45; search- Portugal: wave energy in, 3:117; wind
ing for, 1:42 – 43; US consuming, energy in, 3:59
1:60; US importing, 1:41; world Potential energy, 1:5, 3:8
production of, 1:xi – xii, 2:xi – xii, Powder River Basin, 1:114
3:xi – xii, 4:xi – xii, 5:xi – xii PowerBuoy, 3:114
Philippines, 4:32 – 34, 4:87 Power plants: Beaver County, 4:20;
Phone chargers, 5:54 binary, 4:9 – 10, 4:9f, 4:22; CO2
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), producing, 1:73f; diversion,
2:119 3:81; double-flash, 4:11; flash-
Photosynthesis, 2:11, 2:92 – 93 steam, 4:10 – 12, 4:10f; floating
250 a Index
1:81 – 82; Poland’s coal, 1:116;

renewable energy consumption
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel and, 1:180t – 183t, 2:150t – 153t,
Cells 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and 5:152t – 155t; residential systems,
Hydropower 3:16, 3:41; thin-film solar cells
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy electricity, 2:9 – 10; wind energy,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 3:29 – 38, 3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115;
and Sustainability wind turbines energy, 3:42
Products: coal made in to, 1:105f;
nuclear, 1:151 – 52; hydrogen, from crude oil, 1:40f; from
2:94; La Rance River tidal, 3:109f; petroleum, 1:47 – 48; refined,
Mammoth Pacific, 4:10; for 1:59
natural gas, 1:73f; nuclear waste of, Project Driveway, 2:114
1:145 – 51; offshore wind energy, Project Two Degrees, 5:18
3:62 – 64; pumped storage, 3:81; The Promise of Solar Energy, 2:83
Raft River, 4:15 – 16, 4:16f; Raser Propane, 1:74 – 75, 1:76, 1:85
Technologies thermo, 4:19f; Velling Puertollano Photovoltaic Park, 2:24
Mærsk-Tændpibe wind, 3:59; Pulverized coal-fired burners, 1:120
Voith Siemens Hydro, 5:108f. See Pumped storage power plant, 3:81
also Geothermal Puna Geothermal Venture, 4:16 – 17
power plants; Hydroelectric power PUREX. See Plutonium uranium re-
plants; Microhydroelectric power covery by extraction
plants PV. See Photovoltaic cells
Power strips, 5:54 PV Crystalox Solar, 1:216, 2:186,
Power Technology, 2:83 3:184, 4:186, 5:188
Pressures, 4:3
Pressurized water reactors, 1:143, Quad, 1:18
1:144 Quantum dots, 5:114 – 15
Primary footprint, 5:6 Quantum Technologies, 2:122
Princeton Review, 5:42 Quebec, 3:86
Prism Solar Technologies, 2:33
Probst, Pete, 4:124 Race cars, 4:107 – 8, 4:108f
Product development, in energy, Radial drilling, 4:59, 4:77
1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, Radiant energy, 1:5
4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88 Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Production: biodiesel specifications Raft River power plant, 4:15 – 16,
of, 4:114 – 16; biogas facilities 4:16f
for, 4:97f; China’s coal, 1:114, Rain barrels, 5:32
1:116; coal, 1:115 – 16, 1:116; Ramirez, Daniel, 1:50
countries coal, 1:115 – 16; ethanol, Rance estuary, 3:106
4:93 – 95; fuel cells, 2:104; gas and Ranking criteria, 5:90
oil, 1:62; hydrogen, 2:91 – 100; Raser Technologies, 4:19f, 4:20
India’s coal, 1:116; natural gas, Rawal, Bhavna, 5:57 – 62, 5:58f
Index a 251
Reading materials: on biomass, 1:162, Regulator, 3:90

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
energy conservation, 1:162 – 63, Renewable energy, 1:12 – 16, 1:14f,
2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:132 – 33, 5:23, 5:30; career resources in,
5:134 – 35; on energy efficiency, 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84; China
4:132 – 33, 5:134 – 35; on fossil fuels, promoting, 3:61f; Database of
1:159 – 60, 2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, State Incentives for, 3:71; future
4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on geother- of, 5:124; for homes, 5:63 – 64;
mal energy, 1:162, 2:132, 3:130, interstate coalition for, 2:16;
4:132, 5:134; on hydroelectric Native American tribes provid-
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, ing, 2:8; primary energy sources
5:133; on hydrogen fuel cells, and, 1:180t – 183t, 2:150t – 153t,
1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
4:130 – 31, 5:132 – 33; on nuclear 5:152t – 155t; production and
energy, 1:159 – 60, 2:129 – 30, consumption of, 1:180t – 183t,
3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on 2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t,
solar energy, 1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 4:150t – 153t, 5:152t – 155t; re-
3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31, 5:132 – 33; on sources of, 1:xiii – xviii, 2:xiii – xviii,
sustainable development, 1:162 – 63, 3:xiii – xviii, 4:xiii – xviii, 5:xiii – xviii;
2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:132 – 33, seaweed as, 1:98; sustainable future
5:134 – 35; on wave energy, 1:161, powered by, 5:107 – 22; transmis-
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind sion of, 2:28 – 29
energy, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, Renewable Energy Act, 4:87
5:133 Renewable Energy and Energy Effi-
Reclamation, surface mining and, ciency Partnership (REEEP), 4:34
1:107 – 8 Renewable Resource Data Center
Recoverable reserves, of coal, (RReDC), 5:125
1:190 – 91t, 2:160t – 161t, Renovation, 5:27 – 28
3:158t – 159t, 4:160t – 161t, Residential systems: annual pro-
5:162t – 163t duction of, 3:16, 3:41; fuel cell,
Recycling, 1:25; of materials, 5:7, 5:118 – 19; grid connection of,
5:104, 5:109; of nuclear waste, 3:42 – 43, 3:42f; net metering
1:149, 1:151; of PV, 2:30 with, 3:43; small wind turbines
REEEP. See Renewable Energy and for, 3:40 – 42; using wind energy,
Energy Efficiency Partnership 3:40 – 44; wind turbine mainte-
Refined products, 1:59 nance of, 3:41
Refineries, crude oil, 1:46 – 47 Revenues, 3:38
Refrigerant, liquid, 4:59 Reverb, 5:8f
Refueling of FCVs, 2:114 – 15 Reykjavik, Iceland, 4:25
Regional energy consumption, Rhode Island, 3:37, 4:118 – 19, 5:126
1:184t – 187t, 2:154t – 157t, Rhode Island Resource Recovery,
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, 2:98
5:156t – 159t Rice paddies, 1:76
252 a Index
SAITEM. See Sakarya University

Advanced Technologies Implemen-
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel tation Group
Cells Sakarya University Advanced Tech-
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and nologies Implementation Group
Hydropower (SAITEM), 2:116
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Salter, Steven, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 4:177, 5:179
and Sustainability Sandia National Laboratories, 1:216,
2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
Richardson, Bill, 4:18 5:188
Richmond BUILD, 1:30 San Diego High School, 4:121
Ring of Fire, 4:6 – 7, 4:7f, 4:18, 4:31, San Domenico School, 5:33
4:32, 4:33; active volcanoes in, Sandstone, 1:42
4:40, 4:44 San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 – 6
Rising Sun Energy Center, San Francisco International Airport,
1:29, 1:31 2:111
River control projects, 3:79 Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 5:47f
Riversimple hydrogen car, 2:110, San Jose, California, 5:90
2:110f, 5:69 San Juan Basin, 1:80
Robbins, Steve, 2:9 Santa Coloma de Gramenet cemetery,
Rocket stoves, 4:88 2:25
Rock Port, Missouri, 3:29 Santa Monica, California, 5:17
Rodriguez, Jose, 1:50 Saturn, 5:71
Rojas, Fermin, 1:50 Saturn EV-1 electric car, 5:72, 5:122
Romania, 3:88 – 89 Savannah River National Laboratory,
Roof is Growing, 5:95 2:94
Roofscapes, Inc., 5:96 Schaefer, Natasha, 5:27f
Rooftop gardens, 5:78, 5:84, 5:87 School building: green roof of,
Rotary drilling rigs, 1:43, 1:76 – 77 5:38 – 40, 5:38f; renovation and
Rotor blades, 3:7 – 9 modernization of, 5:27 – 28; sus-
Roy Lee Walker Elementary School, tainable green, 5:26
5:31 School Planning & Management, 2:69
RReDC. See Renewable Resource Schools: biodiesel buses for, 4:117 – 20,
Data Center 4:119, 4:119f; biodiesel vehicles
Rudensey, Lyle, 4:116f used by, 4:117 – 20; carbon footprint
Russia: natural gas reserves of, reduction of, 5:12, 5:14 – 15; carbon
1:82; wind energy potential footprints of, 5:9 – 12; eco-friendly,
of, 3:62 4:65f; energy conservation and
efficiency in, 1:26 – 28; energy effi-
Safety-Kleen, Inc., 5:2 ciency in, 1:26 – 28; energy efficient
SAI. See Solar America Initiative programs for, 5:45; Fort Atkinson
Saint Thomas Academy, 2:44 – 45, School District, 4:66 – 67; fuel cell
2:44f education in, 2:125 – 26; go-green
Index a 253
public, 5:31 – 36; green certification Selsam, Douglas, 1:207, 2:177, 3:175,
of, 5:27f; heat pump benefits to, 4:177, 5:179
4:64; Indiana’s geothermal well Seneca Ridge Middle School,
used in, 4:68; LEED certification 5:13 – 15, 5:13f
for, 5:28 – 32, 5:82; Massachusetts’ Sequestration technology, 1:125
geothermal heat pump used in, Sharp Corp., 2:26
4:67 – 68; Minnesota’s geothermal Shell Hydrogen Fuel, 2:114
systems in, 4:66; natural lighting Shell WindEnergy, Inc., 3:31
in, 5:37; Nebraska and geothermal Shippingport Atomic Power Station,
heat pump in, 4:68; passive solar 1:135
design for, 2:69 – 70; South Dakota’s Shutol microhydroelectric power
geothermal energy in, 4:67; using plants, 3:95f
geothermal heat pump, 4:64 – 68; Siemens Corp., 1:216, 2:186, 3:184,
using solar energy, 2:16 – 17; 4:186, 5:188
utility bills lowered in, 5:36; Silicon, 2:9
wind energy in, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46; Simón Bolivar hydroelectric power
wind turbines for, 3:16 – 23; plants, 3:87
Wisconsin’s geothermal systems Single-flash geothermal power plants,
in, 4:66 4:11
SchoolsCuttingCarbon.org, 5:10 Site evaluation, 4:63 – 64
Schools for Energy Efficiency, 5:23 Sizewell nuclear power plant, 1:133
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 3:32 Skystream 3.7 wind turbine, 3:46f
Schwarze Pumpe, 1:124f Small Business Guide to Energy
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, Efficiency, 5:23
5:190 Smaller homes, 5:55
Science education, 1:217, 2:64, 2:187, Small-scale hydroelectric power
3:185, 4:187, 5:189 plants, 3:89 – 90
SciKits, 2:127 SmartWay designation, 5:75
Scooters, 2:113 – 14 Smith, David, 5:48
Scott, Allister, 4:123 Smith, Wylie, 4:110f, 4:111
Scott, Paul, 5:18f Smith Family Dome Homes, 5:48
SEAT. See Student Energy Audit Snodgrass, Edmund C., 5:40
Training Snodgrass, Lucie L., 5:40
Seattle, Washington, 5:89f SOFC. See Solid oxide fuel cell
Seaweed, 1:98 Solar America Cities, 2:21
Secondary footprint, 5:6 Solar America Initiative (SAI), 2:31
Sector, energy consumption by, Solar arrays: at Buckley Air Force
1:174t – 177t, 2:144t – 147t, Base, 2:14; at Hanneford
3:142t – 145t, 4:144t – 147t, Supermarket, 5:103f; power of,
5:146t – 149t 2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
Sedum, 5:39 Solar cells: China’s manufacturing
SEGS. See Solar Energy Generating of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171,
Systems 3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv,
SEI. See Solar Energy International 5:173; crystalline silicon, 2:7 – 8;
254 a Index
2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31,

5:132 – 33; schools using, 2:16 – 17;
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel science of, 2:61 – 62; solar tower
Cells plant and, 2:48f; Southwestern
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and farms for, 2:23; Spain’s invest-
Hydropower ments in, 2:24; storage of, 2:13 – 14,
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy 2:28; in sustainable development,
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, 5:112 – 15; transmission gridlines
and Sustainability for, 2:28 – 29; US installations of,
2:3 – 4; US projects of, 2:21 – 23; US
dye-sensitized technology of, using, 2:17 – 21; utility grid and,
2:11 – 12, 2:12f; electricity produced 2:14 – 15, 2:28; videos for, 2:34. See
by, 2:7f; from fruit, 2:13; function- also Photovoltaic cells; Photovoltaic
ing of, 2:7 – 8; nanotechnology technology
used in, 5:114f; new generation of, Solar Energy Generating Systems
2:8 – 10; non-silicon-based technol- (SEGS), 2:37, 2:51, 2:51f
ogies in, 2:11; quantum dots with, Solar Energy International (SEI), 2:8
5:114 – 15; thin-film, 2:9 – 10, 2:9f Solar Energy Review, 2:82
Solar Decathlon, 2009 homes in, Solar greenhouse, 2:65 – 66
5:64 – 65, 5:64f Solar heaters, 2:79f
Solar dish-engine system, 2:39 – 42 Solar heating systems, 2:66 – 67
Solar energy, 1:xiii – xv, 1:12, 2:xiii – xv, Solar oven: benefits of, 2:71 – 72;
3:xiii – xv, 4:xiii – xv, 5:xiii – xv; parabolic, 2:71; Thames and
Abengoa Solar and, 1:213, 2:40, Cosmos, 2:73f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185; Solar ovens, 2:71
Africa using, 2:26; availability Solar panels: A.A. Kingston Middle
of, 2:4 – 5; benefits of, 2:26 – 27; School with, 5:34f; in Germany,
California using, 2:17; cities using, 2:27f; of Hanneford Supermar-
2:17 – 21; collectors for, 2:73 – 74, ket, 5:103 – 4; Spain’s installation
2:74f; college installation of, of, 2:25; temperature influencing,
2:4; cost of, 2:30 – 31; econom- 3:64f
ics of, 2:30; electricity created by, Solar ponds, 2:80 – 82
2:14 – 15; future, 2:83; history of, Solar powered vehicles, 2:45 – 46
2:5 – 6, 2:56; for homes, 5:63 – 64; Solar power plant, 2:39
Hong Kong ferry boats using, Solar power tower system, 2:42 – 47
2:6; Japan and, 2:83; Japan’s cargo Solar radiation, 2:5, 2:61 – 62
ships using, 2:27; Japan’s instal- Solar schools program, 3:67
lations of, 2:25 – 26; land use and, Solar thermal electric (STE), 2:38fs
2:29; limiting factors of, 2:27 – 29; Solar towers, 2:56, 2:83; benefits of,
model cars using, 1:87f, 1:88; net 2:49 – 50; molten salt storage with,
metering and, 2:15 – 16; oceans col- 2:48 – 49; solar energy from, 2:48f;
lector of, 3:108; passive, 2:62; pho- of Spain, 2:47
tovoltaic power plants for, 2:16f; Solar Two, 2:47 – 50
reading materials on, 1:160 – 61, Solar wall, 2:60 – 61
Index a 255
Solar water heaters, 1:xiv, 2:xiv, 2:24, Spindletop oil field, 1:43
3:xiv, 4:xiv, 5:xiv, 5:66 – 68; active, Spirit Lake Community School Dis-
2:76f; cost and benefits of, 2:79, trict, 3:1, 3:19 – 23, 3:45, 5:35, 5:36f
5:66 – 67; economics of, 2:78; Split systems, 4:59
evolution of, 2:75; global instal- Spring Mills Elementary School, 5:32
lations of, 2:78 – 79; greenhouse Spruill, Mary E., 3:64 – 68
gas emissions reduced by, 2:78; for Spurlock Fossil Plant, 1:121
homes, 5:64; passive, 2:77f; storage Sridhar, K. R., 5:121 – 22, 5:121f
tanks required by, 2:77; students Sri Lanka, 3:95
designing, 2:80; types of, 2:75 – 77; St. Anthony High School, 2:60f
world’s first, 2:59 St. John Bosco Boys’ Home,
Solatubes, 5:37 4:98 – 102, 4:99f
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 2:107, Stanley, William, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
5:121 4:169, 5:171
Solix Biofuels, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184, STAR. See Sweep Twist Adaptive
4:186, 5:188 Rotor
Solvents, 1:47 States: coal producing, 1:114 – 15;
Sony Corporation, 2:12f hydroelectricity from, 3:74f; oil-
Soultz-sous-Forêts, 4:48, 4:48f producing, 1:55f
Sound, 1:6 Stationary bicycles, 5:9
Source, energy consumption by, Stationary fuel cell systems, 2:119
1:170t – 173t, 2:140t – 143t, STE. See Solar thermal electric
3:138t – 141t, 4:140t – 143t, Steam reformation, 2:91
5:142t – 145t Steam turbines, 4:38
South America, 1:84 Steel industry, 1:20 – 21
South Dakota: geothermal energy in, Step-up transformers, 1:17
4:67; wind farms in, 3:36 Stirling, Robert, 2:41
Southeast Asia, 3:61 Stirling Energy Systems, 2:41, 2:43f
South Korea, 3:110 Stirling engine, 2:40 – 42, 2:40f, 2:56
Southwestern solar farms, 2:23 Stokkur Geysir, 4:38f
Soybean-powered buses, 4:109f Storage tanks, 2:77
Soybean-powered cars, 4:121 Stored mechanical energy, 1:5
Soy crops, 4:125 Strassman, Fritz, 1:134
Space Conditioning: The Next Frontier, Strategic Petroleum Reserve, 1:60 – 62,
4:69 1:60f
Space science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, Student Energy Audit Training
4:188, 5:190 (SEAT), 1:28
Space shuttles, 5:120 Students, 4:121
Spain: solar energy investments of, Sugarcane field, 4:86f
2:24; solar panel installation in, Sulfur dioxide, 1:53, 1:111, 1:119,
2:25; solar tower of, 2:47; wind en- 4:92
ergy in, 3:59 Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 1:110 – 11
Spas, 4:50 – 51 Sulfur oxides, 4:117
Specialty transportation, 2:113 – 14 Sullivan, Jim, 2:98
256 a Index
in, 4:72; wave energy used in,

3:116 – 17
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Sweep Twist Adaptive Rotor (STAR),
Cells 3:9
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and Sweet Bay, 5:105
Hydropower Swept area, 3:8
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Switchgrass, 4:82 – 83, 4:82f
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Synthetic natural gas (Syngas),
and Sustainability 1:125 – 28; global warming and,
1:128; hydrogen fuel cells and,
Summerfield Elementary School, 1:127 – 28
5:35 – 36
Sun, 1:5, 2:49, 2:59, 2:107 Tackling Climate Change in the US,
SunCatcher solar disk thermal sys- 2:80
tem, 2:41 – 42, 2:43f Taconite Ridge Wind Energy Center,
Suncor (Sunoco) Energy Inc, 1:216, 3:34
2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Takasago rapid-charging station,
SunEdison, 5:35 5:73f
SunPower solar array, 2:18f Tanzania, 4:102
Surface mining: environmental TAPCHAN, 3:115, 3:116f
issues and, 1:108; reclamation and, Tapered channel wave energy, 3:116f
1:107 – 8; shallow coal, 1:109 Tarkington Elementary School, 1:26,
Surface Mining Control and 5:27f
Reclamation Act, 1:107 Taupo Volcanic Zone, 4:44f
Sustainable development: biofuels in, Tax revenue, 4:27
5:120 – 22; construction, 5:82; with Technologies: Barrage, 3:107; bio,
CSP, 5:113; defining, 5:100; energy 5:123; biogas, 4:102 – 3; clean coal,
efficiency and, 5:107; geothermal 1:121 – 28; dye-sensitized, 2:11 – 12,
energy in, 5:109 – 10; goals of, 2:12f; Exide, 5:2; geothermal
5:100 – 101; green school building energy, 4:18; Horizon Fuel Cell,
for, 5:26; hydroelectric power in, 2:127, 5:69; hydrogen, 2:99 – 100;
5:108 – 9, 5:108f; hydrogen fuel cells hydrophobic nanocoating, 5:117f;
in, 5:116 – 19; nuclear energy in, nano, 4:77, 5:114 – 15, 5:114f,
5:110 – 12, 5:111f; reading materials 5:116; Nano Solar, 2:56; natural gas
on, 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, drilling, 1:77; non-silicon-based,
4:132 – 33, 5:134 – 35; renewable en- 2:11; nuclear energy, 1:151 – 52;
ergy powering future of, 5:107 – 22; Ocean Power, 3:114; in OTEC,
solar energy in, 5:112 – 15; system 3:119 – 22; passive solar, 2:60 – 61;
changing in, 5:105 – 6; wind energy photovoltaic, 2:24 – 25, 2:24 – 26,
in, 5:115 – 16; World Summit on, 2:25, 2:30 – 31; Power, 2:83; Prism
5:101f Solar, 2:33; Quantum, 2:122; Raser,
Sustainable Energy Park, 4:23 4:19f, 4:20; science and, 1:218,
Sweden: biomass energy source in, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, 5:190; seques-
4:88; geothermal heat pumps tration, 1:125; tidal, 3:124 – 25; tidal
Index a 257
fence, 3:107; tidal power, 3:107 – 8; Three Gorges dam project, 3:83 – 85,
Vestas Wind, 3:61; Wakonda, 2:33. 3:84f
See also Photovoltaic technology Three Mile Island, 1:132, 5:111
Tehachapi Pass, 3:32 Tidal fence technologies, 3:107
Telecommunications, 2:119 – 20 Tidal mill, 3:106
Televisions, 5:54 Tidal power, 3:103 – 4; benefits of,
Temperature: earth’s interior, 4:3, 4:4; 3:112; in China, 3:110; countries
earth’s underground, 4:57; hydro- using, 3:109 – 11; economics of,
gen and, 2:87; kinetic energy and, 3:111; energy, 1:xvi – xvii, 2:xvi – xvii,
1:6; solar collectors and, 1:12; solar 3:xvi – xvii, 4:xvi – xvii, 5:xvi – xvii;
panels influenced by, 3:64f; water environmental issues in, 3:112 – 13;
differences in, 1:15 in France, 1:xvi – xvii, 2:xvi – xvii,
Tennessee Valley Authority Act, 3:78, 3:xvi – xvii, 3:109, 3:109f, 4:xvi – xvii,
3:79 5:xvi – xvii; functioning of, 3:106;
Terminator devices, 3:115 – 16 Golden Gate Bridge and, 3:111,
Terrain, for microhydroelectric power 3:112f; history of, 3:106; hydro-
plants, 3:93 electric energy created by, 3:104; in
Tesla, Nicola, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167, New Zealand, 3:110 – 11; potential
4:169, 5:171 sites of, 3:111; in Rance estuary,
Tesla Motors, 5:71 – 72 3:106; in South Korea, 3:110;
Tessera Solar, 2:41 technology types in, 3:107 – 8; tide
Texas: Austin, 5:91; carbon footprint differences required for, 3:105f; in
reduction in, 5:11; environmen- US, 3:108 – 9
tally responsible design projects in, Tidal technologies, 3:124 – 25
5:31 – 32; as oil-producing state, Tidal turbines, 3:107, 3:107f
1:55f; wind energy in, 3:30 – 32, Tides, 3:104 – 5, 3:105f
3:54; wind farms in, 3:32 – 33 Time line, of energy, 1:197 – 201,
Texas Interconnection, 5:119 2:167 – 71, 3:165 – 69, 4:167 – 71,
Texas State Technical College, 3:47 5:169 – 73
Thackeray, Michael, 1:207, 2:177, Tirevold, Jim, 3:19 – 23
3:175, 4:177, 5:179 Titanium dioxide, 2:13
Thailand, 4:39 – 40, 4:87 Tiwi, 4:41
Thames and Cosmos solar oven, 2:73f Toledo Zoo, 4:67
Thermal decomposition, 1:74 Toluene, 1:53
Thermal energy, 1:6, 3:118 – 23, 4:15 Toshiba Corporation, 4:35, 5:118f
Thermal energy storage system, 2:39 Tower, 3:11
Thermal recovery, of oil, 1:45 Toyota, 2:86, 2:114, 5:69, 5:119;
Thermochemical hydrogen, 2:92 FCHV of, 2:109; RAV4, 5:18f
Thermo power plant, 4:19f Traeger, Tom, 2:18 – 21
Thick-film silicon cells, 2:10 Traffic jams, 1:7f
Thin-film lithium-ion battery, 5:123, Transformers, step-up, 1:17
5:123f Transmission grid: for electricity,
Thin-film solar cells, 2:9 – 10, 2:9f 1:17; electric power, 3:25; renew-
Thompson, Asa, 4:5 able energy, 2:28 – 29; for solar
258 a Index
Underwater turbines, 3:110

United Arab Emirates, 5:92 – 93
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel United Kingdom, 2:118; FCV’s in,
Cells 2:110; geothermal power plant in,
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and 4:41 – 42; natural gas consumption
Hydropower of, 1:84; wind farms in, 3:58 – 59
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy United Nations Convention on Cli-
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, mate Change, 1:32f
and Sustainability United States (US): biodiesel in,
5:122; biofuel consumed in, 1:61;
energy, 2:28 – 29; wind energy biomass percentage used in, 4:85;
limitations in, 3:68 – 69; of wind CO2 emissions of, 1:120f; coal
turbines, 3:9 – 11 industry of, 1:113 – 15, 1:115f,
Transportation: of coal, 1:112 – 13; 1:117; crude oil imports of,
fuel cell applications for, 2:107 – 16; 1:54 – 56; economic stimulus Bill
hydrogen fuel cell application for, of, 1:33; electrical grid system
5:117 – 18; hydrogen fuel cells spe- improvement needed in, 5:119;
cialty, 2:113 – 14; pipeline, 1:77 – 78 electrical grid system of, 2:29; elec-
Transuranic nuclear waste (TRU), tricity infrastructure modernizing
1:146 – 47 of, 3:68 – 69; energy consumption
Trash into Trees program, 5:91 of, 1:19f; energy history of, 1:3 – 4,
Trash-to-energy plants, 1:13 1:4t; energy supply of, 1:14f; FCVs
Tree hugger jobs, 1:211, 2:181, 3:179, in, 2:107 – 9; geothermal companies
4:181, 5:183 in, 4:20; geothermal energy in,
Trees, capturing carbon dioxide, 5:1, 1:xvii, 2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 – 20,
5:91 4:31, 5:xvii, 5:110f; geothermal
TRU. See Transuranic nuclear waste heat pump’s installed capacity in,
Trucking, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 4:70; geothermal heat pump use
5:173 of, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; geothermal
Tucson, Arizona, 5:17 resources in, 5:110f; green cities
Turbines, 3:81 – 82, 3:90, 3:92 – 93 in, 5:89 – 92, 5:92t; greenhouse gas
Turkey, 2:116, 4:41 emissions reduction target of, 5:16;
Twenhofel Middle School, 5:32 hydroelectric energy in, 3:74 – 77,
20% Wind Energy by 2030, 3:17, 3:74f; hydrogen fuel cell buses in,
3:24 2:111; hydrogen fuel cell funding
21st Century Green High Perform- cut by, 2:86; microhydroelectric
ing Public Schools Facilities Act, power plants potential in, 3:96,
5:27 – 28 3:98; natural gas consumption
TXU Energy Solar Academy, 2:52, of, 1:83; new oil fields in, 1:46;
2:54 Northeastern, 3:36 – 37; nuclear
energy in, 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Ulba Metallurgical Plant, 1:141f nuclear reactors in, 1:136; oil im-
Underground mining, 1:108 – 9 ports of, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171,
Underwater seabed turbines, 3:108 5:173; oil shale deposits in, 1:57f;
Index a 259
petroleum consumed in, 1:60; 5:18f; fleet, 1:85 – 86, 1:90; fuel-
petroleum imported by, 1:41; re- cell, 5:69 – 70; fuel-cell hybrid,
fined products importing of, 1:59; 2:109; gasoline use of,
solar energy projects of, 2:21 – 23; 1:41; green, 5:68 – 76; hydrogen,
solar energy used in, 2:17 – 21; 2:116; plug-in electric car con-
solar installations in, 2:3 – 4; solar version of, 5:125 – 26; school,
radiation across, 2:5; tidal power 4:117 – 20; solar powered,
in, 3:108 – 9; waste vegetable oil 2:45 – 46; sulfur oxides emissions
in, 4:114; wind energy capacity of, 4:117; using natural gas,
of, 3:17 – 18, 5:115; wind energy 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75;
production of, 3:29 – 38. See also vegetable oil powering, 4:122 – 25.
specific states See also Electric vehicles; Fuel
United States Geological Survey cell vehicles
(USGS), 1:167, 2:137, 3:135, Velling Mærsk-Tændpibe wind power
4:137, 5:139 plant, 3:59
Uranium: energy created by, 1:139; Verdant Power, 3:104
nuclear fuel mining of, 1:138 – 40; Vermont, 5:10
oxide U-235, 1:140 – 41; pellets, Verne, Jules, 2:85
1:141; processing, 1:140; U-238, Vertical-axis turbines, 3:13 – 14, 3:13f,
1:144 3:14 – 15
US. See United States Vertical ground loops, 4:64
USDA Southern Research Station, Vestas Wind Technology, 3:61
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
USGBC. See US Green Building Vietnam, 4:87
Council Villaraigosa, Antonio, 4:34
US Green Building Council Virginia: biodiesel school buses in,
(USGBC), 5:26 – 27, 5:36, 5:42 4:120; carbon footprint reduction
USGS. See United States Geological in, 5:11
Survey Vocational information, 1:212, 2:182,
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 – 20 3:180, 4:182, 5:184
Utility bills, 5:36 VOCs. See Volatile organic
Utility company, 3:20 – 21 compounds
Utility grid: connecting to, 2:14 – 15, Voith Hydro, 3:74
3:43; solar energy and, 2:14 – 15, Voith Siemens Hydro Power Plant,
2:28 5:108f
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
Van Buren Elementary School, 5:11 1:97, 1:119
Vegetable oil, 4:113; biodiesel as, Volcanoes, 4:7f, 4:33, 4:35, 4:37, 4:40,
4:116f; as fuel, 4:114; vehicles pow- 4:44
ered by, 4:122 – 25; waste, 4:114, Volkswagen, 2:111
4:123
Veggie Van, 4:127 Wakonda Technologies, 2:33
Vehicles: biodiesel powered, Waldpolenz Solar Park, 2:25
4:110 – 11, 4:117 – 20, 5:75; electric, Walters, Bob, 1:86 – 89, 1:87f
260 a Index
Westinghouse Electric Company,

1:145
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel Westlake, Mark, 2:43 – 46, 2:44f
Cells Weston Solutions, 5:40
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and West Virginia, 5:32
Hydropower Westwood Elementary School,
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy 5:28 – 31
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Wetland water treatment systems,
Wet-milling process, 4:95, 4:95f
Washington: carbon footprint reduc- Who Killed the Electric Car, 5:71
tion in, 5:11; Seattle, 5:89f; wind Wibberding, Lonnie, 5:61
farms in, 3:36 Wilkinson, Martin, 3:34
Waste, 5:51 Williston Northampton School,
Waste veggie oil (WVO), 4:123 4:66f, 4:68
Water: collection, 2:63; conservation of, Wilmington oil field, 1:55
2:65; cooling buildings with, 4:64; Wind energy, 1:xv – xvi, 1:12, 2:xv – xvi,
temperature differences in, 1:15 2:21, 3:xv – xvi, 4:xv – xvi, 5:xv – xvi;
Waterfront Office Building, 4:70 benefits and issues with, 3:18; in
Water Furnace, 4:75 California, 1:200, 2:170, 3:168,
Water heaters: conventional, 5:67f; 4:170, 5:172; challenges facing,
geothermal heat pump, 4:62 – 63 3:24; compresses-air storage with,
Watermill, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 3:69 – 70; cost of, 3:17f, 3:44, 3:68;
5:169 Denmark’s production of, 3:56 – 58,
Watt, James, 1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 3:58f, 5:115; DOE report on, 3:17,
4:168, 5:170 3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 – 18;
Watts Bar Unit 1, 5:113 electricity generated by, 3:38; en-
Wave energy, 3:104; AquaBuoy ergy storage and, 3:69; in Europe,
converting, 3:117f; benefits and 1:xv – xvi, 2:xv – xvi, 3:xv – xvi, 3:57,
challenges of, 3:118; converter, 4:xv – xvi, 5:xv – xvi; farmers and,
3:115; countries using, 3:116 – 18; 3:38, 3:39; future of, 3:24; global
harnessing, 3:113 – 16; Norway capacity of, 3:56; history of, 3:2 – 3;
using, 3:117 – 18; from oceans, in India, 3:59 – 60; KidWind proj-
3:113 – 18; offshore generation ect and, 3:47 – 51; nanotechnology
systems for, 3:114; onshore sys- used in, 5:116; in Northeast US,
tems for, 3:114 – 16; Portugal using, 3:36 – 37; offshore power plants for,
3:117; reading materials on, 1:161, 3:62 – 64; from Portsmouth Abbey
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; Sweden monastery, 3:37; in Portugal, 3:59;
using, 3:116 – 17; tapered channel, production, 3:29 – 38; reading mate-
3:116f rials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
Waves, 3:113 5:133; Russia’s potential of, 3:62;
Wessington Springs Wind Farm, 3:36 in schools, 3:35t, 3:44, 3:46;
Western Interconnection, 5:119 small residential systems using,
Index a 261
3:40 – 44; Southeast Asia sites for, benefits and issues with, 3:22 – 23;
3:61; in Spain, 3:59; Spirit Lake blade design of, 3:9; in China,
Community School District using, 1:201, 2:171, 3:60, 3:60f, 3:169,
3:1, 5:35; in sustainable develop- 4:171, 5:173; companies supply-
ment, 5:115 – 16; in Texas, 3:30 – 32; ing, 3:20; components of, 3:10;
transmission limitations of, cut-in speed of, 3:21; Darrieus,
3:68 – 69; US capacity of, 3:17 – 18, 3:13 – 14; deepwater floating, 3:63;
5:115; US production of, 3:29 – 38; defining, 3:7; electricity generated
wind speed determining, 3:5 – 6 by, 3:16, 3:21 – 22; energy produc-
Wind Energy for Homeowners, 3:26, tion of, 3:42; FloDesign, 3:56;
3:72 future uses of, 3:72; gearbox of,
Wind farms, 3:15; Altamont Pass, 3:9 – 11; generators of, 3:9 – 10; for
3:32, 3:33f; Buffalo Ridge, 3:34; homes, 5:63; horizontal-axis tur-
business of, 3:39 – 40; in Colorado, bine, 3:12 – 13, 3:13f; maintenance,
3:34; compressed air storage for, 3:41; manufacturers, 3:16; new v.
3:31 – 32; electric power transmis- old, 3:33; Pickens plan of, 3:27;
sion system for, 3:25; farmers and, for residential systems, 3:40 – 42;
3:39; Fenton, 3:34; in Germany, residential systems maintenance
3:53, 3:57; Greensburg, 3:34; High of, 3:41; revenues from, 3:38; for
Winds Energy Center, 3:32 – 33; schools, 3:16 – 23; Skystream 3.7,
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Cen- 3:46f; small, 3:15; Spirit Lake
ter, 3:31, 3:31f; in Kansas, 3:34; in Community School District
Minnesota, 3:34; in Missouri, 3:36; with, 5:36f; Texas State Technical
Rock Port, Missouri with, 3:29; at College and, 3:47; transmission and
sea, 3:57; in South Dakota, 3:36; gearbox of, 3:9 – 11; vertical-axis
in Texas, 3:32 – 33; in United turbine, 3:13 – 15, 3:13f;
Kingdom, 3:58 – 59; in Washington, world’s first, 3:2; yawing of,
3:36; Wessington Springs, 3:36 3:11 – 12
Wind for Schools program, 3:44, Wind vane, 3:11
3:46, 3:46f Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 – 67
Wind generators, 3:51 Wood, gasification of, 4:97
Windmills, 3:2, 3:26 Wood alcohol, 2:89
Windows, 5:33, 5:51, 5:52f Wood-burning boilers, 4:105
Wind Power in the United States, 3:30 Wood-burning cooking stove, 4:88
Wind Resource Assessment Handbook, Woods, Mel, 2:18
3:72 World Commission on Environment
Winds: basics of, 3:3 – 5; direction and and Development, 5:100
speed of, 3:5; global, 3:3f World Nuclear Association, 5:112
Wind speed, 3:5 – 6, 3:8 – 9 World oil, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 4:160,
Wind turbines, 1:xvi, 2:xvi, 3:xvi, 5:162
4:xvi, 5:xvi; airborne, 3:62; Bah- World production, of petroleum,
rain World Trade Center using, 1:xi – xii, 2:xi – xii, 3:xi – xii, 4:xi – xii,
3:55 – 56, 3:55f; bats killed by, 3:60; 5:xi – xii
262 a Index
Xeriscape, 5:87
Xtreme Power and Clairvoyant En-
2: Solar Energy and Hydrogen Fuel ergy, 1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186,
Cells 5:188
3: Wind Energy, Oceanic Energy, and
Hydropower Yangtze River, 3:83, 3:84f, 3:85
4: Geothermal and Biomass Energy Yawing, of wind turbines, 3:11 – 12
5: Energy Efficiency, Conservation, Yellowcake, 1:140
and Sustainability Yellowstone aquifer, 4:67
Yellowstone National Park, 4:4, 4:4f,
4:9, 4:52
World Resource Institute, 1:167, Yestermorrow Design/Build School,
2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139 2:33
World Summit on Sustainable Devel- Youth Awards for Energy Achieve-
opment, 5:101f ment, 3:67 – 68
Worldwide Fuel Cell Industry, 2:106 Yucca Mountain, 1:148 – 49
Worldwide uses: of energy, 1:19 – 21;
of nuclear energy, 1:136 – 38 Zero-carbon energy source,
Wrangell Mountains, 4:18 1:131 – 32
WVO. See Waste veggie oil Zero emissions, 1:122, 5:73 – 74,
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4 5:94
About the Author
JOHN F. MONGILLO is presently a middle-school science teacher at

Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland, Rhode Island. He
has a BS in general education, a BS in special education, and an MS in
science education. John has been a coauthor and author of several Green-
wood reference books, including Teen Guides to Environmental Science,
Environmental Activists, Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, and Nano-
technology 101. He is also a coauthor of Reading about Science, a seven-
book series published by Phoenix Learning Resources. He is a member
of the National Science Teachers Association and the Autism Society of
America. John drives a 1998 Saturn four-door sedan that was converted
into a 100 percent electric plug-in vehicle by two of his students and a
team of family members and technicians.
A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 2: Solar Energy and

Hydrogen Fuel Cells
John F. Mongillo
Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66 2011
621.042—dc22 2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Photovoltaic Solar Cells 1
Where Is the Largest Solar Installation
in the United States? 3
How Much Solar Energy Is Available across
the United States? 4
A Brief History of Solar Energy 5
What Are Some Uses for Photovoltaic Cells? 6
What Materials Are Used to Make Photovoltaic Cells? 6
Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 7
A New Generation of Solar Cells 8
Development of Non-Silicon-Based Technologies 11
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Technology 11
Photovoltaic Cells Come in Many Sizes and Shapes 12
Solar Storage 13
Photovoltaic Connections to a Utility Grid and Net Metering 14
U.S. Schools Using Solar Energy 16
Solar Cities throughout the United States 17
U.S. Solar Energy Projects in the News 21
vi a Contents
Solar Farms for the Southwestern States 23

Global Photovoltaic Technology Leaders 24
Benefits of Solar Energy 26
Limiting Factors of Solar Energy 27
Economics of Solar Energy 30
The Future of Photovoltaics: Will It Be the Major
Global Industry of the Century? 30
Interview
Tom Traeger 18
Chapter 2 Concentrating Solar Power 35
Three Kinds of Concentrating Solar Power 36
The Future for Concentrating Solar Power 50
What Are the Environmental Impacts of CSP Plants? 50
Interviews
Mark Westlake 43
David Chen 52
Chapter 3 Passive Solar Energy and Active Solar Power Energy 59
Solar Wall: Passive Solar Technology 60
Solar Energy: Some Basic Science 61
Passive and Active Solar Heating Systems 66
Solar Hot-Water Units 75
American Solar Energy Society 80
Solar Ponds 80
Interview
Stephanie Harman 62
Chapter 4 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 85
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 85
Some Basics on Hydrogen 87
What Is a Fuel Cell? 87
Brief History of Hydrogen Time Line 90
Present Use 90
How Is Hydrogen Produced? 91
The Future of Hydrogen Fuel Cells 100
What Companies Make Hydrogen Fuel Cells? 102
Interview
Ross McCurdy 94
Contents a vii
Chapter 5 Fuel Cells for Transportation and Homes 105

The Growth of Fuel Cells 106
Fuel-Cell Applications: Transportation 107
Residential Applications: Using Fuel Cells in Homes 117
Industrial Applications for Stationary Power Generation 119
Other Uses for Fuel Cells 119
Benefits 121
Some Concerns about Fuel Cells 121
Hydrogen Economy: The Future 124
Establish Fuel-Cell Education in Your School 125

Energy Data 139
Profiles 173
Index 189
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a



xiv a Introduction

21st century.

Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction


ogy milestones.
powered car.
Introduction a xvii


Petroleum

Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
xx a Introduction
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy

one in France.

Geothermal

xxiv a Introduction
Energy’s Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
a
Photovoltaic Solar Cells
I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy. What a source of
power! I hope we don’t have to wait until oil and coal run out before
we tackle that.
—Thomas Edison, in conversation with Henry Ford

and Harvey Firestone, 1931
energy as a renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The three
key solar technologies include:
• photovoltaic cells, commonly called solar cells
• concentrating solar power systems
• special solar collectors for space heating and hot water
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, made of semiconductors such as crystalline sili-
con or various thin-film materials, convert sunlight directly into electricity.
You probably have seen these photovoltaic cells attached to roofs of homes,
at ground level near buildings, or installed on high towers along major
highways.
Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use reflective materials
to concentrate the sun’s heat energy. In this system, the high-temperature
heat produced by solar energy is eventually used to drive a steam genera-

tor to produce electricity. Is this type of CSP technology located in your
neighborhood? Probably not. This system is installed on large tracts of land
in mostly rural areas.
Low-temperature solar collectors take two forms—active and passive
solar energy systems—and are used to absorb the sun’s heat or thermal
energy. The thermal energy is used directly for space heating or hot water
for homes and businesses. You may have seen solar collectors installed on
the roofs of homes. Solar collectors, however, are used only for hot water
needs and not for electrical energy needs. It is the photovoltaic or solar cell
panels that change sunlight directly into electricity.
Many experts believe that a major switch to these kinds of solar energy
technologies is the best solution for reducing fossil fuel use and emissions.
Many solar energy companies in the United States and around the world
are researching, planning, and using technologies to harness the sun’s
energy to generate electricity for businesses, homes, schools, and large
communities.
This chapter discusses photovoltaics, commonly called solar cells. Chap-
ters 2 and 3 discuss concentrating solar power systems and passive and
active solar energy systems, respectively.
Simply stated, photovoltaic cells convert light energy into electrical en-
ergy. The electrical energy then can be used for a number of tasks, such as
pumping water for raising livestock, turning on lights, charging batteries
for solar racing cars and even go-karts, and heating and cooling a home.
Photovoltaics have so many uses that they already touch your life in some
way. However, to use solar cells efficiently, you need to live in areas where
much sunlight is available throughout the year.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1839 the French physicist Edmond Becquerel observed that when certain ma-
terials absorbed light, the materials generated electricity. Becquerel also re-
corded that the amount of electricity varied with the intensity of the light. Despite
these early findings by Becquerel, photovoltaic research did not begin until the
late 1950s. NASA first used photovoltaics in 1958 to power the radio of the U.S.
Vanguard I space satellite with less than one watt of electricity.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells a 3
WHERE IS THE LARGEST SOLAR INSTALLATION

IN THE UNITED STATES?
The largest photovoltaic solar installation in the United States is located on
the Nellis Air Force Base outside Las Vegas, Nevada. This installation near
the airstrip is also one of the largest of its kind in the world. The large solar
panels, spread along a large land area, are designed to generate more than
30 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. Pivoting slightly during
the daylight hours, the solar panels never lose the location of the sun; they
are equipped with special tracking tools that move and turn the mounted
panels to follow the sun’s direction.
Presidential Visit to Nellis Air Force Base

President Barack Obama visited the Nellis Air Force base in 2009. About
the solar installation, with its 72,000 solar panels on 140 acres of land,
President Obama said,
That’s the equivalent of powering about 13,200 homes during the

day. It’s a project that took about half a year to complete, created 200
President Barack Obama, Colonel

Dave Belote, and Senator Harry
Reid tour Nellis Air Force Base in
Nevada in May 2009. Nellis con-
tains the largest array of photovol-
taic solar panels in the Western
Hemisphere. The more than 72,000
solar panels are estimated to save
the base approximately $1 million a
year in energy costs. (U.S. Air Force
photo by Airman 1st Class Nadine Y.
Barclay)
jobs, and will save the U.S. Air Force, which is the largest consumer
of energy in the federal government, nearly $1 million a year. It will
also reduce harmful carbon pollution by 24,000 tons a year, which
is the equivalent of removing 4,000 cars from our roads. Most im-
portantly, this base serves as a shining example of what’s possible
when we harness the power of clean, renewable energy to build a new,
firmer foundation for economic growth.
HOW MUCH SOLAR ENERGY IS AVAILABLE

ACROSS THE UNITED STATES?
We all know that plenty of sunlight reaches Earth; however, it is distrib-
uted unevenly throughout the different regions of the world. For example,
if you live at the equator (0º latitude), you will receive more solar radiation
than someone living farther away in the southern or northern latitudes.
Additionally, in most places the amount of sunlight an area receives can
change during the seasons because of the rotation of Earth’s axis and its
orbit around the sun.
Let’s look at one example. The amount of solar rays falling per square
yard in El Paso, Texas, in June is typically much greater than the amount of
sun’s rays falling on the same footage in Rutland, Vermont, in December.
How much sunlight reaches a region is also affected by the time of day, the
climate, and the cloud cover. Therefore, in the United States and in other
countries, the amount of energy that is available for solar power will vary
according to where you live.
To find out how much solar energy is available in your state, see the U.S.
solar map in this chapter.
FEATURE
College Installs a Solar System
Chevron Energy Solutions is helping the Contra Costa Community College District
in Northern California to save energy and cut greenhouse gas emissions. The
3.2-megawatt solar system and other improvements make the college’s three cam-
puses and district office more energy efficient. It is the largest solar power instal-
lation ever built at an institution of higher learning in North America.
To view a related video, go to http://www.willyoujoinus.com/commitment/whatwere
doing/wwd4/.
This map shows the amount of solar radiation received across the United
States during the month of June. Notice the sections of the United States that
receive the largest amount of radiation during this time. (Source: U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOLAR ENERGY

The early Greeks and Romans used passive solar energy to warm up the
rooms in their homes. The Romans covered south-facing openings in the
inside walls with glass or other transparent materials to keep in the heat,
particularly during the winter months.
In the 1830s the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar box,
similar to today’s solar oven, on a trip to Africa to cook his food during his
stay. Later in the 19th century, European scientists developed large cone-
shaped collectors that were used to boil ammonia for use in refrigeration
plants and for other products.
In the United States, John Ericsson did much research to harness solar
power. He designed the parabolic trough collector, which operates much
like the parabolic trough collectors we have today. (Parabolic trough col-
lectors are discussed further in chapter 2.)
William Adams used mirrors and the energy of the sun to help power
a steam engine during the 1870s. His design, called the power tower con-
cept, is still in use in the 21st century. (Solar power towers are discussed in
chapter 2.)
In the 1950s Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller, and Daryl Chaplin of
Bell Laboratories (now AT&T Labs) discovered the use of silicon as a
semiconductor. In the 21st century, Silicon, an element, is utilized as a

major ingredient in the production of solar cells and solar panels. In 1953
the same three scientists developed the first silicon solar cell. The cell gen-
erated small measure of electric current. In the 1950s and 1960s, satellites
and spacecrafts used solar panels for electricity. In the early 21st century
the photovoltaic market is growing by 30 percent per year, as the costs of
manufacturing the cells decrease.
WHAT ARE SOME USES FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS?

According to research, about 40 percent of all photovoltaic cells sold are
used for producing electrical power for homes and for pumping water
in remote areas. About 35 percent of them are used in transmitting and
communication operations. Many lighthouses, offshore petroleum drilling
operations, highway signs, and radio and telephone transmitters are also
powered by solar panels.
WHAT MATERIALS ARE USED TO MAKE

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS?
Solar cells are made from many different semiconductors. A semiconduc-
tor is a material that has the properties of an insulator as well as those
of an excellent conductor. Some of the semiconductors used for making
solar cells include silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide, and
cadmium telluride. All of these materials are suited to the development of
solar cells to conduct electricity.
To view a video that provides an overview of the Center for Photovoltaics
and its research, go to http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_photovoltaics.html.
FEATURE
Solar-Powered Hong Kong Ferry Boats
In 2009 solar-powered boats in Hong Kong transported passengers across the
Hong Kong Harbor. According to reports, the four solar-powered ferries used about
75 percent solar power and 25 percent liquid petroleum gas, emitting half the
amount of carbon dioxide usually emitted by a typical ferry. According to the fer-
ryboat operators, the ferries saved money in addition to reducing carbon dioxide
emissions.
CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS

Silicon (Si) is a semiconductor and the most common and important ele-
ment in computer chip and solar technologies. It is a semimetallic, chemi-
cal element that crystallizes in a cubic shape similar to the pattern of a
diamond. Silicon crystals are found in sand and quartz and are used exten-
sively in the manufacturing of solar cells.
How Do Solar Cells Work?

Most solar photovoltaic cells are made from two layers of crystalline sili-
con that have been chemically treated using a process called doping. The
doping process gives one silicon layer a negative charge (N) and the other
a positive charge (P). A solar cell is essentially a PN junction sandwiched
between two layers of semiconductor materials.
The process of producing electricity from a solar cell begins with sunlight.
When the particles of light strike a solar cell, they cause electrons to be ejected
from the silicon atoms. The electrons move freely from the negative layer to
the positive layer through metal terminals producing electricity. A four-inch
cell can produce about one watt of direct current. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Now how does the solar cell work? The process of producing electricity
from a solar cell begins with sunlight, which contains energy in the form of
photons or particles of light. When photons strike a solar cell, they cause
electrons to be ejected from the silicon atoms located near the junction.
An electron is a subatomic particle with a negative charge. The stream of
ejected electrons can move freely from the negative layer to the positive
layer through the metal terminals.
How much electricity is generated from a solar cell? The typical four-
inch solar cell can produce about one watt of direct current (DC) electric-
ity when exposed to sunlight. To generate more electricity, you need to
wire together many solar cells in a panel called a solar array that is encased
in a watertight container for weather protection. If you need to produce
a greater amount of electricity, then the panels, in turn, can be wired to-
gether. These kinds of solar panels are placed on the roofs of homes and
businesses to generate electricity.
A NEW GENERATION OF SOLAR CELLS

In 2010 many institutions and companies are developing, testing, and
manufacturing a new generation of solar cells. Traditional solar cells are
made from crystalline silicon, which has been in high demand, at times
FEATURE
Native American Tribes Provide Renewable Energy Workshops
Several Native American tribes are interested in renewable energy sources such
solar energy. One organization working with Native American communities is Solar
Energy International (SEI). The organization provides renewable energy training
and workshops and has been a partner with Honor the Earth (HTE), which provides
grant funding for renewable energy projects on native lands.
“Native communities are often faced with the false choice of either developing
energy resources or protecting ecosystems. Solar power, like other renewables,
represents an opportunity to not have to choose one or the other,” says Winona
LaDuke, executive director of HTE. Matt Harris, SEI’s program coordinator, also
states that “renewable energy can bring food, fuel, and economic security back
to tribal lands.”
Would you like to know more about Solar Energy International? Go to their Web
site: http://www.solarenergy.org/.
DID YOU KNOW?

Silicon is the second most abundant element after oxygen. It makes up 25.7 percent
of Earth’s crust by mass.
resulting in a shortage of crystalline silicon supply throughout the world,

and which is a high-cost material to purchase. Therefore, the solar photo-
voltaic industry is researching and developing non-silicon-based technol-
ogy, including thin-film solar cells.
Thin-Film Solar Cells

Solar engineers refer to second-generation solar cells as thin-film solar
cells. Materials used in the production of the thin films include semicon-
ductor materials, such as copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2 or “CIS”),
gallium arsenide, and cadmium telluride.
Engineer Steve Robbins displays a sheet of “thin film” solar cells at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colorado, in March 2009.
Thin film solar panels are relatively low in cost and their flexible design makes
them highly adaptable. (John Moore/Getty Images)
The term thin film refers not to the thinness of the film, but to the
manufacturing process used to produce the solar cells. Thin-film cells are
deposited in very thin, consecutive layers of atoms, molecules, or ions onto
wafer-like material. The finished solar cell is only a few micrometers or
nanometers thick.
Thick versus Thin: Any Differences?

Thin-film cells have some advantages over the thick-film silicon cells. For
example, less material is needed in the manufacturing of thin-film cells.
A thin cell is usually only 1–10 micrometers thick, whereas thick crystal-
line films typically are 100–300 micrometers thick and have to be cut from
ribbons.
Also, thin-film cells can usually be manufactured in a continuous, au-
tomated production process. Automated processes can assure improved
product quality, lower operating costs, and better safety conditions. Finally,
the thin-film cells can be deposited on flexible materials such as ultra thin
glass, stainless steel, or plastic in any shape. Because of their flexibility,
thin-film solar cells can be used as rooftop shingles, on the exterior part of
a building or facade, or in the glazing for skylights.
How Do Thin-Film Solar Cells Produce Electricity?

Under a microscope the thin-film cells have two layers sandwiched to-
gether. The top layer is made of a different semiconductor material than
the material used for the bottom semiconductor layer. The top layer is
called an N-type—the negative charge. Chemicals in this layer allow the
sunlight through to the absorbing layer, called the P-type—the positive
charge. When the sunlight passes through a conducting chemical on the
surface, the sunlight makes contact with a series of chemicals (i.e., indium,
copper, gallium, and diselenide) that allow electrons to flow through a wire
to create electricity from the N-type and P-type.
DID YOU KNOW?

A nanometer (nm) is an SI unit of 10-9 meters, or one-billionth of a meter. At this
scale, we are talking about the size of atoms and molecules. The width of your nail
on your little finger is about 10 million nanometers across.
DEVELOPMENT OF NON-SILICON-BASED TECHNOLOGIES

In the early 21st century, more and more global companies are conducting
thin-film research and technology. One solar research group reported that
the global solar market could grow from $13 billion to $32 billion by 2012.
During this time, the thin-film market would expand by approximately
45 percent a year. In 2010 the thin-film market makes up only about
10 percent of the solar market, but it is growing fast.
DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL TECHNOLOGY

Dyes are commonly used to color materials. The early Romans used dyes
to color hair. Dyes can be extracted from a variety of objects such as leaves,
flowers, berries, and the roots of plants. Now they can be used to make
solar cells.
In the 1990s Michael Grätzel invented the dye-sensitized solar cell.
These unique cells have the potential to be a low-cost and environmental
friendly alternative to expensive silicon solar cells. The dye-sensitized
cells imitate the way that plants and certain algae convert sunlight into
energy—a process more commonly called photosynthesis. Using this
technology, the cells are manufactured on a porous film that is com-
prised of tiny (nanometer-sized) white pigment particles made from ti-
tanium dioxide. These pigment particles are covered with a layer of dye
and are immersed in an electrolyte solution, a chemical that can make a
FEATURE
Pet Owners Build Solar-Powered Doghouses
Some pet owners are building solar-powered doghouses. Solar doghouses are
designed to capture the sun’s warmth in the winter and to reflect sunlight in the
summer for cooling.
In 2002 the Florida Solar Energy Center team won an Orlando Science Center
contest for its “most scientifically designed dog house” by building the K-9 Comfort
Cottage. The team’s doghouse utilized solar energy and design and building strate-
gies. According to the Florida Solar Energy Center, “photovoltaic sheets were used
for the sides, and three other solar panels were built on a white reflective roof. The
solar panels powered a dog porch light, a ventilation fan, and an overhead ceiling
fan. The K-9 Comfort Cottage was designed for a hot, humid climate, but the team
also provided solar doghouse plans for use in cold climates.”
An employee of Sony Corporation,

a leading manufacturer of electron-
ics and video, displays a prototype
model of the dye-sensitized solar
cell. The cell generates a maximum
power of 30–40mmW to sound a
Walkman digital audio player. The
Sony dye-sensitized solar power
cell is flexible and made of a light-
weight film. The background stained
glass window is made of a solar
power cell. (Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/
Getty Images)
substance electrically conductive. When solar radiation strikes the dye,

it produces a negative charge in the pigment particles and a positive
charge into the electrolyte, resulting in the conversion of sunlight into
electrical energy in an electrical circuit.
Dye-sensitized cells are inexpensive and easy to manufacture into flex-
ible sheets or even coatings. Another benefit with these kinds of cells is
that they can withstand long exposures to light and heat compared with
traditional silicon-based solar cells. Dye-sensitized cells have shown a sun-
light conversion efficiency of about 10 percent; still less than the efficiency
of silicon cell technology.
A drawback to the dye-sensitized cell technology is the electrolyte so-
lution, which is made of volatile organic solvents and must be carefully
sealed. However, research is being conducted to resolve this problem.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS COME IN MANY

SIZES AND SHAPES
Photovoltaic cells come in many sizes and shapes—from smaller than a
postage stamp to several inches across. Each cell is capable of producing
one to two watts of power. Although this is not enough to power most
appliances, cells can be linked together in modules. Modules store pho-
tovoltaic cells in a weatherproof container and may be up to several feet
long and a few feet wide. Depending on how much energy is needed, the
modules can also be linked together to provide higher voltages. Photo-

voltaic power plants use a few thousand modules to generate electricity
for household or business uses. Because photovoltaic systems come in
small and large sizes and shapes, they are able to meet almost any elec-
tric power need, whether in a small house or in a large community of
homes.
The modules, in turn, can be combined and connected to form photo-
voltaic arrays of different sizes and power output. These kinds of arrays can
be seen on the Nellis Air Force Base and on large solar farms.
Power of a Solar Array

Electrical power is measured in watts. A watt is a measurement of total
electrical power: Volts ⫻ Amps ⫽ Watts. For electrical power, one watt is
equal to one ampere of current per second.
The power output of a single solar cell or an array of solar cells can be
measured in watts, watt-hours, kilowatt-hours, kilowatt-hours per day, or
even megawatts. A megawatt will produce electricity for 400–900 homes
per year. Utility power plants usually measure their output in megawatts.
The megawatt is equal to one million watts, or 106 watts.
SOLAR STORAGE
The biggest problem of solar power technologies is how to store the power
generated for those times when sunlight is unavailable. Currently, most
FEATURE
Making Solar Cells from Fruits
Did you know that you could use fruits for making solar cells? Well, you can. In a
research study, several students at Rowan University (Glassboro, NJ) are using
fruit such as blackberries, blueberries, oranges, and grapes to produce solar en-
ergy. The students process the dye from the fruit to create solar cells. The dye is
placed on a conductive glass. This special glass has the property to conduct elec-
tricity. The glass is then coated with a film of titanium dioxide, a material found in
several products, including toothpaste and white paint. The titanium dioxide bonds
the dye to the glass. Finally, the researchers add a special electrolyte to the dye
on the glass. When the sunlight strikes the dye on the glass, a chemical reaction
takes place, causing the electrons to travel in a circuit to produce a tiny electric
current.
FEATURE
Buckley Air Force Base
The Buckley Air Force Base is the first site in the Air Force Space Command to
go solar. The base has already installed two small solar-power arrays. In 2009 the
Buckley Air Force Air Base/460th Space Wing planned an additional 5,040 solar
panels that, when completed, will cover six acres and generate up to 1.2 mega-
watts of electricity. The solar array will generate about 5 percent of Buckley’s elec-
tricity when it is operating at full capacity.
solar power plants do not have the capability to store excess energy from
sunny days to be used on cloudy days. One option is to use a storage bat-
tery bank that will collect and store power anytime the system is producing
more energy than is needed.
Photovoltaic to Battery Storage

A storage battery is an excellent system for supplying electricity when and
where it is needed on non-sunny days when solar power is not available.
Photovoltaic systems with a backup battery storage unit are used to pro-
vide electricity for power tools, lights, home appliances, telephones, and
televisions. Photovoltaic/battery systems work well in remote areas where
utility power is unavailable or at a distance that is so far away that it would
be too costly to install utility transmission lines to a building.
Although batteries make photovoltaic systems more useful, they also
require some maintenance. The batteries used in photovoltaic systems are
referred to as deep-cycling batteries, the kinds that are used on many golf
carts. The batteries are bigger than the typical car battery. These kinds of
batteries allow more stored energy for use each day.
Batteries designed for photovoltaic projects need to be handled with
care. The fluid needs to be checked in unsealed batteries periodically, and
batteries must be protected from extremely cold weather.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CONNECTIONS TO A UTILITY

GRID AND NET METERING
Although some homeowners have only a photovoltaic system attached to
their home, many solar-powered homes and businesses are connected to
A battery-based storage system is a simple and quiet option for emergency

backup power for a home or business during electrical power outages. (Illus-
trator: Jeff Dixon)
transmission power lines outside their homes and businesses. The trans-
mission lines are part of a grid system owned by a utility company. Using
grid-connected photovoltaic power can have economic as well as environ-
mental advantages for the homeowner.
Because such homeowners are using much of their electricity from their
own photovoltaic system, the amount of electricity they have to purchase
from the utility company each month is reduced. In this cooperative ar-
rangement, the homeowners get some of their power from their photovol-
taic systems and some from the utility company’s grid.
What Is Net Metering?

Net metering is a simple way of metering the energy consumed and pro-
duced at a home or business that has its own renewable energy generator,
such as a solar energy system.
Net metering enables homeowners to use their own generation of
electricity to offset their consumption over a billing period by allowing
their electric meters to turn backward when they generate electricity in
excess of their demand. This program means that customers receive retail
prices from their electrical utility company for the excess electricity they
Some of the largest solar photovoltaic power plants are located in Canada,
Spain, Germany, and in Florida in the United States. This illustration presents
a brief explanation of how these power plants produce electricity. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
generate. A retail price is the price at which a utility company sells the
electrical power to a homeowner or other consumer.
Without net metering, a second meter is usually installed to measure
the electricity that flows back to the provider, a utility company that pur-
chases the power at a rate much lower than the retail rate. As of 2010, net
metering for homeowners is available in 42 states.
U.S. SCHOOLS USING SOLAR ENERGY

According to Vicki Mastaitis of the Interstate Renewable Energy Coali-
tion, in 2010 more than 400 schools in the United States have photovoltaic
systems on their buildings. The typical grid-tied photovoltaic system in-
stalled in a school is one or two kilowatts. These systems function primarily
as demonstration systems to promote solar energy.
Some schools have solar arrays that can produce between four and
eight kilowatt-hours daily. This is enough power to run 10 computers and
printers. In some cases, schools have installed photovoltaic systems as large

as 100 kilowatts, which make a more significant contribution to reducing
the building’s overall electric load.
Organizations such as the U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, and
the National Science Teachers Association are developing instructional
resource materials and holding conferences on solar energy. Several util-
ity companies in 25 states now sponsor some kind of school solar energy
program.
California
The Athenian School in Danville, California, is planning to install a
220-kilowatt photovoltaic system. The solar-powered system, when in op-
eration, will supply approximately 50 percent of the school’s annual elec-
tricity and will include 1,300 ground-mounted solar panels installed on
the school grounds.
The San Domenico School in Northern California has installed a 412-
kilowatt solar energy system. The new solar energy system is expected to
save about 85 percent of the school’s electricity costs and reduce their car-
bon emissions.
New York
A. A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, has installed a pho-
tovoltaic system that includes solar panels and an inverter that converts
the DC power from the solar array to alternating current (AC) power
needed for school uses. The system also has a data collection system and
a monitoring system. Special electronic sensors measure electricity as well
as weather data such as air temperature, wind speed, and solar radiation.
The photovoltaic and data acquisition system provides a learning energy
environment for students and teachers.
SOLAR CITIES THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES

Besides U.S. school districts, a number of cities are working on solar energy
programs for their communities. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
selected 13 Solar America Cities in June 2007 and an additional 12 cities
in March 2008 to help lay the foundation for a solar energy program that
can serve as a model for cities around the nation. The DOE used a special
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Tom Traeger, High School Science Teacher, La Canada High
School in Southern California
Go-Green Project: The Installation of Solar Panels on School’s Roof
Describe your teaching assignment.
I currently teach earth sciences to grades 9–12 at La Canada High School in South-
ern California. I have two levels that I teach. One is earth science for 9th graders,
and the other course is geology for grades 10–12. Geology is a capstone course
and is more academically rigorous, given that it receives University of California
lab science credit.
I grew up in La Crescenta, California, and I graduated from Crescenta Valley High
School in 1989. I then attended Glendale Community College and got an associate’s
Tom Traeger of La Cañada High School in Southern California poses next to

the 1.38 kilowatt SunPower solar array on the roof of the school’s Informa-
tion Resource Center. This solar lab was purchased with funding from the
BP Corporation’s A+ for Energy grant in 2008. The BP Corporation, personal
donations from parent Mel Woods and the school’s Green Club, and instal-
lation work contributed by Phat Energy of La Crescenta, California, made
this project possible. (Photo by Sheila Paccone)
degree in aviation and transportation-pilot training. Later on, I attended University

of California, Santa Barbara, and received my teaching credentials in geosciences
and physics, along with a master’s in education.
school?
My high school activities were nonexistent because I needed to work from age 16
on. I would have to say that my favorite subject in high school was auto shop be-
cause it was hands-on. I was not an academic in high school, and my grade point
average upon leaving high school was average at best. This warranted attending a
community college before getting my bachelor’s degree.
I took a course at community college in physical geography. I discovered that
I really liked the subject. I then aspired to be a professional pilot and took numerous
courses toward an associate’s degree in aviation. I worked full-time at the Burbank
Airport for a small cargo airline until I transferred to UC Santa Barbara in 1997.
I majored in physical geography. I had no idea what I would do when I left college.
I saw an advertisement for a fellowship in math and science teaching during my
senior year in college and became involved in a program that gave me experience
with teaching in a local junior high school.
Describe the project or program.
This project focuses on school and public awareness concerning the need to pur-
sue alternative energy resources such as solar power. With BP’s help, I intended
to implement the installation of a one-kilowatt array of photovoltaic cells on our
school roof. This was a central point on campus where information about solar
energy was conveyed to observers through a control unit. I taught lessons on
solar energy and the variables that affect sun angle and atmospheric conditions in
my earth science classes. Lessons on the electromagnetic spectrum, electricity,
and magnetism were taught to physics classes.
This project was also a joint collaboration with our school’s environmental sci-
ence Green Club. The Green Club is a group of highly motivated students who are
interested in making our world a healthy and sustainable place to live. As such,
they are motivated to educate people about alternative energy resources, such as
solar power.
In our display area, we had raw data on display, such as how much power is
being produced at given times of the day. A display about the basic structure of
the sun and electromagnetic radiation also accompanied the display. The science
of photovoltaic cells was on the display, highlighting the anthropogenic emissions
of greenhouse gases and how much the photovoltaic arrays save with respect to
greenhouse gas emissions. Through an ongoing project that will benefit the school
for years to come, students, staff, and community members will have a better un-
derstanding of the role that solar power can play in their lives.
The monetary cost savings and the environmental savings with respect to
greenhouse emissions were discussed with all groups. It was the intent of this
project to raise awareness that we can all make a difference with respect to
lowering energy consumption and increasing energy conservation. A focus on the

differences between renewable and nonrenewable energy was addressed.
A student from our school’s Green Club came to me because he had heard that
I had previously secured another BP grant in 2006. He had heard that BP was giving
$10,000 grants to teachers who developed programs to teach about energy con-
cepts, and he asked me to write a grant to obtain solar panels for our school. It was
this student’s enthusiasm that prompted me to write the grant, given that I have al-
ways been a proponent of renewable energy, especially solar. In other words, I had
thought about writing another BP grant for solar energy, but it was this student’s
enthusiasm that forced me to actually go through with it.
This project is of utmost importance in a world that is facing $20 per gallon gaso-
line, as some estimates predict will occur within the next 20 years. It comes on
the crest of the Obama administration’s push to free the United States from de-
pendence on foreign sources of petroleum. It also educates people on the need to
address climate change by shifting our energy needs to sustainable carbon-free
sources of renewable energy.
BP’s web site was very helpful for outlining the cost analysis for the solar panels. We
also used a few of the carbon calculation web sites to show students how much car-
bon their households produce in a given year. The National Renewable Energy Lab’s
web site was also very helpful for giving background on photovoltaics and the output
that could be expected, through their online application known as “PV Watts.”
One aspect of our project that will be coming online this year is a logging program
that will be able to show in real time the current energy production of our solar
panels. The program, known as the “Phat Logger,” taps into the inverter to give
cumulative data on energy production as time-series data that will be download-
able from the Internet. Any teacher anywhere will be able to use our solar panels’
inverter’s data at any time.
Discuss some of the students’ contributions to this project.
Our project got off to a slow start as a result of some bureaucratic paperwork is-
sues between the school district, the solar retailer, and the local energy company.
It took us six months to overcome the paperwork issues so that we could finally
turn on the panels. Students from the Green Club worked with the installer during
the initial site selection for the panels. The Green Club then designed a display to
go in our Information Resource Center’s display case to educate the public about
solar energy and the solar panels that were installed on the roof of the Information
Resource Center.

Because of the unforeseen paperwork issues, our project took over a year to come
to fruition. I will be implementing the intended learning exercises in my own class
this coming school year, and I would be happy to share the results of these activi-
ties at a later date.
I have thought about expanding the project to include wind energy. I would like to
install a wind turbine or turbines on our school’s roof to show students other forms
of renewable energy. This would be quite difficult to accomplish because I have
found out from this project that making any modifications to buildings or structures
requires a series of inspections and approvals from government agencies that
leave a frustrating bureaucratic paper trail. As such, I may write a grant to obtain a
school-wide site license for astronomy software that will allow students to predict
and plot the sun’s path throughout the year. I would also like to expand on my 2006
project to start having students take aerosol atmosphere optical thickness data to
help them explore the atmospheric parameters that control the amount of sunlight
reaching the solar panels.
selection process for choosing the 25 Solar America Cities, which had to
have a population of 100,000 people or more and needed to demonstrate
their commitment to citywide adoption of solar energy.
The Solar America Cities have several goals, including
• integrating solar technology into city energy planning
• streamlining city-level regulations and practices
• promoting solar technology among residents and local businesses
• serving as a model for other cities interested in promoting the use of
solar energy technologies
Some of the 25 cities committed to solar energy technologies that were
selected by the Department of Energy included Ann Arbor, Michigan;
Salt Lake City, Utah; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Berkeley, California; Bos-
ton, Massachusetts; Denver, Colorado; Knoxville, Tennessee; Milwaukee,
Wisconsin; New Orleans, Louisiana; San Francisco, California; Tucson,
Arizona; New York, New York; and Houston, Texas.
U.S. SOLAR ENERGY PROJECTS IN THE NEWS

Besides the several large cities committed to solar technologies, there are
also a number of U.S. states planning and installing solar energy projects.
Here are just of few of them.
Florida: In the fall of 2009, President Obama visited the DeSoto Next
Generation Solar Energy Center in DeSoto County, Florida. The solar
plant, located in the southwest area of Florida, has more than 90,500 pho-
tovoltaic cells that can generate 40,000 megawatts of electricity. The new
center can supply enough power to serve about 3,000 homes yearly.
The DeSoto solar plant is now the largest solar photovoltaic plant in
the country. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
Florida facility will prevent the emission of more than 500,000 tons of
greenhouse gases over a 30-year period.
Florida Power & Light and a land developer are planning to build a
solar-powered city called the Babcock Ranch. The solar facility is being
built near Fort Myers, Florida, and the 17,000-acre community will in-
clude 20,000 homes, small shops, and offices. All of the electricity for the
community will come from a 75-megawatt power plant.
California: In 2009 First Solar, Inc., and NRG Energy, Inc., whole-
sale power generation companies, announced the start of what will be
the largest photovoltaic solar project in California. The solar energy plant
The Desoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center in Arcadia, Florida, uses
more than 90,000 photovoltaic panels to turn the sun’s rays into electrical
power for more than 3,000 homes. (AP Photo/Christine Armario)
will be located in Blythe, a few hundred miles east of Los Angeles, and
when in operation, the solar plant will supply electricity for almost 17,000
homes.
The city of Berkeley, California, has established a program that helps
city residents finance their solar installations. The program allows home-
owners who select and purchase a solar installation for their home to get a
payback. Payback will be the profit from homeowners’ investments equal
to the initial costs of their system in less than five years. California’s goal
for 2010 was to have 20 percent of its electricity come from renewable
sources, with a goal of 33 percent by 2020.
Massachusetts: A Massachusetts electric power utility company has pur-
chased land in Pittsfield to develop a solar plant. When in operation, the
1.8-megawatt solar plant will generate enough electricity to provide heat
for approximately 1,800 homes.
Missouri: The voters in Missouri passed a law calling for 15 percent of
the state’s electricity to come from renewable sources by 2021. Of this
percentage, 2 percent of the state’s total electricity consumption must be
generated by solar power by 2021.
Ohio: Ohio officials have a solar plan that is expected to result in 820
megawatts of solar capacity by 2024. The state’s goal is to receive 20 per-
cent of its electricity from renewable sources by 2022, including 2 percent
from solar.
SOLAR FARMS FOR THE SOUTHWESTERN STATES

The United States has 250,000 square miles of land in the southwest-
ern states with the potential for solar energy projects such as solar power
plants. This amount of land, according to government studies, is more than
enough for large solar installations without the need to disturb environ-
mentally sensitive areas and population centers.
Many energy developers and state governments in the Southwest are
interested in developing solar projects in this area of the United States.
Huge tracts of land, many square miles, would need to be covered with
solar photovoltaic panels. Much of this land would be available for solar
installations because the land is not privately owned; it is public state land.
For example, more than 80 percent of the land area in Arizona is publicly
owned. So acquiring the land would not be a major drawback or issue for
large installations of solar power energy in the Southwest.
GLOBAL PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY LEADERS

The European and Asian photovoltaic markets are consistently growing,
led by China, Spain, and Germany. Following is a review of some of the
global photovoltaic technology leaders.
China
As of 2010 China is the leading manufacturer of solar cells in the
world. China claims to have more than 400 photovoltaic companies and
manufactures—approximately 18 percent of photovoltaic products world-
wide. In 2007 China produced nearly half of the world’s production of solar
panels, which were mostly exported to other countries. At home, China
has installed about 80 megawatts of photovoltaics. Also, home-installed
solar water-heating units are used extensively throughout the country.
Spain
Spain is a major country investing in and installing solar energy. According
to a draft of a report released by the Renewable Energy Policy Network for
the 21st Century (REN21), Spain now leads the world in added photovol-
taic capacity. According to the report, Spain added 1.7 million kilowatts of
capacity in 2008, followed by Germany at 1.5 million kilowatts.
Throughout the country, there are several photovoltaic power plants.
One of Spain’s earliest went into operation in September 2007 in the town
of Beneixama. The 20-megawatt photovoltaic power plant produces elec-
tricity to supply 12,000 nearby homes.
However, the country’s largest photovoltaic plant is the Olmedilla Pho-
tovoltaic Park in Olmedilla de Alarcón. Built in 2008, the solar plant uses
more than 162,000 solar flat photovoltaic panels to generate 60 megawatts,
which is enough electricity to power more than 40,000 homes.
Another large photovoltaic plant is the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park,
which generates 50 megawatts, enough electricity for the household needs
of 40,000 homes.
Spain also has invested in concentrating solar power technologies, such
as solar towers. This type of solar technology is discussed further in chapter 2.
Germany
There are now more than 300,000 buildings with photovoltaic systems in
Germany. One of the largest solar parks in Germany is in Bavaria. This
People visit the Santa Coloma de Gramenet cemetery outside Barcelona, Spain.
The city council installed 462 solar panels high above the tops of the grave
sites. The energy panels produce enough yearly energy to power 60 homes.
(AP Photo/Manu Fernandez)
facility is a ground-mounted 50-megawatt photovoltaic unit that can gen-

erate enough electricity for 15,000 homes.
Another facility is the Waldpolenz Solar Park, installed east of Leipzig
in Germany. This plant, consisting of more than 500,000 thin-film solar
panels, generates 40 megawatts of electricity, enough power for the needs
of 40,000 households.
Australia
As of 2010, the Australians are planning to build a super 154-megawatt
photovoltaic solar power station in Victoria. If all goes well, the solar
power station will be the biggest photovoltaic power station in the world.
The plans call for the power station project to generate electricity for more
than 40,000 homes.
Japan
Many home solar systems have been installed in Japan. Solar-powered
units rated at three kilowatts are common, but newer systems of more
than five kilowatts are beginning to be installed. These solar systems are
used not only in homes but also in businesses, lighthouses, and remote
areas. The Japanese government’s goal is to have 30 percent of all house-
holds using solar panels by 2030. If the goal is accomplished, the num-
ber of solar-powered households in Japan will increase to approximately
14 million.
Africa
Most areas in South Africa can average more than 2,500 hours of sunshine
per year. This amount of solar radiation is ideal for solar installations in
many African locations. Kenya is one of the world’s leaders in the number
of solar power systems installed per capita.
Other Nations
Brazil, Italy, Korea, India, Taiwan, and Saudi Arabia are developing solar
energy projects as well. In all, more than 80 countries are making plans to
use solar energy as part of their renewable energy portfolios, which also
include wind, biofuels, geothermal energy, tidal power, and wave power.
BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is renewable, reliable, and completely silent, and it is more
environmentally friendly than fossil fuels. Solar cells do not release any
emissions into the air. Because there are no moving parts, solar panels can
generate electricity for thousands of hours with little or no maintenance.
As mentioned previously, solar panels in the home can be tied into
a utility company’s grid system or be completely self-sufficient. Home-
owners can also sell excess electricity to most power utility companies,
who will buy or credit the homeowners for the extra electricity they are
producing.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Sharp Corp. and other Japanese manufacturers produce solar power equip-
ment, most of which is sold to countries overseas.
FEATURE
Japan’s Ships Are Going Solar Too
In 2008 the Auriga Leader, the world’s first cargo ship assisted by some solar power,
took to the seas in Japan. The huge cargo ship is equipped with 328 solar panels.
The Auriga Leader is capable of carrying 6,400 automobiles. Company officials said
the 60,213-ton, 660-foot-long ship is the first large vessel in the world with a solar-
based propulsion system.
The German government has encouraged many citizens to install solar panels
for their homes, businesses, and farms. Germany plans to produce 30 percent of
its electricity from renewable sources by 2020. (Otmar Smit/Dreamstime.com)
LIMITING FACTORS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Some limiting factors in using solar energy technologies include the
following:
1. Solar power does not work during overcast weather or at night. For
backup storage, batteries are expensive and can be inefficient, and
because of this there is a need for alternative storage systems for solar
power.
2. The nation’s electrical grid system, particularly in the western states

and in the Southwest, does not have the capacity to distribute large
amounts of electricity from solar energy plants. Many of the exist-
ing transmission power lines are not in the right location. Some are
located in isolated areas that are spread out too far away from large
power plants.
Energy Storage Systems

To tackle the storage problem, scientists are looking at various alternative
energy storage systems. One kind is the compressed-air energy storage
system.
Compressed-air energy storage has a lot of potential. How does it work?
The electricity from the photovoltaic plant can be used to compress large
amounts of air and then pump it into underground caverns, abandoned
mines, aquifers, and depleted natural gas wells. On a less sunny day, the
pressurized air in the cavern is released, and the high-powered gas is uti-
lized to turn a turbine that generates electricity. Compressed-air energy
storage plants have been operating very well in Huntorf, Germany, since
1978 and in a McIntosh, Alabama, plant since 1991.
Another kind of energy storage system is the molten salt program,
which is featured in chapter 2.
Transmission for Renewable Energy Resources

Many energy experts agree that the United States lacks a modern interstate
transmission grid to deliver renewable sources of electricity to consumers
in highly populated areas of the country. These experts believe that if the
country is going to achieve more clean energy sources from solar power in
the future years, then new investments are needed to improve and update
the transmission infrastructure. Inadequate transmission lines are a prob-
lem for the wind, hydropower, and geothermal industries as well.
Installing new grids will not be easy. Distributing solar power (and
wind power too) to remote areas will require adding many transmission
gridlines. The existing U.S. transmission grid stretches out to more than
164,000 miles of transmission lines, but more up-to-date transmission
lines are needed.
The current transmission grid system of low-voltage AC lines also loses
too much energy over extended distances. One answer to this problem is to
U.S. Power Transmission Grid. The national transmission grid is a network of

approximately 180,000 miles of high voltage transmission lines, transferring
electrical energy from power plants to substations and then to homes and
businesses. The lines are operated by several power companies. (Source:
Federal Emergency Management Agency)
include a new high-voltage, direct-current (HVDC) power transmission

grid in any future plans. Studies by Oak Ridge National Laboratory con-
clude that long-distance HVDC lines lose far less energy than AC lines
do over equivalent spans. In summary, if the United States is planning to
double the production of renewable energy sources in another decade or
so, much investment is needed to upgrade the existing transmission grid.
For Some, No Large Solar Energy Land Projects

There are some environmentalists who oppose constructing large-scale
solar and even wind projects on undeveloped land. They propose that
solar and wind power should be developed in the urban areas that need
the power or on land that has already been degraded, such as brownfields
or old mine sites. Their vision is one of solar rooftops rather than large
tracts of desert land turned into huge solar or wind power production
facilities.
FEATURE
Photovoltaic Panel Disposal and Recycling
One environmental issue associated with solar power is that some toxic chemicals
are used in the manufacturing of photovoltaic panels. Another issue is the disposal
of them at the end of their usefulness. As of 2010 only a small number of photovol-
taic panels are disposed of each year, so it is currently a minor issue. However, the
industry is already looking ahead toward recycling methods and plans for future
photovoltaic panels.
ECONOMICS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Global installations of solar photovoltaic projects reached approximately
6.0 gigawatts in 2008, during which time Europe accounted for 82 percent
of world demand. As mentioned previously, China, Germany, Spain, and
the United States are major leaders in the solar energy marketplace. There
is also rapid growth in Korea, Italy, and Japan. In fact, in 2008, 81 countries
contributed to the world market of photovoltaic systems.
According to the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
solar power productions costs can be reduced by 20 percent every time the
demand for solar cells doubles. In other words, product costs come down
when production increases because of more demand for the product.
As an example, commercial demands for solar cells in the United States
have been increasing at a rate of 25 percent a year. Such lower cost esti-
mates, if accurate, show that solar power could be a competitive source of
power to the U.S. grid. However, some energy experts believe that without
government leadership and subsidies, it will take much longer for the pro-
cess of change—maybe as long as 50 years or so.
THE FUTURE OF PHOTOVOLTAICS: WILL IT BE

THE MAJOR GLOBAL INDUSTRY OF THE CENTURY?
According to economists, the photovoltaic industry continues to be poised
for significant growth. They report that large manufacturers of photovolta-
ics are reducing costs and at the same time increasing volume, which can in
turn stimulate demand from customers. The price per watt of solar panels
increased starting in 2003 because the supplies of silicon were limited. Sili-
con, which is obtained from quartz, accounts for as much as 30 percent of
the cost of a making a solar panel. In 2003 the price of a kilogram of silicon
used for solar cells was less than $30. By 2007 the price had increased sub-
stantially to $400 per kilogram. As a result, the silicon shortages raised prices
of photovoltaic solar cells. However, since 2007 the average price per watt of
solar panels has been dropping. One reason is that the processing and manu-
facturing of the cells have become more efficient. Most economists agree
that the solar prices will continue to drop. If so, then the photovoltaic indus-
try may likely be the major growth industry for the next several decades.

Forsyth, T. L., M. Pedden, and T. Gagliano. The Effects of Net Metering on
the Use of Small-Scale Wind Systems in the United States. Golden, CO:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2002. NREL/TP-500-
32471.
According to the Prometheus Institute, the price per watt of solar panels is
dropping after several years of rising costs. (Source: Prometheus Institute)
DID YOU KNOW?

The Solar America Initiative (SAI) has a goal of making solar electricity from pho-
tovoltaic cost-competitive with conventional grid electricity by 2015. SAI works to
achieve the goal of lower-cost solar energy through partnerships between the U.S.
Department of Energy and industry; universities; federal, state, and local govern-
ments; and nongovernmental agencies.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Hesse, P. Connecting a Small-Scale Renewable Energy System to an Electric
Transmission System. Golden, CO: Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Clearinghouse, 2000.
Starrs, T. Net Metering: New Opportunities for Home Power. Washington,
D.C.: Renewable Energy Policy Project, 1996.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Find out how Nellis Air Force Base near Las Vegas uses a solar
array to power the base and some surrounding communities. Taking
environment and structures around you into consideration, explore
whether your community could do something similar.
2. Go to the following Web site to learn more about how U.S. commu-
nities are going green: http://solaramericacommunities.energy.gov.
Design and write a brochure that describes how one city is realizing
the benefits of solar energy.
3. If you like to experiment and invent things, take a look at the inven-
tions these students did for some interesting ideas: http//www.
popsci.com/winners.
4. Obtain a solar cell from an old calculator or toy. Connect the solar
cell to a digital multimeter, which will read in volts and in amps. The
output of the solar cell will be about one volt. Place the solar cell and
multimeter in various amounts of light, such as near a window and in
other places around a room with varying light intensity. Record the
voltages. Do the same outdoors. Record the readings. Using both sets
of readings, determine how many solar cells it would take to power a
six-volt remote control car inside and out.
WEB SITES
www.un.org/pubs
The United Nations online publication “The Promise of Solar En-
ergy” describes solar energy technology as one of the least carbon-
intensive means of electricity generation. This technology can help
mitigate climate change while stimulating economies and creating

employment opportunities and more secure grid systems.
www.solarenergy.org
The International Solar Energy Society is a global organization dedi-
cated to the advancement and utilization of solar energy.
www.discoversolarenergy.com
Discover Solar Energy is a comprehensive resource with thousands
of links to solar energy information.
http://www.ases.org
The American Solar Energy Society was established in 1954
and is the nation’s leading association of solar professionals and
advocates.
http://www.borregosolar.com/.
Borrego Solar Systems, Inc., specializes in commercial and public-
sector turnkey, grid-connected solar electric systems, with more than
25 years of experience and a portfolio of more than 1,000 solar pho-
tovoltaic projects.
http://wakondatech.com
Wakonda Technologies is a manufacturer in Fairport, New York, that
produces thin-film solar cells.
http://prismsolar.com.
Prism Solar Technologies is a developer in Lake Karine, New York,
of holographic solar concentrators that can concentrate light into a
photovoltaic to generate more electricity and less waste heat.
http://www.yestermorrow.org/.
Yestermorrow Design/Build School is a design studio in Warren,
Vermont, offering more than 150 hands-on courses per year in de-
sign, construction, woodworking, and architectural craft and other
courses that concentrate in sustainable design.
www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/education
The Florida Solar Energy Center provides solar energy units for
grades K–12 and offers lesson plans as well.
www.globallearningnj.org/Solar1.htm
Located in New Jersey, Global Learning, Inc., has compiled many les-
sons and units for exploring solar energy. Topics range from schools
using solar energy to ideas for science projects.
www.nrel.gov/csp/maps.html
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) provides a va-
riety of maps showing solar intensity in the United States.
VIDEOS
tent effort to include up-to-date Web sites; however, over time, some Web
sites may move or no longer be available. Viewing some of these videos
may require special software called plug-ins. Therefore, you may need to
download that software to view the videos. You also may need to upgrade
your player to the most current version.
History of Solar Power: To read about the Brief History of Solar

Power, go to http://www.ideamarketers.com/?articleid=521314. Alter
natively, view a video narrated by John Schaeffer, a solar power/
renewable energy pioneer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHC
mLpOtD9c&feature=channel (00:53 seconds).
Photovoltaic Technologies—Introduction: This one-minute video
from the U.S. Department of Energy describes how a solar panel
converts sunlight into electricity: http://www.freecleansolar.com/
solarpanelvideolibrary.php.
Photovoltaic Technologies—Making and Testing Solar Panels:
A Discovery Channel video on solar panels: http://go-solar.org/
how-solar-panels-are-made-video (04:36 minutes).
Photovoltaic Technologies—PN laminates (Household Uses): In-
stalling clean, reliable, inflation-proof solar power is easier than ever;
to learn more about the process, history, application, and energy
conversion, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYJe12X6T50
(02:05 minutes).
Solar Energy (Active) United Arab Emirates—Solar Islands: Spon-
sored by Switzerland, the United Aram Emirates have just fin-
ished a prototype of a solar island made of thermal modules that
tracks the sun and is projected to generate one gigawatt of energy.
Watch the animated promotional video—http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=D1XyR3YOVZQ (02:46 minutes)—and read the article:
http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/981/.
Active Solar Water Heaters: A short animated video using schematics
to describe how an active solar water-heating system works. For more,
go to http://www.engineering.com/Videos/VideoPlayer/tabid/4627/
VideoId/648/Active-Solar-Water-Heater.aspx (01:50 minutes).
Chapter 2
a
Concentrating
Solar Power
According to a timeline developed by the Department of Energy, “as early

as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reflective properties
of bronze shields to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships from
the Roman Empire which were besieging Syracuse. (Although no proof
of such a feat exists, the Greek navy recreated the experiment in 1973 and
successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a distance of 50 meters.)” Archi-
medes’s use of the reflective properties of materials to focus sunlight on a
target is very similar to the concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies
we use in the 21st century.
This chapter discusses the different kinds of CSP technologies. Concen-
trating solar power technologies use heliostats. Heliostats are mechanical
devices that include special mirrors that move and turn so as to keep re-
flecting concentrated sunlight toward a target, such as a receiver, where the
solar energy is converted to heat. This heat energy then is used to produce
steam that powers a steam turbine or heat engine to generate electricity. The
Department of Energy states that concentrating solar power can be a major
contributor to solving our nation’s energy problems now and in the future.
Unlike solar photovoltaics, which can generate electricity from often
scattered and diffused sunlight, CSP needs desert-like conditions with
bright, daily hours of a lot of sunlight. The inland areas of Australia,
the southwestern deserts of the United States, the Sahara desert of
North Africa, and the southern part of Spain are considered some of the
world’s best locations for installing CSP plants.
THREE KINDS OF CONCENTRATING

SOLAR POWER
Concentrating solar power technologies use heliostats to reflect and focus
sunlight onto a receiver. As mentioned previously, the receiver absorbs the
solar energy and converts it to heat energy to drive a turbine or generator.
The three major kinds of CSP technologies include the parabolic trough
system, the solar dish system, and the solar tower system.
Parabolic Trough System

The Department of Energy describes a parabolic trough collector as a long
parabolic-shaped reflector that focuses the sun’s rays on a receiver pipe
located at the focus of the parabola. The collector tilts with the sun as the
sun moves from east to west during the day, so that the sun’s rays are always
focused on the receiver.
The parabolic-shaped trough can focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its
normal intensity on the receiver pipe. The pipe is located along the focal line
of the trough. Here temperatures can reach over 750 degrees Fahrenheit.
Looking over a large solar field, you will see many parallel rows of solar
parabolic trough collectors facing in a north-south direction. The para-
bolic trough system includes a working fluid that is heated as it circulates
through the receiver pipes. The fluid is then returned to a series of heat ex-
changers at a central location. Here, the hot fluid circulates through pipes
where it heats water to generate high-pressure, superheated steam. The
steam is then fed to a conventional steam turbine and generator to produce
electricity. When the hot fluid passes through the heat exchangers, it cools
down and is then recirculated through the solar field to heat up again.
Parabolic trough power plants are designed to usually operate at full
power using solar energy alone. However, on days when it is cloudy or
when solar power conditions are low, fossil fuel–powered combustion gen-
erators can supplement the solar output.
Large Parabolic Trough Solar Plants

The success of the parabolic trough technology is due to the efficient
and well-managed operation of several solar power plants in the Mojave
Concentrating Solar Power a 37
FEATURE
Modesto, California
A large food processing company in Modesto, California, installed parabolic trough
collectors covering an area of about four acres. The trough collectors operate at
temperatures up to 480 degrees Fahrenheit to deliver high-temperature pressur-
ized water used to generate steam. The steam is used to heat cooking oil for frying
a variety of foods.
A parabolic trough power plant’s solar field consists of a large array of track-
ing parabolic trough solar collectors. In the system, a fluid runs through a spe-
cial tube to absorb the concentrated sunlight. The temperature of the fluid can
reach several hundred degrees Celsius, providing heat energy to operate a
turbine generator. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Desert, which supply electrical power to thousands of consumers. Solar

Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power
plants in the Mojave Desert that were built in the 1980s. These plants
have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts, making them the largest solar
power installation in the world. The 350-plus megawatts can supply more
than 450,000 people with their electricity needs.
DID YOU KNOW?

The first parabolic trough plant in Europe was built in Spain. The solar plant pro-
duces 50 megawatts of energy.
Nevada Solar One

The Nevada Solar One is one of the parabolic trough thermal plants in the
Mojave Desert. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Acciona Energy’s Nevada Solar One is the third largest CSP plant in the
world and the first plant built in the United States since 1999. Located in
Boulder City, Nevada, about 40 miles southeast of Las Vegas, this para-
bolic trough system has been operating since June 2007. The $260 million
plant has a nominal production capacity of 64 megawatts with a maximum
These parabolic troughs are located at the Acciona’s Solar One facility in
Nevada. Acciona Solar Power utilizes concentrating solar power (CSP) tech-
nology in its power plants. Power plants that use CSP technology, like Nevada
Solar One, are referred to as solar thermal electric (STE) power plants because
the collected thermal energy is converted into electricity. (Steve Marcus/
Reuters/Corbis)
capacity of 70 megawatts. All of the plant’s electricity, which can power

more than 14,000 households annually, is being sold to Nevada Energy
under a long-term power purchase agreement.
Arizona
Abengoa Solar of Spain has signed an agreement with an electric utility
company in Arizona to build and operate what may be the largest solar
power plant in the world. The plant will be installed about 60 miles south-
west of Phoenix, Arizona, near Gila Bend. The name of the solar plant is
Solana, meaning “a sunny place” in Spanish.
When installed in 2011, the solar plant will run two 140-megawatt
steam generators for a total capacity of 280 megawatts. This solar field will
cover a surface of around 1,900 acres, almost three square miles.
Storage Using Molten Salt

Several solar parabolic trough plants, as well as plants using other CSP
technologies, have installed a thermal energy storage system. The energy
storage system comes in handy in the evening hours and on cloudy days
when electricity is needed. Simply stated, the storage system consists of
large insulated tanks filled with hot molten salt. When needed, the stored
heated molten salt is circulated through the plant, where its heat produces
steam in a steam generator system to produce electricity.
Solar Dish-Engine System

The second type of CSP systems is the dish-engine system. According to
the Department of Energy, a solar dish-engine system uses concentrating
solar collectors that track the sun. The solar collectors always point straight
at the sun and concentrate sunlight onto a thermal receiver. The receiver
absorbs and collects the heat and transfers it to the heat engine generator
to produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

The geometry of the parabolic shape can be seen in satellite dishes, in radio towers,
and, yes, even in solar cookers around the world.
VIDEO
To view the Abengoa Solar site, go to http://pesn.com/2008/02/21/9500472_
Abengoa_worlds_largest_solar_plant/.
The most common type of heat engine used today in dish-engine sys-
tems is the Stirling engine. The Stirling engine uses the fluid heated by the
receiver to move pistons and create mechanical power. This fluid becomes
hot, reaching temperatures higher than 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. The ac-
tion of the hot fluid is then used to provide mechanical power to run a
The Stirling Engine

The Stirling Engine Society of the United States reports that the modern
Stirling is a clean and efficient engine, given that the heat used in driving
Brent Van Arsdell, an aeronautical

engineer from San Diego, holds his
Low Delta T, model MM6, Stirling
engine. The Stirling engine is pow-
ered by any temperature difference
or heat source. Here, the heat from
his hands and the cool air cause
the engine to turn the fly wheel. (AP
Photo/Lenny Ignelzi)
FEATURE
Solar Power, Research, and Development
Abengoa Solar has a team of people in the United States and Spain dedicated to
researching, developing, and improving solar technologies. In December 2007 the
U.S. Department of Energy selected Abengoa Solar for three research and devel-
opments projects to improve trough technology.
the pistons is supplied from outside the engine and is transferred through
special heat exchangers to the piston that provides mechanical energy. In
a sense it works like a steam engine in that all of the engine’s heat flows
in and out through the engine wall. In the process there are no pollutants
such as nitrogen oxides.
The external combustion feature of the Stirling engine allows it to oper-
ate using a variety of fuels, such as natural gas, gasoline, and ethanol 85.
The Stirling engine is also completely quiet when in operation.
Advantages of Stirling Engines

• The design and working of the Stirling requires no valves such as
those found in gas-powered engines.
• Stirling engines do not require any kind of air supply, and also, they
operate without making any noise.
• Because a continuous process of fuel combustion is used in the
Stirling engine, it produces very little emissions.
Microturbines for Generating Power

In addition to the Stirling engine, microturbines are also being evaluated for
use in the solar dish thermal system. Microturbines are small, fuel-burning
turbines suitable for many applications where electricity is needed. These
microturbines, which are similar to those found in jet engines, would also
be used to drive electrical generators. Microturbines can produce between
25 and 500 kilowatts of power. Microturbines are used mostly as a stand-by
power source to help reduce electricity demands during peak periods.
The SunCatcher Solar Dish Thermal System

A more efficient solar thermal system has been developed by Tessera Solar
and built by Stirling Energy Systems at the Sandia National Laboratories’
National Thermal Test Facility in Albuquerque, New Mexico. According to
their studies, the SunCatcher captures solar energy at about 30.0 percent,
DID YOU KNOW?

The Stirling engine was first developed and patented by Reverend Robert Stirling
in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1816. The engine runs using a variety of fuel sources.
Several companies now develop Stirling engines.
VIDEO
See a video on the Fresnel Stirling solar-powered engine at http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=fUrB7KRvxUk&feature=fvw.
the highest ever achieved by this technology. The SunCatcher has several
dishes that can collect enough heat energy to run a Stirling engine that
generates 25 kilowatts of electric power when in operation. By 2014 the
system will provide 1,600 megawatts of power to residents and businesses
in Southern California.
The Benefits of the Solar Dish-Engine Systems

Solar dish-engine systems are being developed for use in many global mar-
kets because they are highly efficient. One bonus of this system is that
individual units, ranging in size from 9 to 25 kilowatts, can operate inde-
pendent of power grids in remote, rural sunny locations to pump water or
to provide electricity for people living in these areas.
Solar Power Tower Systems

The third type of CSP technology is the solar power tower system. As de-
scribed by the Energy Information Administration, “a solar power tower
or central receiver generates electricity from sunlight by focusing concen-
trated solar energy on a tower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). This
system uses hundreds to thousands of flat sun-tracking mirrors called he-
liostats to reflect and concentrate the sun’s energy onto a central receiver
tower. The energy can be concentrated as much as 1,500 times that of the
energy coming in from the sun.”
VIDEO
Solar Energy (Active) in New Mexico and California—Sun Catchers. Driven by
efficient Stirling engines, solar dishes, like sunflowers, are used to track the sun
throughout the day and capture solar energy for consumer end use. Learn more
about solar dishes in the following two short video clips: http://videos.howstuff
works.com/discovery/30088-really-big-things-solar-power-plant-video.htm (01:43
minutes) and http://videos.howstuffworks.com/planet-green/30320-g-word-sun-
catchers-video.htm (02:22 minutes).
The Stirling Energy System’s SunCatcher™ consists of parabolic solar dishes

located at the Sandia National Laboratories’ Solar Thermal Test Facility in
Albuquerque, New Mexico. The SunCatcher is a 25-kilowatt electric solar
dish Stirling system that uses the energy from the sun and converts it into
grid-quality energy. (AP Photo/Sandia National Laboratories)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Mark Westlake, High School Physics Instructor, Saint Thomas
Academy, Minnesota
Go-Green Project: School Builds Solar-Powered Racing Cars
Describe your teaching position.
I have been teaching physics and honors physics at Saint Thomas Academy for
20 years. I have a BA degree in physics/chemistry and secondary education from
the University of Minnesota and an MA in learning technology from the University
of Saint Thomas. Recent awards include the TEKNE award from the Minnesota
High Tech Association for Innovation in STEM Education and a $10,000 grant from
the Lemelson-MIT InvenTeam program.
Where did you grow up?
I grew up in Detroit, Michigan, and lived there until I was 14. We moved to the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan where I attended Eben High School. At Eben I had an out-
standing math/science teacher named Dan Walch. He was firm but fair and always
made class interesting. Mr. Walch helped me get a summer science internship at
Mark Westlake and his students at the Saint Thomas Academy in Minne-
sota have built full-sized solar-powered cars for racing events. In this photo,
the Saint Thomas Academy modular solar car is charging the onboard bat-
teries from the solar array in preparation for the following day’s travels.
(Courtesy Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team)
Northern Michigan University between my junior and senior years. At that point in
my life, I was pretty sure I was going to be a chemical engineer.
The truth is that I never wanted to be a teacher. My whole life people would say,
“You should be a teacher.” However, time in the lab during college made me realize
that research was not my cup of tea and that perhaps I was a natural teacher. The
opportunity to share the science I love with students has made every day a joy.
Tell us about the Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team Program.
The Saint Thomas Academy Experimental Vehicle Team was created in an effort
to take students out of the textbook and provide budding engineers with real-life
problem-solving activities. Students are pushed to realize that science is not al-
ways easy, that it does not always work, and that the answers are not always at
the back of the book. Although most high school science ends up in a student’s
backpack for the bus ride home, the Experimental Vehicle Team tests its science in
the school’s parking lot.
In the past 10 years, students on the team have designed, built, tested, and com-
peted with small one-person vehicles that are as varied as the contests they were
built for. The team has put its inventive talents to use in Supermileage, the Elec-
trathon, the World Human Powered Ice Race, the Solar Bike Rayce, the National
Indoor Electric Ice Vehicle Challenge, and the Dell-Winston Solar Car Challenge.
The backbone of its success is research, and the team is tireless about its work in
the library. The students, like Newton, “have stood on the shoulders of giants,” and,
like Edison, “know a thousand things that don’t work.”
What did you and your students have to do to prepare for National Solar Bike
Rayce, held in 2004?
Our participation in the National Solar Bike Rayce in 2004 started us down a long
(and sometimes expensive!) road. Our first solar bike was a hybrid of human, elec-
tric, and solar power and was built for a 100-kilometer race. Using 36 pounds of
lead-acid batteries, a 1,000-watt Heinzmann electric hub motor, and a collection of
prefabricated solar panels, we set off to Heartland Raceway in Topeka, Kansas.
The bike averaged 30 miles per hour for the entire 62 miles and surprised ev-
eryone (including us!). We knew we were working with an interesting technology.
We have returned to the race two other times, each time with new and improved
versions of our first solar project.
In 2004, Dr. Lehman Marks invited us to build a car for the 2005 Dell-Winston
School Solar Challenge.
Describe the Dell-Winston School Solar Challenge.
This is the high school version of the North American Solar Challenge. Students
build full-sized, road-worthy solar cars for a cross-country or closed-course race—
truly a challenging design project for your very best students. This is the test of an
engineering program—logistically the most challenging of any of the events. Web
site: www.winstonsolar.org/race/.
Where do these events take place?
On odd-numbered years, we start in Round Rock, Texas, and travel on public roads
to a set destination. This past year’s race ended at the Jet Propulsion Lab in Pasa-
dena, California. Even-numbered years have teams racing at Texas Motor Speed-
way for a closed-course event.
How many days does it take to complete a race?
Cross-country races typically involve 10 days of commitment (not including travel to
and from). The race at Texas Motor Speedway is 5 days of time. Racing is in July.
Who can enter these events?
High schools and vocational schools from all across the country. Last year’s
event had schools from New York, California, Texas, Mississippi, Minnesota, and
Colorado.
How many participants are there?
Around 13 teams.
What work goes into building a solar-powered vehicle?
Our first solar car turned out to be a much bigger project than any of us had imagined.
Most teams have their solar array built for them, but we decided to build our own
from raw solar cells. The advantage is a huge savings in cost and a chance to learn
a new skill. Little did we know how challenging building the array would be! Close to
500 individual 0.5-volt, 3-amp, mono-crystalline silicon solar cells needed to be wired
into strings of six and then linked together on the surface of the car. The biggest prob-
lem with solar cells is how fragile they are—picture a very thin layer of glass.
Solar cells break all the time and then need to be laboriously replaced. One bad
cell can turn off a large portion of the solar array! After seven months of electric work,
we ended up with a relatively good solar array that produced close to 700 watts of
electrical energy. The solar array charges on-board batteries and drives a rare-earth
pancake-style electric motor. The motor can produce up to 8 horsepower, although
we rarely needed more than one horsepower to travel from Texas to California. Rac-
ing across the country on less energy than a hair dryer was truly an adventure!
While the solar array was being wired, the rest of the team was busy building
the frame, suspension, and body of the vehicle. The frame is constructed out of
4130 Chromoly steel and is mitered and TIG welded together. The suspension is a
standard double A-arm set up with a coil-over shock.
Steering is set up “tank style” with push-pull levers located on each side of the
driver. Moving the steering to the side allowed the driver to lie flat in the car without
needing to look over a steering wheel.
Describe how the body of the car is made.
The body of the car was by far the biggest part of the project. Making a vehicle
the size of a solar car takes about eight months of work. The body is a carbon
fiber, Kevlar, urethane foam sandwich that is laid up in a full-sized fiberglass mold
and vacuum-bagged at about one atmosphere of pressure. This produces a light,
stiff shell that provides an aerodynamic edge and offers a certain amount of ad-
ditional protection to the driver. The body starts out as a full-sized model of the car
that is made out of sheets of polyurethane foam, sheetrock mud, body filler, and
anything else we could find to help make the mirrored image of the final project.
After months of shaping and sanding, fiberglass molds of the model were made and
served to shape the final carbon fiber parts.
What are the costs of building a solar-powered vehicle?
Ouch! This one is expensive. Our budget was $30,000 for the car and travel. The
vehicle cost $14,000 to build (and ours was one of the least expensive at the con-
test). Some teams have over $30,000 invested in the car alone. Business sponsors
covered most of our costs.
What are the pros and cons of traveling to and from these events?
Pros: Truly a world-class project. Building a full-sized solar car will push your top
students to a new level. Teamwork is not only necessary; it is a prerequisite. Com-
petition is extremely organized.
Cons: Travel. Expensive. Sleep—who needs sleep? Everything is big. Logisti-
cally challenging.
Please summarize the experiences of the students who take part in this event.
Traveling across the country with 14 high school students is a trip of a lifetime and a
logistical nightmare. Different hotels every night, racing deadlines, heat, and techni-
cal responsibilities add up to super-busy days! The students were great, settled into
roles, and went about their work with NASCAR-like precision. The team got along
great, even in the midst of extreme temperatures and crazy deadlines. The joy felt
when the group finished at the Jet Propulsion Lab in Pasadena was immeasurable!
For power towers to be economical, however, they must be sizable, so

this is a technology that bears promise mostly in the context of large power
plants. Engineers are still in the comparatively early stages of developing
solar power tower systems, but several test facilities are in operation around
the world. Individual commercial plants can be built to produce anywhere
from 50 to 200 megawatts of electricity.
Spain’s Solar Tower

The solar tower built in Spain is an excellent example of one kind of CSP.
In 2009 Spain installed the largest solar tower in the world with a capac-
ity of 20 megawatts. The approximate 530-foot-high solar tower, located
near Seville, has the capacity to supply electricity to 10,000 homes. In this
system, the heliostats concentrate and focus the sunlight onto a special
receiver installed in the tower. When the heat builds up in the receiver it
creates steam, which turns a turbine to generate electricity. To get an idea
of the size of this solar power system, consider that the land area contains
about 1,290 heliostats, and each heliostat has a surface area of 1,300 square
feet, the size of a small house. Spain is already fourth in the world in its use
of solar power and second in Europe behind Germany. There are several
hundred Spanish companies working in solar energy technologies.
Solar Two
Solar Two, near Barstow, California, has successfully demonstrated the
ability to produce electricity consistently during cloudy weather and at
night. In one demonstration, it delivered power to the grid 24 hours per day
for nearly 7 straight days before cloudy weather interrupted operation.
The success of Solar Two has motivated worldwide interest in power
towers. As Solar Two completed operations, an international group of solar
industry leaders was formed to pursue power tower plants worldwide, es-
pecially in Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and Italy. According to the group, the
first commercial power tower plant is planned to be four times the size of
Solar Two. The industry is also actively pursuing opportunities to build a
similar plant in the southwest desert of the United States.
The solar tower plant near Seville, Spain, has two types of concentrating
solar power. One kind is an array of heliostats (steel reflectors) that concen-
trate sunlight on a solar thermal receiver. The second kind found on the other
side of the tower are heliostats, which concentrate sunlight on photovoltaic
panels. The solar tower produces enough electricity to power 10,000 homes.
(Darren Baker/Dreamstime.com)
Hot Salt Storage

The unique feature of Solar Two is that it also uses molten salt to capture
and store the sun’s heat. Engineers at Sandia National Laboratories in Al-
buquerque, New Mexico, took the technical lead in developing molten-salt
technology for solar plants and provided the technical expertise required
for Solar Two.
Molten liquid salt is used in solar power tower systems because it pro-
vides an efficient method for storing thermal energy. It is nonflammable
and nontoxic when it is not molten.
The salt melts at 430 degrees Fahrenheit and is kept liquid at 550 de-
grees in an insulated cold storage tank. The salt is then pumped to the
top of a solar power tower. Here the concentrated sunlight heats the salt
to a temperature of 1,050 degrees Fahrenheit in a special receiver. The
In a molten-salt solar power tower, cold salt is pumped to the top of the tower.
In the tower the cold salt is heated and returned to the hot tank. When power is
needed, the hot salt is pumped through the steam generator producing steam
and driving the turbine generator to produce electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
receiver is composed of thin-walled stainless steel tubes. The heated salt

then flows back down to a second insulated hot storage tank. When elec-
tricity is needed from the plant, the hot salt in the storage tank is pumped
to a conventional steam-generating system to produce superheated steam
for a turbine/generator for electricity output.
What Are the Benefits of Solar Power Towers?

Solar power towers offer large-scale, distributed solutions to global energy
needs, particularly for peaking power. Like all solar technologies, they are
DID YOU KNOW?

According to experts, the energy from sunlight striking the Earth’s surface for just
40 minutes is equivalent to all of the global energy consumption for the year.
fueled by sunshine and do not release greenhouse gases. Like other CSP
technologies, they are able to store solar energy and dispatch electricity to
the grid when needed—even at night or during cloudy weather. A single
100-megawatt power tower with 12 hours of storage needs only 1,000 acres
of otherwise nonproductive land to supply enough electricity for 50,000
homes. In the sunny Southwest, there are millions of acres available for the
production of solar power.
THE FUTURE FOR CONCENTRATING

SOLAR POWER
What is the future for CSP technologies? Solar advocates have increased
their forecasts for the amount of electricity that could be supplied by CSP.
They report that CSPr may be able to deliver up to 7 percent of the elec-
tricity demand worldwide by 2030.
A Bright Future for the Western States?

Concentrating solar power technologies can be a major contributor to the
nation’s future energy, particularly in the western United States. The popu-
lation in the western states continues to grow, and the energy demands
will also continue to increase. Therefore, the solar power technologies are a
viable energy choice for the West.
WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

OF CSP PLANTS?
According to the Department of Energy, CSP plants have few environ-
mental impacts; however, land use is the primary one. Although a CSP
plant’s “footprint,” or the amount of land it occupies, is larger than that of
a fossil fuel plant, the two actually use about the same amount of land. Fos-
sil fuel plants require a significant amount of land for exploration, mining,
and road-building purposes. Concentrating solar power plants have the
advantage in that they produce no environmental contaminants or green-
house gases.
One key competitive advantage of CSP systems is that they closely re-
semble most of the nation’s current power plants in some important ways.
For example, much of the equipment and machinery now used for conven-
tional, centralized power plants running on fossil fuels can also be used to
operate CSP plants.
Concentrating solar power can make a significant contribution to the
increasing need for affordable electricity in California and other “sun-
shine” states. According to the Department of Energy, the nine Solar
Energy Generating Station (SEGS) plants in Southern California were
constructed in less than a year each, and the final two plants each had a
capacity of 80 megawatts. The SEGS plants have already demonstrated
a production capacity of 200 megawatts per year. Energy developers
and experts believe that with implementation of this technology in the
southwestern United States, more than 20,000 megawatts could be on-
line by 2020.
This is the Solar Energy Generating Station (SEGS) at Kramer Junction in

California’s Mojave Desert. This facility is known as “SEGS 3 through 7,”
and is one of three separate sites within 40 miles of one another that make
up a total of nine solar fields in the SEGS. Together these three facilities can
generate about 354 megawatts at peak output. (Minghua Nie/Dreamstime
.com)
INTERVIEW
The National Energy Education Development (NEED) Project gave the publisher per-
mission to reprint the following energy career interview from its newsletter, Career
Currents.
The NEED Project is a nonprofit education association providing professional
development, innovative materials correlated to the National Science Education
Content Standards, and ongoing support and recognition to educators nationwide.
David Chen is the program manager of the TXU Energy Solar Academy for TXU
Energy in Dallas, Texas. The TXU Energy Solar Academy programs teach students
about energy and electricity generation while introducing students to the power
of the sun. TXU Energy and NEED came together to provide award-winning re-
sources, the power of a local solar installation, and the high-quality teacher sup-
port and resources available from NEED.
David Chen has an MBA from McCombs Business School, University of Texas,
Austin, and a BBA from Ross Business School, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.
CC: Hi, David. Thanks for chatting with us. Can you tell us about your job as a
program manager?
David: As program manager for TXU Energy Solar Academy, I work with NEED
to help select, approach, and manage the schools receiving a TXU Energy Solar
Academy donation. I also coordinate TXU Energy resources to provide the support
required to help NEED and TXU Energy Solar Academy succeed. I serve double-
duty by helping the TXU Product Innovations Team model the financial potential
of new products in the energy efficiency and demand-side management space.
The skills required in this role are organization, creative problem solving, financial
understanding, and team building.
Mr. David Chen is the program manager

of the TXU Energy Solar Academy for TXU
Energy in Dallas, Texas. (Courtesy David
Chen)
CC: How did you choose this career in the energy industry?
David: I started as a Consultant at Accenture for five years. I spent some time as a
Contractor and a Book Seller before deciding to return to school and earn my MBA.
The Texas electricity market is truly deregulated and provides a lot of interesting
challenges and opportunities. It presents tremendous risks but also offers tremen-
dous opportunities. TXU Energy, being the largest electricity retailer in this market,
allows me to really see how a big utility company transforms into a nimble retailer.
It was this curiosity that led me here.
CC: What subjects, courses, internships, or special training were instrumental in
helping you gain your current position?
David: I took a lot of entrepreneurship courses that taught me about identifying
problems, finding solutions, developing creative ways to test for the best possible
solution, and framing all of that in a way that helps to build a strong business case.
The lessons I learned in those courses helped me to bring some order to my thought
process and gave me the tools I use every day in communicating with my bosses.
CC: What do you think of the industry now that you work in it? Would you follow
the same career path again?
David: This industry has met my expectations. Every day is different and I’ve had
many personal and professional growth opportunities. I would definitely pick this
industry and TXU Energy again.
CC: What challenges do you face in the energy industry?
David: This is a very dynamic industry that is always changing. It is hard to identify
what challenges we might face too far in the future. One problem is that Texas’ reli-
ance on natural gas will put upward pressure on prices in the future. We will need
to educate our customers on how to conserve and manage their monthly usage
more effectively to keep their bills down. This means constantly engaging the cus-
tomer and showing them the impact of their decisions. The environment presents
another problem. It’s not enough for companies to change their production pro-
cess. We, as consumers, must also look at how we live and change our habits to
reduce our impact on the world around us.
CC: What are some benefits to working in the energy industry?
David: Right now, the energy industry is on the edge of a lot of technological
advances. Investment in this area is increasing because of the environment and
high-energy prices. Working here, at this time, allows me to be a part of this trans-
formation. As a retailer, I get to help commercialize many of these products and
gain experience with market development.
CC: What is a typical day of work like for you?
David: As soon as I get to work, I spend the first 30 minutes planning my day,
answering emails and voicemails. I spend about 20 percent of my day in meet-
ings and the rest of the time receiving status reports, prioritizing deliverables,
and pitching in where I’m needed. As a Financial Associate, I spend a lot of time
collecting market assumptions and researching probabilities so I can model how
the different assumptions and market changes impact the profitability of the
company.
CC: What are the most rewarding and most surprising aspects of your job?
David: The most rewarding part of my job is the people I get to meet and work with.
The most surprising part of my job is the humanity of the people who work here.
CC: How does your job affect the public?

David: My main task is to help identify and build the business case for products
that help to advance the market in regards to alternative and renewable energy
solutions. I find ways to introduce next generation, environmentally friendly con-
sumer products into the community in a way that impacts the most people. The
TXU Energy Solar Academy is one such example. I have the fortune of championing
this solar education program to build understanding in the Texas market. Hope-
fully, through our efforts, we will see a greater demand for solar technologies and
a more educated Texas student population that will want to research and work in
this area.
CC: What do you expect to be doing in 5–10 years?

David: I want to own my own business, hopefully involving green energy space.
CC: What is the most exciting technological tool you have used?
David: TXU Energy’s Power Monitor is pretty cool. You can plug anything into any
outlet or turn anything on in your house and immediately see how much electric-
ity it’s using. It approximates how much your bill will be and how much electricity
costs at that moment. I’ve tested other meters and they’ve got delays on them. This
is the most accurate one I’ve seen.
CC: What advice can you give to a young person considering a career in the energy
industry?
David: This is a wide open industry with many career paths to take. You can be
an Engineer who creates new products that help solve the world’s problems, or
you may choose to become a Marketer who figures out the best way to show
the product to the customer and tell them how the product will impact their
lives. You can be a Financial Analyst whose work figures out what that product
will cost and how much it should be priced. Whatever you decide, I think the
most important thing to remember is that companies in the energy industry need
problem solvers. They need people who can isolate problems and find the best
solutions.
CC: Thanks for your time, David.


Ewing, Rex A. Got Sun? Go Solar: Harness Nature’s Free Energy to Heat and
Power Your Grid-Tied Home. Masonville, CO: PixyJack Press, 2009.
SOMETHING TO DO
Compare and contrast photovoltaic solar technology with the method
called concentrating solar power. You can learn about this by searching the
Internet for eSolar, a company funded by Google, in addition to browsing
the eSolar Web site: http://www.esolar.com.
WEB SITES
www1.eere.energy.gov/solar
This is the Web site of the U.S. Department of Energy: Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Solar Energy
Technologies. As America’s need for energy grows, the Department
of Energy is meeting the challenge by establishing clean fuel initia-
tives to make the most of traditional fossil fuels while investing in
cutting edge research to develop sustainable sources.
www.abengoasolar.com.
Abengoa Solar, headquartered in Granada, Spain, constructs solar
power plants (tower, trough, and photovoltaic) and customized
installations (hot water and air production, heating, and air con-
ditioning).
http://videos.howstuffworks.com/multi-media-productions/1128-solar-
energy-systems-video.htm.
Multiple videos and external links to all things related to energy are
available from HowStuffWorks.
www.consumerenergy.org
The Consumer Energy Center offers the public a one-stop site on
the Internet for the latest information about energy resources and
how to use them in homes, work, and vehicles.
www.discoversolarenergy.com/solar/videos-photov.htm
Discover Solar Energy is a comprehensive resource with links to
9,000+ Web sites.
http://www.solarenergy.org/students-and-educators
For 20 years, Solar Energy International has been dedicated to pro-
viding hands-on and online solar training and renewable energy ed-
ucation in wind, micro-hydro, sustainable building, and developing
world technologies.
www.nanosolar.com
Nano Solar Technology’s mission is to reinvent the design and man-
ufacturing of photovoltaics to create low-cost solar cells and panels.
VIDEOS
tent effort to include up-to-date web sites. However, over time, some web
download that software to view the videos. You may need to upgrade your
player to the most current version.
History: To read about the brief history of solar power, go to http://
www.ideamarketers.com/?articleid=521314. Alternatively, view a
video narrated by John Schaeffer; a solar power/renewable energy
pioneer: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHCmLpOtD9c&feat
ure=channel (00:53 seconds).
Solar Energy (Active) in New Mexico and California—Sun Catch-
ers: Driven by efficient Stirling engines, solar dishes, like sunflow-
ers, are used to track the sun throughout the day and capture solar
energy for consumer end use. Learn more about solar dishes in
the following two short video clips: http://videos.howstuffworks.
com/discovery/30088-really-big-things-solar-power-plant-video.
htm (01:43 minutes) and http://videos.howstuffworks.com/planet-
green/30320-g-word-sun-catchers-video.htm (02:22 minutes).
Solar Energy (Passive) in Australia—Solar Tower: To learn more
about one Australian man’s quest to change his nation’s depen-
dence on coal, by building the world’s largest solar power plant
using breakthrough technology and a mirror six times larger than
New York’s Central Park, go to http://greenenergytv.com/Watch.

aspx?v=1679e293afdd55f8 (05:04 minutes).
Solar Energy (Passive) in Canada—Solar Furnace: A brilliant New-
foundlander found a simple solution for cutting energy bills by
15–20 percent with recycled soda cans. To learn more about this in-
novative and remarkably cheap do-it-yourself solution to harness so-
lar energy, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRZvAAqzXIw
(03:48 minutes).
Chapter 3
a
Passive Solar Energy

and Active Solar
Power Energy
According to the California Solar Center, Clarence Kemp, a United States

inventor from Baltimore, patented the world’s first solar water heater in
1891. Kemp patented a way to combine the old practice of exposing metal
tanks to the sun with the scientific principle of the hot box, thereby in-
creasing the tanks’ capability to collect and retain solar heat. He called
his new solar water heater the Climax—the world’s first commercial solar
water heater.
The first two chapters in this book discussed two major solar technolo-
gies—photovoltaics and concentrating solar power. This chapter discusses
how passive solar and active solar energy technology systems can also be
used to meet heat, hot water, and cooling needs in homes and schools.
In short, passive solar technologies are methods of using sunlight for
useful energy without use of active mechanical systems. Active solar tech-
nologies, on the other hand, use mechanical systems such as fans to provide
solar energy. A solar wall is a good example of passive solar technology.
DID YOU KNOW?

“Solar” stems from the Latin word for “sun”—and it is a powerful source of energy.
In fact, the sunlight that shines on the Earth in less than one hour could meet world
energy demands for an entire year!
SOLAR WALL: PASSIVE

SOLAR TECHNOLOGY
Do you know what a solar wall is? The St. Anthony High School in Min-
nesota has one, and it is an excellent working example of passive solar
technology.
The school’s solar wall is basically a wall of dark, perforated aluminum
paneling attached to a south-facing wall of the penthouse perched on top
of the school. The panels, heated by the sun, collect fresh air being drawn
into the building’s heating system and trap it just long enough to preheat
it. The panels warm outside air—for example, −10 degrees Fahrenheit in
January—to something much closer to “room temperature,” helping to
The St. Anthony High School solar wall. The St. Anthony–New Brighton
School District became the first Minnesota school district to install a solar
wall application, which is a passive solar collector that absorbs the sun’s radi-
ant energy. The solar wall is basically a wall of dark, perforated aluminum
paneling attached to a south-facing wall perched atop the school. The panels,
heated by the sun, draw fresh air into the building’s heating system, trapping
it just long enough to preheat it to warm the building. (Courtesy McKinstry
Company)
Passive Solar Energy and Active Solar Power Energy a 61
reduce the demand on the high school’s heating system. Early reports are
that the solar wall may deliver as much as $5,000 in energy savings an-
nually, directly resulting from the solar wall. The savings will be used for
classroom materials and supplies. In addition to providing a sustainable
way to deliver heat to the building, the project can be used to enhance the
school’s energy curriculum. The project provides real-world data for the
students at St. Anthony High School to analyze and can motivate their in-
terests in the math and science behind the technologies of the 21st century,
according to school officials.
SOLAR ENERGY: SOME BASIC SCIENCE

The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Indirect uses of solar
energy include wind, ocean waves, and biomass, for example. Except for
geothermal energy, which is developed within Earth’s core, all renewable
energies are derived from the sun.
Solar Radiation
How much solar radiation reaches Earth’s surface, particularly where you
live? You need to know the answer to this question when organizing, plan-
ning, and developing solar power technology projects such as solar walls,
solar heating and cooling systems, photovoltaics, concentrating solar power
systems, and even for constructing a solar oven.
According to science research, about 20 percent of the incoming radia-
tion is absorbed directly by the atmosphere and therefore does not reach
Earth’s surface. Earth’s clouds reflect another 30 percent of the radiation
back into space. This leaves a little over 45 percent of the sun’s radiation
reaching the surface of Earth.
DID YOU KNOW?

Radiation is energy that comes from a source, such as the sun, and travels through
space. Radiation and radioactivity occur naturally in the physical world. All living
beings require some kinds of radiation just to live. Light and heat, for example, are
two basic forms of radiation necessary for all life on Earth.
Most of the energy Earth receives from the sun travels to us in the form
of visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet radiation. When Earth’s
surface is heated, it radiates much of the energy back into the atmosphere
as infrared radiation, which heats the atmospheric gases. The gases form a
blanket-like cover that holds the heat in Earth’s atmosphere. The process
by which the gases retain heat in the atmosphere keeps the planet habitable
for all living organisms and is called the greenhouse effect: A greenhouse, as
you know, has a glass roof that allows the ultraviolet or short waves to
come in. The short waves are slowed down by the glass and absorbed by the
soil and plants inside the greenhouse as thermal energy. The heat is now
trapped inside the greenhouse. The greenhouse is an excellent example of
passive solar energy.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Stephanie Harman, Science Teacher, Maumee Valley Country
Day School, Toledo, Ohio
Go-Green Project: Biomass Solar Greenhouse
Describe your current position.
I am a seventh- and eighth-grade science teacher at Maumee Valley Country Day
School. Located in Toledo, Ohio, Maumee Valley Country Day School, established
in 1884, is an independent school serving over 450 students from preschool through
grade 12. I have been teaching middle school science at Maumee Valley since
2007. Before teaching at Maumee Valley, I taught elementary science lab at a pub-
lic school in Michigan. I have a master’s in science education from Walden Univer-
sity. Along with teaching, I am the head of the Science Learning and Leadership
Team, a committee that focuses on 21st-century education.
Where did you grow up and what schools did you attend?
I grew up in Farmington Hills, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. I went to Farming-
ton Hills Harrison High School, where I took just about every Advanced Placement
class they had to offer. After high school, I went to the University of Michigan
where I studied engineering. From there, I went to Eastern Michigan University
where I received a bachelor’s of science in education. I completed my master’s
degree from Walden University in 2008.
I have always had a brain for math and science, so I really enjoyed these classes
in high school. I was able to take AP Calculus and AP Physics, which really helped
me get a head start in college. Believe it or not, working out challenging physics
Students in Stephanie Harman’s class set up rain barrels to collect water

for plants in the garden and greenhouses. Special hoses are later con-
nected to the rain barrels to help maintain a constant supply of water to the
plants. (Courtesy Stephanie Harman)
problems was something that I really enjoyed. I knew that I would eventually do
something with science at that point.
What colleges did you attend, and what was your major field?
I started college at the University of Michigan, where I was accepted into their
engineering program. I planned on following in my older brother’s footsteps and
declared aerospace engineering as my major. However, about 96 credits into it,
I realized that engineering was not what I really wanted to do. I decided to take
a completely different path and enrolled in Eastern Michigan University, one of
the best education programs in the country. At Eastern Michigan, I majored in el-
ementary science and minored in math. Later on, I preferred middle school science
teaching, so I completed a master’s program at Walden University. The focus of my
master’s work was inquiry-based science education.
My passion for learning and my understanding of science really prompted me to
pursue a career in science education. I have always felt that I relate well to chil-
dren, so I knew that being in a classroom was where I belonged. My father taught
middle school physical education for 36 years, and seeing firsthand the difference
he made in so many students’ lives was very powerful for me. Children need strong
mentors in their lives, and I really felt that I had something to offer children in terms
of being a role model and motivator.
Describe the Biomass Solar Greenhouse Project.
The project the students and I are working on is titled “Biomass Solar Green-
house.” This project is partially funded by a $10,000 BP A+ for Energy Grant. The
ultimate goal of this project is to sustain a greenhouse and garden on campus,
using only renewable resources, that can service the community. Furthermore, this
is a student-driven project, which crosses multiple disciplines and divisions.
Biomass
The first step of the project was to set up a school-wide composting program.
Maumee Valley Country Day School services three-year-olds all the way up
through high school students, so this was a challenging goal to undertake. Fortu-
nately, my middle school students were more than willing to head up this project
and make it their own. We started the compost project only in the middle school,
educating these students to be the custodians of this project. The students set up
a compost barrel in the dining hall and started collecting compost during our lunch
hour. From there, the middle schoolers started educating the lower school about
compost. Students made posters to place around the school and visited the lower
school during their town meetings to help in this process. It wasn’t long before
the lower school was composting as well. Through education, public service an-
nouncements, and practice, we eventually had the entire school composting. The
students even started having our school chef contribute his kitchen waste to the
bin. Buying our Roly Pig composter (www.rolypig.com) was one of the best ideas
that came from this part of the project. The younger students really enjoy “feeding”
the pig, and the Roly Pig has made a dirty job a lot more fun and exciting. This
grassroots campaign for school-wide composting was an invaluable experience
for these middle school students, and some have even taken it one step further and
started composting at home.
Solar Greenhouse
Once the Roly Pig was producing nutrient-rich soil, we needed a place to put it. The
greenhouse was the next part of the project. As architects and building planners
were visiting the Maumee Valley campus to plan and build our new upper school,
the middle school students were creating their own blueprints and building plans
for our greenhouse. Over the course of several weekends, middle school students,
parents, teachers, and administrators all pitched in to build our beautiful green-
house. We established the Garden Club in the middle school, where the students
decided what they wanted to plant, how to plant it, and what we should do with the
crops. The students decided that we should plant vegetables for our school chef
and also for the local soup kitchen. Additionally, we were able to make a connec-
tion with the local parks and obtain endangered plant species seeds to cultivate
for the Toledo Area Metroparks. Throughout the planning and planting process,
the students really got to understand firsthand how growing their own food helps
to combat the energy crisis. They also found out that establishing and maintaining
a greenhouse and garden is a lot of work. The students learned concepts such as
companion species, such as tomatoes and marigolds to help deter pests organi-
cally. A fence also had to be constructed because Maumee Valley is situated on
72 wooded acres inhabited by deer, rabbits, groundhogs, and other species, who
would enjoy eating our vegetables.
Water
The students learned through the gardening process that watering plants con-
sumes tremendous amounts of resources, including water. For this reason, they
decided to place rain barrels on campus to collect water for the garden and
greenhouse. They quickly found out that drawing water from the rain barrels in
watering cans and distributing water that way was inefficient and extremely time-
consuming. They solved this problem by connecting soaker hoses to the rain bar-
rels to help maintain a constant supply of water to the plants. We were able to dis-
cuss irrigation systems used on large farms and how that affects the watersheds
surrounding the farm.
How did you get interested in selecting this project?
Currently, Maumee Valley Country Day School is in the process of building a new
upper school. This new structure will be LEED certified. LEED is an internation-
ally recognized green building certification system, providing third-party verifica-
tion that a building or community was designed and built using strategies aimed
at improving performance across all the metrics that matter most: energy savings,
water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality,
and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts (http://www.usgbc.
org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988). Obviously, this project has the whole
Maumee Valley Community thinking “green.” Tearing down the old upper school
meant that we would be losing our existing greenhouse. Thinking this would be
a true loss to the community, we decided to build a new one in the middle school.
However, we did not want our greenhouse to have an adverse affect on our energy
and resource consumption, and that was how compost, rain barrels, and commu-
nity involvement became a part of the project. The BP A+ for Energy Grant was a
perfect opportunity to help fund this project and educate our students about en-
ergy issues.
North Coast Wind and Solar, 577 Foundation, BP A+ for Energy, The NEED Project,
Boy Scouts of America, ToledoGrows, Center for Innovative Food and Technolo-
gies, Seagate Food Bank, Cherry Street Mission, and Rolypig.com.
The best advice that I can give to other teachers is to go for it! I have been amazed
by my students throughout this entire process and cannot believe how hard they
have worked. Also, there are many grant opportunities out there to help fund proj-
ects relating to energy.
Although the establishment of the greenhouse and gardens was a one-year com-
mitment, the middle school will continue to improve upon and maintain them each
year. Every new class will have the opportunity to decide what is planted and how
these plants will be used. Furthermore, I have received another $10,000 BP A+ for
Energy grant to incorporate a self-sustained heating system for the greenhouse
and wind turbines for the school. A former middle school student will be design-
ing and implementing the greenhouse heating system as part of his Eagle Scout
experience.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

Many civilizations, such as the Romans, have used the greenhouse effect
to warm their homes and buildings. One way to keep a house or building
warm is to use a passive solar heating system. The passive solar heating
system relies much on the greenhouse effect to trap heat inside a building.
This is similar to how a closed automobile traps heat when parked in an
unobstructed area on a sunny day.
Another way to heat a home is to use an active solar heating system.
This system is different from the passive solar heating system because it
requires the use of specific equipment and devices such as fans and other
tools to help direct heat.
Passive Solar Heating Systems

A passive solar heating system uses the greenhouse effect for the heat-
ing and cooling of interior living spaces. It takes advantage of the sun’s
heat and light without using mechanical equipment, so it has few mov-
ing parts and requires a minimal amount of maintenance over the life-
time of the system.
To get the maximum amount of energy from the sun, the house or
building has to be in the right place and take advantage of the local cli-
mate. For example, buildings designed to make use of passive solar heating
generally are constructed so that most of the windows in the buildings are
placed on a south-facing side. Why? South-facing windows are exposed
to the greatest number of hours of daily sunlight throughout the year. As
sunlight enters the building through the windows and reaches the interior
walls, floors, and furnishings of the room, it is converted to thermal energy
or heat. The resulting heat energy is then slowly released back into the
rooms of the building. At night, when no sunlight is available, window
Passive solar technologies capture sunlight for energy without the use of
mechanical and electrical devices. Passive solar design can reduce energy
demands for lighting, winter heating, and summer cooling. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
shades are used to cover the windows to prevent the heat energy from
escaping from the room to the outside areas.
Depending on where you live, passive solar heating systems may not
completely eliminate the need for additional supplementary fossil-fuel
heating systems or renewable energy sources. However, studies have re-
ported that, on average, the use of passive solar heating strategies in homes
can reduce heat and electric utility costs by as much as 20–30 percent.
How a Passive Solar Home Design Works

How heat moves throughout a home or building and how it can be stored
are important factors in a home or building with passive solar heating. Ac-
cording to the Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, heat is transferred in three ways—conduction, convec-
tion, and radiation.
Conduction. When there is a direct transfer of heat from one substance
to another, it is called conduction. Walking on beach sand on a hot day is
a good example of what conduction is as you try to skip along quickly on
the hot sand to your destination. Solids made of metal conduct heat very
well.
Convection. The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid such as
water or gas is called convection. Cooler and denser air sinks toward the
ground, while the warmer and less dense air moves upward. Some passive
solar homes use convection currents to carry solar heat from a warmed
south wall into the building’s cooler interior rooms. Radiators in homes are
used to set up convection currents for heating purposes.
Radiation. As mentioned previously, radiation is energy that comes
from a source, such as the sun, and travels through space. The radiant heat
moves through the air from warmer objects to cooler ones. Homes and
buildings designed for passive solar heat rely on radiation penetrating into
the home from windows. The buildings that maximize solar radiation are
those with south-facing windows. Again, just like with the greenhouse
effect, the glass windows allow the ultraviolet or short waves to come into
a room. When this happens, the ultraviolet waves are slowed down by the
glass and absorbed by the walls, carpets, floors, and other solid materials
in the house. This action results in infrared or thermal energy that cannot
escape back into the outdoor environment. The heat is now trapped. The
house is warm.
In summary, architects and builders who construct buildings using pas-

sive solar design implement in their plans the three ways that heat is trans-
ferred from one place to another.
Builders also make use of thermal mass, which refers to the ability of
materials to absorb sunlight and store heat. In simpler terms, thermal mass
is any kind of construction material that includes masonry materials, such
as concrete, stones, brick, and tile. These materials, including even the use
of water, have been successfully used as thermal mass because they collect,
store, and distribute heat. The more thermal mass inside a home or build-
ing, the more potential heat that can be used and stored.
Some homes designed for passive solar heating have thermal walls. The
thermal walls, built from solid material such as concrete blocks, are located
on the south-facing side of a building. Special glass windows are installed
on the outside wall. The sun’s rays penetrate through the glass, heating the
wall. As the wall warms up, the heat reaches the interior wall and then
radiates into the rooms.
Schools Make Use of Passive Solar Design

Passive solar design is ideal for providing space heat for schools. Most of
the energy demands of a school, such as heating and cooling, occur dur-
ing the daytime. This is the time of day when a school can maximize solar
energy for its heating, cooling, and lighting needs.
According to the magazine School Planning & Management, in order to
design and use passive solar heating in a building, there are certain stages
in the planning that need to be reviewed. Some of the planning stages
include:
1. Locate a building site at a south to southeast position. Buildings

designed for passive solar use large south-facing windows, and the
longest walls run from east to west.
2. Design a floor plan to allow for effective sun penetration in the winter.
3. Construct the building with high thermal mass materials such as
concrete, brick, and stone that can be warmed by the sun during cool
weather.
4. Use sun-shading devices and or plant trees to keep the building in
the shade during warm seasons. Windows must have low infiltration
and high R-values. Insulated shutters or shades also help to limit
heat loss.
5. Passive solar design buildings can reduce intense summer solar heat
by using natural ventilation and roof overhangs to block the sun’s
strongest rays during the hot season. Most passive systems, how-
ever, have to be assisted with fans, ducts, and blowers to circulate
the heat.
To get a free subscription to School Planning & Management go to http://

www.peterli.com/spm/index.shtm.
Benefits and Advantages of Passive Solar Buildings

Passive solar design and architecture can be applied to buildings in almost
any part of the United States. According to the U.S. Department of En-
ergy, passive solar design:
• Is energy efficient, reducing a building’s energy demands for lighting,

winter heating, and summer cooling.
• Captures sunlight without additional investments in mechanical and
electrical devices such as pumps, fans, and electrical controls.
• Can reduce heating bills by as much as 50 percent.
• Reduces greenhouse gases because it relies on solar energy, a renew-
able, nonpolluting resource.
The Need for Good Planning

Planning and designing a passive solar building requires good choices in
building materials, especially window glass. For example, according to solar
contractors and builders, passive solar homes are often built using inferior
glass windows that are not applicable for solar energy. However, choosing
glass for passive solar designs is not easy. The best choice of glass depends
on which side of the building (east, west, north, or south) the glass is in-
stalled on. Know your glass before you buy.
Active Solar Heating Systems

The design of an active solar system is a bit more complicated than that of
a passive solar system. Active solar technologies usually consist of equip-
ment, such as a fan or a pump, which are needed to direct and move heat
throughout the rooms in a home.
FEATURE
Solar Ovens
Do you know what a solar oven is? A solar oven is a cooking stove that uses pas-
sive solar heating technology.
How Does a Solar Oven Work?

A solar oven cooks by absorbing the rays from the sun and turning them into heat
energy. No fossil fuels are needed to operate this oven. The sun is the fuel source.
In some solar ovens, a pot or container is placed inside a glass or plastic cover.
The tight cover allows just a little bit of space to retain the heat. The reflectors
on the solar oven focus the sunlight toward the pot or other cooking utensil. In
time, the temperature rises in the solar oven. The basic solar oven can reach about
300 degrees Fahrenheit, and the most efficient one can cook at much higher tem-
peratures. Of course, the solar oven will not work at night or on a cloudy day, given
that it relies on sunlight to work.
The most common type of solar oven is the box-shaped type. Box solar ovens
are not difficult to make, and if you wish, you can purchase one. These kinds of
ovens can be made from wood, cardboard, plastic, or metal. Basically, they are
a box inside which the dark-colored cooking pot of food is placed. The top of the
box is a reflector that can be adjusted to direct the sun’s rays into the inside of
the oven. To keep the temperature nice and hot, box ovens need to be moved as
the sun changes its position and angle.
Another kind of solar oven is the parabolic solar oven, also called a concentrator.
These parabolic solar ovens can reach temperatures ranging from 400 degrees Fahr-
enheit to more than 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. They are large, curved, and concave
and are constructed of very shiny metal reflectors. The dark pot fits in the middle. Usu-
ally, parabolic ovens can be rotated to catch the best of the sun’s angles for cooking.
However, they get so hot that it is important to have only trained people using them.
Another type of solar oven is called a panel oven, which combines the box oven
and the parabolic oven designs. It has a cavity, like a box oven, where the cooking
pot goes. It also has a curved reflector, like the parabolic oven, to collect and point
the sunlight.
One of the most popular solar ovens is the Kyoto Box oven. This oven is used by
the millions of people throughout the world who rely on wood stoves for cooking
and for sterilizing water for drinking purposes. The Kyoto Box consists of a card-
board box with a black inside liner and an outer box covered with a silver foil that
concentrates enough sunlight to cook food and boil water.
The Benefits of Solar Ovens

Fifty-two percent of trees cut globally are used as fuel to cook food, according to
a United Nations report. Ample supplies of fuelwood are now becoming scarce for
many people who live in parts of Africa and in other countries. Every day thousands
of families, mostly women, spend a good part of their day searching and gathering
small brush, crop residues, and dung to use as cooking fuel. In these countries, the
use of solar ovens to cook and boil water would be a very effective and efficient
alternative to using wood-fired stoves and ovens.
Some of the benefits of solar ovens include the following:
• You do not need any fuel for cooking or boiling water.
• You can build a solar oven kit in a short time, and it is inexpensive to
operate.
• You can use solar ovens outdoors in areas where lighting a fire is a high
risk.
• You can breathe easily without having to cook over a smoky, wood fire.
Solar Cooking Saves Lives in Darfur Refugee Camps

According to GreenJoyment, “over 10,000 solar ovens made from aluminum foil,
cardboard and plastic bags are saving lives in the Darfur refugee camps. The refu-
gees construct the solar ovens from the donated supplies and use them to prepare
midday and evening meals. The goal of the project sponsored by the Solar Cook-
ers International, Jewish World Watch, and the Dutch foundation KoZon, was to
protect the Darfuri women who would have, otherwise, had to leave the relative
safety of the camp to gather firewood. An added benefit for the refugees is that if
the women spend less time tending to fires they have more time to grow healthy
vegetables and make handicrafts that can be exported to further support their
families.”
If you are interested in learning more about this program go to http://www.
greenjoyment.com.
Fast Solar Cooking in China

Many people in China use hundreds of thousands of parabolic cookers, mainly for
cooking on a large scale. The parabolic cookers, mentioned previously, are similar
to solar ovens, but they require more time to build. Safety is also an issue because
of the high temperatures these cookers produce.
Solar Cooking with Steam in India

The Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India, uses a special solar bowl to prepare more than
1,000 meals a day! Like solar ovens, the solar bowls use reflectors to focus light
into the bowl to produce steam at 270 degrees Fahrenheit. In some places in India,
people use only solar cooking technology to cook all the meals during the day.
DID YOU KNOW?

Solar ovens can be used to boil water for drinking purposes. The drinking of con-
taminated water has caused illnesses and deaths in many regions of the world
where potable water is not available.
The Thames and Cosmos solar oven will cook small quantities of food such
as dried rice (pictured in a glass jar with water). According to the manufac-
turer, under optimum conditions the rice and water will begin boiling in about
30 minutes. This experiment was conducted by a student in the ninth grade.
(Courtesy Grant Dunbar)
Basic Types of Active Systems

There are two basic types of active solar heating systems based on
the type of fluid: liquid or air. Both fluids are heated in solar energy
collectors.
Solar Energy Collectors

The solar collector is used to collect and absorb sunlight and change
it to heat in a box-like enclosed structure that is usually placed on the
roof, facing south. The collector is composed of one or two panels of
glass or plastic, a blackened absorber plate in the liner of the box to
attract heat, and a row of metal tubes fastened to the black plate that
contains fluid.
All of these parts are built into a weatherproof box. Sunlight entering
the glass or plastic panes is absorbed and converted to heat energy by the
absorber plate. The metal tubes absorb this heat and transfer it to the fluid
Evacuated tube solar collectors are very efficient and can achieve very high
temperatures. Each tube contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube
attached to a fin. The fin’s coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits radiative
heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently in commercial applica-
tions rather than residential. (Jorge Salcedo/Dreamstime.com)
they contain. The heated gas or liquid then passes on to a storage system,
usually a hot water insulated tank to prevent heat loss.
The next part of the system is the transport system, which is composed
of a network of pipes and pumps or fans. The transport system circulates
heated water in a network of pipes, from the storage tank to all the rooms
located throughout a building.
If needed, pumps can be used to help distribute the heated water or air
through the pipes. The heated water can then be used for household needs
such as washing clothes and taking showers.
Fans may be used to direct the released heat to needed areas. Once the
heat carried by the liquid is given off, the water returns to the storage tank
to be reheated.
Similar to the passive solar heating system, a backup heating unit may
also be part of an active system. The backup system is used during the cold
periods of the year or during several days of cloudy weather when there is
a constant demand for hot water and heat.
SOLAR HOT-WATER UNITS

Yesterday’s Solar Water Heaters
According to the California Solar Center,
In the nineteenth century, no easy way existed to heat water. People

generally used a cook stove for this purpose. Wood had to be chopped
or heavy hods of coal lifted, then the fuel had to be kindled and the
fire periodically stocked. In cities, the wealthier heated their water
with gas manufactured from coal. Still, the fuel didn’t burn clean and
the heater had to be lit each time someone wanted to heat water. If
someone forgot to extinguish the flame, the tank would blow up.
To add to the problem of heating water, in many areas, wood
or coal or coal-gas cost a lot and many times could not be easily
obtained. To circumvent these problems, many handy farmers or
prospectors or other outdoors men devised a much safer, easier,
and cheaper way to heat water—placing into the sun a metal water
tank painted black to absorb as much solar energy as possible. These
were the first solar water heaters on record. ( http://www.california
solarcenter.org/history_solarthermal.html )
Today’s Solar Water Heaters

Today, many countries use solar hot-water systems for a wide variety of
purposes, including hot water for household needs and for heating swim-
ming pools.
According to the Department of Energy, “solar water heaters, also called
solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-effective way to generate
use—sunshine—is free.” The Department of Energy describes the com-
mon types of domestic solar hot-water systems as follows.
Two Systems for Hot Water

Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive, but the most
common are active ones. Active systems rely on pumps to move the liquid
between the collector and the storage tank, while passive systems rely on
gravity to circulate the water as it is heated. There are different kinds of
solar collectors for residential applications, including the following.
Active solar water heating systems have circulating pumps and controls while
passive solar water heaters do not. Solar water heating systems almost always
require a backup system for cloudy days and times of increased demand.
Flat-Plate Collector
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the most com-
mon collector is called a flat-plate collector. Mounted on the roof, it con-
sists of a thin, flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the
sun. Small tubes run through the box and carry the fluid—either water
or other fluid, such as an antifreeze solution—to be heated. The tubes are
attached to an absorber plate, which is painted black to absorb the heat.
As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing through the
tubes.
The glazed flat-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that
contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic (polymer)
covers. The unglazed flat-plate collectors are typically used for solar pool
heating. These collectors have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or poly-
mer, without a cover or enclosure.
Passive solar water heaters use the greenhouse effect for heating and cooling
of the interior living space of a home. This system does not have any mechani-
cal devices. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Integral Collector-Storage Systems

Integral collector-storage systems, also known as ICS, have one or more
black tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box. Cold water first passes
through the solar collector, which preheats the water that is circulated to a
conventional backup water heater as a source of hot water. These systems
should be installed only in mild-freeze climates because the outdoor pipes
could freeze in severe, cold weather.
Storage Tanks
Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar stor-
age tanks have an additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the
collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before
it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up
heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank.
The Economics of a Solar Water Heater

Solar water heating systems usually cost more to purchase and install than
conventional water heating systems. However, a solar water heater can
usually save a homeowner energy costs over time.
The Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renew-
able Energy states that what you can save on energy costs depends on the
following:
• The amount of hot water you use
• Your system’s performance
• Your geographic location and solar resource
• Available financing and incentives
• The cost of conventional fuels (natural gas, oil, and electricity)
• The cost of the fuel you use for your backup water heating system, if
you have one
Government sources state that, on average, if a homeowner installs a
solar water heater, the water heating bills could be reduced by 50–80 per-
cent. Also, the homeowner is protected from future fuel shortages and
price hikes by using solar energy.
Global Installation of Solar Hot-Water Heaters

Solar water-heating systems are very popular in countries with plenty of
daylight solar radiation. Some of these countries include Cyprus, Israel,
Greece, Japan, Austria, and China. At least 30 million Chinese households
now have solar hot-water heaters, making China the number one user. In
2009 the country accounted for approximately 80 percent of the world’s
market of solar hot-water heaters. The high-tech rooftop solar heaters pro-
vide water for cooking, bathing, and washing.
FEATURE
Hot Water Heaters in California
The state government of California has approved a $350 million program to subsi-
dize the installation of solar water heaters to help reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions. The program will spend millions of dollars to replace hot water heaters that
use natural gas and electricity.
According to one report, there are more than 25 million rooftop solar heaters
in China. The cost of each solar heater is under $200. (Naqiewei/Dreamstime.
com)
According to the Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI),

in the United States “there are 1.5 million solar water heaters already
in use in U.S. homes and businesses. Solar water heater systems can
work in any climate and EESI estimates that 40 percent of all U.S.
homes have sufficient access to sunlight so that 29 million additional
solar water heaters could be installed right now.” In 2005 the United
States began offering homeowners tax credits for installing solar hot-
water heaters.
What Are the Costs of Solar Water Heaters?

According to the EESI, “residential solar water heater systems cost be-
tween $1,500 and $3,500, compared to $150 to $450 for electric and gas
heaters. With savings in electricity or natural gas, solar water heaters pay
for themselves within four to eight years. Solar water heaters last between
15 and 40 years—the same as conventional systems—so after that initial
payback period is up, zero energy cost essentially means having free hot
water for years to come.”
FEATURE
Students Design and Build Solar Water Heaters for Developing Countries
At several colleges worldwide, engineering students are designing and building
solar water heaters for African villages. For example, in 2009 the Minnesota State
University Media Relations Department reported that “mechanical engineering
students in Ghana and the United States were designing and building inexpensive
solar-powered water heaters made with tire inner tubes, rubber sheets and other
locally available African materials. Their work was supported in part by a grant
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, in its People, Prosperity and Planet
national design competition. The effort built on years of partnership between Min-
nesota State University, Mankato and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology in Ghana on shared projects and faculty interaction.”
AMERICAN SOLAR ENERGY SOCIETY

Established in 1954, the American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is a
nonprofit organization dedicated to increasing the use of solar energy,
energy efficiency, and other sustainable technologies in the United
States.
According to the American Solar Energy Society’s Web site, the or-
ganization leads national efforts to promote solar energy education, pub-
lic outreach, and advocacy. ASES publishes the award-winning SOLAR
TODAY magazine, organizes and presents the ASES National Solar Con-
ference, and leads the ASES National Solar Tour—the largest solar energy
event in the world, as well as other powerful programs.
In 2007, the American Solar Energy Society published the groundbreak-
ing Green-Collar Jobs report, which showed that renewable energy and en-
ergy efficiency sectors generate 9 million jobs and nearly $1 trillion in annual
revenue in the U.S. The second report, Tackling Climate Change in the U.S.,
demonstrated how renewable energy and energy efficiency could provide the
carbon emissions reductions needed to mitigate climate change. More than
11,000 members now support ASES across the nation.
SOLAR PONDS
A solar pond is another solar energy technology that collects and stores
sunlight in a body of water for the purpose of providing renewable energy.
In this technology, the sunlight is “captured,” heated, and stored in the
bottom layer of a body of water where the water has a high salt content.
The stored salt water can attain temperatures high enough to generate
electricity and to heat buildings. Solar pond technology does not damage
the environment or produce waste materials.
Generally, the solar salt pond has three main layers. The surface layer
is cold and has relatively little salt content or salinity. The bottom layer is
hot, up to 212 degrees Fahrenheit, and is very salty. Separating the top and
bottom layers is the important gradient zone.
The gradient zone is between 3 and 6 feet deep. In a heat transfer pro-
cess called convection, fluids such as water and air rise when heated. There-
fore, the hot water at the bottom of the pond would rise to the surface, but
the middle gradient zone stops this process. The water in the gradient zone
stays put. It cannot rise to the surface because the surface water has a low
salt content and is therefore lighter. The water in the gradient zone cannot
sink to the lower level either because the bottom water is denser. In sum-
mary, the gradient zone reduces convection.
Solar ponds can heat up over time when large quantities of salt are dis-
solved in the hot, bottom layer of water. The salty bottom layer becomes
too dense to rise to the surface and cool. The hot water is trapped from
which useful heat may be withdrawn or stored for later use.
Solar ponds can provide a supplemental energy source for electrical pro-
duction and heat for thermal desalination and space heating. Solar ponds
can also provide heat for the production of chemicals, foods, textiles, and
other industrial products and for the separation of crude oil from brine
in oil recovery operations. Another use of solar ponds includes protecting
fish from “cold kill” in aquaculture applications. The ponds can also be re-
ceptacles, or storage containers, for brine disposal from by-product wastes
from crude oil production and from power plant cooling towers systems in
which brine disposal is a problem.
Operated by the University of Texas at El Paso, the El Paso Solar Pond
is a research, development, and demonstration project funded by the United
States Bureau of Reclamation and the state of Texas. The solar pond, lo-
cated on the property of a food canning company, has been operated since
1985, when it became the first in the world to deliver industrial process
heat to a commercial manufacturer. A year later, it earned the distinction
of becoming the first electric power–generating solar pond facility in the
United States, and then in 1987 it became the nation’s first solar pond–
powered water-desalting facility.
According to experts, solar pond technology has the potential—

especially for areas in which there is a unique combination of solar en-
ergy, salt, and brackish water—to become a viable energy source. In the
southwestern area of the United States, experts believe the potential for
salt-gradient solar technology is immense. In this location, there is an
abundance of underground salt resources, brackish water, and natural salt
lakes, which represent a potentially significant, untapped resource.

Wind, Hydropower, and Other Alternative Energy Sources. Ocala, FL:
Atlantic, 2008.
Kachadorian, James. The Passive Solar House: The Complete Guide to Heating
and Cooling Your Home. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green,
2006.
2001.
Smith, Trevor. Renewable Energy Resources. Mankato, MN: Weigl, 2003.
SOMETHING TO DO
Explore passive solar–building design activities, sponsored by the Depart-
ment of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, at https://
www.eecbg.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/29267-4.1.pdf.
WEB SITES
www.solar-energy-power.net
Solar Energy Review is a comprehensive Web site on solar energy
and solar power systems. Its purpose is to share their members’ engi-
neering and commercial experiences in renewable energy projects.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/27954.pdf
The Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Re-
newable Energy Passive Design for the Home illustrates how passive
solar design works.
http://techpulse360.com/2009/09/02/japans-solar-energy-space-station
Solar energy space station: Thirty years from now, will Japan be the
first country to utilize solar radiation and microwave technology to
“beam back” energy from space?
www.ises.org
The International Solar Energy Society promotes the development
and use of renewable energy. It is dedicated to the advancement and
utilization of solar energy.
www.un.org/pubs
The United Nations online publication The Promise of Solar Energy
describes solar energy technology as one of the least carbon-intensive
means of electricity generation. This technology can help mitigate
climate change while stimulating economies and creating employ-
ment opportunities and a more secure grid system.
www.passivesolar.sustainableresources.com
Passive Solar Design provides information on passive solar design
construction including guidelines, technology, supplies, and cost and
regulatory factors.
www.power-technology.com
Power Technology creates an alphabetical list of power contractors
and suppliers and produces a catalogue of products and services.
VIDEOS
U.S.—The Future: Experts have suggested that solar-powered energy
can become a significant and cost-efficient replacement for fossil
fuels, but will the government help? To learn more, go to http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=w-fhs1ceke0 (02:40 minutes).
Spain—Solar Tower: A technician in Madrid describes how hot air
rising up from the bottom of a 600-foot tall chimney can run an
installed turbine at the top to generate electricity. Go to http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=XCGVTYtJEFk.
Israel: An Israeli company has made strides in offering cost-effective

solar energy. To learn more about the political, global, and environ-
mental advantages and disadvantages, go to http://www.metacafe.
com/watch/2753605/israeli_town_inaugurates_first_commercial_
solar_farm/ (02:26 minutes) and/or http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
yt-_O47RiYJiKI/truly_amazing_advanced_solar_cell_from_israel/
(03:47 minutes).
Chapter 4
a
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen
and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish
an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an intensity of which
coal is not capable.
—Jules Verne, The Mysterious Island (1874)
HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS

There is much talk today about using hydrogen fuels cells to power the
next line of automobiles and other vehicles. Yes, hydrogen is a clean, re-
newable energy source, but there are a number of hurdles in the planning
and building of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. Some of the hurdles include
the high costs of materials to build these cars and the lack of a network of
hydrogen refueling stations that will be necessary once these vehicles are
on the road.
At a press briefing in 2009 on the proposed government’s budget for the
fiscal year, Energy Secretary Steven Chu stated that these hurdles, along
with a need for better fuel tanks and technology to make large amounts of
hydrogen from sources other than natural gas, limited the fuel cell technol-
ogy’s appeal for vehicle production. Therefore, Chu said the department
would concentrate on projects such as hydrogen power for buildings be-
cause it was unlikely the fuel could be widely deployed for vehicles anytime
soon. As a result, U.S. Energy Department funding for hydrogen-related

projects was scheduled to be cut by 60 percent for the next fiscal year under
budget plans presented by President Barack Obama. Some government
funding for hydrogen fuel programs was later restored.
Although the United States has cut back a bit on fuel-cell vehicle tech-
nology, not all automobile companies are doing the same. Automakers in
Germany, South Korea, and Japan are expanding their fuel-cell programs.
Presently, California has the largest fleet of hydrogen fuel-cell models and
money to develop more hydrogen stations. Toyota plans to sell fuel-cell cars
in 2015, and South Korea’s Hyundai Motor Co. and Germany’s Daimler
AG automaker also are planning to sell hydrogen vehicles. However, it
may be decades before hydrogen power is as conventional as the refineries
and the local gas stations we have today.
Refer to chapter 5 for more information on the applications of hydro-
gen fuel cells for the transportation sector.
In 2008 Honda unveiled the FCX Clarity, an advanced fuel cell electric vehicle
featuring a fuel cell stack. Powered by Honda’s V Flow fuel cell stack, the FCX
has made important major improvements in driving range and power. Fuel cell
electric vehicles produce no harmful emissions. (AP Photo/Koji Sasahara)
Hydrogen Fuel Cells a 87
SOME BASICS ON HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust. It is number 1 on
the periodic table of elements and is a colorless and odorless gas found in
water and all organic matter, including acids. Hydrogen makes up 75 per-
cent of all the mass in the universe. Hydrogen isotopes include deuterium
and tritium. Hydrogen is found naturally on Earth but only in compounds
that are formed with other elements, such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.
For example, hydrogen combined with oxygen is water (H2O). When hy-
drogen is combined with carbon, different compounds are formed, such as
methane (CH4), coal, and petroleum.
Because hydrogen does not occur freely on Earth, breaking it free from
other compounds is not easy. Presently, hydrogen can be produced by sepa-
rating various fossil fuels such as coal, methane, natural gas, and petroleum.
In fact, thousands of tons of hydrogen are produced daily in natural gas
refineries. Hydrogen can also be separated from water by using electricity
in a process known as electrolysis. The process of electrolysis can be fueled
from fossil fuels, and from renewable sources such as solar energy, wind
energy, or geothermal energy.
WHAT IS A FUEL CELL?

According to the Department of Energy, a fuel cell is a device that uses
hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity through
an electrochemical process. Fuel cells have several benefits over conven-
tional fossil fuel technologies currently used in many power plants and
passenger vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cells produce much smaller quantities
of greenhouse gases and none of the air pollutants that create smog and
cause health problems. In fact, if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells
will emit only heat and water as byproducts.
DID YOU KNOW?

Hydrogen forms about 11 percent by weight of water (H2O) and is not very reactive
at room temperatures. However, at high temperatures hydrogen burns vigorously
and often explosively.
How Does a Fuel Cell Work?

Simply stated, a single hydrogen fuel cell consists of an electrolyte. An
electrolyte is a chemical solution that has the ability to conduct an elec-
tric current. The fuel cell also has two electrodes: an anode and a cathode.
The electrolyte causes the charged ions to move from one electrode to the
other. During the chemical action, the ions, passing between the anode
and the cathode, produce electricity.
DID YOU KNOW?

In general, an ion is an atom or a molecule that has gained or lost one or more
electrons.
VIDEO
If you are interested in a more detailed description of how a fuel cell works, go
to the following Department of Energy video, “Fuel Cell Animation”: http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcell_animation.html.
Different Kinds of Fuel Cells

According to the Department of Energy, there are several types of fuel
cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limi-
tations, and potential applications. They include polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells, direct methanol fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and
Although there are different fuel cell types, all fuel cells work similarly.
For example, the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are par-
ticularly suitable for transportation vehicles, such as cars and buses. The
polymer electrolyte membrane is also called a proton exchange membrane.
The PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of different materials.
They include electrodes (anode and cathode) and a polymer electrolyte
membrane.
A Major Drawback of Fuel Cells

One of the drawbacks of using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen
storage. According to the Department of Energy, “most fuel cell vehicles
(FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen on-board as
a compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low-energy density of
FEATURE
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) are powered by pure methanol. Methanol is
also known as wood alcohol. The methanol is mixed with steam and fed directly
to the fuel cell. Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage
problems typical of some fuel cells because methanol has a higher energy density
than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier
to transport and supply to the public using the country’s current infrastructure of
service stations because it is a liquid, like gasoline.
hydrogen, it is difficult to store enough hydrogen on-board to allow ve-

hicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refu-
eling, typically 300–400 miles.”
BRIEF HISTORY OF HYDROGEN TIME LINE

1766 Hydrogen was discovered as an element by the British scientist
Henry Cavendish. He proved that water is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen gases.
1788 French scientist Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogen. The
word “hydrogen” is from the Greek words hydro and genes, mean-
ing “water” and “born of.”
1800 Two English scientists, William Nicholson and Sir Anthony
Carlisle, applied an electric current to a glass of water to pro-
duce hydrogen and oxygen gases. The method they used is
electrolysis.
1958 The United States formed the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). NASA’s space program uses liquid hy-
drogen for rocket propulsion.
1959 Francis T. Bacon, an English scientist, built the first “working” hy-
drogen fuel cell. His five-kilowatt fuel cell was able to power a
welding machine.
1990 The world’s first solar-powered hydrogen production plant became
operational in southern Germany.
1991 Georgetown University scientists tested three fuel-cell vehicles as
part of a Generation I Bus Program.
1994 Daimler Benz presented the NECAR I (New Electric Car) at a
show in Germany. This was the automaker’s first hydrogen fuel-
cell vehicle.
2001 Ballard Power Systems launched the PEM fuel cell system, which
was designed for integration into a wide variety of industrial and
consumer end-product applications.
PRESENT USE
Today, hydrogen is used primarily in the production of ammonia, which
is a major ingredient of fertilizer. Hydrogen is also used in petroleum re-
fineries to remove sulfur in the refining of gasoline. Food manufacturers
use some hydrogen in a process called hydrogenation; this process is used
to convert oils into margarine. Presently, hydrogen fuel cells are used in
NASA’s space program to provide heat, electricity, and drinking water for
astronauts. In the future, hydrogen fuel cells could be used to fuel vehicles
and aircraft and to provide power for our homes and offices.
HOW IS HYDROGEN PRODUCED?

The simplest and most common element, hydrogen is all around us but
always as a compound with other elements; hydrogen does not exist on
Earth as a gas and must be separated from other elements. To make it us-
able in fuel cells, an energy source is needed to extract the hydrogen from
the fossil fuel, biomass, water, or other compound in which it is found. The
two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming
and electrolysis. But new technologies are being developed all the time to
produce hydrogen, including the thermochemical hydrogen process and
methods involving algae.
Steam Reformation
Today, steam reformation from natural gas is used for most of the hydro-
gen production in the United States. Steam reforming is an inexpensive
method of producing hydrogen. Steam reformation is used in industries
to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4), a fos-
sil fuel. However, this manufacturing process releases carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas emission.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a process that breaks up hydrogen and oxygen in water. It
uses electricity, passing through an electrolytic solution or other material,
to cause a reaction that breaks up the chemical bonds. This process, also
called water splitting, results in no emissions, but it is a very expensive
method of producing hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

The millions of tons of hydrogen that are produced in the United States today are
enough to power 20–30 million cars or 5–8 million homes. Nearly all of this hydrogen
is produced in just three states, California, Louisiana, and Texas, where hydrogen is
used by industry in oil refining, in the treatment of metals, and in processing food.
There are several methods to produce electrolysis. The best is to use renew-
able energy sources such as solar and wind. The electrolyzer is a device used
to separate hydrogen and oxygen from water. The hydrogen can be stored and
later used to produce hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles or for manufacturing fuel
cells to provide electricity for homes and businesses. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Thermochemical Hydrogen
The thermochemical hydrogen process includes heating biomass (or fossil
fuels) with limited or no oxygen present. This process can gasify it into a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide known as synthesis gas or syn-
gas. Syngas can then be chemically converted to produce hydrogen.
Algae for Hydrogen Production

Researchers have found a way in which algae can be used to produce hy-
drogen gas. The single-cell green alga C. reinhartii is commonly found in
soils and produces small quantities of hydrogen when it is deprived of
oxygen. So under anaerobic conditions, this kind of alga can generate its
energy from fermentation. Fermentation is the process in which a cell or
alga obtains energy from the breakdown of food molecules in the absence
of oxygen.
During fermentation, hydrogen is released though the action of elec-
trons. The electrons are generated by the breakdown of organic compounds
Bioreactors are special containers for growing organisms such as bacteria or

yeast. Bioreactors are used in the biotechnological production of substances
such as pharmaceuticals or for the bioconversion of organic waste. In this
photo, the bioreactors contain cultures of hydrogen-producing microscopic
algae. Scientists have known that certain species of algae can produce hydro-
gen in anaerobic conditions. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
or the splitting of water by photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process by

which plant leaves make carbohydrates using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and
water. But not many of these electrons go into the production of hydrogen.
A major research study is underway to develop experiments to increase this
small portion of electrons for the production of more hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

High-oil algae can be grown specifically for the purpose of wide-scale biodiesel
production. In fact, one government agency predicted that algae farms could sup-
ply enough biodiesel to replace petroleum as a transportation fuel in the United
States and as a home heating oil. More research is needed in this field.
Savannah River National Laboratory

A team of researchers at the Savannah River National Laboratory in the
state of South Carolina is studying how blue-green algae have the ability
to produce hydrogen. According to these researchers and others, biological
hydrogen production by blue-green algae is highly attractive because it:
• uses a renewable resource requiring only water, sunlight, air, and trace
mineral salts
• does not use or produce hazardous materials
• is carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative process (absorbing carbon,
rather than producing it)
One long-term goal is to develop strains of algae that would grow in
mass cultures to produce enormous quantities of hydrogen gas. Scientists
agree that hydrogen can be produced at large central locations or at small
plants for local use. Every region of the country has some resource that
can be used to make hydrogen. However, more research will be needed in
algae-based production to achieve the goal.
FEATURE
The First Hydrogen Power Plant
Italy is planning the world’s first hydrogen power plant, which is scheduled to be
built near Venice. The hydrogen, produced at a petrochemical plant, will be trans-
ported from specially built pipelines to the hydrogen power plant. Upon completion,
the hydrogen power plant will provide electrical power to 20,000 households and
will produce no undesirable greenhouse gases.
INTERVIEW
The University of Connecticut program includes small fuel-cell model cars, but in
the summer of 2009, I interviewed Ross McCurdy and his students, who were build-
ing a full-sized two-passenger, hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle in a garage.
Green Advocate: Ross McCurdy, High School Science Teacher, Ponaganset, Rhode
Island
Go-Green Project: Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicle
Describe your present position.
I am a high school science teacher at Ponaganset High School in Glocester, Rhode
Island. I started my teaching career about 11 years ago, teaching mostly freshman
physical science and some biology. I am now teaching chemistry and a course that
we developed at the school called “Fuel Cell Systems and Renewable Energy.”
This course started with an interest in the environment and the need for clean,
sustainable energy technologies and actually came about through our school’s fuel
cell–powered rock and roll band.
I grew up and attended K–12 public schools in Attleboro, Massachusetts.
What college did you attend, and what was your major field?
Immediately after high school at the age of 17, I went into the U.S. Air Force and
went to the Defense Language Institute in San Antonio, Texas. This was a big
move for me as I had never been in the southern United States and had never
even been on airplane prior to the flight that took me to basic training. After
basic training, I took a class that nobody going into the military would ever ex-
pect: a five-week course on English grammar to prepare students for the Defense
Language Institute. I was then selected to attend Russian language school for
47 weeks. As for many young people, the military was a major wake-up call for me.
The military schools use a practice called “washing out.” What this means is ei-
ther you meet the necessary grades, typically a C or higher, or you get booted out
of the school. This was not treated as a punishment; many students who washed
Two of Ross McCurdy’s students, Chris Charest (left) and Zane Lewis, drive
the hydrogen fuel cell Model T they built in McCurdy’s class at Ponaganset
High School. The street-legal hot rod is powered by a 12 kilowatt hydrogen-
ics fuel cell, and the only emission is pure water. (Courtesy Ross McCurdy)
out of a certain military school were then placed in a different military school in
another good occupation that was better suited to them. After getting out of the
Air Force, I was ready for a major change and found it as a bass player in the rock
and roll world.
When I was ready to continue my education, Rhode Island College was there
for me. I received a degree in biology with teacher certification and later became
certified to teach chemistry and earned my master’s degree in science education,
all at Rhode Island College.
My father was a middle school science teacher, which I am sure was a major influ-
ence on me. I actually started at Rhode Island College thinking of being a history
major; fortunately for me, my college advisor, biologist Dr. Matsumoto, steered me
into science and biology.
Describe the goal of your project.
Our goal was the building of a full-size, street-legal, fuel-cell vehicle capable of
cruising at the speed of normal traffic.
How did you get started?
We needed a lightweight vehicle that was relatively easy to work with, something
that was cool-looking and significant in some way. One student suggested the idea
of using a T-Bucket. I asked him what a T-Bucket was. He said it was the hot rod
version of the old 1923 Ford Model T roadster. I thought this was great; it was his-
torically significant, lightweight, and the first vehicle that was mass-produced. We
purchased the T-Bucket at a cost of $7,500.
Further research revealed that a Model T–style vehicle was a great platform for
many reasons. The original Model Ts had only 20 horsepower and a top speed of
40 miles per hour and these vehicles are simple—easy to get parts for and work
on. The Model T is historically significant as the vehicle that made the automobile
affordable to the masses, and best of all, these cars are really cool!
After acquiring the Model T, what was next in your plans for the hydrogen fuel
cell project?
It was decided to implement two phases for the project. Phase I was to replace
the gasoline power engine in the Model T with an electric motor drive system. The
conversion of the vehicle to battery electric power required using a dozen Optima
12-volt deep-cycle batteries for an estimated range of 20 miles.
Phase II included the integration of a fuel cell, with the goal of achieving a range
of over 100 miles, enabling our Model T to drive as long as we have hydrogen in
our tanks.
What kind of electric motor did you use?
We are using an Advanced DC 4001 30 HP (continuous) electric motor. It is a very
common motor designed for electric vehicles, a workhorse motor. This motor is
connected to a motor controller mounted on the T’s firewall.
What is the controller used for?

The controller acts much like a giant dimmer switch between the batteries and the
motor. You step on the “gas” pedal, and the controller gives a certain amount of
power to the electric motor. During the battery-only Phase I, we were using a Curtis
1231C 500 amp controller, which is common in electric vehicles.
What kind of batteries do you use to supplement the fuel cell?
For Phase I, conversion to battery electric power, we were using a dozen of the
Optima D34/78 yellow-top, deep-cycle batteries wired in series for a 144-volt sys-
tem. Since our Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW fuel cell puts out around 48 volts DC,
we have changed our controller and battery system to work with the 48 volts the
fuel cell puts out. We are now using an Alltrax 4865 controller that we purchased
from Bob Batson at Electric Vehicles of America. We are also using only four of
the Optima batteries now. These are wired in series for 48 volts, and these batter-
ies serve as a buffer between the fuel cell and motor, helping to provide quicker
acceleration.
Do you have a charger for these batteries?
Yes, we were using a Lester and a Zivan NG3 charger with the 144-volt system.
With the current 48-volt system, our Hydrogenics fuel cell keeps the battery pack
charged. We have also recently acquired a Manzanita PFC 40 charger, which can
use a wide range of input voltage such as 120 volts or 240 volts and can also charge
battery systems from 12 volts up to 450 volts.
How did you obtain the fuel cell?
Acquiring a fuel cell is always the biggest challenge in a fuel-cell vehicle project.
Over the years our fuel cell–powered band Protium has performed at a lot of fuel
cell conferences, and we have had the good fortune to meet key people in the fuel
cell industry. These people had seen the band and knew our reputation of working
hard on big projects to achieve success, and the folks at Hydrogenics believed in
our fuel-cell Model T project and our students. They helped us out in a big way with
a partial sponsorship for their HyPM 12 kW fuel cell. This fuel cell weighs a little
over 200 pounds and puts out 12,000 watts for an amazing power-to-weight ratio, a
powerful, super-small package ideal for our application.
What was the cost of the fuel cell, and how did you decide what you wanted?
The typical price for a fuel cell is approximately $5,000 per kW, but this can vary
widely. There are only about three companies in the world that I know of who man-
ufacture and have available a fuel cell that is suitable for our Model T. The most
powerful of these is the Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW, which we are fortunate to have
for our fuel-cell Model T project. With this fuel cell, we estimated a cruising speed
of 40 mph with fuel cell power alone. During initial road testing, we reached 39 mph,
so we are pretty much there and are confident we will reach the 40 mph range with
more road tests. Interestingly, this is about the same as the 40 mph top speed for
the original Model T.
What kinds of brakes are on the fuel cell vehicle?

Our T is equipped with manual hydraulic brakes with disk brakes on the front
wheels and drum brakes on the back wheels. The back drum brakes are the same
ones that were on the Model T when we purchased it, and we upgraded the front
brakes with the best disks and calipers that we could fit. We also upgraded the
wheels and put on new tires. Through a BF Goodrich sponsorship, we put on Radial
T/A tires, which look great. The car also handles much better with the Radial T/As
on it, which replaced the old motorcycle tires that were on the front and quite com-
mon for the T-Bucket hot rods.
What was the budget, and how was the fuel cell funded—in total cost?
Virtually all the funding came from outside grants. Today, schools have no money,
and lately, things are even worse. Much of the funding came from Rhode Island
grants—from Rhode Island Resource Recovery and the state energy office—and
we also received major funding from the Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center. This
came about through a serendipitous meeting with Fuel Cell Program Manager
Dr. Michael Binder, who discovered our fuel cell band Protium at the Connecticut
Clean Energy Fuel Cell Summit back in 2003. People and organizations that believe in
the value of these renewable energy projects and our students have made all these
projects possible. One of the biggest keys to success with our Fuel Cell Model T
project has been teamwork between our students, sponsors, people in the fuel cell
industry, and our parent volunteers Mike Lewis, Jim Sullivan, and John Murphy.
When did you get the registration for the vehicle?
We first registered our Model T back in November 2005. We drove it around for a
few months on gasoline power to provide initial baseline performance data and to
promote the project, and then we started taking it apart in March of 2006 to convert
it to electric power.
What are your future plans for the hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle?
We have achieved our goals for Phase I, battery electric power, and for Phase II,
conversion to hydrogen fuel-cell power. Now we want to refine and improve our
fuel-cell Model T and use this vehicle to teach our current and future students
in fuel cell class. We are working to get a DC-DC up-converter, which will allow
us to use a higher voltage controller with our fuel cell; this will give us more
power and enable us to add batteries for a fuel cell–battery electric hybrid. We
can also experiment with different controller systems, battery systems, and other
components.
With our Hydrogenics HyPM 12 kW fuel cell fully integrated, we’ve done some
initial road testing and are now taking it to some interesting events and festivals, in-
cluding the Rhode Island Maker’s Fair and the Apeiron Sustainable Living Festival.
We are planning to road test it on longer trips and are considering the possibility of
taking it on a 400-mile drive to Washington, D.C. That may take us a while because
there is still plenty of road testing to be done locally, and we will have to work out
the logistics of hydrogen refueling and other aspects of a relatively long trip.
Building Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Are Not New for Mr. McCurdy and His
Students
Mr. McCurdy and his students have a solid background in building hydrogen fuel-
cell vehicles. Before Mr. McCurdy built the present hydrogen fuel-cell car de-
scribed in the earlier interview, he and his students designed and built a much
smaller version. I asked Mr. McCurdy to report his experience with the first hydro-
gen fuel cell that he and his students built:
My high school students and I designed and built a hydrogen fuel cell–
powered quadracycle vehicle called the Fuel Cell Quadracycle (FCQ).
It was thought to be Rhode Island’s first fuel-cell vehicle, designed
and built by us at the Ponaganset High School in Glocester, Rhode
Island.
The quadracycle vehicle had a one-horsepower electric motor. The
hydrogen tank was strapped to the back of the vehicle and connected
to the fuel cell. A converter was installed that changed AC power to
DC power, which was then connected to the motor. The vehicle could
run on the fuel cell power alone, but batteries were used to help ex-
tend the vehicle’s range and improve the smoothness of the ride.
The FCQ was a four-passenger model with a 750-watt, 24-volt elec-
tric motor and controller drive system. The system was designed to
operate with two deep-cycle 12-volt batteries wired in series to get
the necessary 24 volts. The FCQ is able to cruise at 12+ mph with two
people, with an estimated range of 20 miles on fuel cell power alone
and 40 miles as a fuel cell–battery hybrid. The whole car was worth
about $4,800 before we mounted the fuel cell. The 1 kW Airgen fuel
cell we used to power it cost about $5,500.
After they developed this fuel-cell vehicle, Mr. McCurdy and his students had
bigger plans and purchased a Model T (see earlier interview).
FEATURE
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
As part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Hydrogen Program, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducts research on advanced technolo-
gies to produce, store, and safely use hydrogen made from renewable resources
such as sunlight, biomass, and biological organisms. The goal is to help industry
develop technologies to produce, store, transport, and use hydrogen in quanti-
ties large enough, and at costs cheap enough, to compete with traditional energy
sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
The NREL states that hydrogen is more versatile and has more uses than elec-
tricity. These uses include providing energy for businesses, factories, electric
utilities, homes, vehicles, and airplanes. Hydrogen is also a domestically produced
energy source that could help reduce the United States’ reliance on foreign oil.
However, researchers must overcome several obstacles if hydrogen is to be-
come a major energy resource. Let’s look at some of the obstacles.
• Hydrogen is currently more expensive than traditional energy sources
• The amount of energy needed to produce hydrogen must improve
• The infrastructure to efficiently transport and distribute hydrogen must
be developed
Most of the hydrogen used as an energy source would be used for transporta-
tion where it will help reduce pollution. Internal combustion engines can be fu-
eled with pure hydrogen, or hydrogen blended with natural gas. Vehicles can also
be powered with hydrogen fuel cells, which are three times more efficient than a
gasoline powered engine. Fuel cells can also supply heat and electricity for homes
and buildings. The overall goal of the DOE’s Hydrogen Program was to replace the
amount of conventional energy consumed by 2–4 million households with hydrogen
by the year 2010. Its goal in 2030 is to replace conventional energy to 10 million
households with hydrogen.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1972 students at the University of California at Los Angeles retrofitted the inter-
nal combustion engine of a Gremlin automobile to run on hydrogen fuel supplied
from a storage tank. The students entered the 1972 Urban Vehicle Design Competi-
tion and won first prize for having low tailpipe emissions.
THE FUTURE OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

Hydrogen has great potential as a nonrenewable clean energy fuel. Many
new facilities and systems must be built to produce hydrogen, store it, and
make it economically feasible.
The Department of Energy is working closely with national laboratories,
universities, and industry partners to overcome critical technical barriers to
fuel-cell commercialization. Current research focuses on the development
of reliable, low-cost, high-performance fuel-cell system components for
transportation and building applications.
Probably the biggest challenge to hydrogen is that it must be cost-
competitive with conventional fuels on a cost-per-mile basis in order to
succeed in the commercial marketplace. Therefore, the goal is to make hy-

drogen fuel-cell costs competitive with other nonrenewable or renewable
fuels.
Hydrogen Economy
As stated previously, a hydrogen economy is going to need an infrastruc-
ture to deliver hydrogen from where it is produced to the service end, such
as a refueling station. Such an infrastructure would include the pipelines,
trucks, storage facilities, compressors, and dispensers involved in the pro-
cess of delivering fuel.
However, a reliable and low-cost hydrogen distribution network will
take time to develop. Today, there are only a limited number of hydrogen
pipeline networks in the United States to supply hydrogen to the refining
industry. Nevertheless, as the demand for hydrogen grows, industry will no
doubt find ways to develop an effective delivery and distribution network.
FEATURE
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Model Racing Cars
“The University of Connecticut’s School of Engineering is very inter-
ested in helping students understand the hydrogen economy and how
a fuel cell works. In their program students’ design, build and race
hydrogen fuel cell model cars steered by guide wires. Each 2–3 mem-
bers team is provided a fuel cell kit. Students are encouraged to use
math and science principles, together with their creativity, in a fun,
hands-on educational program that stimulates enthusiasm for science
at a crucial stage in their education.
The hands-on design is also different from textbook problem solv-
ing or even traditional science labs. Students can see for themselves
how changes in design are reflected in car performance. Teachers
and coaches have the opportunity to guide their students through a
process similar to those used by professional design engineers.
The goals of the program are as follows:
• Present science concepts in a fun and exciting way.
• Give students a chance to interact with engineers and scientists.
• Stimulate creative thinking through a hands-on design project.
• Help students to experience the satisfaction of creating a working
machine and the excitement of entering it in a competition.
The objective of the hydrogen fuel cell car competition is to design

and build a vehicle that will complete a race in the shortest possible
time. The fuel cell enables the student to produce hydrogen from a
solar cell, a 4–6 volt DC power source. During the race the hydrogen
and oxygen will be used to produce electricity to power the car.”
WHAT COMPANIES MAKE HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS?

• Ballard Power Systems designs, develops, and manufactures clean-
energy hydrogen fuel cells, including zero-emission PEM fuel cells.
• Another company, Hydrogenics, has successfully applied hydrogen
power to mobile applications such as forklifts, buses, and other fleet
and utility vehicles.
• The Pacific Fuel Cell Company utilizes nanotechnology to manufac-
ture fuel cell components. The company designs and develops nano-
carbon-based MEAs (“nanoMea”) and graphite-based bipolar plates
(BPP). Pacific Fuel Cell can provide fuel-cell components to fuel-cell
system manufacturers who are building fuel cells for cell phones, lap-
top computers, digital cameras, power tools, portable power genera-
tors, and stationary generators.
• Mitsubishi builds automotive PEM engines.
• DuPont scientists are participating in several government programs
supporting fuel cell and membrane research, application, and materi-
als development.

2007.
SOMETHING TO DO
Is it possible to break water? In a sense, that’s what electrolysis does. Elec-
trolysis uses electricity to split water into its two ingredients: hydrogen and
oxygen. Try it out with a battery and a couple of pencils! (Adult supervi-
sion required.) You will need the following:
• 6-volt or 9-volt battery

• 2 alligator clip leads or insulated wire
• Beaker or glass
• Piece of thin cardboard or cardstock
For instructions, go to the following Web site: http://www.hometrain
ingtools.com/article.asp?ai=1531&bhcd2=1252763651.
WEB SITES
www.fuelcells.org/basics
Fuel Cells Basics Applications present examples of fuel cells in a
vast number of applications including stationary systems in nursing
homes, schools, power plants, telecommunications, transportation,
auxiliary power units, portable power, and consumer electronics.
www.afdc.energy.gov
The Alternative Fuels and Advanced Data Center provides a wide
range of information and resources to enable the use of alternate
fuels in automotive fuels and services.
www.nfcrc.uci.edu
The National Fuel Cell Research Center’s goal is to facilitate and ac-
celerate the development of fuel cell technology and fuel cell systems
and to educate and to develop resources for the fuel cell industry.
http://www.fuelcells.org/about/mission.html
Fuel Cells 2000 is an activity of the Breakthrough Technologies In-
stitute, a nonprofit independent, educational organization that iden-
tifies and promotes environmental and energy technologies that can
improve the human condition.
http://www.nrel.gov/learning
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL) Web site
describes NREL’s research in renewable energy technologies and
also provides information on energy efficiency and various appli-
cations of renewable energy. There are a variety of educational re-
sources that can help you learn about renewable energy sources and
technologies.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells
The Fuel Cell Technologies Program is a comprehensive portfolio of

activities that address the full range of barriers facing the develop-
ment and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells with the ultimate
goals of decreasing our dependence on oil, reducing carbon emis-
sions, and enabling clean, reliable power generation.
http://www.eere.energy.gov
invests in clean energy technologies that strengthen the economy,
protect the environment, and reduce dependence on foreign oil.
VIDEOS
Fuel Cell Production/Delivery/Infrastructure: Watch this short but
thoroughly informative animation describing how hydrogen fuel
cells work on HowStuffWorks: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/
ballard/651-ballard-shows-how-a-fuel-cell-works-video.htm (03:42
minutes).
Ford’s Fuel Cell Record Breaker: Read about Ford’s 200-mph, 770-hp
hydrogen fuel-cell record-breaker at http://www.popularmechanics.
com/blogs/automotive_news/4220281.html (with 40-second video).
Hydrogen. A web site with multiple videos on how to produce fuel
cells. Of particular importance is the reversible fuel-cell demonstra-
tion: http://peswiki.com/index.php/Videos:Hydrogen#Fuel_Cells
(04:00 minutes).
U.S. Research on Wind Power and Fuel Cells: The National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory (NREL) and Xcel Energy recently launched
a wind-to-hydrogen (Wind2H2) project: http://www.nrel.gov/hydro
gen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html.
Chapter 5
a
Fuel Cells for

Transportation
and Homes
In Madrid, Spain, the Boeing Research & Technology Europe team modi-
fied the propulsion system of a two-seated airplane in a special way. The
plane was powered by a hybrid propulsion system consisting of a hydrogen
fuel cell and lithium-ion batteries.
The team made three test flights around an airfield, near Madrid. Dur-
ing one flight, the pilot maneuvered the plane to an altitude of 3,300 feet
above sea level. To reach this altitude, the pilot used the power from the
battery and the hydrogen fuel cell. However, after reaching the altitude,
the pilot disconnected the batteries and flew the plane at a speed of
62 miles per hour for approximately 20 minutes on power generated solely
by the fuel cell. Of course, this was a short test flight, but it does demon-
strate how fuel cells can provide renewable energy even for future aircraft
propulsion.
Hydrogen fuel cells are used in a variety of ways. These fuel cells are
now powering bicycles, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, and even
buses. Iceland, for example, has several fuel-cell buses that take passengers
around its towns and cities.
Police stations, hospitals, banks, wastewater treatment plants, and tele-
communication companies use fuel cells for cellular phones and radios.
Fuel cells also have been installed in 911 towers. Other fuel-cell appli-
cations include vending machines, laptop computers, and other portable
electronics. The potential for using fuel cells is endless.
Boeing’s experimental aircraft is powered by hydrogen fuel cells. The plane

is seen at its airfield in Ocana, Spain, on April 3, 2008. In one test, the plane
climbed to an altitude of 3,000 feet. (Philippe Desmazes/AFP/Getty Images)
This chapter discusses fuel-cell applications in transportation, particu-

larly automobiles, and in homes, businesses, and consumer products.
THE GROWTH OF FUEL CELLS

The fuel-cell industry in 2007 reported that there had been substantial job
growth and gains in sales and research according to the Worldwide Fuel
Cell Industry Survey. “The Worldwide Fuel Cell Industry is a collaborative
effort by the leading fuel cell industry associations in the United States,
Canada, Europe and Japan to increase awareness of the industry’s progress
and achievements.” Participating companies in the survey reported a
22 percent gain in fuel-cell-specific employment to 8,647 employees.
FEATURE
Small Fuel Cells
Read about how U.S. chemical engineers have produced a small fuel cell (3mm)
with the capability to revolutionize greener gadgets: http://news.techworld.com/
green-it/109312/engineers-create-worlds-smallest-fuel-cell/.
Fuel Cells for Transportation and Homes a 107
The survey went on to state that global sales were up 10 percent to

$387 million, with fuel-cell research spending at about $829 million. One
executive reported that this data clearly show that the fuel-cell industry is
gaining commercial acceptance in key markets.
The United States and other countries are continuing to explore fuel-cell
technology and applications because of fuel cells’ benefits. Fuel cells are clean,
efficient, and economical, and they can provide heat and electrical power.
Because the fuel cell has no moving parts, it runs with no noise. Fuel
cells can operate on a variety of fuels, such as natural gas, hydrogen, and
propane, and they emit less carbon dioxide per kilowatt hour than fossil
fuel–powered engines.
FUEL-CELL APPLICATIONS: TRANSPORTATION

As mentioned previously, the world’s leading automakers are working on
alternative technologies using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks. As of
2010, Pike Research, a market research and consulting firm that focuses
on global clean technology markets, conducted a study that predicts that
670,000 fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs) will sell annually by 2020. The U.S. Fuel
Cell Council has reported that FCVs will be more efficient than a gasoline
internal combustion engine and will be able to utilize hydrogen from a
variety of fuels. Although there are several different types of fuel cells, as
mentioned in chapter 4, the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells
are now used in most fuel-cell cars and buses. Some of these fuel cells have
electric capacities of 50–75 kilowatts, which is enough to power these pro-
totype vehicles. Another kind of fuel cell, the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC),
is also being tested on cars and trucks.
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Cars

United States
As of 2010 there are several hundred hydrogen FCVs in the United
States. Most of these vehicles are buses and automobiles that are powered
DID YOU KNOW?

The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen gas undergoing fusion into helium gas
and giving off vast amounts of energy in the process.
by electric motors using hydrogen gas or hydrogen liquid fuels stored on

board in tanks. Only a few of the fuel vehicles today can burn pure hydro-
gen directly.
In 2002 the Department of Energy launched the Freedom CAR (Co-
operative Automotive Research) Program, a partnership with the U.S.
Council for Automotive Research, with the intent to alleviate the nation’s
growing dependence on imported oil by advancing the high-technology
research needed to produce hydrogen FCVs.
Alex Keros, a General Motors senior engineer, demonstrates how to fill up a

General Motors Chevrolet Equinox fuel-cell electric SUV with hydrogen. The
fill-up process took place at California’s first hydrogen refueling station during
a dedication ceremony in Los Angeles. (AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)
DID YOU KNOW?

The United States has been involved in hydrogen research and development since
the late 1950s. Liquid hydrogen was first used to power the National Aeronautic
and Space Administration’s (NASA) spacecrafts.
Several automakers in the United States have designed, built, and tested
FCVs. General Motors has established extensive hydrogen fuel-cell re-
search and development facilities in both the United States and Europe. In
2008 they built the Chevy Equinox Fuel Cell, an electric vehicle powered
by the GM fourth-generation fuel-cell system. The fleet has been tested in
New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Southern California. The Chevy
Equinox Fuel Cell will go nearly 150 miles per fill-up.
In 2007 the Ford “999” became the world’s first production vehicle-
based fuel-cell race car. The vehicle reached approximately 207 miles
per hour on the track. The car was designed and built by Ford engineers
in collaboration with Ohio State University and Roush. The Roush
Company sells automobile performance parts, vehicles, and engines.
Ballard Power Systems supplied the 400 kilowatt hydrogen fuel cells.
The Ford vehicle demonstrated the potential of fuel-cell technology in
automobiles.
Japan
Since the 1980s Japan has been a leader in hydrogen fuel-cell research and
technology. In 1992 Japan organized the International Clean Energy Net-
work Using Hydrogen Conversion. This was a 10-year program designed
to focus research and development efforts on hydrogen technologies. Many
Japanese automakers have already designed, build, and tested FCVs.
“Japanese car manufacturer Honda has begun the first commercial pro-
duction of a zero-emission, hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle. The name
of the vehicle is Honda FCX. The newly developed Honda FC Stack and
ultra-capacitor combine to power the motor, with onboard high-pressure
hydrogen tanks for fuel storage. A fuel cell vehicle is powered by an electric
motor running on electricity generated by a fuel stack, which uses hydro-
gen as its energy source. The FCX makes use of high-pressure hydrogen
fuel tanks capable of storing a large volume of hydrogen in a small space.
Honda claims the vehicle offers three times better fuel efficiency than a
traditional, gasoline-powered car.”
Automaker Toyota also has an FCV. The Toyota fuel-cell hybrid ve-
hicle (FCHV) is based on the Highlander sport utility vehicle model. The
newer version is more fuel efficient because of a new high-performance
fuel-cell stack, better brakes, and more auxiliary systems. The hydrogen
tank developed by Toyota allows the new FCHV to drive 516 miles before
refueling.
United Kingdom
A new automobile company, Riversimple, in the United Kingdom designed
and built a prototype hydrogen FCV that is about the size of a golf cart.
The body of the car is built with carbon composites, each wheel is powered
by its own electric motor, and special capacitors store energy when the car
brakes. The car has a range of about 200 miles and a top speed of about
50 miles per hour. The car company plans to build refueling stations in
major city areas.
Germany
In Germany, Daimler automotive company announced the start of a small
series production of fuel-cell cars from the middle of 2009. Daimler is
looking to reach annual production numbers of 100,000 vehicles in four
to five years at a cost comparable to hybrid cars. A major German fueling
The Riversimple hydrogen car was unveiled in London, England, in 2009. The
car accelerates to 50 miles per hour using hydrogen derived from natural gas,
and the eight-gallon tank and six-kilowatt fuel cell give the small vehicle a
range in excess of 200 miles. The Riversimple’s exhaust emissions are zero.
(Andy Rain/epa/Corbis)
station operator has opened a hydrogen filling station at Stuttgart Airport.

According to reports, most major automakers in Germany are investing in
fuel-cell technology.
As one example, Mercedes, a major German automaker, has 100 test
vehicles, which would be the world’s largest fleet of FCVs. The auto com-
pany is currently working on fuel cell–powered cars that could be manu-
factured in limited numbers from 2010 and in larger numbers by 2015.
Other German manufacturers, such as Volkswagen, are less committed
to the production of future fuel-cell models. Volkswagen believes that fuel-
cell cars will be more saleable after 2020.
South Korea
According to Hyundai Motor Company, they plan to present their first hy-
drogen fuel-cell car starting in 2012. This will be three years after Hyundai
introduced its first gas-electric hybrid, the Avante compact car, in 2009.
Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Buses

United States
Globally, numerous transit systems are putting hydrogen fuel-cell buses on
their roads to demonstrate a pollution-free, quiet urban public transporta-
tion system. San Francisco International Airport received a state grant to
build a refueling station for cars and buses that run on hydrogen. The airport
station will serve a small number of local vehicles powered by fuel cells.
The transit system in the San Francisco Bay area has three hydrogen
fuel cell–powered hybrid buses operating and is gearing up for more. As a
result, these buses have reduced local pollution and greenhouse gas emis-
sions and are more energy efficient than diesel buses.
Canada
The world’s largest number of hydrogen fuel-cell buses operating in one
location may be in British Colombia, Canada. The local transportation
company has about 20 buses that use fuel-cell technology. In 2004 the
Canadian government announced funding for the Canadian Hydrogen
Highway. The highway will be built between Vancouver and Whistler,
British Columbia. In 2010 hydrogen buses were used at the 2010 Vancou-
ver Winter Olympics.
San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom steps off of a hydrogen fuel-cell zero-
emission bus at the San Francisco Recycling and Disposal Center. A fuel cell
is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel and oxygen to pro-
duce electricity, heat, and water. The electricity produced powers the buses.
(AP Photo/Jeff Chiu)
Iceland
Iceland plans to be the world’s first hydrogen-economy country. The goal is
to begin operation of a small fleet of hydrogen fuel-cell buses that run on
renewably produced hydrogen. Because Iceland has an abundant supply of
renewable geothermal and hydroelectric power to produce hydrogen, the
buses will be fueled by hydrogen electrolyzed from water. A refueling sta-
tion is already in operation in Reykjavik.
Other European Countries

European countries have been involved in hydrogen and fuel-cell research
and development since 1988. Currently, the countries in the European
Union (EU) have more than 70 ongoing hydrogen fuel-cell research and
development projects. The EU is also supporting the Clean Urban Transport
for Europe (CUTE) demonstration project. In this fuel-cell technology
project, CUTE will be putting on the road a fleet of 27 hydrogen-powered
buses serving nine cities in Europe. This project also has funding for the
development and maintenance of a hydrogen distribution infrastructure
and highway to support the buses and other FCVs.
Other Countries
China, Australia, and Brazil are among other countries looking at fuel-
cell technology for transportation. For example, the Brazilian government
hopes that its new fuel-cell bus project will increase the demand for fuel-
cell buses in Brazil.
Hydrogen Injection for Diesel Trucks

Trucking and shipping companies, FedEx among them, together have now
logged tens of millions of miles using hydrogen injection systems. The hy-
drogen injection system can be installed on many of today’s heavy diesel
trucks. The injection system draws a small amount of electricity from the
truck engine’s alternator, which breaks up water held in a small container
to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases. The hydrogen and oxygen gases
are both injected along with the diesel fuel into the engine. The result is a
significant reduction in air-polluting emissions and greenhouse gases. The
system also reduces fuel consumption by 10 percent or more, and there is
an average 5 percent increase in horsepower.
Forklifts and Other Specialty Transportation

Special vehicles, such as airport luggage tugs and forklifts, are also provid-
ing a market for hydrogen fuel cells. These hydrogen-fueled vehicles are
particularly valued in locations where elimination of emissions is critical,
such as enclosed warehouses. A hydrogen-powered tug or forklift requires
only a minute or two to refuel, compared to many times that for battery
swapping and charging. The use of hydrogen improves operating efficien-
cies and costs too.
Scooters
Even though they are small, many scooters emit a lot of tailpipe emissions,
particularly the two-stroke gasoline-powered engine types. These two-
stroke scooters produce more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emis-
sions than a heavy diesel truck. However, fuel-cell scooters running on
hydrogen eliminate emissions. Now in India and elsewhere in Asia, com-

panies are helping people convert their gas-powered scooters to hydrogen
fuel–powered scooters to help reduce emissions in their local areas.
The High Cost of Building Hydrogen

Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Designing and manufacturing a small number of hydrogen FCVs can be
quite costly for automakers. In some cases, the cost for building just one
vehicle can reach almost one million dollars. However, high costs have not
discouraged one automaker. Toyota plans to sell its first FCV for approxi-
mately $50,000 in 2015. If this can happen, fuel-cell cars may be more
economical to purchase.
Still Too Few Places to Refuel Hydrogen

Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Besides the cost challenges, another concern is the lack of hydrogen refuel-
ing stations. Taking short trips around town is fine with a hydrogen FCV.
But for long trips, drivers need to have refueling stations along the byways
and highways.
Norway
One country, Norway, is making a major effort to add hydrogen refueling
stations along its major highways. In 2009 Norway opened a 300-mile
hydrogen highway between its capital city Oslo and the North Sea oil
city of Stavanger. A Norwegian oil and gas producer has built several
hydrogen filling stations between the two cities just for cars with fuel
cells. Future plans for the highway include extending it into the rest of
Scandinavia. A highway hydrogen autobahn is being planned in northern
Germany.
New York
In July 2009, Shell Hydrogen Fuel opened New York City’s first hydro-
gen fueling station for cars. Located at the John F. Kennedy Airport, the
station has a single hydrogen dispenser available 24 hours a day. At the
time of opening, there was no charge for refueling. The reason is that most
drivers of such cars participated in Project Driveway, a General Motors
Norway has made a major effort to add hydrogen refueling stations along a
300-mile major highway from Oslo to Stavanger.
demonstration project for fuel-cell cars. In the New York City area, as of
2009, there were three hydrogen refueling stations available for drivers.
Other Places
Japan and parts of California already have some hydrogen highways for
refueling fuel-cell cars. In California there are some 38 independent hy-
drogen fuel stations located around the state as part of a network created
by the nonprofit California Fuel Cell Partnership. The California Fuel Cell
Partnership is a consortium of automakers, state and federal agencies, and
other parties interested in furthering hydrogen fuel-cell technologies.
FEATURE
The California Fuel Cell Partnership
The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is a collaboration of 33 member orga-
nizations, including auto manufacturers, energy providers, government agencies,
and fuel-cell technology companies, that work together to promote the commer-
cialization of hydrogen FCVs.
The CaFCP has several goals. The goals include promoting FCVs as a means of
moving toward a sustainable energy future, to increase energy efficiency, and to
reduce or eliminate air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
In April 1999 the CaFCP set out to explore and facilitate the path to commer-
cialization and increase awareness of fuel cells for transportation. Since then, the
partnership has made significant progress demonstrating FCV technology and fuel
alternatives. The next phase will span the years 2008 to 2012, a period that one
CaFCP member calls “the rehearsal for commercial.” More fuel-cell passenger
cars and buses will be on the roads in Northern and Southern California, fueling
at networks of hydrogen stations. Through 2012, the organization’s members will
work together to move fuel-cell technology to the next level by accomplishing the
following goals:
• Identify and address market opportunities and challenges.
• Promote a safe, customer-friendly refueling experience.
• Work toward a common fuel-delivery architecture.
• Provide information and hands-on experience.
FEATURE
Turkish Students Build Hydrogen Vehicle
Turkish students at Sakarya University have developed the SAHIMO hydrogen car.
The vehicle can travel a distance of approximately 340 miles on one-fourth of a
gallon of hydrogen. This means that the vehicle is capable of traveling from the
eastern coast of Turkey to the western area, a distance of about 1,000 miles, using
just three-fourths of a gallon of hydrogen.
The group that developed the SAHIMO hydrogen car is the Sakarya University
Advanced Technologies Implementation Group (SAITEM). The team is made up
mostly of students who provided the technical and mechanical work. The SAHIMO
hydrogen car took third place in the 2009 European Shell Eco Marathon.
The body of the SAHIMO hydrogen car is made up of 90 percent carbon fiber,
and the small vehicle is very light, weighing only 230 pounds. What was the cost to
build the SAHIMO? The answer: $170,000.
RESIDENTIAL APPLICATIONS: USING FUEL

CELLS IN HOMES
According to Allied Business Intelligence (ABI), the current $40 million
stationary fuel-cell market will grow to more than $10 billion by 2010.
ABI Research is a market intelligence company specializing in global
emerging technologies.
Fuel cells are currently being developed in sizes appropriate for home
use and other residential applications. Residential fuel-cell systems can be
operated to provide primary or backup power for the home. The fuel cells
can run independently or in parallel to an existing power grid.
A fuel-cell power system for a residence could be located in the base-
ment or backyard, taking up about as much space as an ordinary refrigera-
tor and providing clean, quiet, reliable power. Fuel-cell systems use fuel
reformers. Fuel reforming is a method of producing hydrogen from a vari-
ety of fossil fuel sources, such as natural gas pipelines and propane distri-
bution systems. Consumers may also be able to sell excess power produced
by their fuel-cell units back to their electric utility companies.
Installation of Fuel-Cell Power in Homes

The potential for using fuel-cell power in homes and commercial buildings
is very promising. In fact, some countries have already started testing the
use of fuel technology in providing heat and hot water systems for homes.
How Does the System Work?

Natural gas from an existing gas main is piped into the fuel-cell unit in the
house. When the gas is turned on, it passes through a steam reformer that
generates hydrogen. The hydrogen is then combined with oxygen in a fuel-
cell unit that produces both electricity and heat. Although creating the hy-
drogen from the natural gas does produce some carbon dioxide, using the
fuel cell reduces overall household emissions by 40 percent in comparison
with using 100 percent natural gas.
DID YOU KNOW?

In Germany, 96 fuel cell units were installed in homes during 2010 as part of a
large-scale demonstration of the technology.
England
The first permanent hydrogen-powered home that was connected to a
transmission grid was built in England. The small bookshelf-sized fuel-cell
unit is capable of meeting about 75 percent of total energy demand, both
electricity and heat, for the household.
Japan
In 2009 the hydrogen fuel cell became available for homes in Japan. Each
installed fuel-cell unit provides approximately 70 percent of the energy
needs for a 1,300-square-foot house occupied by four people.
Presently, there are more than 1,000,000 homes in Japan that get their
electricity and warm water from hydrogen fuel-cell units. Developers say
fuel cells that use natural gas to get hydrogen produce one-third less of the
pollution that causes global warming than conventional electricity genera-
tion does.
Masanori Naruse points to a newly installed home fuel-cell cogeneration sys-

tem and a water heater at his home near Tokyo, Japan. Developers say fuel
cells for homes like Naruse’s produce one-third less of the gases that cause
global warming than conventional electricity generation does for the same
amount of energy. (AP Photo/Junji Kurokawa)
The Japanese home fuel cell works like the one used in the house in
England. In these homes, between 500 watts and 1 kilowatt of electric-
ity are generated, with enough thermal heat to warm a tank of water for
household uses. Energy officials believe that a small home would be able to
receive enough electricity and warm water from a fuel cell to be even more
efficient than with traditional energy sources.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS FOR STATIONARY

POWER GENERATION
Globally, there are more than 250 stationary fuel-cell systems generating
power for large companies and businesses. The fuel-cell types include the
familiar PEM fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), SOFCs, and
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC).
A stationary fuel-cell system can provide many advantages to industrial
companies, hospitals, data processing centers, and semiconductor computer-
chip manufacturers. As an example, presently, if there is a power failure in
these facilities, all production stops, products can be ruined, and patient care
can suffer. Using fuel cells will provide a dependable and reliable source of
power when a conventional electric power-grid connection fails.
Another plus in using a stationary fuel-cell system is that it generates
waste heat. The waste heat can be collected in a storage tank and used
to provide heating and cooling or even to turn steam turbine generators
for additional electricity. When both electricity and waste heat are used
together, it is known as cogeneration. And as mentioned previously, sta-
tionary fuel-cell systems have the ability to utilize different fuels, such as
natural gas or coal gas, for the hydrogen needed to produce electricity.
OTHER USES FOR FUEL CELLS

Telecommunications
Fuel cells are currently being used to support more than 400 cell phone
towers across the United States. The devastating power of Hurricane Ka-
trina offers one powerful lesson in the importance of energy to communi-
cations during emergencies. Legislation passed since Katrina requires all
cell phone towers to carry eight hours of backup power, and some wireless
providers have turned to fuel cells as their backup source, judging them
to be more effective and perhaps less expensive over the lifetime of the
system. Fuel cells can also replace batteries to provide enough power to
provide one to five kilowatts for telecommunication locations in remote
areas. In summary, fuel-cell systems can provide clean, reliable off-grid
electricity and have been proven to be 99.99 percent reliable.
Portable Power for Consumers

Many miniature fuel cells can also operate using methanol. Methanol is a
wood alcohol also used in a variety of products such as wiper fluid for auto-
mobile windshields. In tests, miniature fuel cells have powered cell phones
for 30 days without recharging and laptops for 20 hours. Other applica-
tions for miniature fuel cells include video recorders, portable power tools,
pagers, and even hearing aids, smoke detectors, and burglar alarms.
A methanol fuel cell is displayed at

the Second International Hydrogen
and Fuel Cell Expo in Tokyo, Japan,
in 2006. The methanol is shown in
the right cylinder. The solid methanol
solves the safety and mobility con-
cerns for appliances that use Direct
Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), particu-
larly future models of mobile phones.
The solid methanol can be carried in
the small cartridge displayed in the
foreground of the photo. (AP Photo/
Katsumi Kasahara)
DID YOU KNOW?

The organic waste products and the untreated effluent found in landfills and waste-
water treatment plants can be processed to generate methane gas, a hydrogen-
rich fuel.
BENEFITS
Environmental
Fuel cells do not produce the same kind of air-polluting emissions that
are generated by fossil-fuel power plants. There are no sulfur oxides or
nitrogen oxides emitted from fuel cells. The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
is a small byproduct of using a fuel-cell system, but the carbon dioxide air
emissions are so low from a fuel-cell system that government permits are
rarely needed to install fuel-cell units. Also, a fuel-cell system generates
much more electricity with less carbon dioxide emissions than conven-
tional generators of similar size.
Hydrogen produced by electrolysis and generated from renewable
sources would be the ideal environmental benefit. In that case, the outputs
of fuel cells would be electricity, heat, and water vapor. Also, in addition
to low noxious air emissions, fuel cells can produce electrical and thermal
energy with much less noise than standard generators. Therefore, install-
ing fuel-cell systems near large populated cities or using them indoors in
hospitals and homes has the advantage of reducing noise levels.
Other Benefits
The ability of fuel cells to produce continuous power makes fuel cells
well suited for supporting and protecting hardware and software secu-
rity programs and applications. There is no loss of security in electronic
documents and files because the power output of fuel cells is free from
voltage disturbances such as sags, spikes, and brownouts in transmission
grid lines.
In addition, the fuel-cell system does not contain any moving parts.
Therefore, there are no mechanical breakdowns as with using traditional
generators.
SOME CONCERNS ABOUT FUEL CELLS

However, before widespread use of fuel cells can happen, several obstacles
need to be overcome. Two general obstacles are expense and reliability and
durability:
• Expense. The biggest hurdle for fuel cells is cost. Although some fuel-
cell systems are in use today, very few are currently cost effective. For
stationary fuel cells, typical capital costs for installed systems exceed
$5,000 per kilowatt.
• Reliability and durability. Certain fuel-cell system components—
such as the cell stack, which can require a costly replacement every
one to five years depending on the model—must be developed to
have a longer lifespan or to be easily and cheaply replaced.
In the case of hydrogen FCVs in particular, probably some of the hurdles
that stand in the way of mass production and widespread consumer uses
are the high cost of producing fuel cells. This problem is due to the lack of
an adequate hydrogen refueling network or infrastructure. Once FCVs go
into production, there will be a need for many hydrogen refueling stations
to service the vehicles on short and long journeys. Fuel cells may also need
to be designed smaller than their present size. A smaller size might allow
the FCV to go further on a gallon of hydrogen fuel.
Presently, 95 percent of the hydrogen available in the United States is
produced by using fossil fuels or from electrolytic processes also produced
from fossil fuels. So the next major task is to use renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind, and others, rather than the fossil fuels to provide the
energy in processing hydrogen fuel in the future.
Another Challenge: Storing Hydrogen Gas

Hydrogen, a low-density gas at room temperature, is difficult to store.
Because of hydrogen’s very low natural density, storing the gas requires
a large tank. The tanks are very heavy. For example, a safety tank holding
6.6 pounds of hydrogen would weigh 880 pounds, cutting into fuel econ-
omy. Tanks of this size are impractical for vehicles and many other uses. So
different methods of storing hydrogen are needed, including compressed
gas and liquid hydrogen tanks.
Quantum Technologies and others are developing carbon fiber–
reinforced, 5,000-psi and 10,000-psi compressed hydrogen gas tanks,
and prototypes are already in use in hydrogen-powered vehicles. The
amount and pressure of stored hydrogen in a vehicle is a key factor in
determining that vehicle’s driving range, but for now, equipping a ve-
hicle with a high-pressure tank can be achieved only at a great expense
and with the loss of valuable storage space within the vehicle. There-
fore, more advances in compression technologies will be required to
Hydrogen Storage Tanks. Hydrogen is a leading alternative fuel for vehicles,

and the byproducts of its combustion are nonpolluting. (iStockphoto)
improve efficiencies and to reduce the cost of producing high-pressure

hydrogen.
Liquid Hydrogen Tanks

The energy density of hydrogen can be improved by storing hydrogen in
a liquid state. Liquid hydrogen tanks can store more hydrogen in a given
volume than compressed gas tanks. The liquid hydrogen tanks are com-
monly made of aluminum or stainless steel alloys and are used to sup-
ply hydrogen gas to a fuel cell. Liquid tanks are being demonstrated in
hydrogen-powered vehicles.
The Department of Energy is presently focused on further develop-
ment of high-pressure (10,000 psi) composite tanks, liquid hydrogen
tanks, and other advanced concepts for storing hydrogen as a com-
pressed gas for on-board vehicles. The Department of Energy is also
investigating both compressed-hydrogen and liquefied-hydrogen stor-
age systems for off-board storage at future hydrogen fueling stations
for FCVs.
FEATURE
International Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy
In November 2003, energy ministers from 16 countries joined to create the Interna-
tional Partnership for a Hydrogen Economy (IPHE). This was an important global
effort to maximize collaborative partnerships among countries and to promote
sharing of experiential and research results.
FEATURE
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical
Committee on Hydrogen Technologies
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on
Hydrogen Technologies is a special organization. It focuses on the standardiza-
tion of systems and devices for the production, storage, transportation, measure-
ment, and use of hydrogen. The 15 participating countries work toward developing
consensus codes and standards for hydrogen. The ISO also produces technical
reports on the hazards associated with the use of hydrogen with the objective of
improving safety measures and contributing to hydrogen’s successful use in en-
ergy applications for transportation, home and office heating, and the generation
of electricity.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY: THE FUTURE

The U.S. Department of Energy reports that fuel cells are an important
enabling technology for the hydrogen economy: “Fuel cells have the po-
tential to revolutionize the way we power our nation, offering cleaner,
more-efficient alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other fossil
fuels. Fuel cells have the potential to replace the internal-combustion
engine in vehicles and provide power in stationary and portable power
applications because they are energy-efficient, clean, and fuel-flexible.
Hydrogen or any hydrogen-rich fuel can be used by this emerging
technology.”
The Department of Energy is working closely with national laborato-
ries, universities, and industry partners to develop reliable, low-cost, high-
performance fuel-cell system components for transportation and buildings
applications and to set the standards for the safe use of hydrogen.
ESTABLISH FUEL-CELL EDUCATION IN YOUR SCHOOL

I asked high school science teacher Ross McCurdy (whose interview ap-
pears in chapter 4) to discuss how a school can provide fuel-cell education
in schools. Here are his comments:
Some good news: you do not need big dollars in grant funding to
have fun teaching students about fuel cells (although it can certainly
help). Fuel cell learning can take place or begin on a low budget or
no budget. One example is a cheap electrolysis demonstration: in a
glass of tap water, add a pinch or two of table salt and drop in a 9-volt
battery; hydrogen bubbles will form on the negative battery terminal,
and oxygen bubbles will form on the positive terminal. The reaction
that takes place in a fuel cell is the same, only in reverse.
The Internet is a great source of information with clips on how
fuel cells work, types of fuel cells, applications, and so on. A part of
the learning that can be very rewarding is student research projects
where they write a paper and/or give a presentation. It is amazing
what the students find and how much the teachers actually learn
from the assignment. Students naturally seem to gravitate toward
areas of fuel cells that interest them; one of our hard-core 4H agri-
cultural type students discovered a fuel cell tractor that was built in
the 1950s!
For relatively inexpensive hands-on fuel cell gear, the Heliocentris
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Cell kit is a great place to start. For around
$300, the system will demonstrate solar energy, electrolytic hydrogen
production, and fuel cell power; will measure amps and volts; and
comes with a set of books filled with information and experiments.
On the West Coast, Bonneville Power Administration offers free
teacher workshops where they provide some great hands-on lesson
plans and give a Heliocentris fuel cell kit to the participating teachers
to take back to their schools. This is a great program that will hope-
fully be made available to teachers around the country.
So now you might be thinking, the kits are nice, but how can we
get bigger fuel cells? If your school has a bigger budget than ours,
encouraging the department head and principal to fund more sizable
purchases may be possible. If your school is like most, that avenue
may not be an option. Your state energy office may be a good source
for fuel cell funding and is a good place to start. Many states include a
small additional charge on everyone’s electric bill that is used to fund

renewable energy and education projects such as fuel cell education.
Other educational grants provide opportunities, and benevolent
private corporations can be another potential source of funding.
A private company benefits by donating through tax deductions
and, perhaps more importantly, good public relations. Donating
funds or equipment to teach students about cutting-edge renew-
able energy is good news and reflects well on the companies doing
it. It is essential to have clear, attainable, and worthwhile goals
when seeking funds, and when funds are awarded, be sure to keep
the donating organization updated with positive results of the
program.
Be sure to have fun with the fuel cell teaching and learning. The
lessons can be as involved or as simple as you care to make them and
can take a single class period, a few days, a week, or longer, depending
on what you want to do and how you want to do it.

FEATURE
Students’ Science Kit for Solar Hydrogen Technology
Ross McCurdy mentioned the Heliocentris fuel cell in his comments on implement-
ing fuel-cell education in schools. The Dr FuelCell® Science Kit is an extensive
experiment set for the subject of renewable energies. Flexible components, 20 pre-
configured experiments, and detailed supplementary material make it a complete
solution for teaching physics and chemistry in grades 9–12. The package includes
a solar panel, an electrolyzer with two graduated storage cylinders, a fuel cell,
and a load measurement box. A methanol fuel cell and a take-apart fuel cell are
optional. The solar panel produces energy for the electrolyzer. The generated hy-
drogen is stored intermediately in graduated storage cylinders and converted to
electric power by the fuel cell. The load measurement box is used to simulate con-
sumers and to measure electric current and voltage. All technical components can
also be used and examined separately.
SOMETHING TO DO
Make a hydrogen fuel-cell model car. There are several companies that
manufacture hydrogen fuel-cell model cars. Two of them include Dis-
cover This (http://www.discoverthis.com) and SciKits (http://www.scikits.
com).
If you are interested in hydrogen fuel-cell competition, contact the Na-
tional Renewable Energy Laboratory, which hosts the U.S. Department of
Energy’s Junior Solar Sprint/Hydrogen Fuel Cell ( JSS/HFC) Car Com-
petitions in some regions of the United States. There may be other organiza-
tions in your state that have fuel-cell model car racing competitions as well.
WEB SITES
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hydrogen.shtml
The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency, and Renewable
Energy provides an excellent source for hydrogen fuel economy in-
formation detailing the benefits and challenges of various fuel sources
for internal combustion engines and electric power motors.
www.horizonfuelcell.com
Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies’ goal is to introduce, on a global
scale, clean hydrogen cell power as a low-cost, renewable resource
to power consumer electronics, emergency power systems, stationary
back-up power, and clean transportation solutions.
www.fuelcells/org/ced/education
The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource provides a variety of
resources for students interested in fuel cell and hydrogen science
projects, information for research on hydrogen fuel cells, and links for
teachers to lesson plans, experiments, and grants.
http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/
The hydrogen and fuel-cell research at the National Renewable En-
ergy Laboratory contributes to the growing role that advanced tech-
nologies play in addressing the nation’s energy challenges.
www.clean-air.org/mission
The American Hydrogen Association’s goal is to work with envi-
ronmental groups, industry, communities, and schools to promote
an understanding of hydrogen technology and a marketplace for

pollution-free hydrogen energy.
VIDEOS
Spain—Hydrogen-Powered Plane: Follow Boeing’s exploits in test-
ing its first manned aircraft to be partially fuelled by hydrogen cells:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzeCQblYHic (01:58 minutes).
U.S. Navy—Ion Tiger: To learn more about the Office of Naval
Research’s work on unmanned air vehicles that are quieter and
greener than current combat options, go to http://www.engadget.
com/2009/04/17/video-navy-uav-uses-hydrogen-fuel-cells-for-
greener-surveillanc/ (02:30 minutes).
Japan—Life with a Home Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Take a tour through
the Kawamoris’ house and see a brief interview about the hydrogen
fuel cell that powers the family’s home: http://www.odemagazine.
com/doc/62/video-kawamoris-fuel-cell/ (02:31 minutes).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.

2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.
lishers, 2003.

2007.

awea.org.
2006.
the Pacific, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
haven Press, 2007.
text Press, 2005.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.

2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
1949–2008
140 a Energy Data

Coal Nuclear
1949 11,980,905 –6,671 5,145,142 11,882,722 29,002,099 0 1,424,722
1950 12,347,109 992 5,968,371 13,315,484 31,631,956 0 1,415,411
1951 12,552,996 –21,452 7,048,518 14,428,043 34,008,105 0 1,423,795
1952 11,306,479 –11,879 7,549,621 14,955,682 33,799,903 0 1,465,812
1953 11,372,684 –9,002 7,906,645 15,555,829 34,826,156 0 1,412,859
1954 9,714,667 –6,746 8,330,202 15,839,176 33,877,300 0 1,359,772
1955 11,167,259 –10,044 8,997,935 17,254,955 37,410,105 0 1,359,844
1956 11,349,723 –13,020 9,613,975 17,937,473 38,888,151 0 1,434,711
1957 10,820,631 –17,459 10,190,753 17,931,667 38,925,592 112 1,515,613
1958 9,533,287 –6,721 10,663,199 18,526,937 38,716,702 1,915 1,591,967
1959 9,518,353 –8,358 11,717,422 19,322,650 40,550,068 2,187 1,548,465
1960 9,837,785 –5,630 12,385,366 19,919,230 42,136,751 6,026 1,607,975
1961 9,623,351 –7,886 12,926,392 20,216,387 42,758,243 19,678 1,656,463
1962 9,906,454 –5,506 13,730,841 21,048,981 44,680,770 26,394 1,816,141
1963 10,412,538 –7,390 14,403,306 21,700,828 46,509,283 38,147 1,771,355
1964 10,964,385 –10,441 15,287,850 22,301,257 48,543,050 39,819 1,886,314
1965 11,580,608 –18,451 15,768,667 23,245,680 50,576,504 43,164 2,059,077
1966 12,143,080 –24,949 16,995,332 24,400,523 53,513,987 64,158 2,061,519
1967 11,913,750 –15,326 17,944,788 25,283,661 55,126,873 88,456 2,346,664
1968 12,330,677 –17,310 19,209,656 26,979,447 58,502,470 141,534 2,348,629
1969 12,381,540 –36,109 20,677,984 28,338,336 61,361,751 153,722 2,647,983
1970 12,264,528 –57,660 21,794,707 29,520,695 63,522,269 239,347 2,633,547
1971 11,598,411 –33,108 22,469,052 30,561,290 64,595,645 412,939 2,824,151
1972 12,076,917 –25,966 22,698,190 32,946,738 67,695,880 583,752 2,863,865
1973 12,971,490 –7,465 22,512,399 34,839,926 70,316,351 910,177 2,861,448
1974 12,662,878 56,098 21,732,488 33,454,627 67,906,091 1,272,083 3,176,580
1975 12,662,786 13,541 19,947,883 32,730,587 65,354,796 1,899,798 3,154,607
1976 13,584,067 –99 20,345,426 35,174,688 69,104,082 2,111,121 2,976,265
1977 13,922,103 14,582 19,930,513 37,122,168 70,989,367 2,701,762 2,333,252
1978 13,765,575 124,719 20,000,400 37,965,295 71,855,989 3,024,126 2,936,983
1979 15,039,586 62,843 20,665,817 37,123,381 72,891,627 2,775,827 2,930,686
1980 15,422,809 –35,018 20,235,459 34,202,356 69,825,607 2,739,169 2,900,144
1981 15,907,526 –15,946 19,747,309 31,931,050 [R] 67,569,939 [R] 3,007,589 2,757,968
1982 15,321,581 –21,650 18,356,222 30,231,608 [R] 63,887,761 [R] 3,131,148 3,265,558
1983 15,894,442 –15,624 17,220,836 30,053,921 [R] 63,153,575 [R] 3,202,549 3,527,260
1984 17,070,622 –11,482 18,393,613 31,051,327 66,504,079 3,552,531 3,385,811
1985 17,478,428 –13,491 17,703,482 30,922,149 [R] 66,090,567 [R] 4,075,563 2,970,192
1986 17,260,405 –16,740 16,591,364 32,196,080 66,031,109 [R] 4,380,109 3,071,179
1987 18,008,451 8,630 17,639,801 32,865,053 [R] 68,521,935 [R] 4,753,933 2,634,508
1988 18,846,312 39,556 18,448,393 34,221,992 [R] 71,556,253 [R] 5,586,968 2,334,265
1989 19,069,762 30,405 19,601,689 34,211,114 72,912,970 [R] 5,602,161 2,837,263
1990 19,172,635 4,786 19,603,168 33,552,534 72,333,123 6,104,350 3,046,391
1991 18,991,670 9,697 20,032,957 32,845,361 71,879,686 [R] 6,422,132 3,015,943
1992 19,122,471 34,621 20,713,632 33,526,585 [R] 73,397,310 [R] 6,479,206 2,617,436
1993 19,835,148 27,106 21,228,902 33,744,490 [R] 74,835,647 [R] 6,410,499 2,891,613
1994 19,909,463 58,330 21,728,065 34,561,665 76,257,523 6,693,877 2,683,457
1995 20,088,727 61,058 22,671,138 34,436,967 [R] 77,257,890 [R] 7,075,436 3,205,307
1996 21,001,914 22,816 23,084,647 35,673,290 [R] 79,782,668 [R] 7,086,674 3,589,656
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
NA NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 5,420 31,981,503
NA NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 6,094 34,615,768
NA NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 7,461 36,974,030
NA NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 7,740 36,747,825
NA NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 6,852 37,664,468
NA NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 7,983 36,639,382
NA NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 13,879 40,207,971
NA NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 15,519 41,754,252
NA NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 12,288 41,787,186
NA NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 11,320 41,645,028
NA NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 12,127 43,465,722
774 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 15,474 45,086,870
2,181 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 7,689 45,739,017
2,331 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,829 47,827,707
3,726 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 334 49,646,160
4,520 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 6,671 51,817,177
4,197 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 –482 54,017,221
4,170 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 3,725 57,016,544
6,886 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 –1,020 58,908,107
9,416 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 –2,152 62,419,392
13,281 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 3,656 65,620,879
11,347 NA NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 6,688 67,844,161
11,862 NA NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 12,046 69,288,965
31,479 NA NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 26,227 72,704,267
42,605 NA NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 48,715 75,708,364
53,158 NA NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 43,311 73,990,880
70,153 NA NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 21,103 71,999,191
78,154 NA NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 29,378 76,012,373
77,418 NA NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 59,422 77,999,554
64,350 NA NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 67,318 79,986,371
83,788 NA NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 69,381 80,903,214
109,776 NA NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 71,399 78,121,594
123,043 NA NA 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 113,406 76,168,488 [R]
104,746 NA NA 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 100,026 73,153,394 [R]
129,339 NA 28 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 120,547 73,039,001 [R]
164,896 55 68 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 135,323 76,715,459 [R]
198,282 111 60 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 139,655 76,492,565 [R]
219,178 147 44 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 122,481 76,758,526 [R]
229,119 109 37 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 158,101 79,175,130 [R]
217,290 94 9 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 108,399 82,821,858 [R]
317,163 55,291 22,033 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 37,450 84,946,248 [R]
335,801 59,718 29,007 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 7,888 84,653,651 [R]
346,247 62,688 30,796 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 66,965 84,608,869 [R]
349,309 63,886 29,863 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 86,733 85,958,380 [R]
363,716 66,458 30,987 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R] 94,910 87,605,453 [R]
338,108 68,548 35,560 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 152,937 89,261,391 [R]
293,893 69,857 32,630 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R] 133,856 91,174,089 [R]
315,529 70,833 33,440 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R] 137,144 94,175,664 [R]
142 a Energy Data
Coal Nuclear
1997 21,445,411 46,450 23,222,718 36,159,835 [R] 80,874,414 [R] 6,596,992 3,640,458
1998 21,655,744 67,084 22,830,226 36,816,619 81,369,672 7,067,809 3,297,054
1999 21,622,544 57,685 22,909,227 37,838,081 [R] 82,427,536 [R] 7,610,256 3,267,575
2000 22,579,528 65,348 23,823,978 38,264,303 [R] 84,733,157 [R] 7,862,349 2,811,116
2001 21,914,268 29,264 22,772,558 38,186,476 [R] 82,902,566 [R] 8,032,697 2,241,858
2002 21,903,989 60,760 23,558,419 38,226,666 [R] 83,749,834 [R] 8,143,089 2,689,017
2003 22,320,928 50,518 22,897,268 38,809,183 [R] 84,077,896 [R] 7,958,858 2,824,533
2004 22,466,195 137,739 22,931,481 40,294,351 85,829,766 8,221,985 2,690,078
2005 22,796,543 44,194 22,583,385 40,393,325 85,817,446 8,160,028 2,702,942
2006 22,447,160 60,810 22,223,903 [R] 39,958,151 [R] 84,690,024 [R] 8,213,839 2,869,035
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197 23,627,629 [R] 39,773,213 [R] 86,175,506 [R] 8,457,783 [R] 2,446,389 [R]
2008 P 22,420,827 40,771 23,837,695 37,136,675 83,435,968 8,455,236 2,452,073
a
b
c
d
e
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
324,959 70,237 33,581 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R] 116,203 94,765,811 [R]
328,303 69,787 30,853 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R] 88,224 95,183,293 [R]
330,919 68,793 45,894 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R] 98,924 96,817,452 [R]
316,796 66,388 57,057 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R] 115,199 98,975,100 [R]
311,264 65,454 69,617 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R] 75,156 96,326,089 [R]
328,308 64,391 105,334 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R] 71,595 97,858,314 [R]
330,554 63,620 114,571 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R] 21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
341,082 64,500 141,749 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R] 38,597 100,350,624 [R]
342,576 66,130 178,088 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R] 84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
342,876 72,222 263,738 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R] 62,849 99,875,196 [R]
348,730 [R] 80,943 [R] 340,503 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R] 106,632 101,553,855 [R]
358,497 91,003 514,224 3,884,252 7,300,048 112,381 99,303,634
144 a Energy Data

1949 NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 1,424,722 NA NA
1950 NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 1,415,411 NA NA
1951 NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 1,423,795 NA NA
1952 NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 1,465,812 NA NA
1953 NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 1,412,859 NA NA
1954 NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 1,359,772 NA NA
1955 NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 1,359,844 NA NA
1956 NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 1,434,711 NA NA
1957 NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 1,515,613 NA NA
1958 NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 1,591,967 NA NA
1959 NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 1,548,465 NA NA
1960 NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 1,607,975 774 NA
1961 NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 1,656,463 2,181 NA
1962 NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,816,141 2,331 NA
1963 NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 1,771,355 3,726 NA
1964 NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 1,886,314 4,520 NA
1965 NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 2,059,077 4,197 NA
1966 NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 2,061,519 4,170 NA
1967 NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 2,346,664 6,886 NA
1968 NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 2,348,629 9,416 NA
1969 NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 2,647,983 13,281 NA
1970 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 2,633,547 11,347 NA
1971 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 2,824,151 11,862 NA
1972 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 2,863,865 31,479 NA
1973 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 2,861,448 42,605 NA
1974 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 3,176,580 53,158 NA
1975 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 3,154,607 70,153 NA
1976 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 2,976,265 78,154 NA
1977 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 2,333,252 77,418 NA
1978 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 2,936,983 64,350 NA
1979 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 2,930,686 83,788 NA
1980 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 2,900,144 109,776 NA
1981 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 2,757,968 123,043 NA
1982 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 3,265,558 104,746 NA
1983 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 3,527,260 129,339 NA
1984 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 3,385,811 164,896 55
1985 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 2,970,192 198,282 111
1986 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 3,071,179 219,178 147
1987 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 2,634,508 229,119 109
1988 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 2,334,265 217,290 94
1989 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 2,837,263 317,163 55,291
1990 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 3,046,391 335,801 59,718
1991 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 3,015,943 346,247 62,688
1992 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 2,617,436 349,309 63,886
1993 172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R] 2,891,613 363,716 66,458
1994 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 2,683,457 338,108 68,548
1995 201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R] 3,205,307 293,893 69,857
1996 144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R] 3,589,656 315,529 70,833
Energy Data a 145
Consumption
NA 1,549,262 NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984
NA 1,562,307 NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718
NA 1,534,669 NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464
NA 1,474,369 NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181
NA 1,418,601 NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460
NA 1,394,327 NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099
NA 1,424,143 NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987
NA 1,415,871 NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582
NA 1,333,581 NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194
NA 1,323,123 NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090
NA 1,352,874 NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339
NA 1,319,870 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619
NA 1,294,762 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406
NA 1,300,242 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714
NA 1,323,316 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396
NA 1,336,802 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637
NA 1,334,761 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036
NA 1,368,985 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674
NA 1,340,249 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799
NA 1,419,495 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541
NA 1,440,487 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751
NA 1,428,649 2,313 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857
NA 1,430,229 2,094 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335
NA 1,500,992 2,073 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409
NA 1,527,012 2,056 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121
NA 1,537,755 1,902 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395
NA 1,496,928 1,806 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494
NA 1,711,484 1,889 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792
NA 1,836,524 1,808 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002
NA 2,036,150 1,455 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938
NA 2,149,854 2,052 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379
NA 2,473,861 1,639 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420
NA 2,495,563 88,000 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
NA 2,510,048 119,000 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
28 2,684,271 157,000 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
68 2,685,817 208,000 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
60 2,686,765 236,317 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
44 2,562,134 262,861 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
37 2,463,159 289,000 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
9 2,576,663 315,328 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
22,033 2,679,623 354,357 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
29,007 2,216,165 408,078 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
30,796 2,214,083 439,715 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
29,863 2,313,471 473,201 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
30,987 2,259,774 479,336 [R] 172,512 [R] 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R]
35,560 2,323,820 515,324 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
32,630 2,369,869 531,476 [R] 203,875 [R] 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R]
33,440 2,437,027 576,990 145,703 [R] 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R]
146 a Energy Data
1997 190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R] 3,640,458 324,959 70,237
1998 206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R] 3,297,054 328,303 69,787
1999 215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R] 3,267,575 330,919 68,793
2000 237,904 3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R] 2,811,116 316,796 66,388
2001 259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R] 2,241,858 311,264 65,454
2002 314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R] 2,689,017 328,308 64,391
2003 411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R] 2,824,533 330,554 63,620
2004 500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R] 2,690,078 341,082 64,500
2005 580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R] 2,702,942 342,576 66,130
2006 743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R] 2,869,035 342,876 72,222
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R] 2,446,389 [R] 348,730 [R] 80,943 [R]
2008P 1,428,745 3,899,915 7,315,711 2,452,073 358,497 91,003
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
fuels).
k
Energy Data a 147
Consumption
33,581 2,370,991 550,602 [R] 187,375 [R] 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R]
30,853 2,184,160 542,295 205,137 [R] 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R]
45,894 2,214,167 540,156 213,232 [R] 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R]
57,057 2,261,715 510,800 [R] 240,523 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R]
69,617 2,005,833 363,874 257,769 [R] 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R]
105,334 1,995,283 402,006 309,456 [R] 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R]
114,571 2,002,040 401,347 413,217 [R] 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R]
141,749 2,121,251 [R] 389,044 [R] 512,571 [R] 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R]
178,088 2,136,351 [R] 403,219 [R] 593,576 [R] 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R]
263,738 2,151,731 [R] 414,226 [R] 794,656 [R] 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R]
340,503 [R] 2,142,417 [R] 430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R]
514,224 2,040,616 430,554 1,413,082 3,884,252 7,300,048
148 a Energy Data

End-use Sectors
1949 4,475,121 5,613,938 2,660,963 3,660,910 12,626,532
1950 4,847,590 6,006,806 2,824,267 3,883,472 13,881,079
1951 5,124,031 6,399,747 2,727,158 3,862,700 15,118,070
1952 5,178,644 6,580,694 2,661,902 3,862,377 14,661,778
1953 5,074,890 6,581,124 2,500,330 3,758,937 15,328,413
1954 5,286,016 6,869,767 2,444,814 3,720,157 14,305,657
1955 5,633,095 7,303,271 2,547,641 3,881,530 16,090,702
1956 5,866,467 7,689,809 2,592,274 4,008,279 16,562,350
1957 5,771,579 7,739,679 2,434,391 3,945,887 16,512,867
1958 6,155,096 8,230,400 2,541,202 4,103,153 15,797,985
1959 6,223,822 8,447,378 2,630,274 4,353,069 16,518,951
1960 6,688,963 9,077,668 2,702,042 4,588,973 16,977,066
1961 6,814,611 9,325,376 2,743,974 4,706,925 16,993,115
1962 7,122,112 9,825,201 2,901,109 5,013,919 17,589,807
1963 7,135,126 10,034,384 2,896,921 5,226,862 18,365,964
1964 7,161,257 10,290,804 2,949,284 5,438,649 19,426,503
1965 7,328,128 10,688,770 3,150,462 5,819,530 20,123,911
1966 7,549,262 11,218,183 3,383,741 6,299,383 21,029,715
1967 7,740,902 11,669,926 3,738,448 6,870,845 21,012,628
1968 7,963,327 12,368,421 3,866,000 7,296,778 21,872,069
1969 8,276,760 13,205,347 4,045,666 7,795,301 22,653,721
1970 8,352,750 13,798,057 4,196,051 8,307,155 22,974,833
1971 8,456,799 14,277,629 4,282,718 8,681,492 22,732,356
1972 8,655,327 14,890,531 4,369,078 9,144,775 23,532,489
1973 8,250,226 [R] 14,929,771 [R] 4,381,061 9,506,982 24,740,862 [R]
1974 7,927,553 [R] 14,683,314 [R] 4,221,192 9,362,537 23,816,329 [R]
1975 8,005,740 14,841,755 [R] 4,022,853 [R] 9,465,906 [R] 21,454,213 [R]
1976 8,408,252 [R] 15,440,661 [R] 4,332,587 [R] 10,035,225 [R] 22,685,371
1977 8,207,376 [R] 15,688,729 [R] 4,217,258 [R] 10,177,267 [R] 23,192,694 [R]
1978 8,272,389 [R] 16,155,929 [R] 4,268,843 [R] 10,480,604 [R] 23,276,491 [R]
1979 7,933,806 [R] 15,841,970 [R] 4,333,251 10,626,851 24,211,500 [R]
1980 7,453,254 [R] 15,786,781 [R] 4,074,270 10,562,769 [R] 22,610,288 [R]
1981 7,057,589 [R] 15,295,246 [R] 3,805,343 10,601,863 [R] 21,338,216 [R]
1982 7,154,067 [R] 15,557,340 [R] 3,835,241 [R] 10,847,354 [R] 19,075,786 [R]
1983 6,840,628 [R] 15,456,669 [R] 3,806,026 [R] 10,922,977 [R] 18,578,019 [R]
1984 7,220,681 [R] 15,998,041 [R] 3,968,567 [R] 11,436,092 [R] 20,197,515 [R]
1985 7,160,776 [R] 16,088,348 [R] 3,694,740 [R] 11,443,724 [R] 19,467,805 [R]
1986 6,921,722 [R] 16,029,197 [R] 3,656,730 [R] 11,603,742 [R] 19,098,662 [R]
1987 6,940,917 16,321,196 3,736,106 [R] 11,943,383 [R] 19,977,070 [R]
1988 7,372,024 [R] 17,186,278 [R] 3,957,548 [R] 12,575,483 [R] 20,884,381 [R]
1989 7,586,093 [R] 17,858,128 [R] 4,004,442 [R] 13,202,580 20,897,403 [R]
1990 6,570,463 [R] 17,014,681 [R] 3,858,007 13,332,926 21,208,225 [R]
1991 6,758,442 [R] 17,490,321 3,905,836 [R] 13,512,501 [R] 20,854,317 [R]
1992 6,963,482 [R] 17,426,920 [R] 3,951,199 13,453,951 21,786,666 [R]
1993 7,155,529 [R] 18,288,984 3,933,859 [R] 13,835,823 [R] 21,784,999 [R]
1994 6,990,569 18,181,216 3,978,979 [R] 14,111,283 [R] 22,422,272 [R]
1995 6,946,268 18,577,978 [R] 4,063,119 [R] 14,697,525 [R] 22,747,660 [R]
1996 7,471,455 [R] 19,562,439 [R] 4,234,533 [R] 15,181,207 [R] 23,443,770 [R]
Energy Data a 149

14,716,733 7,879,581 7,990,087 4,339,470 –165 31,981,503
16,232,875 8,383,528 8,492,594 4,679,283 21 34,615,768
17,669,234 8,933,753 9,042,162 5,070,830 188 36,974,030
17,301,575 8,907,235 9,003,096 5,338,183 82 36,747,825
18,200,961 9,030,518 9,123,484 5,730,355 –39 37,664,468
17,146,242 8,823,059 8,903,125 5,779,745 91 36,639,382
19,472,329 9,475,032 9,550,811 6,461,471 30 40,207,971
20,196,256 9,791,039 9,860,083 6,942,296 –174 41,754,252
20,204,730 9,837,442 9,897,017 7,231,035 –128 41,787,186
19,306,571 9,952,797 10,004,893 7,197,936 11 41,645,028
20,315,979 10,298,441 10,349,357 7,794,295 –61 43,465,722
20,823,424 10,560,452 10,596,801 8,158,344 3 45,086,870
20,936,742 10,734,679 10,770,077 8,452,741 –103 45,739,017
21,768,109 11,185,922 11,220,519 9,028,798 –42 47,827,707
22,729,891 11,621,165 11,654,898 9,626,860 124 49,646,160
24,089,579 11,964,508 11,998,284 10,315,765 –140 51,817,177
25,074,894 12,400,149 12,433,906 11,014,449 121 54,017,221
26,397,297 13,069,166 13,101,884 11,984,863 –203 57,016,544
26,615,564 13,718,214 13,752,106 12,698,249 –333 58,908,107
27,888,371 14,831,020 14,865,583 13,886,738 238 62,419,392
29,114,339 15,470,880 15,506,152 15,174,112 –260 65,620,879
29,641,226 16,061,232 16,097,603 16,259,175 119 67,844,161
29,600,938 16,693,481 16,729,212 17,123,917 –307 69,288,965
30,952,764 17,681,086 17,716,273 18,466,362 –75 72,704,267
32,652,616 [R] 18,576,065 18,611,660 19,752,816 7,334 [R] 75,708,364
31,818,721 [R] 18,085,915 [R] 18,119,206 [R] 19,932,789 7,102 [R] 73,990,880
29,447,184 [R] 18,209,133 [R] 18,243,706 [R] 20,306,611 640 [R] 71,999,191
31,429,542 19,065,144 [R] 19,099,331 [R] 21,513,405 7,613 [R] 76,012,373
32,306,559 [R] 19,784,143 [R] 19,819,581 [R] 22,590,665 7,418 [R] 77,999,554
32,733,452 [R] 20,580,415 [R] 20,614,766 [R] 23,586,613 1,619 [R] 79,986,371
33,962,118 [R] 20,436,369 [R] 20,470,711 [R] 23,986,723 1,564 80,903,214
32,077,090 [R] 19,658,353 [R] 19,696,034 [R] 24,326,509 –1,080 [R] 78,121,594
30,756,076 [R] 19,476,200 [R] 19,512,537 [R] 24,488,373 2,766 [R] 76,168,488 [R]
27,656,788 [R] 19,050,580 [R] 19,087,723 [R] 24,033,531 4,189 [R] 73,153,394 [R]
27,481,484 [R] 19,132,451 [R] 19,175,075 [R] 24,679,081 2,796 [R] 73,039,001 [R]
29,624,598 [R] 19,606,799 [R] 19,653,933 [R] 25,719,102 2,794 [R] 76,715,459 [R]
28,877,080 [R] 20,040,687 [R] 20,087,315 [R] 26,132,459 –3,903 [R] 76,492,565 [R]
28,333,363 [R] 20,739,703 [R] 20,788,771 [R] 26,338,257 3,452 76,758,526 [R]
29,443,635 [R] 21,419,125 [R] 21,469,449 [R] 27,104,445 –2,533 [R] 79,175,130 [R]
30,738,557 [R] 22,266,855 [R] 22,318,176 [R] 28,337,687 3,364 [R] 82,821,858 [R]
31,397,833 [R] 22,424,597 [R] 22,478,708 [R] 30,024,713 [4] 8,999 [R] 84,946,248 [R]
31,895,492 [R] 22,366,185 [R] 22,419,888 [R] 30,660,106 –9,335 [R] 84,653,651 [R]
31,486,967 [R] 22,065,034 [R] 22,118,484 [R] 31,024,645 595 [R] 84,608,869 [R]
32,661,236 [R] 22,363,309 [R] 22,415,918 [R] 30,893,368 355 [R] 85,958,380 [R]
32,721,292 [R] 22,716,447 22,769,843 [R] 32,025,108 –10,490 [R] 87,605,453 [R]
33,607,366 [R] 23,311,806 [R] 23,367,224 [R] 32,563,463 –5,698 89,261,391 [R]
34,046,786 [R] 23,793,148 [R] 23,848,651 [R] 33,620,747 3,148 [R] 91,174,089 [R]
34,988,791 [R] 24,383,906 [R] 24,438,890 [R] 34,637,665 4,336 [R] 94,175,664 [R]
150 a Energy Data
End-use Sectors
e e
1997 7,039,505 [R] 19,025,680 [R] 4,256,507 [R] 15,693,953 [R] 23,721,864 [R]
1998 6,423,825 [R] 19,020,712 [R] 3,963,729 [R] 15,979,296 [R] 23,210,838 [R]
1999 6,783,779 [R] 19,620,860 [R] 4,007,378 [R] 16,383,617 [R] 22,990,578 [R]
2000 7,168,979 [R] 20,487,621 [R] 4,227,143 [R] 17,176,087 [R] 22,870,804 [R]
2001 6,878,917 [R] 20,106,132 [R] 4,036,108 [R] 17,141,259 [R] 21,835,587 [R]
2002 6,938,187 [R] 20,873,763 [R] 4,099,189 [R] 17,366,740 21,857,313 [R]
2003 7,251,896 21,208,021 [R] 4,238,672 [R] 17,351,447 [R] 21,575,582 [R]
2004 7,019,274 [R] 21,177,889 [R] 4,180,422 [R] 17,664,445 [R] 22,454,620 [R]
2005 6,920,879 [R] 21,697,240 [R] 4,013,701 [R] 17,875,276 [R] 21,465,855 [R]
2006 6,190,514 [R] 20,769,777 [R] 3,703,258 [R] 17,723,994 [R] 21,632,057 [R]
2007 6,625,793 [R] 21,619,373 [R] 3,895,928 [R] 18,287,222 [R] 21,454,002 [R]
2008 P 6,778,379 21,636,900 3,972,150 18,541,387 20,630,137
a
b
c
d
power producers.
e
f
g

Energy Data a 151

35,288,218 [R] 24,697,145 [R] 24,751,817 [R] 35,044,648 6,142 [R] 94,765,811 [R]
34,928,190 [R] 25,203,168 [R] 25,258,473 [R] 36,385,110 –3,378 [R] 95,183,293 [R]
34,855,491 [R] 25,893,727 [R] 25,951,203 [R] 37,135,709 6,281 [R] 96,817,452 [R]
34,757,478 [R] 26,491,500 [R] 26,551,610 [R] 38,214,371 2,304 [R] 98,975,100 [R]
32,806,204 [R] 26,215,564 [R] 26,278,577 [R] 37,365,995 –6,084 [R] 96,326,089 [R]
32,764,483 [R] 26,787,738 [R] 26,848,508 [R] 38,171,067 4,820 [R] 97,858,314 [R]
32,649,843 [R] 26,927,646 [R] 27,002,137 [R] 38,217,654 [R] –2,908 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
33,609,067 [R] 27,820,116 [R] 27,899,279 [R] 38,876,247 [R] –55 [R] 100,350,624 [R]
32,545,253 [R] 28,279,693 [R] 28,361,295 [R] 39,798,935 [R] 5,694 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
32,541,235 [R] 28,761,209 [R] 28,840,577 [R] 39,588,544 [R] –385 [R] 99,875,196 [R]
32,523,120 [R] 29,046,175 [R] 29,134,189 [R] 40,542,007 [R] –10,049 [R] 101,553,855 [R]
31,210,299 27,842,133 27,924,560 40,090,347 –9,512 99,303,634
152 a Energy Data
Year
Appliance 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1987
Natural Gas 55 55 55 56 57 55 55
Electricitya 16 17 18 17 16 17 20
Wood 2 4 6 6 7 7 6
Central Systemc 23 24 27 27 28 30 34
None 44 45 43 42 42 40 36
Natural Gas 55 55 54 55 56 54 54
Electricitya 33 33 32 33 32 33 35
One 86 NA 86 87 86 88 86
Two or more 14 NA 14 13 13 12 14
Natural gas 14 NA 14 16 15 16 15
Electric 45 NA 47 45 45 46 51
Dishwasher 35 NA 37 37 36 38 43
Natural gas 48 NA 46 46 47 46 43
Electric 53 NA 57 56 56 57 60
One or two NA NA 85 84 83 80 75
a
Retail electricity.
b
c
d
Energy Data a 153
Year Change
1990 1993 1997 2001 2005 1980 to 2005
94 97 101 107 111 29
55 53 52 [R] 55 52 –3
23 26 29 29 30 12
5 5 5 5 5 0
11 11 9 7 [R] 7 –8
4 3 2 2 3 –3
2 2 2 2 [R] 3 [R] 1 [R]
39 44 47 55 59 32
29 25 25 23 25 –5
32 32 28 23 16 –27
53 53 52 54 53 –1
37 38 39 38 39 7
3 3 3 3 4 0
5 5 5 4 4 –5
1 1 1 0 0 –1
100 100 100 100 100 0

84 85 85 83 78 –8
15 15 15 17 22 8
34 35 33 32 32 –6
76 77 77 79 83 9
69 70 71 74 79 18
16 14 [R] 15 [R] 16 [R] 17 [R] 3 [R]
53 57 55 57 61 14
45 45 50 53 58 21
100 100 99 100 99 0
42 33 35 35 35 –11
59 63 62 62 62 5
79 84 83 86 88 74
99 99 99 [R] 99 [R] 99 [R] 1 [R]
71 70 69 63 56 –29
28 28 29 36 43 29
NA [R] NA [R] 35 56 68 NA
NA NA 29 42 45 NA
NA NA 6 15 23 NA
154 a Energy Data

North America 113.13 113.53 115.82 118.26

Canada 12.67 [R] 12.37 [R] 12.96 [R] 12.95 [R]
Mexico 5.68 5.96 6.04 6.32
United States 94.77 95.18 96.82 98.98
Other .02 .02 .02 .02
Argentina 2.47 2.58 2.61 2.67
Brazil 7.86 8.12 [R] 8.27 [R] 8.55 [R]
Venezuela 2.66 2.85 2.73 2.77
Other 6.46 6.57 6.67 6.85
Europe a 79.87 [R] 80.44 [R] 80.51 [R] 81.53 [R]
Belgium 2.65 [R] 2.70 [R] 2.66 [R] 2.73 [R]
France 10.36 10.58 10.71 10.85
Germany 14.36 14.34 14.13 14.26
Italy 7.22 7.43 7.56 7.63
Netherlands 3.70 3.70 3.69 3.79
Poland 4.09 [R] 3.85 3.98 3.62
Spain 4.76 4.99 5.26 5.62
Sweden 2.32 [R] 2.40 [R] 2.37 [R] 2.27 [R]
Turkey 2.93 3.00 2.91 3.16
Other 17.74 17.72 17.47 [R] 17.87
Eurasia b 39.02 [R] 38.73 [R] 39.83 [R] 40.61 [R]
Russia 25.81 [R] 25.93 [R] 27.01 [R] 27.47 [R]
Ukraine 6.07 5.85 5.76 5.75
Uzbekistan 1.88 1.84 1.86 1.94
Other 5.26 5.11 5.19 5.45 [R]
Middle East 15.61 16.28 [R] 16.62 17.32
Iran 4.43 4.58 4.83 5.01
Saudi Arabia 4.37 4.54 4.60 4.85
Other 6.81 7.15 7.18 7.46
Africa 11.40 11.30 [R] 11.62 [R] 12.03 [R]
Egypt 1.79 1.85 1.92 2.00
South Africa 4.56 4.35 4.46 4.59
Other 5.05 5.10 [R] 5.23 5.44 [R]
Australia 4.56 4.59 4.82 4.85
China 37.91 37.32 37.23 37.18 [R]
India 11.64 12.17 12.99 13.46
Indonesia 3.66 3.56 3.91 4.06
Japan 21.91 [R] 21.52 [R] 21.97 [R] 22.43 [R]
Malaysia 1.67 1.69 1.74 1.87
Energy Data a 155
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P
115.36 117.25 118.20 120.74 121.62 121.18

12.76 [R] 13.13 [R] 13.56 [R] 13.84 [R] 14.23 [R] 13.95
6.26 6.25 [R] 6.42 [R] 6.53 6.86 [R] 7.36
96.33 97.86 98.21 100.35 100.51 [R] 99.86
.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
21.16 21.12 21.61 22.44 23.40 24.18
2.61 2.48 [R] 2.67 2.78 2.95 [R] 3.15
8.47 [R] 8.58 [R] 8.69 [R] 9.02 [R] 9.37 [R] 9.64
3.03 2.93 2.72 2.93 3.12 [R] 3.19
7.05 7.13 7.54 7.71 7.96 8.20
82.77 [R] 82.50 [R] 84.24 [R] 85.70 [R] 86.18 [R] 86.42
2.70 [R] 2.68 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.81 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.75
11.08 11.00 11.11 [R] 11.39 11.36 [R] 11.44
14.62 14.33 14.59 [R] 14.74 [R] 14.50 [R] 14.63
7.67 [R] 7.70 7.99 [R] 8.08 [R] 8.14 [R] 8.07
3.93 3.94 4.00 4.11 4.23 [R] 4.14
3.45 3.44 3.60 3.70 3.68 [R] 3.86
5.87 5.95 6.26 6.39 [R] 6.51 [R] 6.51
2.40 [R] 2.27 [R] 2.17 [R] 2.30 [R] 2.33 [R] 2.22
2.89 3.15 3.32 3.51 3.73 [R] 3.91
9.86 [R] 9.72 [R] 9.86 [R] 9.88 [R] 9.92 [R] 9.80
18.28 [R] 18.33 [R] 18.56 [R] 18.77 [R] 19.01 [R] 19.10
40.94 [R] 41.59 [R] 43.37 [R] 44.69 [R] 45.79 [R] 45.88
27.72 [R] 27.93 [R] 28.77 [R] 29.60 [R] 30.06 [R] 30.39
5.64 5.82 6.28 6.26 6.32 [R] 5.87
2.03 2.08 2.10 2.22 2.13 [R] 2.21
5.55 [R] 5.75 [R] 6.22 [R] 6.62 [R] 7.27 [R] 7.41
17.95 18.98 19.76 20.89 22.75 [R] 23.81
5.39 5.89 6.18 6.39 7.22 [R] 7.69
5.14 5.38 5.76 6.21 6.59 [R] 6.89
7.42 7.71 7.82 8.29 8.93 [R] 9.23
12.63 [R] 12.72 13.36 [R] 13.97 [R] 14.54 [R] 14.50
2.23 [R] 2.26 [R] 2.44 [R] 2.59 2.73 [R] 2.54
4.66 4.54 4.88 5.21 5.12 [R] 5.18
5.74 [R] 5.91 [R] 6.04 [R] 6.18 [R] 6.69 [R] 6.77
111.34 [R] 116.41 [R] 125.48 [R] 138.71 [R] 147.78 [R] 156.31
5.02 5.13 5.14 [R] 5.26 [R] 5.57 [R] 5.61
39.44 [R] 43.30 [R] 50.62 [R] 59.99 [R] 66.80 [R] 73.81
13.94 13.84 14.29 15.54 [R] 16.34 [R] 17.68
4.46 4.64 4.56 [R] 4.88 [R] 4.91 [R] 4.15
22.24 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.79
2.11 2.18 2.42 2.66 2.58 [R] 2.56
156 a Energy Data
South Korea 7.41 6.83 7.55 7.89
Taiwan 3.21 3.40 3.55 3.77
Thailand 2.60 2.44 2.50 2.58
Other 8.34 [R] 8.47 [R] 9.01 [R] 9.23 [R]
World 381.35 [R] 382.38 [R] 389.95 [R] 397.93 [R]
a
b
eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm). World primary energy consumption includes consumption of petroleum
products (including natural-gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel), dry natural gas, and coal (including net
imports of coal coke) and the consumption of net electricity generated from nuclear electric power, hydroelectric power,
wood, waste, geothermal, solar, and wind. It also includes, for the United States, the consumption of renewable energy
by the end-use sectors. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. For related information,
see http://www.eia.doe.gov/international.
Energy Data a 157
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

8.10 8.39 [R] 8.64 [R] 8.91 [R] 9.23 [R] 9.45
3.86 4.02 4.21 4.36 4.43 [R] 4.57
2.70 2.94 3.22 3.45 [R] 3.67 [R] 3.74
9.47 [R] 9.80 [R] 10.23 [R] 10.92 [R] 11.52 [R] 11.97
402.15 [R] 410.56 [R] 426.02 [R] 447.15 [R] 462.06 [R] 472.27
158 a Energy Data
Oil & Gas
North America 211.6 57.5 309.8 314.1
Canada 178.6a 25.2b 58.2 58.3
Mexico 11.7 11.1 13.9 18.1
United States 21.3 21.3 237.7 237.7

Argentina 2.6 2.7 15.8 16.5
Bolivia .5 .5 26.5 28.0
Brazil 12.2 12.5 12.3 12.9
Chile .2 .0 3.5 1.0
Colombia 1.5 1.5 4.3 6.7
Cuba .1 .7 2.5 .8
Peru .4 .4 11.9 12.0
Venezuela 87.0 81.0 166.3 152.0
Europed 14.3 13.8 172.0 169.0

Austria .1 .1 .6 1.1
Croatia .1 .1 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.2 1.1 2.5 2.6
Germany .4 .2 9.0 5.2
Italy .4 .4 3.3 3.0
Norway 6.9 6.7 79.1 81.7
Poland .1 .2 5.8 4.7
Romania .6 .5 2.2 4.2
Serbia .1 NR 1.7 NR
Otherc .8 .7 1.9 2.1
Eurasiae 98.9 126.0 2,014.8 2,104.0

Russia 60.0 76.0 1,680.0 1,654.0
Otherc .3 50.0 .8 450.0
Energy Data a 159

Oil & Gas Oil & Gas
Middle East 748.3 727.3 2,548.9 2,570.2
Iran 138.4 137.0 948.2 985.0
Iraq 115.0 126.0 111.9 91.0
Kuwaitf 104.0 99.4 56.0 66.3
Oman 5.5 5.7 30.0 32.0
Qatar 15.2 20.0 905.3 903.2
Saudi Arabiaf 266.8 264.8 253.1 254.0
Syria 2.5 2.9 8.5 12.1
Yemen 3.0 2.7 16.9 16.8
Otherc (s) .7 1.3 13.6
Africa 114.8 114.7 489.6 504.2

Algeria 12.2 11.9 159.0 160.0
Angola 9.0 9.5 9.5 5.7
Egypt 3.7 3.7 58.5 68.5
Gabon 2.0 3.2 1.0 2.5
Libya 41.5 36.5 50.1 52.8
Nigeria 36.2 37.2 184.0 184.5
Sudan 5.0 6.7 3.0 4.0
Tunisia .4 .6 2.3 3.5
Otherc 1.9 1.8 7.6 15.4

Australia 1.5 4.2 30.0 151.9
Brunei 1.1 1.1 13.8 11.0
Burma .1 .2 10.0 15.0
China 16.0 18.1 80.0 61.8
India 5.6 4.0 38.0 31.8
Indonesia 4.4 4.5 93.9 92.0
Japan (s) NR .7 NR
Malaysia 4.0 5.5 83.0 88.0
Pakistan .3 .3 28.0 29.8
Thailand .5 .4 11.7 11.2
Vietnam .6 1.3 6.8 8.2
Otherc .2 .2 5.5 10.2
World 1,332.0 1,184.2 6,212.3 6,436.0

160 a Energy Data
a
oil sands.
b
Bbbl [billion barrels]. Alberta’s estimates of established oil sands reserves of 174 Bbbl are not proved; that would
c
d
e
f
Arabia.

Canada 3,826 3,425 7,251
Greenland 0 202 202
Mexico 948 387 1,335
Brazil 0 7,791 7,791
Chile 34 1,268 1,302
Colombia 7,251 420 7,671
Peru 154 0 154
Other 529 494 1,023
Europeb 9,296 41,485 50,781
Bulgaria 6 2,195 2,200
Germany 168 7,227 7,394
Greece 0 4,299 4,299
Hungary 219 3,420 3,640
Poland 6,627 1,642 8,270
Romania 13 452 465
Turkey 0 2,000 2,000
Other 241 1,834 2,076
Energy Data a 161
Eurasiac 103,186 145,931 249,117
Kazakhstan 31,052 3,450 34,502
Russia 54,110 118,964 173,074
Ukraine 16,922 20,417 37,339
Uzbekistan 1,102 2,205 3,307
Other 0 895 895
Iran 1,528 0 1,528
Africa 54,488 192 54,680
Botswana 44 0 44
South Africa 52,911 0 52,911
Zimbabwe 553 0 553
Other 980 192 1,172
Australia 40,896 43,541 84,437
China 68,564 57,651 126,215
India 57,585 4,694 62,278
Indonesia 1,897 2,874 4,771
Pakistan 1 2,184 2,185
Thailand 0 1,493 1,493
Other 721 1,046 1,767
World 472,731 [R] 456,599 [R] 929,331 [R]
a
b
c
R = Revised.
162 a Energy Data

Canada 549 [R] 554 [R] 568 [R] 565 [R]
Mexico 350 [R] 372 [R] 364 [R] 383 [R]
Other 1 1 1 1
Argentina 130 136 [R] 140 [R] 138 [R]
Brazil 326 [R] 325 [R] 336 [R] 345 [R]
Venezuela 135 [R] 142 133 134
Other 359 [R] 372 [R] 374 [R] 375
Europeb 4,503 [R] 4,487 [R] 4,436 [R] 4,500 [R]
Belgium 146 [R] 151 [R] 143 [R] 149 [R]
France 385 [R] 410 [R] 404 [R] 402 [R]
Germany 889 [R] 872 [R] 841 [R] 857 [R]
Italy 425 [R] 441 [R] 441 [R] 448 [R]
Poland 339 [R] 316 [R] 329 [R] 295 [R]
Romania 120 [R] 101 [R] 91 93
Spain 272 [R] 282 [R] 309 [R] 327 [R]
Turkey 182 [R] 184 [R] 182 [R] 202 [R]
Other 935 [R] 924 [R] 898 [R] 913 [R]
Eurasiac 2,244 [R] 2,235 [R] 2,320 [R] 2,356 [R]
Kazakhstan 120 [R] 116 [R] 133 [R] 143 [R]
Russia 1,483 [R] 1,482 [R] 1,560 [R] 1,582 [R]
Ukraine 344 [R] 333 [R] 328 [R] 327 [R]
Uzbekistan 103 102 [R] 103 106
Other 194 [R] 201 [R] 195 [R] 197 [R]
Middle East 989 [R] 1,019 [R] 1,057 [R] 1,094 [R]
Iran 291 [R] 295 [R] 317 [R] 321 [R]
Other 443 [R] 467 [R] 475 [R] 483 [R]
Africa 872 [R] 861 [R] 877 [R] 892 [R]
Egypt 112 [R] 115 [R] 117 [R] 119
Other 371 [R] 376 [R] 378 [R] 381 [R]
Australia 334 [R] 340 [R] 359 [R] 360 [R]
China 3,133 [R] 3,029 [R] 2,992 [R] 2,967 [R]
India 878 [R] 914 [R] 971 [R] 1,012 [R]
Indonesia 247 [R] 241 [R] 266 [R] 274 [R]
Japan 1,161 [R] 1,116 [R] 1,158 [R] 1,204 [R]
Energy Data a 163
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

6,697 [R] 6,782 [R] 6,870 [R] 6,970 [R] 7,034 [R] 6,954
554 [R] 573 [R] 602 [R] 615 [R] 632 [R] 614
380 [R] 384 389 385 [R] 407 [R] 436
5,762 [R] 5,824 [R] 5,878 [R] 5,969 [R] 5,994 [R] 5,903
1 1 1 1 1 1
1,016 [R] 1,005 [R] 1,023 [R] 1,066 [R] 1,111 [R] 1,138
128 [R] 121 [R] 134 [R] 141 [R] 152 [R] 162
349 [R] 347 [R] 346 [R] 356 [R] 371 [R] 377
149 [R] 147 [R] 134 [R] 143 [R] 150 [R] 152
389 390 [R] 408 [R] 426 [R] 438 447
4,559 [R] 4,532 [R] 4,679 [R] 4,713 [R] 4,717 [R] 4,721
146 [R] 143 [R] 151 [R] 154 [R] 151 [R] 148
406 [R] 402 [R] 409 [R] 416 [R] 414 [R] 418
878 [R] 857 [R] 874 [R] 872 [R] 853 [R] 858
445 [R] 453 [R] 475 [R] 470 [R] 473 [R] 468
278 [R] 259 [R] 261 [R] 271 [R] 273 [R] 260
279 [R] 276 [R] 289 [R] 295 [R] 290 [R] 303
102 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 98 [R] 99
332 [R] 349 [R] 357 [R] 371 [R] 384 [R] 373
184 [R] 195 [R] 207 [R] 211 [R] 231 [R] 236
575 [R] 564 [R] 575 [R] 582 [R] 585 [R] 586
934 [R] 934 [R] 980 [R] 972 [R] 966 [R] 973
2,332 [R] 2,354 [R] 2,471 [R] 2,529 [R] 2,600 [R] 2,601
148 [R] 154 [R] 166 [R] 185 [R] 203 [R] 213
1,571 [R] 1,572 [R] 1,627 1,663 [R] 1,699 [R] 1,704
319 [R] 327 [R] 357 [R] 347 [R] 350 [R] 329
111 114 [R] 115 [R] 122 [R] 117 [R] 121
184 [R] 188 206 [R] 212 [R] 231 [R] 233
1,119 [R] 1,175 [R] 1,240 [R] 1,330 [R] 1,444 [R] 1,505
334 [R] 365 [R] 387 [R] 407 [R] 446 [R] 471
301 [R] 312 [R] 347 [R] 389 [R] 406 [R] 424
483 [R] 499 [R] 506 [R] 535 [R] 593 [R] 610
923 [R] 924 [R] 975 [R] 1,025 [R] 1,062 [R] 1,057
130 [R] 134 [R] 144 [R] 153 [R] 161 [R] 152
399 [R] 385 [R] 418 [R] 448 [R] 438 [R] 444
394 [R] 405 [R] 413 [R] 424 [R] 463 [R] 461
7,608 [R] 8,050 [R] 8,806 [R] 9,821 [R] 10,517 [R] 11,220
374 [R] 383 [R] 381 [R] 391 [R] 417 [R] 417
3,108 [R] 3,441 [R] 4,062 [R] 4,847 [R] 5,429 [R] 6,018
1,035 [R] 1,034 [R] 1,048 [R] 1,151 [R] 1,194 [R] 1,293
300 [R] 315 [R] 305 [R] 323 [R] 324 [R] 280
1,197 [R] 1,203 [R] 1,253 [R] 1,258 [R] 1,250 [R] 1,247
164 a Energy Data
Malaysia 102 103 [R] 107 [R] 112 [R]
South Korea 435 [R] 375 [R] 433 [R] 446 [R]
Taiwan 210 [R] 225 [R] 224 [R] 252 [R]
Thailand 177 [R] 162 [R] 171 [R] 162 [R]
Other 520 [R] 530 [R] 567 [R] 578 [R]
World 23,247 [R] 23,160 [R] 23,535 [R] 24,011 [R]
a
b
c
cfm). Data include carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel energy consumption and natural-gas flaring. Totals may not
equal sum of components as a result of independent rounding. For related information, see http://www.eia.doe.gov/
international.
Energy Data a 165
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

125 [R] 134 [R] 150 [R] 166 [R] 160 [R] 164
452 [R] 468 [R] 478 [R] 489 [R] 497 [R] 515
249 [R] 274 [R] 290 [R] 287 [R] 290 [R] 300
172 [R] 187 [R] 206 [R] 226 [R] 243 [R] 245
594 [R] 612 [R] 633 [R] 683 [R] 714 [R] 741
24,253 [R] 24,823 [R] 26,064 [R] 27,453 [R] 28,485 [R] 29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:
3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a

various localities.
habitants warm.

trains.
confirmed.
and transmission.
transportation.

gas and air.
purposes.
eration.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
large numbers.
War II.
source.
pacity at the time.

standard.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
174 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
ing standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM

DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 175
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
176 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 177
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a


and recruiters.


positions.


businesses.


economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS—



WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.


WWW.DOE.GOV




WWW.KAHKE.COM
AND MANUFACTURERS
a



altarockenergy.com



FARMINGTON, CT


SAN FRANCISCO, CA

BREVARD, NC
dupont.com


FEIBURG, GERMANY

IBM, SAN JOSE, CA



www.acciona-na.com





energysiemens.com


suncor.com


DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function


Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell

Geochemical cycles


Grades 9–12
Population growth
Natural resources

History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f 5:38f
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Aeroturbine, 3:14
4:173, 5:170, 5:175 1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
190 a Index

Cells 2:127
Hydropower 5:91
2:92 – 94 4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
2:117, 5:118 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
3:33f Anode, 2:88
Alternate Fuels and Advanced Ve- Refuge
hicles Data Center, 5:127 Appliances, 5:50f; efficiency of,
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170 5:88 – 89; for green roof, 5:81 – 82
Index a 191
Society of, 5:122 – 23; NiMH, 5:122 – 23;
Association of American State Ge- ness, 2:15f; PV to, 2:14
ologists, 1:67 Bay Localize, 1:28
4:183 – 84, 5:185 – 86 Biliran, 4:33
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f 4:22, 4:40f
192 a Index

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
Biofuel, 1:xvii, 1:14, 2:xvii, 3:xvii, Biotechnology, 5:123
4:xvii, 4:89 – 90, 5:xvii; algae used Birdsville geothermal power plant,
energy source of, 4:89; benefits 2:105, 2:106f
of, 4:103 – 4; defining, 4:81 – 82; Boiling water reactors, 1:142 – 43,
Index a 193

3:182, 4:184, 5:186 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 2:115 – 16
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 (CYES), 1:30
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173, Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
194 a Index

3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, 5:5, 5:105, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Index a 195

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, (CDM), 4:51
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, (CUTE), 2:112
3:xiv, 3:169, 4:xiv, 4:171, 5:xiv, Climate change, 5:14 – 15, 5:16f;
4:102 pump (GCHP), 4:68
4:80, 4:89, 5:108, 5:111, 5:120, Coal, 1:xii, 1:10, 2:xii, 3:xii, 4:xii,
5:129 5:xii; ash slurry, 1:112; bargeload
2:17 – 21 1:109 – 11, 1:128 – 29; exporters of,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
CLC. See College of Lake County future of, 1:128 – 29; gasifica-
Clean Air Act (CAA), 1:47, 1:114, tion, 1:125 – 28, 1:126f; Germany
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, and, 1:115 – 16, 5:106; history of,
4:115 – 16 Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
1:122 of, 1:190t – 191t, 2:160t – 161t,
196 a Index

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
rock as, 1:109; videos on, 1:130; 1:xiv, 1:12, 2:xiv, 2:1, 2:35, 2:38f,
world consumption of, 1:103 3:xiv, 4:xiv, 5:xiv; environmen-
Index a 197
2:xiii; household electricity, 5:49f; 3:109 – 11; using wave energy,

natural gas, 1:83 – 84 3:116 – 18
2:4 Service
Convection, 2:68 5:160t – 161t; imports of, 1:xi – xii,
Conventional water heaters, 5:67f 2:xi – xii, 3:xi – xii, 4:xi – xii, 5:xi – xii;
198 a Index

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
5:105 DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
Dell-Winston School Solar Chal- Dissolved oxygen levels, 3:96
lenge, 2:45 Diversion power plant, 3:81
3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115 cells
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138; Dongtan, China, 5:94
4:182, 5:184; net metering 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Deposits, coal, 1:106 4:8 – 9, 4:8f
Energy Center, 1:xiii, 2:xiii, 2:22, DuPont, 2:102
2:22f, 3:xiii, 4:xiii, 5:xiii Durability, 4:70
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169, 2:12f
5:171
Index a 199

ECR Industries, 4:75 3:16, 3:21 – 22
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 4:168, 5:170
3:166, 4:168, 5:170 3:110
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
200 a Index

El Salvador, 4:42 – 43 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
5:73 – 74, 5:94. See also Carbon 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31,
Index a 201

4:171, 5:173 2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f, 4:175, 5:177
4:48f Ethane, 1:74 – 75
202 a Index

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Ethylene, 1:53 4:175, 5:172, 5:177
Europe: air-to-water heat pumps in, FGD. See Flue gas desulphurization
4:74; geothermal heat pumps in, Finland, 4:88
4:72 – 73; hot dry rock project of, First Solar, Inc, 2:22
4:48 – 49; hydrogen fuel cell re- Fish farms, 4:17, 4:19, 4:50, 4:51f
search of, 2:112 – 13; wind energy Fish ladders, 3:97f
in, 1:xv – xvi, 2:xv – xvi, 3:xv – xvi, Fission reaction, 1:138
3:57, 4:xv – xvi, 5:xv – xvi Flash-steam power plants, 4:10 – 12,
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Ve- Flat-plate collector, 2:76
hicles, 5:77 Fleet vehicles, 1:85 – 86, 1:90
(EREC), 3:98 1:151 – 52
4:185, 5:187 Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
5:170, 5:177 2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
Index a 203

consumption of, 2:xiii; emission 2:97; benefits of, 2:121; Bloom
2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, ing of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
5:131 – 32 2:106 – 7; history notes of, 5:120;
tidal power energy in, 1:xvi – xvii, school education on, 2:125 – 26;
2:xvi – xvii, 3:xvi – xvii, 3:109, 3:109f, small, 2:106, 2:120, 2:120f; solid
4:xvi – xvii, 5:xvi – xvii oxide, 2:107, 5:121; space shuttles
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 – 102 2:104
5:170, 5:177 2:107 – 9
1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t, Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 – 72, 4:102
204 a Index

3:173, 4:175, 5:177 Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
5:125 – 26 4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
3:183, 4:185, 5:187 in Italy, 4:35 – 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 205
resources of, 4:41; in US, 1:xvii, capacity of, 4:70; water heaters
2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii, 4:13 – 20, using, 4:62 – 63
4:31, 5:xvii, 5:110f; US compa- Geothermal power plants: advan-
1:35, 4:27 – 28 4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
206 a Index

1:25 – 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
Geysers, 4:4 – 5, 4:52 Gore, Al, 5:129
Gill, Dena, 3:65 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39;
1:184 – 87t, 2:154 – 57t, 3:152 – 55t, 4:176, 5:178
and, 3:56 Gray, Rande, 5:102 – 5
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 – 67 School, 5:35
3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t, 5:26 – 27
Index a 207
2:77f, 5:4 3:42f
Greenpeace, 1:36 Guri Dam, 1:xvii, 2:xvii, 3:xvii, 4:xvii,
Green Power Network Net Metering, 5:xvii
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 – 43, 5:82; ar- 4:176, 5:178
208 a Index

5:56 – 57; energy saving, 5:47 – 48;
Harris, Matt, 2:8 3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t,
wastes 2:127, 5:69
Index a 209

Hydroelectric energy, 1:xvi, 1:12 – 13, 2:90 – 91; vehicle, 2:116
2:xvi, 3:xvi, 4:xvi, 5:xvi; advantages Hydrogen fuel cells (HFC), 1:xv,
1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; 2:100 – 101; in Germany, 2:117;
210 a Index
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185, steel, 1:20 – 21; US coal, 1:113 – 15,
combined cycle 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 211

and Dams, 3:99
2:124 Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
2:33, 2:83 Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Ions, 2:88 in, 5:32
4:71 Kerosene, 1:53
212 a Index

Cells 5:102 – 5
4:33
energy, 5:56 – 57 1:85
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also 5:138
Index a 213

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40 2:126, 4:110 – 11
cells
Malaysia, 4:87 5:71
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, ing, 1:98
2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 1:96 – 97
214 a Index
Motion, 1:6
Cells 4:176, 5:170, 5:178
Hydropower 4:108
Murphy, John, 2:98
1:138 – 40
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36 5:114f, 5:116
Mojave Desert, 2:36 – 38, 2:51, 3:32, 2:90, 5:120
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127 4:117, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119 4:73
Index a 215

4:187 – 88, 5:189 – 90 safety of, 1:92
Authority, 3:119 4:177, 5:179
216 a Index

Cells 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
New York, 2:17, 2:114 – 15, 5:34, 5:82 3:117 – 18
3:110 – 11 NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
(NiMH), 5:122 – 23 1:137 – 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 – 41,
Index a 217
source, 1:131 – 32 (ORPC), 3:124
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173; Octane rating, 1:47
ers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 – 44; in 4:185, 5:187
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
5:124, 5:129 1:45; US fields of, 1:46; US im-
218 a Index

Hydropower 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 3:115
3:158, 4:160, 5:162 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Index a 219
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 uses for, 2:6
1: 151 5:113
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169; Poland, 1:116
2:119 3:81; double-flash, 4:11; flash-
220 a Index
1:81 – 82; Poland’s coal, 1:116;

Cells 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
Pressures, 4:3
1:144 Quantum dots, 5:114 – 15
1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, Radiant energy, 1:5
4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88 Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Index a 221

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84; China
1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on 2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind sion of, 2:28 – 29
1:190 – 91t, 2:160t – 161t, Renovation, 5:27 – 28
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, 2:98
222 a Index

2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
4:40, 4:44 San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 – 6
1:29, 1:31 2:111
2:110f, 5:69 San Juan Basin, 1:80
Index a 223
in, 4:66 4:11
Schwarze Pumpe, 1:124f Small Business Guide to Energy Ef-
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, ficiency, 5:23
3:185, 4:187, 5:189 plants, 3:89 – 90
5:146t – 149t 2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
224 a Index
2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31,

5:132 – 33; schools using, 2:16 – 17;
2:3 – 4; US projects of, 2:21 – 23; US
5:64 – 65, 5:64f Solar heaters, 2:79f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185; Solar ovens, 2:71
2:4; cost of, 2:30 – 31; econom- 3:64f
Index a 225
Solatubes, 5:37 4:98 – 102, 4:99f
5:121 4:169, 5:171
4:186, 5:188 Rotor
4:69 1:60f
4:188, 5:190 (SEAT), 1:28
226 a Index

3:116 – 17
Cells 3:9
5:35 – 36
Index a 227
Thailand, 4:39 – 40, 4:87 Tiwi, 4:41
228 a Index

5:173 of, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; geothermal
energy in, 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 229
of, 3:17 – 18, 5:115; wind energy 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75;
4:137, 5:139 plant, 3:59
1:144 3:14 – 15
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 – 20 3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:28 5:108f
4:123
230 a Index

1:145
4:168, 5:170 3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 – 18;
3:116f rials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
Index a 231
3:46, 3:46f Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 – 67
232 a Index
Xeriscape, 5:87
Cells 5:188
4:9, 4:52
2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139 2:33
opment, 5:101f ment, 3:67 – 68
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4 5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 3: Wind Energy,

Oceanic Energy, and
Hydropower
John F. Mongillo
Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66 2011
621.042—dc22 2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Wind Power 1
What Is Wind Power? 2
A Short History of Wind Energy for Power 2
What Are Winds? Some Basic Facts 3
Wind Direction and Wind Speed 5
Wind Speed Determines Wind Power 5
What Is a Wind Turbine? 7
Rotor Blades 7
How Do You Determine the Energy of the Rotor? 7
Transmission System and Gearbox 9
How Do the Blades Keep Facing the Changing Winds? 11
Two Kinds of Wind Generators 12
Large Turbines and Smaller Ones 15
Wind Turbine Manufacturers and Wind Plant Developers 16
The Economics of Wind Energy 16
Wind Energy Provides Ancillary Economic Benefits 17
Wind Power Benefits 18
Wind Power Issues 18
vi a Contents
The Future for Wind Power 24

Challenges Ahead 24
Interview
The Use of Wind Turbines, Spirit Lake, Iowa 19
Chapter 2 Wind Power in the United States 29

The United States—A Leading Producer of Wind Power 29
Farmers and Wind Power Technology 38
The Business of Wind Farms 39
Home and Small Wind Energy Systems 40
Wind Energy for Schools 44
Interview
Michael Arquin 47
Chapter 3 Global Wind Power and the Future 55

Wind Power in Europe and Asia 56
Installing Offshore Wind Power Plants 62
What’s Ahead for Wind Power? A Global Challenge
for Europe and the United States 68
Interview
Mary E. Spruill 64
Chapter 4 Hydroelectric Power 73

Hydroelectric Power in the United States 74
What Is Hydroelectric Power? 77
Short History of Hydroelectric Power 78
Hydroelectric Power Dams 78
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants 80
The Components of a Hydroelectric Power Plant 81
How Much Electricity Can a Hydroelectric
Plant Generate? 83
The Leading Hydroelectric Power Plants in the World 83
Microhydropower: Using Small-Scale Hydroelectric
Power Systems 89
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power 95
Disadvantages of Hydropower 96
Small Hydropower Organizations 98
Contents a vii
Chapter 5 Ocean Tidal Power, Ocean Wave Power,

and Ocean Thermal Energy 103
Tidal Power 104
Ocean Wave Energy 113
Ocean Thermal Energy 118

Energy Data 137
Profiles 171
Index 187
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a



xiv a Introduction

21st century.

Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction


ogy milestones.
powered car.
Introduction a xvii


Petroleum

Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
xx a Introduction
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy

one in France.

Geothermal

xxiv a Introduction
Energy’s Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
a
Wind Power
The first school district in the nation to be powered entirely by wind en-
ergy is the Spirit Lake Community School District in northern Iowa.
The district’s two tall wind turbines provide all the electricity for the
district’s middle school, high school, district offices, maintenance building,
football field, and baseball and softball fields. The good news is that both
turbines have been paid for.
Excess electricity is fed into the local utility system and has earned the
school $25,000 in its first five years of operation. In fact, the district counts
on the annual savings and income to improve education for the children of
the Spirit Lake Community School District.
The wind energy program in the Spirit Lake Community School Dis-
trict is just one of many success stories of schools, homes, and other insti-
tutions that are using wind power to produce energy.
VIDEO
For a collection of videos on wind energy, go to http://www.awea.org/newsroom/
video/.
DID YOU KNOW?

Several countries are developing and using wind power. Some of the major coun-
tries are China, Germany, India, Denmark, England, and Spain. In fact, as of 2010,
China was the leading manufacturer of wind turbines.
WHAT IS WIND POWER?

Wind power is an alternative energy resource that uses the kinetic energy
in moving air to generate electricity. At the end of 2008, the American
Wind Energy Association (AWEA) reported that wind projects installed
in the United States were expected to generate 52 million megawatt-hours
per year. This figure represents approximately 1.26 percent of the nation’s
electricity in that year. Although wind power currently produces less than
2 percent of the United States’ electrical demand, it is the fastest-growing
renewable energy resource, and the future looks even more promising.
The AWEA estimates that by the year 2025, wind power will produce
more than 10 percent of the electricity in the United States. Other estimates
are higher. The U.S. Department of Energy in 2008 reported that wind en-
ergy could generate 20 percent of the nation’s electricity demand by 2030.
A SHORT HISTORY OF WIND ENERGY FOR POWER

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of the movement of air and can be used
for many forms of power. For more than 5,000 years, civilizations have
harnessed wind energy power to do a variety of work. As an example, the
early Egyptians sailed up and down the Nile River aboard wind-powered
boats. Windmills in Persia, now Iran, and cities in the Middle East were
used to grind wheat and other grains for food production.
Later on, the Dutch in Holland improved the design of the windmill and
used its power for draining lakes and marshes to provide more acreage for
farming. Back in the states, American colonists used windmills to grind wheat
and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. The following abbrevi-
ated time line lists some of the wind technology events in recent decades:
1941 The world’s first large wind turbine to produce electricity and
be hooked up and connected to a power grid was established in
Castleton, Vermont. The turbine had 75-foot blades and weighed
240 tons. Later, another wind turbine began producing electricity
in an area known as Grandpa’s Knob, also in Vermont.
Wind Power a 3
1970s In Ohio the National Aeronautic and Space Administration

(NASA) began research into large commercial multi-megawatt
wind turbines by installing and testing 13 experimental turbines
for research and development.
1980s The modern wind industry began in the 1980s. As of 2008, the
United States was a world leader in wind electricity generation.
WHAT ARE WINDS? SOME BASIC FACTS

Wind is a form of solar energy, and as a fluid it can move easily from one
place to the next. You can define wind also as the horizontal movement of
air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
Global winds are large wind systems that circle Earth. These systems include
the trade winds, westerlies, and easterlies. These fast-moving global winds
blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere as the Earth rotates on its axis. (Source: National Park
Service)
Some regions of Earth, such as at the equator, receive direct rays from
the sun all year and are always warm. Other places, such as those near the
poles, receive indirect rays, so the atmosphere over these regions is cooler.
When air over a heated surface, such as near the equator, expands, it be-
comes less dense. As a result the air takes up less space. As the air becomes
less dense, the air pressure decreases. If cooler, high pressure, and dense air
is nearby, it flows underneath the warm, less dense air. When this action
happens, the warm air rises into the atmosphere. The up and down move-
ments of the cold flow of air and the warm flow of air, together with the
rotation of Earth, are what cause the winds to blow and circulate around
all the continents of the globe.
Local winds are small wind systems, unlike the global winds. A local wind sys-
tem, such as a sea breeze, is caused when cooler air from the sea flows over
warmer land near the coastline. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

What are high and low pressure? Regions of cold, heavy air have high air pressure
and are referred to as “highs.” Regions of warm, light air have low pressure and
are referred to as “lows.”
Wind Power a 5
Global winds are large wind systems that circle Earth. The fast-moving
global wind systems blow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and coun-
terclockwise in the southern hemisphere as Earth rotates.
WIND DIRECTION AND WIND SPEED

The wind direction is the direction from which a wind originates. As an
example, winds from the north are called northerly winds. To determine
wind direction, you can use a weather vane or a windsock. Wind direction
is recorded in four major directions as north, east, south, and west. Weather
instruments used to measure wind speed and direction are called anemom-
eters and wind vanes.
The Beaufort scale records wind speed. The scale was invented in 1805
by Admiral Beaufort, who established the scale to estimate wind speed
through observations of moving objects such as tree limbs and flags blow-
ing in the wind. The Beaufort scale is a special measurement tool that uses
“force” numbers 0 –12 to indicate wind speed. A gentle breeze on this scale
would be a force number 3 while a Beaufort number 9 would indicate a
strong gale force. Initially, the Beaufort scale was primarily used at sea, but
now it is used to measure wind on land. The unit of measurement for wind
speed is miles per hour, knots, or kilometers per hour.
WIND SPEED DETERMINES WIND POWER

Wind power is the conversion of kinetic wind energy into a form of clean,
renewable energy used to generate electricity. So how do you measure the
power of the wind? To determine energy output from a wind generator,
you need to know wind speed. The energy that the wind contains is a
function of the cube of its speed. For example, a 12 mile-per-hour wind
produces 70 percent more energy than a 10 mile-per-hour wind: the cube
of the 12 mile-per-hour wind (or 123) equals 1,728, and the cube of the
10 mile-per-hour wind (or 103) equals 1,000.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1934 scientists in the Mt. Washington Observatory in New Hampshire recorded
a wind speed of 231 miles per hour on Mt. Washington.
The Beaufort wind scale is a tool that uses numbers 0 –12 to estimate wind
speed conditions. (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association)
Wind Power a 7
WHAT IS A WIND TURBINE?

Wind turbines, also referred to as aerogenerators, are used to generate elec-
tricity from wind energy. Most often, wind turbines are located in lowland
rural areas that regularly receive steady winds of at least 14 miles per hour.
In these ideal locations, obstacles, such as high mountains, tall trees, and
buildings do not block the winds.
Wind turbines are made up of several components—the rotor and
blades, the transmission system, the gearbox and the generator, and the
yaw. The other parts of the wind turbine system include the nacelle,
tower, and electronic equipment. The parts of the system are designed
to work together to convert the mechanical motion of the wind into
electricity.
ROTOR BLADES
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor, which is the rotating
part of the wind turbine. Most turbines have three blades attached to a
hub. The pitch of the blades refers to the angle of the rotor blades as they
“lift” and rotate into the wind. Winds cause the rotation of the blades to
spin a shaft in a generator, which makes electricity. If the blades are all
positioned in the same direction, they will start to spin. Many rotor blades
are colored light gray to blend in with the scenery and have lengths rang-
ing from 65 to 130 feet or more.
HOW DO YOU DETERMINE THE ENERGY

OF THE ROTOR?
The energy that is available to the wind turbine is proportional to the
swept area of the rotor. Now for the math. As the rotor spins, its blades
cover a circular disc during one rotation and can produce energy from the
DID YOU KNOW?

Claude Burdin (1788–1873) coined the term turbine from the Latin turbo, or vortex,
during an 1828 engineering competition. Benoit Fourneyron (1802–1867), a student
of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.
DID YOU KNOW?

Turning the rotor sideways to the wind to keep it from turning too fast when the
winds are strong is known as furling.
air molecules that pass through the circle. To find the swept area, you need
to do some math, but it is not difficult.
Swept Area Mathematics Using

the Metric System
The swept area, or area of a circle, is equal to pi times the square of the
radius: 3.1415 × r 2. Radius is one-half of the diameter. So if wind turbine
A has a rotor diameter of 100 meters, the radius would be 50 meters, and
the swept area would be approximately 7,853 square meters. This area
would be the size of 1.5 football fields!
Let’s look at another example. Wind turbine B has a rotor diameter of
50 meters. Although the rotor diameter is only 1/2 of wind turbine A, the
swept area of wind turbine B is approximately 1,963 meters—much less
than turbine A. As you can see, the swept area of wind turbine B is much
less than that of wind turbine A, and therefore, turbine A has more energy
potential than turbine B.
Wind Speed Is Important Too

Wind speed is also important in determining the amount of energy a
wind generator can convert to electricity. The amount of the wind’s energy
varies with the cube (the third power) of the average wind speed. This
means that a small increase in wind speed can produce a large increase
in power. For example, if wind speed were 10 kilometers per hour, the
potential power would have a speed factor of 1,000 (103). If wind speed
doubled to 20 kilometers per hour, the potential power would have a speed
factor of 8,000. A doubling of wind speed therefore leads to an eight-fold
increase in power.
The stronger the wind, the more effective the turbine. However, if the
wind is too strong, the turbine can be damaged. Additionally, the longer
the rotor blades, the more effective they are. Of course, if they are too long,
they can become difficult to manage because of their size and shape.
Wind Power a 9
FEATURE
Sandia Helps Develop New Wind Turbine Blade Design
According to researchers at the Sandia National Laboratories, in Albuquerque,
New Mexico, engineers have designed a new wind turbine blade. The design of the
new blade has the possibility of being more efficient than current blade designs.
Another plus is that the new blade can reduce the cost of energy of wind turbines
at land areas that have low wind speeds.
Named “STAR” for Sweep Twist Adaptive Rotor, the blade is the first of its kind
because it has a distinctive look. The blade has a gently curved tip, termed “sweep,”
which is specially designed for low-wind-speed land regions like the midwestern
United States. At these land sites, the annual average wind speed is 12 miles an
hour, measured at a height of 30 feet. The blade also improves energy because it
features a curvature toward the trailing edge of the blade. The curvature allows the
blade to twist more than traditional designs. This feature extends the lifespan of the
blade from being damaged by gusty and turbulent winds.
In summary, the swept area and wind speed determine much of the
turbine’s power. The design and manufacturing of wind turbines, and even
the selecting of a location for a wind turbine, depends much on the math
numbers of the swept area and the wind speed. Anyone considering in-
stalling a wind generator needs to do the math to determine whether the
project is feasible and worth the investment.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM AND GEARBOX

The gearbox and the braking system are part of the transmission system.
Other parts include lubricating and cooling systems. This system is im-
portant because it prevents the turbine and other parts from overheat-
ing. The braking system is designed to lock the rotor when the turbine
is shut down.
Gearbox and Generator

Depending on the size of the wind turbine, there may be a gearbox between
the spinning rotor and the generator. The gearbox assists the generator in
spinning fast enough to make electricity for the transmission grid.
The gears give a wind turbine a mechanical advantage by turning slow
rotation of the blades, for example 16 revolutions per minute, into a much
Most wind turbines consist of several components that include rotor blades,
gearbox, generator, controller, yaw drive and motor, anemometer, wind vane,
and a transmission system. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
faster rotation in the generator, such as 1,600 revolutions per minute. That
is a ratio of 100:1. Turbines need a high gear ratio of 100:1 to be efficient.
For comparison, the gear ratio on a bicycle is probably around 3:1. The
generator produces alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be con-
verted to direct current (DC) if needed.
Gearbox Issues
One of the heaviest and most expensive parts of a large wind turbine is the
gearbox. The gearbox on a wind turbine can require much maintenance,
so wind engineers are experimenting with “direct-drive” generators that
operate at lower rotational speeds and therefore do not need gearboxes.
Ideas to design wind turbines without gears may also reduce the amount
of maintenance for the generator and cut costs.
Wind Power a 11
Controller
The controller, just as the name implies, is used to control wind speeds. The
controller jumpstarts the operation of the wind turbine when wind speeds
reach from 8 to 16 miles per hour. The controller can also shut off the wind
generator when winds speeds reach 55 miles per hour. Speeds greater than
55 miles per hour can damage most wind turbines. The controller also
contains electronic equipment such as electrical cables.
Wind Vane
The wind vane measures wind direction and guides the yaw drive to posi-
tion the turbine to face into the wind.
Nacelle
The housing for the major components is called the nacelle, which includes
the generator that converts the mechanical energy of moving wind into
electrical energy.
Tower
The tower can be the most expensive part of the turbine system. Towers are
made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed in-
creases with height, taller towers allow turbines to capture more energy and
generate more electricity. For example, at 120 feet or more above ground,
the winds are faster and less turbulent than wind currents at ground level.
Wind industry experts suggest that customers always purchase tall towers
because winds close to the ground are often weak and turbulent.
HOW DO THE BLADES KEEP FACING

THE CHANGING WINDS?
Most turbines today are built to be able to rotate into the wind. This system
for positioning the turbine is called “yawing” (not yawning). The blades
will not spin if the wind is coming from the side of the turbine. So it is
very important that the turbine be able to yaw. Passive yawing and active
yawing systems keep wind turbines in the correct position as the wind
changes direction. Most small wind turbines use passive, nonmechanical
yawing systems.
Passive Yawing
Passive yawing allows the force of the wind to push the turbine into the
best position to turn the blades. To do this, the turbine has a vane to posi-
tion the rotor in a perpendicular direction to the wind.
Active Yawing
All large turbines use active yawing. These are the turbines you see on wind
farms. An anemometer and a wind vane are installed on top of the wind
turbine to electronically send a signal to the controller as to which way to
point the rotor. The yaw power mechanism turns the gears to point the
rotor into the direction of the wind.
Wind turbines are mounted on high towers to collect the most en-
ergy. At 100 feet or more above ground, wind turbines produce more
power because of the faster and less turbulent winds than at ground
level. Most wind installers recommend installing wind turbines on high
towers.
TWO KINDS OF WIND GENERATORS

Modern wind turbines are classified as either the horizontal-axis or the
vertical-axis design.
Horizontal-Axis Turbine
Horizontal-axis wind turbines are the major wind turbines used in the
world. Any tall wind turbine in your state will be this kind. The horizontal-
axis turbines have either two or three blades that operate upwind, meaning
the blades face into the wind. The blades on horizontal-axis wind turbines
resemble airplane propellers and are designed long and wide to produce
hundreds of kilowatts of electricity. A typical horizontal wind turbine
can reach the height of more than 200 feet and have blades longer than
100 feet.
The spinning blades cause the generator to convert mechanical energy
into electricity, which is then distributed along transmission power lines
to consumers. Most horizontal-axis wind turbines produce electricity ap-
proximately 75 percent of the time at wind speeds of less than 10 miles
per hour.
Wind Power a 13
DID YOU KNOW?

Turbines with three blades are the most popular design. Turbines with two blades
turn more quickly and are lighter but are noisier than three-bladed turbines.
Modern wind turbines are classified as a horizontal axis variety (left) and a
vertical axis design (right). The major wind turbines used in the world are hori-
zontal axis turbines. (iStockphoto)
Vertical-Axis Turbine
The vertical-axis design is called the Darrieus model, named after its
French inventor. Vertical-axis wind turbines have advantages and disad-
vantages, but overall they have not been as popular or as marketable as the
horizontal-axis wind turbines. Therefore, the vertical-axis wind turbines
make up only a very small percentage of the wind turbines sold and in-
stalled today. However, new ideas and technology for using vertical wind
machines are being planned. Vertical-axis wind generators have blades that
go from top to bottom. The most common type of Darrieus wind turbine
looks like a giant two-bladed eggbeater that can reach as high as 100 feet
when installed. Short vertical-axis wind turbines have been installed on
the flat roofs of tall commercial buildings and some have been installed at
ground level. Visitors at the Randall Museum in San Francisco can view
an Aeroturbine installed in the museum’s courtyard. The Aeroturbine is
approximately 20 feet high within a 6 foot by 10 foot cage.
A New Kind of Vertical-Axis Turbine

The vertical-axis turbine is getting a new look. Bluenergy Solarwind™
Turbine, Inc., developed a vertical-axis turbine with special wind vanes
containing solar energy cells. It is a double-helix vertical-axis turbine de-
sign. This is the first hybrid system that will use both solar energy and wind
power to produce electricity. The solar cells coated with a special film can
process sunlight from any angle. The film is dirt-resistant, non-reflective,
and impact-resistant. According to the company, using solar cells on the
wind vanes increases the power output of the wind turbine 30 –35 percent
FEATURE
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the nation’s primary labora-
tory for renewable energy and energy-efficiency research and development.
NREL’s wind research supports the U.S. Department of Energy’s Wind Energy
Technologies Program.
NREL focuses its research and development to advance national energy goals.
The goals include developing new technologies to change the way we use power
for our homes and businesses and fuel our cars. NREL’s research and development
areas include renewable electricity, renewable fuels, and integrated energy sys-
tem engineering and testing.
Funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Wind Energy Technologies Program,
the research programs have developed multi-megawatt wind turbines that produce
electricity. Researchers at the NWTC are working in partnership with industry to
develop larger, more efficient wind turbines for land-based and offshore installa-
tions, as well as more efficient, quieter small wind turbines for homes. The NREL’s
Small Wind Turbine Research staff is independently testing small wind turbines to
help the wind industry provide consumers with more certified small wind turbine
systems. The National Wind Technology Center is located south of Boulder, Colo-
rado. It provides library services and publishes newsletters in wind energy tech-
nologies. For more information, go to: http://www.nrel.gov/wind/nwtc.html.
Wind Power a 15
and allows electricity to be made even when the wind is calm. The turbine
design generates electricity in breezes as low as four miles per hour and
can produce power also in winds up to 90 miles per hour. However, wind
speeds at more than 50 miles per hour can be hazardous to some turbine
installations. The potential for this kind of turbine means that both wind
and sun energy can be used in one machine to produce electricity. And the
energy can be generated during all seasons throughout the year. To view
this kind of wind turbine that fuses solar energy and wind energy, go to
http://www.bluenergyusa.com/.
LARGE TURBINES AND SMALLER ONES

Large Wind Farms
You may have seen photographs of hundreds of wind turbines all aligned
in rows on large tracts of land. Such a large expansive area of tall turbines
is called a wind farm. A wind farm is located in an area that regularly re-
ceives sustained winds of at least 14 miles per hour and on land that is not
blocked by obstacles such as tall trees, high hills, or even mountains. The
electricity generated by the wind turbines is distributed along transmission
power lines to homes, schools, and businesses.
Small Turbines
Small wind turbines are usually built and installed in remote sites where
electricity from a transmission grid may not be available. Intermediate
wind turbines are often used for schools or as part of a hybrid system that
uses diesel generators as a supplementary power source to the wind gen-
erator. In chapter 2, small turbines and large wind farms are discussed in
more depth.
FEATURE
How Is Electricity Production and Consumption Measured?
Electricity production and consumption are measured in kilowatt-hours. A kilowatt-
hour means 1 kilowatt (1,000 watts) of electricity produced or consumed for 1 hour.
One 50-watt light bulb left on for 20 hours consumes 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity
(50 watts × 20 hours = 1,000 watt-hours = 1 kilowatt-hour).
DID YOU KNOW?

A 10-kilowatt wind turbine can generate about 10,000 kilowatt-hours annually at
a site with wind speeds averaging 12 miles per hour, which is enough energy to
power electrical needs for a typical household. The average U.S. household con-
sumes about 10,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity each year.
WIND TURBINE MANUFACTURERS

AND WIND PLANT DEVELOPERS
According to the AWEA, wind industry manufacturing facilities in the
United States grew to more than 100 in 2007. Some of these manufac-
turing facilities are in the states of Illinois, Iowa, South Dakota, Texas,
Wisconsin, Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, North Carolina, New York, and
Oklahoma. The AWEA has compiled a list of U.S. manufacturers and
suppliers of wind turbines for use in residential, farm, and commercial/in-
dustrial applications. A few of the major wind turbine manufacturers and
suppliers in the United States include such companies as General Electric
(GE) Wind, Siemens, Vestas, Mitsubishi, Suzlon, and Gamesa.
THE ECONOMICS OF WIND ENERGY

The AWEA reports that the costs of wind energy over the past 20 years
have been reduced. Although wind energy’s costs will continue to decline
as the industry grows and matures, financing the large wind farms will
require a major outlay of funding from energy investors.
Much of the challenge for these energy investors is that wind turbine
technology is a capital-intensive industry. The term “capital-intensive” refers
to a business process or an industry that requires large amounts of money
and other resources upfront to produce a product or service. A capital-
DID YOU KNOW?

The oil industry can be capital-intensive. For example, building an oil platform in
deep water offshore can cost billions of dollars, not just for the structure but also
for the pipelines needed to transport the crude oil and gas. All of this work has to
be completed before any profit is generated.
Wind Power a 17
intensive industry such as wind energy requires a substantial amount of

money and it may be some time before investors can make a profit from
their initial investment.
WIND ENERGY PROVIDES ANCILLARY

ECONOMIC BENEFITS
In 2008 the Department of Energy published a report titled 20% Wind
Energy by 2030. One of the major objectives of the report was “to exam-
ine wind as one element of a portfolio of energy solutions responsive to
national needs in the areas of energy security, environmental integrity, and
economic development. Another objective was to change the way energy
leaders think about wind power.”
The AWEA also commented on the economic benefits of wind energy.
According to the AWEA, if we increase our nation’s wind energy capacity
to 20 percent by 2030, some of the benefits will be to
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a cumulative total of 7,600 mil-
lion tons of carbon dioxide by 2030.
• Expand manufacturing facilities to produce enough turbines and
components for the 20 percent wind program. The industry would req-
uire more than 30,000 direct manufacturing jobs across the nation.
As the manufacturing of wind turbines has increased, the cost to consumers

using wind energy has decreased. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy)
• Benefit the economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites
are found. Farmers and ranchers would continue to work the land
because the wind turbines use only a fraction of the land.
• Reduce water consumption in the electric sector by four trillion gal-
lons from 2007 to 2030.
WIND POWER BENEFITS

Wind energy is a renewable energy resource that does not produce emis-
sions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gases. When compared to other
renewable energy technologies, wind energy is one of the lowest-priced
renewable resources available today. Wind costs have been estimated at
between four and six cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the location
and wind speed. Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus
benefiting the economy in rural areas where most of the best wind sites
are found.
WIND POWER ISSUES

Critics say that a modern wind farm is not attractive and that in some
locations a wind farm produces too much noise. However, in remote areas
where most wind farms are located, noise is not a major problem.
Following are some other issues with wind farm development:
• Use of large tracts of land (the average wind farm requires 17 acres of
land to produce one megawatt of electricity).
• Some erosion in desert areas.
• Disturbances to wildlife habitats.
• Bird and bat mortality caused by collisions with wind turbines.
• Although a wind turbine is of low-frequency sound waves, it can be
noisy to some.
DID YOU KNOW?

In a wind farm the turbines have to be separated from each other to have space to
access unused wind.
Wind Power a 19
INTERVIEW
The following case study, using an interview format, describes how a school dis-
trict decided to plan, finance, and install two wind turbines on a school site. The
publisher and the author are pleased that we have permission to reprint this inter-
view by several members of the Spirit Lake Wind Project.
The Spirit Lake Community District in Spirit Lake, Iowa, has wind turbines
that have supplied electricity for the district’s middle school, high school,
and other nearby buildings. Excess electricity is routed to the local utility
company. (Courtesy Spirit Lake Community School District)
The Use of Wind Turbines in the Spirit Lake, Iowa, School District: A Wind-Wind
Situation.
Jan Bolluyt 1, Tim Grieves 2, and Jim Tirevold 3
1
Physics Teacher
2
Superintendent
3
Director of Buildings and Grounds
Spirit Lake, Iowa Community School District
Editor’s Note: Jan Bolluyt served as the main contact at Spirit Lake High School
in the preparation of this article. He coordinated responses to the questions by
working with Dr. Tim Grieves and Jim Tirevold. The school district makes use of two
wind turbines. The first, smaller wind turbine stands 140 feet tall on a pad and pier
base and has an 87-foot rotor diameter. The later, larger wind turbine is 180 feet tall
on a Patrick and Henderson foundation with a 158-foot diameter rotor. Dr. DeWayne
Backhus, Chair of the Departments of Physical Sciences at Emporia State Univer-
sity, assisted with preparation of the questions.
Go to the Spirit Lake School District web site (http://www.spirit-lake.k12.ia.us) and
then click on wind energy for more information and a listing of additional resources.
1. What was the inspiration to have wind turbines built at the school site as an
alternate energy source?
The inspiration was sparked at a very windy flag football game that our school
board president, Craig Newell, D.D.S., and superintendent, Harold Overmann, at-
tended. Newell commented that it would be exciting to be able to harness all the
wind energy and make it into something useful. Newell pursued the idea and re-
searched the possibilities. He then reported his findings to the school board.
2. What was the general timeline from when the idea was a serious consideration
to completion of the second wind turbine?
The idea was presented at the September 1992, school board meeting, and the
second wind turbine was on line in October of 2001.
3. How many companies did you talk to before deciding on the wind turbines to
buy? Which company(ies) did you use?
The board determined the specifications that they found necessary for our elemen-
tary school building and based on the wind studies performed on the proposed
location. The bidding process was open. Three companies bid on the first (smaller)
wind turbine and two bid on the second (larger) wind turbine. The companies se-
lected based on their bids and plans were Wind World and NEG Micon.
4. What were the lessons you learned in the process and which could/should be
utilized by others?
The main lesson that we learned was that persistence pays off. Our wind turbine
was the first school experiment in the state. Negotiations with our current utility
company, loan and grant applications, bidding procedures, wind studies, etc., were
all new to us and took much more time than they would today. None of them could
be avoided nor streamlined in the beginning. Schools with a plan to install their own
wind turbine(s) should check with others in their state while developing their plans.
A second lesson based on our experience is to recommend that a cost/benefit
study be conducted. Although a bond issue was not necessary in our case, such an
undertaking for a public school district needed justification from the get-go.
5. What issues were negotiated with the utility company (e.g., comment on cost
incurred for connecting to the utility, how much is paid the school as a generator
per kilowatt-hour (kWh) versus how much it costs per kilowatt hour to buy as a
consumer . . .)?
The final outcome of our negotiations with the utility company was monthly net
billing. This meant that meters were in place for both production and usage (con-
sumption) at the school. Each month the total usage was subtracted from the pro-
duction. If the outcome was positive, the utility company paid us at a rate of ap-
proximately 2 cents/kWh. If we used more than produced, we were billed at the
Wind Power a 21
current rate for our district (9.7 cents per kWh). Connection costs were part of the
bid and compliance with the utility company was done on an hourly rate charge.
Compliance involved compatibility of the wind energy generation interconnection
with the utility company distribution system. Specifically, this included the means
of connection to the grid, voltage fluctuation maximums, power load protection,
relays, etc.
6. What is the capacity (kilowatts) of the first, smaller wind turbine? . . . of the
larger wind turbine?
The first is a 250 kW turbine; it is producing approximately 300,000-kWh/ year. The
second is a 750 kW and is producing 1.7 MWh/year.
7. What are the cut-in speeds for each wind turbine?
For the smaller wind turbine the cut-in speed is approximately 8 mph with a range of
generation up to 50 mph. For the second it is 5 mph, with a range also up to 50 mph.
8. What are the generating capacities (kilowatts) of the wind turbines at the cut-in
speeds?
It is 19 kW for the smaller generator and 50 kW for the larger.
9. What are the generating capacities (kilowatts) of the wind turbines at their
peak wind speeds?
The generating capacities are 250 kW and 750 kW.
10. What percent of the time is each wind turbine at peak production?
This information is not available. Our wind feasibility study gave us predicted out-
puts, but I did not have access to that study. Also, our monthly data output is in total
production, not in instantaneous production. I do believe that we can print a graphic
production report that can be interpreted for such data, but we have not done so.
11. What percent of the time is there no generation?
Again, we have not collected that data. There is instrumentation available to record
this information, but we do not have it attached to either rotor.
12. Does the first, smaller wind turbine energize only the elementary building?
The yearly production of the smaller turbine is approximately the same as the kWh
consumption in a year by the elementary school building. It was designed to match
the usage of that building.
13. What is the typical kWh per year generation by the first wind turbine?
The production of the first, smaller wind turbine is 300,000 kWh.
14. What is the typical kWh per year generation by the second wind turbine?
The production is 1.7 MWh (mega-watt hours).
15. What load (percent of annual consumption) is the second, bigger wind turbine
providing for its consuming source?
The second generator produces approximately the same amount of electricity that is
used by the rest of the school district; we are at about 100% usage/production when
both wind turbines are included. We have an elementary building, middle school, high
school, district office, industrial technology building, and maintenance building that
are all included in the comparison of wind energy production and consumption.
16. Does the combined production meet the school’s yearly demand?
At our current size, yes, it does meet the demand. All districts are dynamic. We
are currently finishing a middle school classroom addition and planning for a high
school auditorium and gymnasium complex. Those changes will increase our elec-
trical needs beyond our current production. Some discussions are underway to
increase the capacity to meet demand.
17. How does the energy consumed by the district compare to energy produced by
the wind turbines? If the school district makes a profit on costs of wind turbines
and energy/power used versus energy/power produced, how does the money
saved or earned allow the school to do other things?
The two, currently, are almost the same. Because our payback is only 2 cents/kWh
and yet the cost of purchasing the same is now 9.7 cents/kWh, it would not pay for
us to go into the production of electricity for our utility company. We currently are
using what would be our estimated costs for electricity to pay off the loan on the
second generator. We feel that the cost savings is approximately $130,000.00 per
year allowing us to hire 2.5 more professionals on staff, or fund our programs to that
extent. When our loans are paid (2–3 years) and the cost of electricity increases,
our savings will also increase.
18. How has the presence of the wind turbines affected or impacted the K-12
curriculum?
It has affected the curriculum immensely. Wind energy-related topics are cross-
curricular including, mathematics, science, government, language arts, art, etc.
We also include these topics at multiple grade levels. I could mention all the cur-
ricular changes that have taken place, but you do not have the space or the time.
I will mention a few to whet your appetite.
• The first-grade class wrote a book about Curious George and the Wind
Turbine with each child writing and drawing a page using a question they
had as motivation. The entire class then combined them (check our web
page). The students visited the turbines and researched their answers. It
was impressive.
• Our physics students teach the unit of electricity to the fourth-grade stu-
dents each year. They use old telephone generators, VandeGraf genera-
tors, etc., to introduce the concepts of electricity. The question and answer
period always includes many questions about our wind generators.
• The third-grade classes made wind toys and used the turbines as inspira-
tion for a poem about wind energy.
• In algebra class the data from the wind turbines is used as real data for
statistics, and the students derive the linear equations from a pollution
calculator using data that they input.
• In physics class, the students build their own motors and generators after
touring the wind generators. They learned the practical side of electricity
Wind Power a 23
generation, calculated cost savings, learned about electrical grids,

brownouts, metering, and so much more.
• The Spirit Lake High School government class was invited to the state leg-
islature to discuss the implementation of wind energy for the Spirit Lake
Schools. Students have been included in all phases of implementation.
19. What are some typical lessons (brief descriptions)?
In addition to those mentioned earlier, here are some more examples:
• Middle school mathematics students use similar triangles to estimate the
height of the wind turbines.
• The statistics class uses monthly data for statistical analyses.
• In business, students use the wind turbine data to determine cost sav-
ings, interest payments, etc.
• In speech class students do persuasive speeches concerning the pros or
cons of wind energy production.
• Computer class students design a web presence for school wind data.
• CAD/CAM students design the wind turbine given its specifications.
• In art students use perspective, vertical to horizontal proportions, draw-
ing, lighting, and shadows.
• For reading/writing, the wind turbines are used as the subject of a writing
assignment for different styles of writing such as Shakespearean, techni-
cal journal, etc.
20. Have perceived benefits (or problems) matched what has occurred? Provide
some details.
The problems that we perceived were as follows:
• It is a visual eye-sore: We have found that a few people feel it is an eye-
sore, but most agree that the benefits are worth the visual effects when
compared to radio towers, telephone poles, billboards, etc. Some people
even like the look!
• Sound pollution: That problem is moot. The decibel level is almost im-
perceptible unless you are listening for it and you are very close to the
turbine (30 db at 500 feet).
• Bird kill: We have not found the bodies of any birds below either tower
since they were built. It seems apparent that they are able to easily avoid
the turning blades. In comparison, there have been four birds killed by the
picture windows in my house in the same amount of time!
• Ice thrown from the blades: This problem has not occurred since the be-
ginning, but we do not have any playground equipment in the immediate
area below the turbines. The velocity of the blades and the pull of gravity
would place the ice in the shadow area of the blades themselves.
21. If there was opposition to the wind turbines, what reasons were given for the
opposition?
We were not aware of much opposition to the wind turbines. It did not cost tax-
payers any money what so ever, it was a reason for civic pride, it avoids pollution
associated with conventional electrical generation, etc. Most people considered

it a win-win (wind-wind) situation. The utility company carried double metering to
the fullest extent, as the generators could represent a threat to their profit margin.
Once all discussions and negotiations were finished, however, we do live in relative
harmony.
THE FUTURE FOR WIND POWER

As mentioned previously, wind power could provide 20 percent of U.S.
electricity needs by 2030, according to the 2008 Department of Energy
report titled 20% Wind Energy by 2030.
According to the report, reaching the 20 percent goal will require increas-
ing wind power from its current production capacity of 16.8 gigawatts to
304 gigawatts by 2030. This is a huge increase. Despite the magnitude of that
challenge, most of the report’s key findings are encouraging. Notably, the
report concludes that 20 percent wind power can be reliably integrated into
the grid at a cost of less than 0.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, which compares
favorably to today’s average retail price of electricity in the United States.
CHALLENGES AHEAD
The lack of new transmission grids will be a major challenge facing the U.S.
wind industry according to a Congressional Research Service (CRS) group
report published in 2008. The transmission system, those tall power lines we
see every day, are aging and are overloaded in some regions. Unfortunately,
the good sites for wind energy plants or wind farms are located either in iso-
lated regions with limited available capacity on the transmission network or
are many miles from any existing transmission lines. Developing new trans-
mission lines and planning and building the infrastructure necessary for the
new transmission lines can take many years, and the wind plant developers
in those regions may have to incur all construction costs or get subsidies
from local, state, and government funds. In 2008 new transmission lines
could cost from 1.5 to 2 million dollars per mile. The cost of the materials
and labor to build the new transmission lines will increase over time.
Another issue is that daily wind energy is not always available and that
its power cannot be stored. These issues make wind fundamentally differ-
ent from conventional fossil-fuel power in its impact on transmission and
use. Therefore, the present, conventional transmission lines will need to be
replaced with new and more up-to-date transmission lines if we want to
use more wind power for electricity needs.
Wind Power a 25
In a wind farm, the electricity from each wind turbine is routed to a substation. At
the onsite substation, a step-up transformer increases the voltage for intercon-
nection to a high voltage electric power transmission system. (iStockphoto)

American Wind Energy Association. Teacher’s Guide for Grades 6–12.
http://awea.org/pubs/documents/TeachersGuide.pdf.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy Comes of Age. Wiley Series in Sustainable Design.
New York: Wiley, 1995.
Matthew, Sathyajith. Wind Energy Fundamentals. New York: Springer, 2006.
Contact the Department of Energy for OE press release, the 20% Wind
Energy by 2030 Web site, EERE’s Wind and Hydropower Technologies
Program Web site, and the full text of the report.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Although the construction of wind energy turbines increases every
year throughout the world, wind energy still provides only a small
fraction of the world’s energy needs. Explain why this is so.
2. Using a diagram of a wind turbine (aerogenerator), explain to your
class how wind is harnessed to generate electric power.
3. Trace the history of the use of wind power from its simple begin-
nings in Persia in about a.d. 500 to its current status as an important
renewable energy source for the modern world.
WEB SITES
http://www.mos.org/events_activities/podcasts
The Museum’s Wind Turbine Lab ( Podcast). Boston Museum of
Science. The Museum’s wind analyst Marian Tomusiak will talk all
about the Museum’s Wind Turbine Lab.
http://www.eren.doe.gov/wind/homeowner.html
Wind Energy for Homeowners provides resources that will help you
learn about small wind energy systems for the home.
http://www.awea.org/
The American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) is the national
trade association of America’s wind industry with more than 2,500
member companies, including global leaders in wind power and en-
ergy development, wind turbine manufacturing, and component and
service suppliers.
www.wwindea.org
The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) is an international
nonprofit association embracing the wind sector worldwide, with
members in 95 countries. WWEA works for the promotion and
worldwide deployment of wind energy technology.
http://learn.kidwind.org
KidWind provides workshops, models, and other materials for teach-
ers who want hands-on activities in learning about wind energy.
VIDEOS
Wind Power a 27
Wind Turbines—The Pickens Plan: This multimedia link reviews

the history of wind energy and includes T. Boone Pickens’s video
comparing wind energy with the United States’ current dependence
on foreign oil: http://www.life123.com/home-garden/green-living/
wind-energy/history-of-wind-energy.shtml (4:18 minutes).
Wind Turbines—Bristol, UK: To view a promotional time-lapse video
of an “ecotricity” wind turbine being built on reclaimed land, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxOYwWu7Xcc (1:02 minutes).
Wind Turbine: Are helix wind turbines safer, simpler, and more
energy-efficient than legacy wind turbines? To learn more, see the
following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9flSPAdOLk
(2:31 minutes).
Wind Turbines—Solar Wind Turbine: Encapsulated solar cells on a
double helix wind vane. View this remarkable Blue Energy video that
fuses solar energy and wind energy—efficiency meets art at its very
best: http://www.bluenergyusa.com/.
Wind Turbines—Wind Spines: Is this vertical-axis turbine, inspired
by a 3,000-year-old Egyptian design, an affordable way to power
your own home? For more information, go to http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=fNudnI5tzf8 (2:01 minutes).
Chapter 2
a
Wind Power in the

United States
In 2008 the town of Rock Port, Missouri, with a population of a little more
than a thousand residents, became the first 100 percent wind-powered
community in the United States. The wind farm’s turbines produce all of
the electricity needs for the town’s homes and businesses. A map published
by the U.S. Department of Energy shows that the land area in and around
Rock Port has the state’s highest concentration of wind resources and is
very suitable for potential wind energy development.
Presently, the town uses approximately 13 million kilowatt-hours of
electricity a year. In the future, the town’s turbines will generate 16 million
kilowatt-hours of electricity each year, which will be enough for the resi-
dents. Any excess wind power electricity will be sold to other communities
in the local area. The Rock Port wind farm is discussed in more detail later
in this chapter.
THE UNITED STATES—A LEADING PRODUCER

OF WIND POWER
In 2008 the United States became one of the fastest-growing wind power
mately 40 percent of all new U.S. electric-generating capacity. The Depart-
ment of Energy reported that wind power could meet 20 percent of all U.S.
electricity needs by 2030.
The global picture for other countries using more wind power looks very
promising, too. The Worldwatch Institute estimates that wind energy could
easily provide 20–30 percent of the electricity needed by many countries.
Chapter 3 focuses on other countries investing in wind power resources.
The Congressional Research Service (CRS), in its published report
Wind Power in the United States, stated that “as of 2008, Texas is the leading
wind state in the U.S. Texas, accounting for close to one-third of the na-
tion’s total installed wind capacity, which is the equivalent of the electricity
needed to power more than one million Texas homes. A single megawatt
of wind energy can produce as much energy used by about 230 typical
Texas homes in a year.”
Following Texas in wind power capacity are California, Minnesota,
Iowa, Washington, and Colorado. More wind power installations are being
built in the upper Midwest region of the United States as well, including
in the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, and North and South Dakota.
This region of the country has extensive ample wind resources and broad
acceptance of wind power installations from local farmers.
Both Colorado and the Pacific Northwest states of Washington and
Oregon have good wind resources, as well as several states in the northeast.
The southeastern region of the United States does not have much of the
necessary natural resources for wind energy plants.
Wind Energy in Texas

The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas is one of the world’s
largest wind farms with a total capacity of 735 megawatts. The wind farm
spreads across approximately 47,000 acres in Abilene, located in west cen-
tral Texas.
Wind farms, as they are sometimes called, are large clusters of wind tur-
bines used to produce electricity. A wind farm can have dozens and dozens
of wind turbines scattered over a large track of land.
VIDEO
Wind Farms—Texas Leads the Way: If Texas were an independent country, it would
be the world’s sixth-largest user of wind energy. To read more about the United
States’ front-runner, go to http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-10292699-54.html.
Wind Power in the United States a 31
The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, spread across a vast area of West
Texas, is one of the largest wind farms in the world. Located on land in Tay-
lor and Nolan Counties, Texas, the wind farm consists of several hundred wind
turbines that generate about 730 megawatts of power. (Neonriver/Dreamstime
.com)
In the fall of 2009, the Roscoe Wind Complex became the world’s larg-
est wind farm. Located in Roscoe, Texas, a city with a population of about
1,300 people, the wind farm has 627 wind turbines that generate 781.5
megawatts (MW) of electricity. At full capacity, the wind farm, located in
an area of about 100,000 acres, can provide power to 260,000 homes.
The demand for additional wind power in Texas has grown so rapidly
that additional transmission lines are needed to distribute the thousands
of megawatts of energy to urban and rural areas in the state by 2012. The
new transmission infrastructure will allow all Texans to access the state’s
vast wind resources for their energy needs.
Shell WindEnergy, Inc., and Luminant, a subsidiary of TXU Corpora-
tion, have a joint agreement to build a 3,000-megawatt wind project in the
Texas Panhandle. According to the AWEA, this 3,000-megawatt wind
farm could power 900,000 average U.S. homes. When in operation, this
will be the largest wind farm in the United States and Europe.
The two companies are also exploring the use of compressed air storage
for wind farms. This is an interesting development that will make wind
turbine power more efficient. In a compressed air system, the surplus air,
produced by the wind turbine, is pumped into layers of porous sandstone
in an underground cavern. The dense rock in the underground cavern seals
in the compressed air. When more energy is needed to produce electricity,
the air in the large cavern flows out and up into a natural gas–fired tur-
bine station at ground level. The gas-fired turbine is a backup system for
use when wind energy is not available for the topside turbine. This hybrid
component of wind power and natural gas can produce a more efficient
electricity-producing system by using both wind resources and then natu-
ral gas as a backup component.
California
In 2006, California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a greenhouse
gas law, which will commit California residents to reducing their green-
house gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. The California Wind Energy
Association states that wind energy will help meet the challenge by con-
tributing up to 20 percent of California’s energy output by 2020.
However, achieving 20 percent wind energy in California by 2020 re-
quires a goal of 20,000 megawatts of wind capacity for the state, a major
increase in wind energy.
One of the largest wind farms in California is at Altamont Pass, which
is located east of San Francisco among a series of low hills that separate the
San Francisco Bay area from the San Joaquin Valley. Altamont Pass contains
the world’s largest concentration of wind turbines over a large landscape.
The Altamont Pass Wind Farm, one of the earliest wind farms in the
United States, has a cluster of approximately 6,000 wind turbines of vari-
ous kinds. Starting in 2011, thousands of the older wind turbines in Alta-
mont Pass will be replaced with new ones that produce more power and
kill fewer migratory birds.
Another wind farm, located at the Tehachapi Pass in the Mojave Desert
north of Los Angeles, generates enough electricity to meet the residential
needs of more than 500,000 Southern Californians. Another wind farm
is scheduled for completion in Tehachapi Pass. The new project will be
named Windswept.
High Winds Energy Center

The newest and, as of 2010, the largest wind farm in California is called
the High Winds Energy Center and is located between San Francisco and
The Altamont Pass Wind Farm in

California has more than 6,000 rela-
tively small wind turbines of various
types. Established in 1971, Altamont
was once the largest wind farm in
the world in terms of capacity. (Ter-
rance Emerson/Dreamstime.com)
Sacramento. The 90 turbines at the installation generate 162 megawatts of

electricity, enough to power 75,000 homes.
High Winds’ turbines have an advantage over the older turbines in Cal-
ifornia. High Winds’ turbines are taller, more powerful, and more efficient
than the older-generation ones and can generate more energy with fewer
wind turbines. For example, High Winds’ turbines produce almost two
megawatts. This is 18 times more than the 100-kilowatt turbines built 20
years earlier, according to the center’s report. The older turbines also can-
not rotate from one side to the other, which means these turbines are not
very efficient when the wind changes and blows in from another direction.
These older turbines can often remain idle until the wind directions be-
come more favorable.
On the other hand, the High Winds turbines are built to rotate into
the wind and can operate at wind speeds from 8 to 55 miles per hour,
according to the wind power company. Another feature is that the High
Winds turbines rotate slowly, and as a result, fewer birds are caught in
these turbines. Like other wind energy programs, the High Winds proj-
ect has received funding from government incentives and federal tax
credits.
Kansas
In 2009 the Greensburg community in Kansas was leveled by a massive
tornado. After the destruction, the city of Greensburg, the Kansas Power
Pool, and John Deere Renewables jointly announced plans to develop
the Greensburg Wind Farm. When in operation, the Greensburg Wind
Farm will consist of ten 1.25-megawatt wind turbines. “When the proj-
ect becomes operational, Greensburg will be able to supply 100% of the
city’s homes and businesses with a clean, green energy source,” said Martin
Wilkinson, senior vice president of John Deere Renewables. This project
will create jobs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Iowa
Wind power provides about 15 percent of the electricity generated in
Iowa. The Hancock County Wind Energy Center in Hancock County,
Iowa, has 148 Vestas V47 660-kilowatt wind turbines that generate a total
capacity of 97.68 megawatts. Based in Denmark, where Vestas manufac-
tures its turbines, Vestas is the world’s leading supplier of wind power
equipment.
Minnesota
The wind farms in Minnesota provide more than 7 percent of the electric-
ity used in the state. Some of the wind farms in Minnesota are the Buffalo
Ridge Wind Farm and the Fenton Wind Farm. Another wind installation
is the Taconite Ridge Wind Energy Center in northeastern Minnesota,
which produces enough wind energy to power several thousand homes
annually. This wind farm, as well as others, will help meet the state’s plan
for at least 25 percent of Minnesota’s total energy usage to come from
renewable sources by 2025.
Colorado
Currently, Colorado already has 12 wind farms. A new wind farm located
on 6,000 acres will be built near Burlington. When online, this wind farm,
using 34 turbines, will supply enough electricity to power approximately
14,000 households. In Brighton, Colorado, a new Vestas manufacturing
plant was opened in 2010 and is producing nacelle products. A typical
nacelle sits atop the tower of a wind turbine and houses the gearbox, gen-
erator, and brake system.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy)
FEATURE
Wind Power Is in the Schools, Too: Central High School Wind Project, Duluth,
Minnesota
Central High School in Duluth, Minnesota, has a new wind turbine on-site. Besides
contributing to science studies, the generator, on top of a 64-foot tower, will pro-
duce one kilowatt of energy. This is just enough electricity to power two lights
installed on the school’s sign. The turbine’s electrical system has a backup storage
battery bank that will light up the sign when no wind is blowing. In science classes,
students will be able to gather, record, and analyze data produced by the turbine.
South Dakota
The Wessington Springs Wind Farm, in Wessington Springs, is now in
operation, has an estimated electricity production equivalent to the energy
used by approximately 17,000 residential homes. Each of the 34 turbines
has a height of 260 feet, and each one can produce 1.5 megawatts.
Washington
In the state of Washington, wind proponents are requiring electric utili-
ties with 25,000 or more customers to generate 15 percent of their energy
needs from renewable resources by 2020. To help reach that goal, there
are sales tax exemptions and other incentives for potential customers who
want to install a wind turbine.
Missouri
As mentioned previously, Rock Port, Missouri, located in the northwest-
ern corner of the state, became the first city in the United States to be
100 percent powered by wind from wind turbines installed on farmlands
within the city limits.
The Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States

Several ocean states are looking at offshore wind energy as an attractive
option to generate electricity, particularly in the Northeast. There is plenty
of offshore wind potential located off the New England and mid-Atlantic
coasts.
The U.S. Department of the Interior is preparing to lease areas of the

outer continental shelf to companies that want to install offshore wind
turbines in the Northeast. The federal program is a major incentive plan to
help develop and install offshore wind energy installations.
In Delaware, wind energy developers are planning a wind power project
that would include installing approximately 60 offshore turbines several
miles from the state’s coastline. In Massachusetts, one wind developer is
proposing America’s first offshore wind farm on Horseshoe Shoal in Nan-
tucket Sound. The proposed wind farm of 130 wind turbines would be
installed several miles from the state’s coastal area.
Rhode Island and New Jersey are making plans to develop offshore wind
energy projects as well. In addition, New York City officials are discuss-
ing projects and plans for erecting turbines in the Atlantic Ocean about
25 miles from the city.
Because the northeast region has high electricity prices, it may be a fi-
nancially good investment for wind power developers and for coastal cities.
The Northeast and the mid-Atlantic states have many large shoreline cities
with large populations that use much electricity.
FEATURE
Rhode Island
If you ever travel to Rhode Island, you need to stop and see the first wind power
turbine built in the state, installed at a monastery. The Portsmouth Abbey is a Bene-
dictine monastery and prep school located in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. In March
2006 the monastery installed a Vestas V47 wind turbine on its property, assisted by
a grant from the Rhode Island Renewable Energy Fund.
According to the monastery’s Web site, the Vestas 660-kilowatt wind turbine
generator was selected as the best choice for this project. The turbine has three,
77-foot carbon fiber blades installed on a 164-foot tapered tubular steel tower. The
rotor turns at a constant 28.5 revolutions per minute (rpm). The structure stands
at 240 feet from the ground to the tip of the highest blade. The turbine was in-
stalled and secured by a concrete foundation that was constructed in a 30-foot
deep hole. The tower is firmly bolted to 80, 1-inch diameter, 27-foot-long rods set
firmly into the foundation. The turbine was built approximately 750 feet from the
nearest neighbor.
The monastery reported that one year after the Vestas V47 turbine was installed,
it had generated nearly 1.3 million kilowatt-hours of clean electricity and had sup-
plied almost 40 percent of the school’s electrical energy use. An excellent start.
How safe is the wind turbine during high wind gusts at the school? The highest
documented wind gust was 67 miles per hour during the first year of operation. In
heavy winds, the turbine can pitch its blades to 90-degree angles to completely
stop spinning. Once wind speeds subside to about 45 miles per hour, the blades can
be rotated to start turning again.
According to the school’s financial records, the total wind turbine revenues dur-
ing its first year of operation were $222,710, including $64,661 in renewable energy
credits, $28,496 in wholesale electricity sold back to the grid, and $129,553 in retail
electricity displaced.
The power from the school’s wind turbine reduces the load on the local utility
electrical distribution center. This helps to provide higher voltage and improved
power quality to the entire neighborhood during peak power periods.
FARMERS AND WIND POWER TECHNOLOGY

Since 2009, hundreds of wind turbines have appeared on large tracts of
farmlands in Oregon, Wyoming, and Washington. Many farmers have re-
ceived compensation for leasing their land to wind farm developers. In Or-
egon, one wind power company is paying farmers for leasing 150,000 acres
of their land for installing wind turbines. Another developer has leased tens
of thousands of acres from several landowners in Oregon and Washington.
The payments can exceed $4,000 per wind turbine per year. In other cases,
some developers give farmers a percentage of the gross revenue collected
from their wind turbines. Other developers prefer a one-time fee or annual
payments. On the average, farmers usually sign a 20- to 50-year lease with
the wind developers for use of less than 5 percent of their land. According
to one farmer, wind farms might be the future for landowners who find it
increasingly difficult to make a living from traditional farming.
A nonprofit group called WinDustry assists farmers by informing them
about their rights when negotiating with wind developers. The group
maintains a national Web site to help farmers evaluate their land’s wind
potential.
DID YOU KNOW?

The American Wind Energy Association calculates that the 60 billion kilowatt-hours
of electricity generated by wind power can be substituted for 91 million barrels of
oil, or 560 billion cubic feet of natural gas.
Wheat farmer John Hilderbrand stands near a wind turbine on his farmland
near Wasco, Oregon. Recently, dozens of wind turbines have appeared on
the rolling expanses of rural farmland in Oregon and Washington and scores
of farmers, including Hilderbrand, have made thousands of dollars by leasing
their land to wind farm developers. (AP Photo/Don Ryan)
Not all farmers are happy with nearby wind generators. Some farmers
are bothered by the thumping, rumbling sound of the blades. They say the
noise disturbs their sleep and impacts TV reception. Some local govern-
ments are working on zoning laws that would prevent commercial-size
turbines from being built more than 30 stories high.
THE BUSINESS OF WIND FARMS

Public electric utility companies do not own many wind power plants.
Instead, they are owned and operated by private corporations, known as
DID YOU KNOW?

Direct current (DC) is commonly seen in battery-operated devices such as games
and power equipment.
independent power producers, that sell the electricity generated by the

wind farms to electric utilities.
Those considering operating a wind power plant know that it is not as
simple as just installing a wind turbine in a windy place. Deciding where
to locate wind turbines requires careful panning. Also important is the
collection of data to analyze how quickly, how steadily, and how much the
wind blows. Because wind speed increases with altitude, the good sites for
wind plants are the tops of smooth, rounded hills; open plains; shorelines;
and between mountain gaps that produce wind funneling.
Wind speeds are very different throughout the country at various sea-
sons of the year. As one example, in Tehachapi, California, the wind blows
more from April through October than it does in the winter. In a state
such as Montana the wind blows more during the winter months, when
homeowners need electricity to heat their homes. In Rhode Island, wind
blows more in the fall, winter, and spring than during the summer.
HOME AND SMALL WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

In the United States, many homeowners are purchasing small wind tur-
bines for their energy needs. Small turbines are defined as having rated ca-
pacities of 100 kilowatts or less. The small wind turbine market is expected
to continue to grow rapidly in the future.
Are you interested in small wind energy systems? A good start for
learning about small wind energy systems is securing a copy of Small Wind
Electric Systems: A U.S. Consumer’s Guide, published by the Department of
Energy. According to the publication, home wind energy systems gen-
erally comprise a rotor, generator (or alternator mounted on a frame), a
wind vane or tail, a tower wiring, and a balance of components that would
consist of controllers, inverters, and/or batteries. Through the spinning of
the blades, the rotor captures the kinetic energy of the wind and converts it
into rotary motion to drive the generator to produce electricity. The power
produced from a small 1,000-watt wind turbine could provide enough
power to provide electricity for a small home.
What Are the Components

of a Small Wind Turbine?
Most small turbines manufactured today are the horizontal-axis upwind
three-bladed machines. The amount of power produced in a small wind
According to the American Wind

Energy Association, an average
U.S. household uses about 10,655
kilowatt-hours of electricity each
year. A 10 kilowatt wind turbine
can generate about 10,000 kilowatt-
hours annually at a site with wind
speeds averaging 12 miles per hour,
or about enough energy to power a
typical household. (National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory)
turbine is determined primarily by the diameter of its rotor. The diam-

eter of the rotor defines its swept area and determines the power. Refer to
chapter 1 if you need to refresh your understanding of swept area.
As mentioned previously, wind speeds increase with height. Therefore,
the higher the tower, the more power a turbine can produce. For example,
if a 10-kilowatt generator is raised from a 60-foot tower to a 100-foot
tower, although the installation will cost more, the additional height can
produce 25–30 percent more power. A high tower also cuts down on air
turbulence from obstructions such as hills, buildings, and trees.
Most home wind power systems use a guyed tower, which consists of a
lattice section, which is a framework structure of diagonally crossing wood
pieces. The rest of the system includes the pipe and supporting guy wires.
The wires keep the tower steady in strong winds and are easy to install.
Maintenance
Maintaining a wind turbine is important. Bolts and electrical connections
should be checked often, and guy wires should be inspected for proper
tension. Any wearing on the leading edge of the blades should be replaced.
After several years of wear, the blades and bearings may need to be re-
placed. Most turbine parts should last more than 20 years or longer ac-
cording to wind power installers, with the right kind of maintenance, of
course.
How Much Energy Will the Small

Wind System Generate?
Most U.S. manufacturers rate their turbines by the amount of electrical
power they can safely produce at a particular wind speed. Usually the wind
speed selected is between 24 and 36 miles per hour. As mentioned previ-
ously, a 1,000-watt wind turbine can provide enough electrical power for
a small home.
The small wind turbines generate only direct current (DC) electricity.
This is fine for appliances that operate on direct current. However, to use
wind-powered electricity for larger appliances such as a refrigerator and
electric stoves, alternating current (AC) is needed. The installation of an
inverter in the system will convert the DC to AC.
Grid-Connected Systems
Some homeowners connect their wind turbine to the power transmission
grid of a utility company. In grid-connected systems, the only additional
equipment required is the inverter. The inverter makes the turbine electri-
cally compatible with the utility grid.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, a grid-connected system allows

you to power your home or small business with renewable energy during
those periods when the wind is blowing. Any excess electricity you produce is
fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable, electricity
from the grid supplies your needs, thus eliminating the expense of electricity
storage devices such as batteries. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Net Metering
Today, the majority of solar- and wind-powered homes are connected to
a utility through a meter. By connecting to a local grid system, homeown-
ers have the option to reduce their electric bills by transmitting back to
the utility company any excess electric power their homes produce. This is
called net metering.
As you know, meters are used to measure electrical consumption in
kilowatt-hours. Your usage is recorded in a meter. Hooking up the meter to
a grid allows the homeowner to take part in a net metering program with
the utility company. Under net metering, homeowners receive a financial
credit for at least a portion of the electricity they generate.
Why Is Net Metering Important?

The AWEA states three reasons why net metering is important. They re-
port that:
First, because wind energy is an intermittent resource, customers may
not be using power as it is being generated, and net metering allows
them to receive full value for the electricity they produce without
installing expensive battery storage systems. This is important be-
cause it directly affects the economics and payback period for the
investment.
Second, net metering reduces the installation costs for the cus-
tomer by eliminating the need for a second energy meter.
Third, net metering provides a simple, inexpensive, and easily-
administered mechanism for encouraging the use of small-scale wind
energy systems, which provide important local, national, and global
benefits to the environment and the economy.
Currently, 30 states require at least some utility companies to offer net
metering for small wind systems. However the requirements vary from
state to state. Most state net metering rules were enacted by state utility
regulators, and these rules apply only to utilities whose rates and services
are regulated at the state level.
Does Your State Net Meter?

To see if your state offers net metering and to learn the specifics of your
state’s program, log on to the U.S. Department of Energy’s Web site: http://
www.eere.energy.gov/state_energy/policy_content.cfm?policyid=26.
What Do Wind Systems Cost?

Interested in installing a wind system for your home? Before you start,
check your local zoning codes and permit costs. The cost depends on the
size of the wind generator and the service agreements with the manufac-
turer. An 80-foot tower with an inverter to convert DC to AC for home
use can range in cost from $15,000 to $50,000 for a 3-kilowatt to 10-
kilowatt wind turbine. The AWEA says that a “typical home wind system
costs approximately $32,000 (10 kW); while a comparable photovoltaic
(PV) solar system would cost over $80,000.”
Once you settle on the final costs of installing a wind generator, then
it is time to review the length of the payback period. The payback period
is the time when you recoup your purchase costs of the system, when the
savings generated equal those costs.
WIND ENERGY FOR SCHOOLS

More than 80 schools across the country have installed some type of wind
turbine, according to Ian Baring-Gould. Baring-Gould is a senior engineer
in a wind technology center at the National Renewable Energy Labora-
tory in Golden, Colorado.
A program called Wind for Schools, sponsored by the U.S. Department
of Energy’s Wind Powering America program at the National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory, is aiming to bring smaller turbines to six states:
Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, and South Dakota. It is the
first program to use smaller turbines with a mission of educating students
and the community about wind power, according to Baring-Gould. “The
goal is to add wind turbines at about five schools per year in each state, for
a total of about 30 per year overall,” Baring-Gould says. “The turbines will
be on towers up to 70 feet tall, and it’s projected that they will produce
around 3,000 to 4,000 kilowatt hours per year, which is generally enough
to provide only a fraction of a school’s electric needs. The price of a wind
turbine will be about $6,000.”
DID YOU KNOW?

What windmill size would be needed for a home? Homes typically use 800–2,000
kilowatt-hours of electricity per month. Depending on the average wind speed in
the area, this will require a wind turbine rated in the range of 5–15 kilowatts.
FEATURE
Case Study
In chapter 1, you read about the Spirit Lake Wind Project. In the following case
study, printed with the approval of the Spirit Lake Wind Project Committee, you will
learn how the Spirit Lake Wind Project was planned and financed. The author and
publisher thank the Spirit Lake community for the information.
The Spirit Lake Community Schools began studying the use of wind as a renew-
able source of energy for the district in September of 1991. Early in the study a
partnership was formed with the Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
I. Over the course of the following year, data was collected to:
• Measure the wind speed on the proposed site
• Analyze the districts electrical costs
• Get acquainted with wind turbine manufacturing, and
• Understand both federal and state rules and regulations
II. Information was garnered through many sources including:

• IES Utilities (Now Alliant Energy)
• Existing wind turbine sites. The props turn whenever there is wind. It gen-
erates electricity after the generator turns at 1,790 rpm, which requires a
wind of around 7.5 mph at the 140 foot level.
III. Financing the Project.

In December 1992, the elementary school received a grant for $119,000 for one tur-
bine to supply electrical energy. Specifications for the wind turbine were prepared
and three bids were received in the spring of 1993. The successful bidder was Min-
nesota Wind Power of Marshall, Minnesota with a bid to provide and install one
wind generator at a cost of $239,500.
To offset the additional cost not covered by the DOE grant, the project was
funded by a low interest loan through the Energy Council of the Department of
Natural Resources. On July 22, 1993, the wind turbine on the lawn of the Spirit Lake
Elementary School began producing electricity. Ninety months later, the school’s
turbine had produced 1,570,000 kilowatt hours of electricity which would have cost
the district $124,900. This is enough electricity for 264 average Spirit Lake homes
for a year. In addition to providing all of the electricity for the 53,000 square foot
elementary school, it also produced a reimbursement from the utility company of
almost $25,000.
The final payment for the loan on turbine was made during 1998, 3.5 years ahead
of schedule. Today the almost $25,000 savings go to the school’s instructional
program.
In July 2011, when both turbines have been paid for, the district will have about
$150,000 tax free income from the clean, renewable northwest Iowa wind to use to
improve education for the children of the Spirit Lake Community School District.
VIDEO
Wind Energy for Schools: To view the U.S. Department of Energy–sponsored site
regarding locations for the Wind for Schools project, go to http://www.windpower
ingamerica.gov/schools/projects.asp.
Boise State University and the Wind

for Schools Program
The Department of Energy has contacted six universities around the coun-
try to serve as Wind Application Centers as part of the Wind for Schools
program. At Boise State in Idaho, for example, engineering students will
visit rural Idaho classrooms each year and construct small 1.9-kilowatt
turbines for use in science classes.
The turbines, which will be from 35 to 70 feet tall, are being sold to the
university by Southwest Windpower of Flagstaff, Arizona. Called the Sky
Stream 3.7, the small turbines do not generate enough power to operate
an entire school but are typically sold to homeowners who want to reduce
their electrical power bills.
Volunteers from H&H Utility Con-

tractors hoist a Skystream 3.7 wind
turbine into place at Jerome Mid-
dle School in Idaho as part of the
National Renewable Energy Labo-
ratory’s Wind for Schools program.
(Stephanie Lively, Boise State Uni-
versity)
DID YOU KNOW?

Since 2004, more than 100,000 small wind turbines (10 megawatts each) have been
installed in Inner Mongolia, China. According to news stories, Chinese herdsmen
have wind-powered tents that power small household electrical appliances and
television sets. Twice a year, the nomadic Mongolian herdsmen pack up all their
belongings, including the wind turbine, and move to new lands.
Texas State Technical College

An energy utility company has formed a partnership with Texas State Tech-
nical College to educate and train students in wind turbine technology. The
program is an effort to meet the increased demand for highly skilled em-
ployees in the wind energy business in Texas and throughout the region.
As part of the partnership, the utility company will assist the college
with its curriculum by offering wind experts and paid internships. The
company will also work with the college to obtain the equipment and
other resources necessary for laboratory facilities. The college will identify
and recruit candidates for the program and provide service-learning op-
portunities in the community.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Michael Arquin, Director, KidWind
Go-Green Project: Wind Energy in Schools
Michael Arquin is the director of the KidWind Project located in St. Paul, Minne-
sota. The company is now a team of teachers, engineers, and scientists committed
to innovative energy education for the next generation. The KidWind Project has
trained more than 2,000 teachers in 25 states about wind energy.
How was the KidWind Project started?
I started KidWind in 2003 when I was a sixth-grade science teacher in California.
I had been doing quite a bit of work with my students on solar energy, doing the
Jr. Solar Sprint and other similar activities, and wanted one year to start teaching
about wind. I was kind of a renewable energy geek! I started to purchase some of
the wind energy materials that were available from other vendors and was really
unhappy with the high price and poor quality of products available. I started tinker-
ing around with some new ways to get students engaged with wind energy, and
from there we were off and running.
Things really took off after I received a teacher fellowship at the Wright Center
for Science Education at Tufts University. During this fellowship I was able to de-
velop my ideas more fully, do some writing, and get the materials out on the web to
share with as many teachers as possible. In the summer of 2004, we held our first
workshops for teachers.
The KidWind web site was launched in the same year, offering free lesson plans
and wind energy kits online. The first kit sold for $25 and was shipped from the
headquarters of my basement in Arlington, Massachusetts. Now we have a small
company with 10 employees whose primary focus is the production, development,
and dissemination of high-quality educational materials related to wind energy.
Although other companies try to compete with our products, we find our model
of open source curriculum development is really hard to beat. All of our print ma-
terials, lessons, and construction plans are freely downloadable from our web site.
We sell parts and kits so that you can spend only what you need to, and you can
call KidWind anytime for support. Many times the person who answers the phone
and deals with your questions is I!
What is your professional background?
My undergraduate degree was in environmental studies, and I guess you could
say I was an energy geek for a long time, attending all manner of energy fairs and
wind conferences. I was certified to teach general science and biology in New York
State. When I moved to California, I taught high school chemistry and computer
KidWind Project Director Michael Arquin teaches a wind energy science

teacher workshop. (Courtesy KidWind)
science for three years and then finally found my groove teaching middle school
life and physical sciences. Although I miss teaching in the classroom, I get a great
deal of satisfaction working closely with teachers to improve classroom instruction
related to renewable energy. I also love working with our team of WindMasters to
improve the quality and performance of our materials.
One thing to note is that although I have had classes in renewable energy, and
energy in general, most of my wind knowledge is self-taught. I was just really inter-
ested, and that motivated me to learn more—anyone can do this!
Why pick wind and not solar or some other alternative energy program for your
first enterprise?
As a teacher I often felt there were quite a bit of solar products and solar-based cur-
ricula on the market. When I started to look around for similar wind energy materi-
als, I found a real lack of quality materials. So I started digging around and tinkering
with new ideas to make it easier to work with wind energy in the classroom. That
was five years ago! Now there are a variety of products out from other vendors—
but we still feel we make products that are more useful for teachers, are better
supported, and are made in an environmentally sensitive manner (almost all of our
plastic items are made from recycled plastics in a plant that powered by wind!).
Recently we have been doing some development in lessons related to PV, solar
thermal, and fuel cell technologies, but wind energy is still our main area.
How many students and teachers have taken part in the KidWind project this
year? How many school districts participated in the program?
This is somewhat hard to pin down because tons of people use our web site given
that we have lots of free lessons, PowerPoint, and building plans available. Over
the last five years we have probably worked with at least 4,000 teachers in a vari-
ety of training formats who are going to bring this content back to the classroom.
These teachers are in 37 states and hundreds of school districts. We do a great
deal of concentrated work in New York, Texas, and North Dakota.
If each of those teachers works with 75–100 students each year, then I guess
we’re talking about 350,000–400,000 students each year who may be impacted. We
also work with thousands of students doing science fair projects. These are rough
numbers, but they are increasing every year, as people become interested in learn-
ing how wind energy works.
What are the age groups or grade levels of students and teachers?
We are primarily working with middle and high school students.
In your workshops how do you introduce wind energy to those who have little or
no background in wind power?
In most workshops we tend to start at rock bottom. I usually start a workshop
with a MacGyver-like activity where the teachers have to build a windmill that
can lifts some weights with a limited number of materials. With this activity
I can show them the complexity and simplicity of wind devices. Then we move
onto bringing their wind energy knowledge up to the modern age through lectures
and guest speakers. Most people have about a mid-80s idea of the technology,
but changes are happening very fast! We usually end the day exploring wind tur-
bine blade design and electricity output. Teachers enter a competition to see who
can make the best blades and make the most power . . . this can get competitive.
Our workshops are most often free and supported by a variety of partners.
Workshop content is weighted more toward giving teachers the time and space
to explore and get comfortable with a few activities they can execute in the class-
room. I want the teachers to leave the event and feel like this meets their needs in
teaching content and that they have the confidence to pull it off. We balance this
information with presentations that explore the promise and limits to wind energy
power production. Wind power is not free, and it has issues, but in our opinion, it
can be an important log on the energy production fire.
From your experiences in doing workshops, what do teachers ask for and need to
start a wind energy program?
Teachers want lessons/activities that
1. they are comfortable executing;
2. use simple, affordable, and robust materials;
3. help them teach the standards that they are required to address in their
classroom; and
4. expose their students to the possibilities and limitations of a renewable
energy future.
Every time we develop a new product or lesson, these are the goals I have
in mind.
What wind energy educational equipment (hardware) and materials (lesson
plans) would you suggest for the teacher and students who have little or no back-
ground in this energy field?
Well, I always like to start students on experimental wind turbines. I personally like
to start students out exploring wind energy with our WeightLifter turbine. Students
explore how blade design affects how much weight a windmill can lift. This mimics
the windmills of the past and also allows you to teach some of the theory without
teaching about electricity (voltage, amperage, etc.).
Once they have explored these ideas, you can move to the basic turbine and
explore how blades affect electricity production. Using these simple turbines, you
can explore experimental design, energy transformations, and even series and
parallel circuits by building small wind farms.
What equipment and materials would you suggest to teachers and students who
have a good basic understanding of wind energy but need a more challenging
activity to do?
As you get more advanced, we have devices such as the AL Turbine that add the
ability to change gearing and generator types. You can start to build generators
from the ground up and see how magnets and wire size can affect a generator’s
ability to produce electricity. You can also start combining our wind turbines with
fuel cells, solar panels, and water pumps to build hybrid generation systems. You
can also initiate projects where students explore installing a wind turbine at their
school. To do this, students need to collect and analyze wind data, understand how
much electricity their school uses, and see what kind of turbine might work well in
their area.
If you are a shop or technology teacher and are mechanically inclined, then
you can start to build some 100- to 500-watt devices from the ground up. We have
worked with a few schools that have done this, and although these projects are
very involved (four to six months long), they can be quite rewarding in terms of
what the students have to learn to get it done.
We have some links to projects like this on our web site, and I recommend a few
books to get started—Homebrew Wind Power by Dan Bartmann and Dan Fink and
Windpower Workshop by Hugh Piggott. But because these projects are involved,
there is nothing better than heading to a workshop where someone can show you
the ropes.
Are there any plans in the future to extend the program, and if so, how?
We are always developing new products and lessons to help explore wind energy.
We have a new experimental generator coming out this fall based on belts vibrat-
ing in the wind. It is very cool.
In the fall of 2009 we are going to release our WindWise Curriculum that we
have produced with our partner Pandion Systems. This middle and high school sci-
ence curriculum covers a number of topics related to the biology, economics, and
public perception of wind power. We are really excited about this because it takes
a number of ideas we have had sitting on the table and gets them into classrooms.
In the summer of 2010, we also hope to launch the WindSenators program. This
training program seeks to expand our core of WindMaster teacher trainers to more
states by building a core of highly competent trainers. This weeklong workshop
will work with teachers to improve their understanding of wind energy science and
engineering along with exposing them to a wide variety of curricular vehicles that
can engage students in the classroom.
I also have dreams of launching a national KidWind Challenge where middle
and high school students interested in testing their engineering and scientific
prowess build and compete using small wind turbines that they have designed and
constructed. We did a pilot in New York that was successful and hope to hold an-
other challenge in 2010.
VIDEO
How to Build a Homemade Wind Generator: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
1782153/how_to_build_a_home_made_wind_generator/.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Gather research material (weather maps, physical features maps, spe-
cial purpose maps and charts) showing wind conditions and physi-
cal characteristics of geographic regions of the United States and
develop a rationale for locating the most ideal placements for wind
turbine farms.
2. The American Wind Energy Association suggests the wind condi-
tions in Texas, North and South Dakota, and Kansas can generate
enough wind energy for all of the United States. Is this claim plau-
sible? Explain your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
3. Research and explain the phrase, “As long as the sun shines, the wind
will blow” as it applies to generating wind power. Consult the Teen
Guide to Environmental Sciences from Greenwood Press and the fol-
lowing Web sites: http://www.environment.nationalgeographic.com
and http://www.eia.doe.gov/neic.

awea.org.
Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy Comes of Age. Wiley Series in Sustainable Design.
New York: Wiley, 1995.
Righter, Robert W. Wind Energy in America: A History. Norman: Univer-
sity of Oklahoma Press, 1996.
WEB SITES
http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_wind.html
The mission of the wind energy research conducted at the Na-
tional Renewable Energy Laboratory’s National Wind Technol-
ogy Center (NWTC) is to collaborate with industry to further
wind technology and to accelerate its commercialization in the
marketplace.
http://www.ge.com
General Electric ranks number one in U.S. wind turbine sales and
is actually one of the largest suppliers of wind turbines in the world,
boasting more than 11,600 wind turbine installations that comprise
more than 18,000 megawatts of capacity. The company also just an-
nounced that it plans to introduce a 4 megawatt (MW ), gearless
wind turbine for offshore use.
http://www.windandwater.energy.gov
The U.S. Department of Energy Wind and Hydropower Technolo-
gies’ Wind and Water Power Program works to improve the perfor-
mance, lower the costs, and accelerate the deployment of innovative
wind and waterpower technologies.
http://www.ewea.org/.
The European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) actively promotes
the utilization of wind power both in Europe and worldwide.
VIDEOS
ins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the vid-
eos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Wind Farms: To view the construction of Europe’s largest offshore

wind farm go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MjGh0bLnGx8&
feature=related (4:58 minutes).
Wind Farms—Made in Germany: Arguably the world’s biggest user
of wind power, Germany expands its dominance by building a wind
park out at sea. To view, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd
Y8ADBN6hM&feature=related (5:01 minutes).
Jay Leno Builds a Wind Turbine on His Green Garage: Jay is inter-
viewed by Popular Mechanics magazine. Watch as Jay gets ready to
install a state-of-the-art turbine on top of his shop. To view, go to
http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/jay-leno/green-garage/
4216780.
How to Build a Vertical Axis Wind Generator: This video, by Jeff Ber-
ezin, can assist you in constructing a large wind turbine made from
two 55-gallon plastic drums. Go to http://greenterrafirma.com/
vawt-designs.html.
Wind Energy in West Texas, Wind Turbines: Watch how ranches in
west Texas counties are installing a large number of wind generators.
Although many will benefit with the wind power gold rush, others
are not sure. Visit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFPj9frhKuo.
Altamont Pass Wind Farm: This video takes you on a car ride through
one of the largest wind farms in the United States. You can hear the
sounds of the wind turbines as you ride along. Many of the obsolete
wind turbines in this pass will be replaced or shut down by 2015. Go
to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5VsWZKFuEck.
Chapter 3
a
Global Wind Power

and the Future
The first office skyscraper to install large-scale wind turbines has been built
in the country of Bahrain, which consists of 33 islands in the Persian Gulf
off the east coast of Saudi Arabia. The skyscraper, called the Bahrain World
Trade Center, is in the financial district of Manama, the nation’s capital.
Bahrain’s World Trade Center is

equipped with three wind turbines,
supplying 15 percent of the building’s
electricity. The 50-floor structure is
located in Manama, Bahrain. Built
in 2008, this is the only skyscraper in
the world to integrate wind turbines
into its twin-tower design. (iStock-
photo)
VIDEO
Wind Turbines (Future Uses?): What has the industry learned from jet engines, and
is the FloDesign Turbine the next-generation wind turbine? To compare the new with
the old go to http://news.cnet.com/8301-11128_3-9945005-54.html (4:59 minutes).
The Bahrain World Trade Center is 787 feet tall and has twin office
towers. In between the two buildings are three wind turbines. The mas-
sive rotor blades of each turbine are 95 feet long. Each turbine has been
installed on its own specially strengthened bridge between the two towers.
For maximum electricity generation, the towers are shaped to draw more
wind between the two buildings.
The three wind turbines are expected to provide approximately 15 per-
cent of the electrical energy needs for both office towers. This is enough
energy to provide electricity in 300 homes for more than a year.
WIND POWER IN EUROPE AND ASIA

Chapter 2 reported on wind power in the United States. However, the devel-
opment of wind power technology is not unique to America. Other countries
have wind power systems, and according to the American Wind Energy As-
sociation (AWEA), Denmark leads the world in wind energy production,
generating more than 20 percent of its electricity needs from wind energy.
This chapter will concentrate on wind power in Europe and Asia and sum-
marize what is ahead for wind power in both Europe and the United States.
bines are in China, Germany, India, Spain, and Great Britain. In 2010
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines.
(Source: Global Wind Energy Council)

Global Wind Power and the Future a 57
DID YOU KNOW?

Many homeowners in Europe consider buying a windmill for their home as an
investment.
Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines generate more

electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than in the United
States. In 2010, 5 percent of Europe’s electricity came from wind turbines.
Approximately 10 percent of Europe today has wind turbines. And in the
next decade, according to statistics, 40 percent of the world’s wind farms
will be in Europe. By 2050 half of Europe’s electricity is expected to come
from wind. Besides wind farms, Europeans are also encouraged to invest
in wind power installations for their homes and businesses in an effort to
conserve energy resources.
Germany
Thousands of wind generators have been installed in Germany—more
than in any other country. According to figures from the German Wind
Energy Association, “18,685 wind power plants with a capacity of 20,622
megawatts were in operation at the end of 2006. These turbines generated
30.5 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2006, about five percent of Ger-
many’s total electricity consumption.”
The wind farms in Germany are located along the coastal areas in the
northwest portion of the country. There are now plans to construct several
large wind farms along the country’s North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts.
Denmark
The Scandinavian country of Denmark is the world’s largest supplier of
wind generators and ranks third in total wind-generating capacity.
VIDEO
Wind Farms—Made in Germany: One of the world’s biggest users of wind power, Ger-
many has expanded its dominance by building a Wind Park out at sea. To view, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdY8ADBN6hM&feature=related (5:01 minutes).
The Danes were the first people to regularly produce electricity using
wind power and by World War I had a network of wind turbines that
generated about 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. As of 2010 Denmark has
one of the largest concentrations of wind turbines. Each year in Denmark,
wind turbines generate approximately 20 percent of the Danes’ consump-
tion of electricity.
A high percentage of the wind turbines installed in Denmark are single
units or are grouped in small clusters, rather than on large wind farms as in
the United States. Approximately 50,000 residents own a wind turbine or
own a share in a wind turbine cooperative.
The largest offshore wind farm in Denmark and in the world is Horns
Rev. The wind farm is located in the North Sea, about 7–12 miles off the
coast of Jutland. The wind farm’s 80 Vestas 2MW turbines supply the
electricity equivalent for 150,000 Danish households. The Vestas turbines
are manufactured in Denmark and the company has installed more than
40,000 of these wind turbines worldwide.
United Kingdom
The weather patterns and topography of the United Kingdom provide this
region with excellent potential wind resources. The development of wind
power as a source of electricity in Great Britain began in the early 1990s,
An offshore wind farm near Copen-

hagen, Denmark. In 2010 another
wind farm, Denmark’s 12th, went
online. This wind farm will provide
the equivalent of 200,000 homes with
green energy according to the Dan-
ish Minister of Climate and Energy.
(Rodik/Dreamstime.com)
DID YOU KNOW?

Until the early 1990s, Denmark’s Velling Mærsk-Tændpibe was Europe’s largest
wind power plant. The 100 turbines overlooking Ringkøbing Fjord on the west coast
of the Jutland Peninsula stand in a geometric lineup on an old lakebed.
when 10 wind turbines were installed on a farm in Cornwall. Today, most

of the United Kingdom’s wind plants are located in England and Wales.
In 2009 the government announced a plan to have wind farms provide
power for all the homes in the United Kingdom within 13 years. The gov-
ernment is also interested in offshore wind power plants near its coasts.
Spain
Spain, along with Germany and Denmark, is among the three largest gen-
erators of wind power in the European Union. In 2009 the government ap-
proved installation of offshore wind farms along the nation’s long coastline.
In fact, the coastline of Spain is ideal because it has strong and consistent
coastal wind patterns. When in operation, the new wind power plants will
provide 11 percent of Spain’s electrical needs. The country’s energy goal is
to triple the amount of energy it generates from renewable sources such as
wind and solar by 2020.
Portugal
Portugal is among the nations in Europe where wind energy is going to
expand the most over the coming years, according to the European Wind
Energy Association. The best places in Portugal for onshore wind farms
are often in mountainous regions with there is lots of wind energy.
A total of 120 wind turbines are located across the highlands of the
Upper Minho region of Portugal. When in full-time operation, the wind
farm is to provide enough electricity for more than a million people.
India
Another country that is moving quickly in the wind power field is India,
one of the fastest-growing markets for wind energy.
Some of the first wind turbines in India overlooked the Arabian Sea.
In June 2008 the government announced plans to use more sustainable
FEATURE
What Can Be Done to Deter Bats from Approaching Wind Turbines?
Each year in Europe and in the United States, large numbers of bats are killed when
they collide with turbine blades. In fact, more bats than birds are killed by wind
turbines, according to several research studies.
A research study conducted on a wind farm in Pennsylvania in 2009 documented
that shutting down the turbines during hours of low wind speed actually reduced
bat mortality by 50–85 percent. More research and data collecting is continuing,
but the early results of the Pennsylvania bat study look promising in the effort to
protect these animals from harm.
In Europe, research studies concluded that a major reduction in bat activity
near wind turbines could be accomplished through use of a portable radar beam.
The radar beam is directed at the bats’ foraging sites near wind farms. In the study,
the electromagnetic radar signal reduced the foraging activity of bats within 90
feet of a turbine. The bats kept away when the radar signal was on. More work now
needs to be conducted by radar engineers, working in conjunction with bat biolo-
gists. The next step in the study will be to develop a portable radar system that can
be manipulated and moved around to produce a wider range of electromagnetic
signals to keep bats away from wind turbines.
energy sources; by 2020, renewable energy sources are to account for

20 percent of energy. The government’s goal for 2030 is that 25 percent
of its energy needs will be generated by renewable energy sources such as
solar, hydropower, and wind power plants.
China
If you were to take a trip along the mountains near the southwestern Chi-
nese town of Dali, you would see a dozen new wind turbines installed
at 9,800 feet. In 2010 China became the world’s largest manufacturer of
wind turbines. China depends on coal-fired power plants for more than
70 percent of its energy. To help reduce its dependency on coal, China will
be working hard to try to generate 15 percent of its energy from renewable
sources by 2020. If the goal is reached, wind power generation will increase
from 30 to 100 gigawatts by that year. That is a lot of energy, so much that
these future wind power plants will provide the electricity needs for ap-
proximately 700,000 Chinese homes.
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2010, China is also the world’s largest manufacturer of solar panels.
Workers in China prepare to lift a giant blade to be used as part of a wind turbine
at the Vestas Wind Technology factory in Tianjin, China, in 2010. China’s market
for wind equipment is one of the world’s largest, spurred by a government cam-
paign to promote renewable energy to clean up its battered environment and
curb surging demand for foreign oil and gas. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan)
Southeast Asia
Based on a World Bank wind study, “there are good to excellent wind re-
source areas for large-scale wind generation in Southeast Asia. These areas
include the mountains of central and southern Vietnam, central Laos, and
central and western Thailand, as well as a few other locations. The coastal
areas of southern and south-central Vietnam are excellent sites for wind
energy because of strong, steady winds. East-central Thailand, western and
southern Cambodia, the northern and coastal southern Malay Peninsula,
south-central Laos and northern Vietnam have good to excellent wind
resources.”
Russia
Russia has excellent potential wind power resources in several regions of
the country. These regions include St. Petersburg and Kulikovo in the Rus-
sian region of Kaliningrad, as well as the St. Petersburg and Leningrad
regions. All of these areas have substantial wind conditions necessary for
engineers to plan, develop, and install wind generators.
In 2008 a wind power plant was installed in the Arctic port of Mur-
mansk. This installation is expected to produce 533,000 kilowatt-hours per
year. Several companies are currently installing wind turbines in Russia.
INSTALLING OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANTS

Although 99 percent of the world’s wind power comes from turbines built
on land, several wind-farm developers are interested in installing offshore
wind power plants. These offshore plants can be used in deep water about
15 miles offshore. At this distance from shore, the winds are stronger and
steadier than sea breezes near the shoreline. According to a 2006 analysis
by the U.S. Department of Energy and other companies, offshore wind
resources on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts exceed the current electric-
ity generation of the entire U.S. power industry. Another energy research
consultant group believes that offshore wind energy could reach thousands
of megawatts by 2020.
However, building foundations or platforms to support wind turbines
in water deeper than 60 feet is very expensive. But a few developers believe
FEATURE
Canada: Airborne Wind Turbines
As mentioned previously in this volume, wind conditions at ground level are an un-
reliable source of wind energy because of turbulence and lack of a constant wind
speed. However, at a height of 1,000 feet or more, there is a steady wind pattern in
many places in the world.
Several companies have designed large blimp-like aircraft that can carry a wind
turbine about 1,000 feet above Earth. Simply stated, the stationary floating blimp is
filled with helium and is tied down to electrical generators on the ground by a cop-
per cable. As the high-flying turbine spins, its generator converts wind energy into
electrical energy. The electricity is distributed down a copper cable to ground level
for immediate use or to be stored in a battery storage unit for future use.
they can solve the problem by using floating platforms to hold the tur-
bines. Besides the United States, Norway and other countries are also
developing offshore floating wind-turbine platforms. Floating turbines
can be assembled onshore and towed into position. One kind of platform
looks like a conventional offshore oil and gas platform. The tripod-shaped
framework is held in place by a huge stretch of chains hooked on to steel
or concrete anchors on the ocean floor. Installed on top of the platform is
an 80-kilowatt wind turbine that is equipped with special instruments to
record the wave and wind forces and to generate electricity.
The world’s first deepwater floating wind turbine was installed in the North Sea
off of the coast of Norway. A floating wind turbine design allows wind turbines
to be installed in offshore deep waters where winds move at high speeds. The
floating platform allows the turbine to generate electricity in water at depths
of several hundred feet and it does not need to be anchored to the ocean’s
bedrock. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
A major factor in implementing offshore turbines is the lack of specialty

built seafaring vessels and platforms needed for deep-water installations.
Modified barges can be used to set up offshore turbines, but not many of
them are built to support a five-megawatt turbine, and it may take more
than a year to retrofit a barge for an offshore platform.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director, the NEED Project
Go-Green Project: The NEED Project
Energy advocate Mary E. Spruill is the Executive Director of the National En-
ergy Education Development (NEED) Project, a 30-year-old nonprofit organization
dedicated to the development and delivery of comprehensive, balanced energy
education curriculum and training in the nation’s schools. The NEED Project
serves schools in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Vir-
gin Islands, Guam, Saipan, and the Marianas Islands. NEED serves all grades—
K–12—and works to support educational efforts at the community college and
technical school levels as well.
NEED facilitators pour ice water over a solar panel in order to test how
temperature affects the electrical output. (Courtesy The Need Project)

Prior to becoming Executive Director in 2007, I served as NEED’s program director
for 16 years, working with local, state, and national energy organizations and com-
panies to support energy education in the classroom. I joined NEED in 1991 after
beginning with NEED as a student in eighth grade in Roanoke, Virginia. Many NEED
students are currently NEED teachers or NEED staff—proving that NEED’s Kids
Teaching Kids approach encourages student leadership and a strong understand-
ing of energy issues.
I grew up in Roanoke, Virginia, and attended Northside Junior High School and
Northside High School—both NEED schools. In eighth grade my teachers, Mrs.
Charlotte Garst and Mrs. Dena Gill, selected a team of students to implement NEED
in the classroom. NEED programs were strong in the Roanoke County Schools and
were well supported at the time by American Electric Power/Appalachian Power
Company.
school?
To be honest, I enjoyed science and social studies the most. That’s part of why
I think energy is such an interesting topic today. It is the perfect blend of science
and social science. The connection between science and the making of public
policy—especially related to energy is very interesting to me. Our energy deci-
sions and policies are not always based in science—but often in economics and
public opinion, too.
I attended George Mason University and received an undergraduate degree in in-
ternational studies with a minor in global systems. I went to school to join the U.S.
Department of State Foreign Service Office. I took the exam, passed, got the job,
and then began to prepare to leave NEED and realized that this career is rewarding
and that there was so much that could be done in energy education if we were fo-
cused and working hard to do it. So I didn’t leave to work in an embassy; I stayed at
NEED and am glad I made the decision. My master’s degree is from George Mason
University as well, in public administration with a certificate in nonprofit manage-
ment. The nongovernmental organization (NGO) sector is leading the way in en-
ergy, and having the skills to lead a nonprofit, and the knowledge of where to go for
support, was very important. NEED is about six times the size it was when I joined
the organization, and we have much more to accomplish and many more teachers
to train and students to reach.
What interested you in seeking a career in your discipline or vocation?
I enjoyed it. Energy allows me to use the skills I learned in undergrad to under-
stand energy in a global way. It also allows me to understand the interconnec-
tion among energy sources, economics, and everyday life. The nonprofit sector is
always engaging and interesting—albeit challenging too. It isn’t easy always being
on the “begging” side, looking for resources to provide teachers and students with
quality energy materials and training. There is always more demand for resources
and support than there is supply of funding.
Describe the mission of the National Energy Education Development project.
The mission of the National Energy Education Development Project is to promote
an energy-conscious and educated society by creating effective networks of stu-
dents, educators, businesses, government, and community leaders to design and
deliver objective, multisided energy education programs. NEED works with energy
companies, agencies, and organizations to bring balanced energy programs to the
nation’s schools with a focus on strong teacher professional development, timely
and balanced curriculum materials, signature program capabilities, and turnkey
program management.
What kinds of materials, resources, or assistance do you offer teachers and stu-
dents who want to learn more about energy programs? Please list some of your
web sites that students and teachers can explore.
NEED creates partnerships with all sorts of organizations, agencies, companies,
and schools to provide teacher training and curriculum materials. Teachers report
that they never learned about energy in their college classes, but many are faced
with teaching energy in the classroom—because it is occasionally in the state and
local science standards. Teachers like NEED training because it provides them the
science and the application of the knowledge and the technology. The materials
are up-to-date, teacher-friendly, and kid-oriented, and they really teach kids while
encouraging student leadership too. Our Career Currents newsletter provides
background on different energy sectors and the careers found in them. The Energy
Exchange newsletter provides lessons and activities and access to news and re-
sources from NEED and our partners. NEED also works with the Energy Information
Administration on their Energy Kids page—www.eia.doe.gov/kids—and the popu-
lar Energy Ant.
Explain the importance of the NEED energy program as it relates to real-world
issues.
NEED really is all about real-world issues. Like never before, the nation and the
world are focused on energy. The 2008 political race focused on energy, and the
media is focused on energy—or at least was for a while with rising fuel prices,
but there is no other issue that is intertwined with all aspects of daily life. Without
energy, we have nothing. No commerce, no food, no transportation, no commu-
nication. It is the oxygen that fuels our lives, like the oxygen we breathe and the
water and food we consume to fuel our bodies. NEED students are learning about
energy—its past, present, and future. They are learning about natural gas and the
exploration of oil and gas on the nation’s outer continental shelf and the installation
of wind turbines in the nation’s windiest regions. They learn that energy efficiency
is often the fastest and most cost-effective way to make the most of renewable
sources of electricity and that there are simple things that can be done to increase
energy efficiency while practicing conservation measures too. NEED students are
learning about decision making and how to process and screen all of the energy
information and misinformation present in the media and in their daily lives. If we
prepare students to think critically about energy and to apply their knowledge, our
real-world energy issues will be faced with intelligence and strategic thought.
Discuss the PG&E solar schools program and the grants they offer to teachers in
the California area.
The Pacific Gas and Electric Solar Schools program has reached over 4,000 edu-
cators since its inception. The program installs photovoltaic systems on schools,
provides teacher training workshops to train teachers to educate about the sci-
ence of energy and renewable energy in their classrooms, and also offers Bright
Ideas grants for taking the knowledge from those workshops and applying it to
the classroom—for example, teaching about solar and other energy sources and
about energy efficiency, taking field trips, building gardens, and doing energy ret-
rofits. The funding supports a classroom’s bright idea, and that’s the best way to
prepare students for tomorrow—harness those bright ideas and support them.
Describe some of the workshops that NEED and ConocoPhillips provide for teach-
ers and how teachers register for the workshops.
This workshop series presents a unique opportunity for classroom teachers (K–12)
to learn about energy in a fun and exciting way! The seminars create awareness of
today’s energy challenges and the importance of using energy wisely.
Participation in this workshop provides educators with more than $500 of cur-
riculum and hands-on kits that teach about energy resources and energy transfor-
mations through hands-on activities.
Participants receive the NEED Science of Energy Kit, a basic NEED curricu-
lum set, and a class set of NEED’s Energy Infobooks at grade level. Curriculum
and training are aligned with state education standards. Curriculum materials pre-
sented during the workshop include these curriculum guides:
NEED Science of Energy—Secondary Guide
NEED Science of Energy—Elementary Guide
Energy Enigma
Energy Games and Icebreakers
Monitoring and Mentoring Teacher Guide
Monitoring and Mentoring Student Guide
ConocoPhillips generously donated video services to create a series of NEED
online workshop segments. These segments highlight the lessons from the Science
of Energy. Teachers can visit www.need.org/conocophillips for more information
and to register for the workshops.
Tell us a little about the Youth Awards for Energy Achievement. How does a stu-
dent submit an application for the youth award?
The 2010 Youth Awards for Energy Achievement is a celebration of NEED’s work
and recognizes the students and teachers who take NEED programs into their
classrooms, schools, and communities. Students and their teachers work through-
out the year on classroom and community energy projects and gather their work
into a portfolio that they share with reviewers at the state and national levels.
A national review panel scores the projects based on energy content, outreach,
and student leadership, and schools are selected to attend the National Recogni-
tion Ceremonies in June in Washington, D.C., to network with other students and
teachers, to learn about new NEED activities, and to be rewarded for their hard
work for energy education. The program is more collaborative than individual.
Schools should visit www.need.org to learn more and to apply.
NEED expands each day, with new curriculum materials, new updates to existing
curricula, more teacher training, and new resources. Just like energy, NEED is al-
ways changing, always becoming more efficient, and always working to do more.
WHAT’S AHEAD FOR WIND POWER?

A GLOBAL CHALLENGE FOR EUROPE
AND THE UNITED STATES
The good news is that the world market for wind power will have grown by
155 percent by 2012, according to the Global Wind Energy Council. The
cost of energy from wind power projects has decreased substantially since
the 1980s. Among the reasons for the reduction in costs are technological
advances in designing more efficient wind generators and new technolo-
gies in blade design. With the reduction of costs, wind power will continue
to be a major player in the renewable energy field.
However, transmission limitations and long-term storage systems will
need to be addressed for wind power growth to continue. Following is a
quick look at each challenge.
Transmission Limitations
Europe, similar to the United States, has power transmission concerns.
There are not enough energy grids to handle the additional power pro-
duced by more wind farms. In the United States, transmission constraints
are considered to be one of the biggest challenges facing the wind industry,
according to the Department of Energy.
Modernizing America’s electricity infrastructure is one of the U.S.

Department of Energy’s top priorities. The National Transmission
Grid Study made clear that without dramatic improvements and up-
grades over the next decade our nation’s transmission system will fall
short of the reliability standards our economy requires, and will result
in higher electricity costs to consumers. The Department’s research
into a variety of tools that will improve advanced system monitoring,
visualization, control, operations, and market structure will ultimately
modernize the electricity transmission infrastructure to ease conges-
tion, allow for increases in demand, and provide a greater degree of
security.
However, it will be costly to improve the infrastructure of the nation’s

transmission grid. A 2006 estimate puts the cost of new transmission lines
at $1.5–$2 million per mile, and the costs are going to increase in the
future.
How Is Wind Energy Stored?

Another concern, besides transmission constraints, is how to store excess
energy for when wind energy is not available. Using large backup battery
banks is one option for storing excess wind energy during windless days.
But you need a lot of them.
The deep-cycle batteries designed to store energy are the type of battery
best suited for renewable energy applications. This is a start. However, fu-
ture battery technology has to include lightweight batteries with a longer
service life, higher reliability, and lower life-cycle cost than the present
ones, with no maintenance. Some of the companies developing new kinds
of batteries include American Electric Power and Siemens Wind Power.
Both are experimenting with large-scale batteries that could store a mega-
watt of energy.
Compressed-Air Energy Storage

Another promising technology option for wind energy storage is called
compressed-air energy storage. This technology has the potential to store
large quantities of wind energy.
As mentioned in chapter 2, in this technology the wind generators
would pump air into a cavern below Earth. This underground cavern,
sealed off with dense shale or other rock, would resemble a huge balloon-
shaped vessel filled with compressed air. When the demand for energy in-
creases, the air would flow out of the cavern and be transported to an above
ground natural gas–fired turbine, where electricity would be generated. The
combination of a wind power energy source, a storage system, and the

natural gas backup system would provide a very efficient energy resource
for windless days.
Scientists at the Iowa Stored Energy Park in Dallas Center, Iowa, are
researching compressed energy storage technology. The science team is
scheduled to put this technology to use by 2011, after several years of plan-
ning and constructing the storage system. Building the new 268-megawatt
system was expected to cost $200 million, with funding from the De-
partment of Energy and municipal utilities in Iowa, North Dakota, South
Dakota, and Minnesota. Being able to store off-peak wind energy until
demand is needed allows wind power to become more of a reliable and
consistent energy source, both day and night.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Denmark, a small Scandinavian country, generates about 20 percent
of its electricity from wind plants. Most of the turbines are installed in
small clusters or as single units. Research and report on why Denmark
does not use large wind farms to generate power. Is it economically
feasible for a family homestead or school to construct, own, and oper-
ate its own wind turbine? Explain your answer.
2. Floating windmills and turbines are being tested in the Mediterra-
nean Sea and off the coast of Norway. They are placed on platforms
beyond the point of visibility from shore. They will produce and carry,
by underwater cable to the mainland, generated electricity. Research
the development of floating wind turbines.

Archinect. School blog. http://www.archinect.com/schoolblog/entry.php?
id=55756_0_39_0_c. [Student blog describing a project where a
horizontal-axis turbine is powered by the turbulence created from
passing cars.]
Chhabara, Rajesh. “Who’ll Solve the Wind Turbine Supply Crisis?” Cli-
mate Change Corp., May 29, 2008. http://www.climatechangecorp.
com/content.asp?ContentID=5344.
Home Power Magazine. http://www.homepower.com.
Pacific Northwest Laboratories. Wind Energy Resource Atlas. Washington,
D.C.: American Wind Energy Association, 1987. Reprint, 1991.
Pagano, Margaret. “Are Wind Farms a Health Risk? US Scientist Identi-

fies ‘Wind Turbine Syndrome.’” The Independent (London), August 2,
2009. http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/green-living/are-
wind-farms-a-health-risk-us-scientist-identifies-wind-turbine-syn
drome-1766254.html.
Sagrillo, Mick. “Apples & Oranges 2002: Choosing a Home-Sized Wind
Generator.” Home Power (Aug./Sept. 2002), no. 90: 50–66.
Szarka, Joseph. Wind Power in Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007.
WEB SITES
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/wind.htm
The U.S. Department of Energy is a very good resource for informa-
tion on wind energy, hydropower, and ocean/tidal energy.
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/small_wind/small_wind_
guide.pdf
Small Wind Systems includes answers to frequently asked questions
and information on U.S. manufacturers.
http://www.dsireusa.org
Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) is a
comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and fed-
eral incentives and policies that promote renewable energy and en-
ergy efficiency.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets
Green Power Network Net Metering provides information on net
metering programs that are now available in more than 35 states.
awea-wind-home-subscribe@egroups.com
Small Wind “Talk” on the Web: This Home Energy Systems elec-
tronic mailing list, hosted by the American Wind Energy Associa-
tion, is a forum for the discussion of small-scale energy systems that
include wind.
http://www.nrel.gov/clean_energy/home_wind.html
Wind Energy for Homeowners covers items you should consider
before investing in a small wind energy system and provides basic
information about the systems.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy97/22223.pdf
The Wind Resource Assessment Handbook includes new computing
tools and new meteorological data sets that allow researchers to cre-
ate even more accurate and detailed wind maps of how much energy
is available at potential development sites.
http://www.bergey.com/
Bergey Windpower was formed in 1977 and has been manufacturing
small wind turbines since 1980. Its wind turbines have been installed
in all 50 states and in approximately 90 countries.
VIDEOS
Wind Turbines (Future Uses?): What has the industry learned from
jet engines, and is the FloDesign Turbine the next-generation wind
turbine? To compare the new with the old, go to http://news.cnet.
com/8301-11128_3-9945005-54.html (4:59 minutes).
Wind Generators: A Quantum Leap Toward the Future? Riding on
a frictionless magnetic base, the futuristic Maglev sail fin generator
is reported to be able to replace 1,000 legacy propeller wind turbines
and produce a staggering 2,000 gigawatts of power. To view, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7Qs2gFlt-o&feature=related
(1:40 minutes).
Chapter 4
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power plants use the kinetic energy of moving water to turn
turbines to generate electricity. In 2009 U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven
Chu said that hydropower capacity in the United States could “double with
minimal impact to the environment,” mostly just by installing more effi-
cient turbines at existing hydroelectric projects or at dams without power
components, increasing the use of pumped-storage projects, and encour-
aging the use of run-of-the-river turbines. These kinds of improvements
to the existing infrastructure could apparently add 70,000 megawatts of
capacity. “We will be pushing this,” Chu said at a White House forum.
“We’re not talking about a lot of large, new reservoirs. Just work with what
we have and it’s a massive amount of power.”
Chu also announced up to $30.6 million in Recovery Act funding for the
selection of seven hydropower projects: “These projects would modernize
VIDEO
Hydroelectricity: What Is It? From the invention of the water wheel to hydroelec-
tricity, this video explains how humans have harnessed the power of water: http://
videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/30198-really-big-things-hydroelectric-
power-video.htm (2:26 minutes).
74 A Student Guide to Energy
Some of the major U.S. hydroelectric power producers are located in Washing-
ton, California, and Oregon. Hydroelectric power is generated by approximately
3 percent of the thousands of dams in the nation. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual, Volume 1,
August 2000. Tables A7 and A12. Includes utility and nonutility generation)
hydropower infrastructure by increasing efficiency and reducing environ-

mental impacts at existing facilities.”
HYDROELECTRIC POWER IN THE UNITED STATES

“Hydroelectric power accounts for 6 percent of the U.S.’s electricity con-
sumption and nearly 75 percent of renewable power,” according to the
Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the U.S. De-
partment of Energy. Mark Garner, chief executive officer of Voith Hydro,
said hydroelectric power plants generate 98,000 megawatts of electricity
and support about 300,000 jobs in the United States. Voith Hydro is one
of the world’s largest dedicated hydro turbine equipment manufacturing
facilities. Hydroelectric power accounts for approximately 90 percent of all
electricity that comes from renewable resources such as solar, geothermal,
wind, and biomass.
DID YOU KNOW?

Hydroelectric power is generated at only 3 percent of the nation’s 80,000 dams.
Only 2,400 dams have the equipment to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric Power 75
The top U.S. hydroelectric power producers are located in Washington,

California, and Oregon. Hydroelectric power produced in Canada supplies
a good share of electricity to many U.S. areas such as New York, New En-
gland, the upper Midwest, the Pacific Northwest, and California.
Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about 24 percent of the
world’s electricity. This is enough electricity to supply more than one bil-
lion people with electrical power for their household needs. The world’s
hydroelectric power plants, output a combined total of 675,000 megawatts,
the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil, according to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Hydroelectric power in the United States produces enough electricity
annually to meet the needs of all the people who live in California, New
York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas. In the United States the top five
hydroelectric power dams are the Grand Coulee Dam, Chief Joseph Dam,
Niagara Falls, John Day Dam, and the Hoover Dam.
Grand Coulee Dam

In 1933 the construction of Grand Coulee Dam began on the Colum-
bia River in northeast central Washington. When completed in 1942, the
Grand Coulee Dam was the largest hydroelectric facility in North Amer-
ica. Besides supplying 6,800 megawatts of power, the Grand Coulee Dam
is also used for irrigation and to control the floods of the Columbia River.
Chief Joseph Dam

The Chief Joseph Dam also spans the Columbia River in the state of Wash-
ington and is the second-largest hydroelectric power–producing plant in
the nation. Several additional turbines were installed in the 1970s, and the
dam power plant now generates more than 2,500 megawatts.
John Day Dam

The John Day Dam is located east of Portland, Oregon, on the Columbia
River. The John Day Dam began operating in 1968 and is the third-largest
DID YOU KNOW?

The Chief Joseph Dam was named after Chief Joseph, who was best known for his
resistance to the U.S. government’s attempts to force his tribe onto reservations.
The Grand Coulee Dam in Washington generates electricity and is also used
for irrigation and for controlling floods in the Columbia River. (Courtesy Rob
Frechette)
hydroelectric plant in the United States and the 25th-largest in the world.
The dam’s main generators are capable of producing more than two million
kilowatts.
The John Day Dam also has the deepest lock in the country, used for rais-
ing and lowering ships traveling on the Columbia River. Many of the ships
carry millions of tons of goods and products through the locks every year.
Some of the products include petroleum, farm, grain, and wood products.
Niagara Falls
The first hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In
the 1880s the street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were lit by electricity
from the power dam. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer
in New York State, with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts.
Hoover Dam
The Hoover Dam, constructed on the Colorado River on the border be-
tween Arizona and Nevada, is similar to the other large dams. Besides
providing hydroelectric power, the Hoover Dam controls flooding con-

ditions in the area, stores water for irrigation, and provides recreational
opportunities.
Between 1939 and 1949, the Hoover power plant was the world’s larg-
est hydroelectric power plant. At 726 feet high, it is one of the highest
concrete dams ever constructed. There are 17 main turbines in the Hoover
power plant. Nine are on the Arizona side, and eight are in the Nevada
wing. The Hoover Dam turbines generate enough electricity to serve more
than one million people in Nevada, Arizona, and California.
The Hoover Dam uses Francis turbines, one of the most common water
turbines in use as of 2010. In these turbines, electricity is generated when
water from a reservoir flows down through large pipes inside the dam to a
turbine. The action of the water in the turbines turns a shaft in a generator
to produce electricity.
WHAT IS HYDROELECTRIC POWER?

As mentioned at the start of the chapter, hydroelectric power is energy
that comes from the force of moving water. Simply stated, hydroelectric
power uses the energy of falling water to generate electricity. Hydroelec-
tric power generators and electric generators powered by wind turbines
operate in similar ways. At a hydroelectric power plant, fast-flowing cur-
rents (as opposed to wind) are used to spin the rotor of a turbine to gen-
erate electricity. The amount of electric energy produced by the turbine
depends on the pressure and the volume of the water that flows into the
turbine.
Since water is denser than air, it is estimated a hydroelectric power gen-
erator can produce one megawatt of power with a rotor that is several feet
in diameter. The rotor is the rotating part of a mechanical device, such as
a rotor of a turbine in a wind generator. To produce the same power using
air, the rotor in a wind generator would need to be much larger in diameter
than the water-powered rotor.
DID YOU KNOW?

How does hydroelectric power work? For more information go to: http://ga.water.
usgs.gov/edu/hyhowworks.html.
SHORT HISTORY OF
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
For thousands of years, humans have been harnessing water for energy to
do a variety of tasks. From the 10th century, water-powered mills grounded
grain, an important food source. The first water power plant in Scandinavia
was built in the 1300s. Hydroelectric power has been in use in the Nordic
countries for almost 700 years.
In 1882 the world’s first hydroelectric power plant was installed on the
Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin. The plant produced 12.5 kilowatts of
power, just enough to power all of the electricity needed by the machinery
in two paper mills.
About 50 years later, in 1933, the Tennessee Valley Authority Act was
passed into law, to improve navigation along the Tennessee River and Mis-
sissippi River basins and to construct dams along these rivers. To provide
power for critical war industries, the Tennessee Valley Authority engaged
in one of the largest hydropower construction programs ever undertaken
in the United States. Early in 1942, when the effort reached its peak,
12 hydroelectric projects were under construction.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER DAMS

Dams are built to provide hydroelectric power plants and to store water in
a reservoir for human needs, such as for freshwater supplies and for recre-
ational facilities. In simple terms, a dam is a structure, often human-built,
that restricts the flow of water. Dams are constructed on a waterway, such
as a stream or river. The dam usually alters the flow of water by slowing it,
rerouting it, or storing it as a reservoir, pond, or lake.
People have built dams for a variety of purposes. Early dams helped to
corral fish, making them easier to catch. Agricultural societies have used
dams to improve irrigation, storing water or redirecting water into irriga-
tion ditches for farming.
Besides provided the power to turn grindstones used to mill grain, dams
were a very important power source during the Industrial Revolution.
During this era, water propelled by the force of gravity was used to operate
machinery. In addition, dams provided flood control by allowing the stor-
age of excess water during times of heavy runoff and by later regulating the
release of the excess water.
The Tennessee Valley Authority was created by Congress in 1933 to develop
the Tennessee River system in the interests of navigation, flood control,
national defense, and to generate and sell surplus electricity. This simplified
diagram explains the Tennessee Valley Authority’s river control projects that
include parts of seven states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. (Library of Congress)
Different Kinds of Dams

Various types of dam structures exist, including the familiar gravity dam,
the arch dam, and the buttress dam.
A gravity dam consists of a wall constructed across the waterway in
such a way that water flows only under, not over, the wall. This construc-
tion directs much of the force of the water toward the base of the dam.
The largest gravity dam in the world is the Aswan Dam on the Nile River
in Egypt.
The arch dam has a wall that curves upstream against the flow of water.
Typically built in small canyons, arch dams direct the force of the water
toward the canyon walls. The Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River in Arizona
is an example of an arch dam.
Buttress dams have a system of beams, or buttresses, that support the
downstream side of the dam. A buttress dam, which can be made relatively
large, is often selected for use in wide valleys. An example of a buttress dam
is the Bartlett Dam on the Verde River near Phoenix, Arizona, which was
built in the late 1930s.
When great quantities of soil or rock are available for construction, en-
gineers may choose to build an embankment dam, which typically consists
of an earthen wall.
TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

According to the Department of Energy, there are three types of hydro-
electric power facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
Note that some hydroelectric power plants need dams; however, other
hydroelectric power plants do not. Following is a short description of
some kinds of hydroelectric power plants, according to the Department
of Energy.
Impoundment
The most familiar and common type of hydroelectric facility is the im-
poundment hydropower plant, such as the Hoover Dam. An impound-
ment facility uses a dam to collect and store water in a large reservoir. It
works similar to other dams in producing electricity. Water is released from
the dam’s reservoir, flows downward through pipes to a turbine, which in
turn activates a generator to produce electricity.
Diversion
The diversion facility dam is sometimes called a run-of-river hydroelectric
power system. The diversion power plant is built to channel and direct the
incoming flow of water through a canal to the power station. Unlike other
dams, this kind of power station has little storage capacity for water. So you
will not find a large reservoir associated with this type of dam. Therefore,
the power station depends solely on the energy from the flow rate of the
stream or river. So if the natural flow rate of the river is reduced so is the
available power output of the hydropower installed on the river or stream.
An example of a diversion dam is the Cascades Diversion Dam, which is
built into the Merced Wild and Scenic River in Yosemite National Park at
an elevation of 3,800 feet.
Pumped Storage
A pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand,
the water is then released from the upper level to the turbines below to
generate electricity. The Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility in Dru-
more Township, Pennsylvania, is a pumped storage hydroelectric plant
that is owned by Exelon Power. The Muddy Run has a capacity of 1,071
megawatts.
THE COMPONENTS OF A HYDROELECTRIC

POWER PLANT
Dam Gates
To produce energy, most hydroelectric power plants have a lot of potential
energy stored in the water of a reservoir. Special gates are used to release
this potential energy into kinetic energy. The gates monitor and control
the flowing water. When the gates are opened, large quantities of water
from the reservoir flow down through the penstock, or pipeline, that leads
to the turbine.
Turbine
As mentioned previously, the Francis turbine is the most common type of
turbine for hydroelectric power plants. Some of these turbines can weigh
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facil-

ity. An impoundment facility is a large hydropower system that uses a dam to
store river water in a reservoir. A penstock releases water from the reservoir
to a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce elec-
tricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
as much as 170 tons and spin at a rate of 90 revolutions per minute. The
turbine is actually the engine that converts the kinetic energy from a fluid
such as water or air into mechanical energy. The turbine has just one mov-
ing part, a rotor assembly, which has blades attached to a shaft. The water,
flowing down under great pressure, turns the large blades of a turbine at-
tached to a generator.
Generator
A generator is connected to the turbine by special gears so that when the
turbine spins, it causes the generator to spin, converting the mechanical
DID YOU KNOW?

James Francis was an engineer who improved on earlier turbine models. His tur-
bine, named after him, has a 90 percent efficiency rating.
energy from the turbine into electric energy. Looking inside a moving
generator, you will find giant magnets, weighing hundreds of pounds, ro-
tating around copper coils, producing alternating current, which is con-
verted to higher-voltage current. The current is then transmitted from the
hydroelectric power plant to an outside transmission power grid, which
provides electricity for homes and business.
HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY CAN A HYDROELECTRIC

PLANT GENERATE?
The amount of electricity a hydroelectric power plant can produce depends
on such factors as the volume of the water that falls down the vertical dis-
tance and the flow rate of the falling water. Therefore, the higher the dam,
the more potential power it has.
THE LEADING HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

IN THE WORLD
The top hydroelectric power dams in the world include the following:
• Three Gorges Dam (China)
• Itaipú Dam (on the border of Paraguay and Brazil)
• Guri Dam (Venezuela)
• Tucurui Dam (Brazil)
• Sayano-Shushenskaya Dam (Russia)
• Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric dam (Russia)
and Venezuela is generated by hydroelectric power plants. These countries
generate more than 170,000 megawatts of electricity, enough power to
support the electrical needs of more than 110 million households in the
United States.
Following are brief descriptions of some of the major hydroelectric
power plants in the world.
China: Three Gorges Dam Project

In 2010, China’s Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest water project, was
filled to capacity. The dam, on the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) River in central
China, provides hydroelectric power, better navigation, and flood control.
According to the Xinhua news agency, by the end of 2011, the dam is
The world’s leading hydropower producers include China, Brazil, Canada, and
the United States. Norway relies predominantly on hydroelectricity. (Source:
U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Agency, International Energy
Annual 2006)
expected to reach full generating capacity producing 84.7 billion kilowatts

of electricity. (The Xinhua News Agency is the official press agency of the
government of the People’s Republic of China.)
The Three Gorges Dam also provides flood control along the almost
4,000-mile-long river. The dam can release excess water to buffer the effects
China’s Three Gorges Dam is the world’s largest hydroelectric dam. The dam’s
construction was supported by Chinese officials for its financial benefits and
was opposed by environmentalists, historians, and human rights groups for
the flooding of the gorges and villages along the Yangtze River. (Shutterstock)
of heavy precipitation or runoff. This is an important feature because in the

past, the river has periodically flooded, causing much death and destruc-
tion at times throughout Chinese history.
The planning of the Three Gorges Dam began in the mid-20th cen-
tury with the evaluation of possible construction sites and effects. The
Chinese government, recognizing the great economic potential and
environmental power of the Yangtze River, realized an opportunity to
take advantage of the river through modern civil engineering. Another
option at the time was to build a series of smaller dams on tributary
rivers of the Yangtze, which when constructed might serve the energy
and flood control functions without the risks presented by a single huge
dam.
When completed, the Three Gorges Dam created a lake approximately
375 miles long and up to 600 feet deep. This large body of water permits
deep-water vessels to travel 1,500 miles into the interior of China.
Critics of the dam have presented a variety of social and environmental
problems. Some of these problems include the high economic costs of the
construction, the displacement of communities flooded by the project, and
the loss of some historical sites. Another concern was that any large ac-
cumulations of sediment behind the dam might lead to future structural
failure and water pollution.
Canada
Hydroelectric generation provides almost 60 percent of the electricity
needs for Canada. In fact, Canada is the world’s second-largest producer
of hydroelectricity and one of few countries in the world to generate the
majority of its own electricity from hydroelectricity.
In 2007 Canada produced approximately 370 terawatt-hours of elec-
tricity, which would be about 12 percent of all the hydropower electricity
generated in the world. The leading hydroelectric power plants are concen-
trated in the provinces and territories of Quebec, Manitoba, Newfound-
land and Labrador, and Yukon.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Yangtze River is the third longest of the world’s great rivers; it stretches almost
4,000 miles.
Believe it or not, Quebec is the fourth-largest producer of hydroelec-

tricity in the world. Almost 100 percent of the electricity generated in
Quebec comes from a network of more than 50 hydroelectric power sta-
tions. One of Canada’s major hydroelectric power plants is the Churchill
Falls hydroelectric power plant. The Churchill Falls, named after former
British prime minister Winston Churchill, is located on the Churchill
River in Newfoundland and Labrador. It is a major source of electricity in
North America.
Brazil and Paraguay: The Itaipú

Hydroelectric Power Plant
The Itaipú Hydroelectric Power Plant is one of the largest hydroelectric
power plants in the world. Two neighboring countries, Brazil and Paraguay,
own the plant, built between 1975 and 1991. The 18 or so generators at the
Itaipú hydroelectric plant provide 25 percent of the energy needs of Brazil
and 78 percent of the electricity for homes and businesses in Paraguay.
Aerial view of the Itaipú hydroelectric dam in Brazil. Itaipú represents the
efforts and accomplishments of two neighboring countries, Brazil and Para-
guay. The dam supplies 90 percent of Paraguay’s energy and 25 percent of
Brazil’s electric power. (Itaipú Binacional)
Itaipú is one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, according

to a worldwide survey conducted by the American Society of Civil En-
gineers, whose magazine article stated: “To build the Itaipú Dam, work-
ers reenacted a labor of Hercules: they shifted the course of the seventh
biggest river in the world (Paraná River, at the Brazil/Paraguay border)
and removed more than 50 million tons of earth and rock.” The Piracema
Canal that runs between the Paraná River and the Itaipú Reservoir allows
migratory fishes to swim along the canal without restrictions from the
dam. The canal provides a safe area where migratory fish can spawn.
Venezuela: The Guri Dam and the Simón Bolivar

Hydroelectric Plant
Another large hydroelectric power plant in South America is the Guri
power plant, located on Caroni River in Venezuela. The hydroelectric plant
can produce 10,300 megawatts a year. The other large power plant, known
as the Simón Bolivar Hydroelectric Power Station, supplies Venezuela
with 82 percent of its electricity.
Norway
Norway is the country to visit if you want to see a large number of hydro-
electric power plants in action. The country has been using water power
since the late 19th century. In 2006 Norway’s 850 hydroelectric plants ac-
counted for 98 percent of the country’s electricity production.
Hydroelectric Power along the Danube River

Since the 16th century, several European countries have utilized the rivers
in the Danube River Basin for flood control, navigation, and hydroelectric
power production. It has been estimated that more than 650 dams have
been built along the main tributaries of the Danube River.
DID YOU KNOW?

Showtime at the Dam. The technical illumination specialist in Brazil, Peter Gasper,
designed a monumental illumination show of the Itaipú power plant for visitors.
When the lights turn on, you can listen to music created by the specialist Antonio
Faya especially for the show.
The Danube, which is the longest river in Europe, begins its journey in
the Black Forest in Germany and flows eastward for some 1,750 miles. The
river flows through various European countries before ending its journey
in the Black Sea.
The Danube River Basin has been an excellent location for building
hydroelectric power plants. The total electricity-generating capacity of all
the hydroelectric power facilities in the Danube Basin is approximately
30,000 megawatts.
The largest hydroelectric power dams located along the Danube are at
the Iron Gate Dam I and the Iron Gate II Gorge; the countries of Romania
and Serbia cooperatively operate the two dams and divide the electricity
produced. Iron Gate II is the larger of the two and was completed in 1984.
Romania
Romania is planning to complete construction of a hydroelectric power
plant on the Jiu River in 2012. The Jiu River is a tributary that flows into
The Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station is the largest dam on the Danube
River and one of the largest hydropower plants in Europe. It is located on the
Iron Gate Gorge between Romania and Serbia. (Constantin Bogdan Carstina/
Dreamstime.com)
the Danube. The new hydroelectric power system will comprise two plants
and when in operation will have a combined capacity of 215 gigawatt-
hours of electricity per year.
Austria
Austria has almost 2,000 small hydroelectric power plants that supply the
electrical needs of one million households. Dams within the Danube River
Basin in Austria generate much of the electricity.
India
In 2009 the government of India began making plans to expand its po-
tential hydroelectric power resources. Today India depends much on coal
power plants for its energy needs. Because only 25 percent of its total power
generation comes from hydroelectric power, the government now plans to
increase its hydroelectric power production to 40 percent.
The future planning and construction of hydroelectric power plants will
be located in Himachal Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh has abundant water
resources with five major rivers flowing from the western Himalayas. These
rivers have the potential to provide hydroelectric power for about 25 per-
cent of India’s electrical needs from renewable resources.
MICROHYDROPOWER: USING SMALL-SCALE

HYDROELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
Hydroelectric power plants range in size from large power plants to smaller
ones. The Department of Energy defines small hydroelectric power plants
as facilities that have a capacity of from 100 kilowatts to 30 megawatts.
The smallest of the small is the microhydroelectric power plant, which has
a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. Many of the present hydroelectric power
systems used by homeowners, small business owners, farmers, and ranchers
are the 10-kilowatt microhydroelectric power systems that provide enough
power for their needs. These systems can also work well in remote villages
and towns where electricity is needed for businesses, farms, local lighting,
and for pumping drinking water.
Globally, most microhydroelectric power systems are off-grid, given that
they are usually installed in remote mountainous areas. These stand-alone
small-scale hydroelectric power systems can be a great resource because the
DID YOU KNOW?

The typical U.S. home uses an average of 920 kilowatt-hours per month, according
to the Department of Energy.
equipment is said to last a long time and the costs are low. In fact, in some
cases, installation costs can be as low as $1,000 per power system unit.
Small-scale hydroelectric power stations can provide all of the advan-
tages of hydroelectric power without some of the problems of large-scale
hydroelectric power plants. As an example, small hydroelectric power plants
have less impact on the environment and cost less to build and maintain
than the larger hydroelectric systems.
Building small, rather than large, hydroelectric power systems may be
the trend for the future. Today, microhydropower systems are being used
on rivers and tributaries and in remote areas where construction is difficult.
Such small-scale systems do not require the damming of rivers.
Microhydropower Components
According to Green Energy Ohio, a standard microhydropower system
includes the following key components, which are similar to the parts of
the larger dam systems.
The penstock is the pipeline that carries water from a source such as
a reservoir or stream to a turbine. All power plants have a turbine and a
generator. The flowing water turns the shaft of the turbine, which is con-
nected to a generator used to produce electricity. A regulator is used to
control the electricity produced by the generator and is designed to auto-
matically maintain a constant voltage level. An inverter is used to convert
DC electricity to the standard AC currently used in homes. Finally, wiring
is installed to deliver the electricity to a power grid transmission line or
VIDEO
To view a small hydroelectric power system, view the “Mini Hydroelectric
Power Project in Indonesia” video at http://wiki.edc-cu.org/blogs/index.php/
videos/2009/08/05/p794.
DID YOU KNOW?

Microhydropower systems producing less than five kilowatts are usually termed
“picohydro” and are usually used for individual homes or communities of two or
three houses.
to storage batteries. (Note: Green Energy Ohio is a nonprofit organiza-

tion dedicated to promoting environmentally and economically sustain-
able energy polices and practices in Ohio. See their Web site: http://www.
greenenergyohio.org.)
The Head
The most important component of the microhydropower system is
known as the head. The head is the vertical distance the water falls in
A 10-kilowatt microhydroelectric power plant can supply enough electricity

for homeowners who have installed the system. Water from a stream enters
a storage tank known as the forebay. From there the water flows down into a
closed pipe called a penstock to a powerhouse where a turbine spins a gen-
erator to supply electricity. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
In the microhydropower system, a portion of a river’s water is diverted to a

channel. The water in the channel follows the contour of the hillside. The
water then enters a storage tank known as the forebay. From here the water
flows down into a closed pipe called a penstock. In the powerhouse, the fast-
moving water enters a turbine that spins a shaft. The motion of the turning
shaft can be used for mechanical processes, such as pumping water, or it can
be used to power an alternator or generator to produce electricity. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
the system. So, the higher the head, the more power in the falling water.
A high head site has a height of more than 10 feet, whereas shorter drops
are referred to as a low head. High head sites are critical in this system.
Sites with less than a two-foot drop may not support a microhydropower
system. Also, the higher the head, the less water is needed to produce
power. Therefore, knowing the height measurement of the head and the
flow volume, you can determine the power at the site. The volume of flow
is measured in cubic feet per second, or it can be measured in gallons per
minute.
Turbines
For the small hydropower systems, there are different kinds of turbines.
Some of these turbines include the impulse turbines, the reaction tur-
bines, and the submersible propeller turbines. However, the two basic
turbines include the Francis reaction turbines and the Pelton and Turgo
impulse turbines. All of the turbines, no matter which kind, are built to
use water pressure to drive a generator, which produces electricity.
What Kind of Terrain Supports Microhydropower?

To install a microhydropower system, you need a plot of land that has a
stream with a high head in order to provide enough water pressure to turn
a turbine. You also want to use this power year round. However, using en-
ergy year-round requires a continuous flowing stream that will not freeze
in cold weather or dry up in hot weather.
Is Microhydroelectric Power Affordable?

Homeowners living off the grid can select from many different microhy-
dropower systems. Some of them cost more than others. However, for a
The Pelton turbine, or Pelton wheel, is among the most efficient types of water
turbines and is only one of eight types of turbines currently in use. The Pelton
wheel was invented by Lester Pelton in the late 19th century. (U.S. Department
of Energy/Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
FEATURE
The Pelton Wheel Turbine
You read about the Francis turbine earlier in this chapter. The Francis turbine is a
reaction turbine. However, another kind of turbine is the impulse turbine. One of
the most common types of impulse turbines includes the Pelton wheel. The Pel-
ton wheel needs pressurized water to turn its turbine wheel. It all starts when the
water is forced into a pressurized pipeline that has a narrow nozzle at one end. The
water then sprays out of the nozzle striking a number of special cups attached to
the wheel. The jet spray of water hitting the cups creates a force that rotates the
wheel at a high efficiency rate. Pelton wheel turbines are available in various sizes
and operate best under low-flow and high head conditions.
few thousand dollars, a homeowner can purchase a system that will power
a small house under the right conditions, which may cost less than a pho-
tovoltaic energy system.
Microhydropower Benefits
Microhydropower systems can be very reliable for homes as a renewable
energy source. They can also provide a backup source of power for conven-
tional systems during electricity outages. Another big plus is that microhy-
dropower systems operate under any weather conditions. That makes these
systems available 24 hours a day.
Many Countries Use Microhydropower Systems

Besides the United States, there are thought to be tens of thousands of
plants in the “micro” range operating successfully in many countries. Some
of these countries include China, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Japan, and Peru.
China now houses more than 43,000 small hydropower facilities pro-
ducing more than 19,000 megawatts of electricity,
In Afghanistan, a new 60 kilowatt-hour microhydropower plant has
improved the quality of life for a local village and has opened the door for
new business opportunities. Currently, the plant provides 1,200 residents
with electricity and allows local shops to sell food and drinks.
The Shutol microhydropower plant is located along the Panjshir River in

Afghanistan. It was constructed in 2006 and generates power for the nearby
district center’s offices. (Shahla Hammond/USAID)
The microhydropower plant installation has been implemented in some

villages in Indonesia, supplying electricity to villages that previously were
not illuminated by electricity.
Many rural towns and communities in Japan benefit from microhydro-
power projects because they do not require massive investments.
In Kenya, a microhydropower project provides energy for 1,000 people
in a village river community. The project has also reduced some air pollu-
tion problems associated with using wood and dung for cooking.
A school in one of the villages in Sri Lanka no longer relies on electric-
ity from the main Sri Lanka transmission grid. The school’s picohydro-
power plant produces up to five kilowatts of energy from the smallest of
streams. The picohydropower system can power four computers and all the
light bulbs in the school at the same time. The school’s overall electricity
bill has been reduced as a result.
ADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER

One major advantage of hydroelectric power is that it is nonpolluting: it
produces no harmful emissions such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxides, and
FEATURE
Microhydropower Potential in the United States
Several states in the United States are also installing microhydropower systems, in-
cluding Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and North Carolina. Sections of these states
have high elevation gradients for adequate flow and head requirements. Let’s look
at North Carolina as one example. The high elevation gradients in western North
Carolina may contain the state’s greatest potential for microhydropower. In fact, a
1983 study conducted by Appalachian State University examined 24 western counties
and found 1,592 potential microhydropower sites between 5 and 20 kilowatts. Collec-
tively, these sites have the potential to generate 30 megawatts of electrical power.
nitrogen oxides and no liquid or solid wastes. It is a clean and renewable

energy. Also, because this energy is produced domestically, it reduces the
country’s dependence on imported fossil fuels.
Hydroelectric projects can also provide other important benefits, in-
cluding a water supply, flood control, irrigation, navigation, and recre-
ational areas.
DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROPOWER
There are concerns about building large dams for hydroelectric power
because they can have negative effects on the environment. The building
of a large dam requires flooding a large area behind the dam to form the
reservoir. The flooding destroys natural habitats, wetlands, and farmlands.
People living in areas designated for flooding have to be relocated. Over
time, reservoirs fill up with silt and sediments, burying the spawning areas
of fish and other aquatic organisms. Stagnant pools can become breeding
grounds for disease-causing insects and waterborne pathogens.
Droughts can have a major impact on hydropower. No water equals no
electricity.
Dams can be barriers to fish migrating upstream to spawning grounds
or migrating downstream to the ocean. As an example, in the past, large
dams in the Pacific Northwest have hindered salmon migrations.
Hydropower plants can cause low dissolved oxygen levels in water. Dis-
solved oxygen is vital to fishes and other aquatic life. Water with dissolved
oxygen of less than five milligrams per liter generally cannot support living
organisms.
FEATURE
Green-e: An Independent Consumer Protection Program
Green-e is the nation’s leading independent consumer protection program for the
sale of renewable energy and greenhouse gas reductions in the retail market.
Green-e offers certification and verification of renewable energy and greenhouse
gas mitigation products.
The Green-e certification program also analyzes different types of hydropower.
Generally, only small hydro (dams 30 megawatts or less) and low-impact hydro-
power (LIH) facilities qualify. The Low Impact Hydropower Institute certifies dams
as truly low impact by studying the total environmental impacts of a particular hy-
dropower dam. The Low Impact Hydropower Institute has created a special cer-
tification program to identify and reward efforts by dam owners to minimize the
impacts of their hydropower dams. Green-e certification is based on several envi-
ronmental criteria. Some of them include:
1. River flows
2. Water quality
3. Fish passage and protection
4. Watershed protection
5. Threatened and endangered species protection
A fish ladder at Bonneville Dam in Oregon. Fish ladders are used to help fish
get upstream to spawn when dams or other obstructions block their natural
passageway. (Lori Howard/Dreamstime.com)
FEATURE
More Small Hydropower Plants
As of 2009, the number of small hydropower projects in the United States was in-
creasing because of environmental concerns presented by larger dams. In 2010
a Wall Street Journal report noted that “the Federal Energy Regulatory Commis-
sion has applications pending for 14,000 megawatts.” This is enough electricity
for 7–14 million homes, and most of the proposed small hydropower plants are lo-
cated on small rivers, streams, and creeks in states such as Washington, Colorado,
and Montana. However, environmentalists are beginning to raise objections to the
small dams, too, which they say can still block fish runs and interfere with white-
water rafting trips.
Dams sometimes have created environmental and social problems. In

the 1990s the construction of the Gabcikovo Dam on the Danube River
in Slovakia caused severe impacts on the ecosystem of the Danube valley.
By holding back and diverting water, the dam caused lowering of the water
table and drying of wetlands downstream of the dam. The depressed water
table affected farms that depended on groundwater for irrigation.
SMALL HYDROPOWER ORGANIZATIONS

The European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) is a nonprofit in-
ternational association representing the sector of small hydropower. The
association was founded in 1989 as an initiative of the European Commis-
sion. ESHA is a founding member of EREC (the European Renewable
Energy Council), which groups together all main European renewable-
energy industry and research associations. Since March 2000, ESHA has
shared its headquarters with other EREC members in the Renewable En-
ergy House in Brussels, Belgium.
SOMETHING TO DO
• In 1970 Egypt’s Aswan High Dam was completed to control the
flow of the Nile River, prevent flooding, improve transportation, and
provide a power source for the population living within 12 miles of
the river. However, problems have arisen along the river floodplain.
Identify the problems in terms of water drainage and salinity, soil

composition and nutrients, and the displacement of populations and
antiquities.
• The damming of rivers accounts for about 24 percent of the world’s
electricity. The recently completed Three Gorges Dam in China and
the Tennessee Valley dam system completed in the United States
in the 1930s provide both electricity and flood control. Compare
and contrast the construction of the two dam systems in size,
land area affected, community relocation, energy output, and the
effect on natural habitats. Consult these Web sites: www.loe.org/
series/3gorges, www.tva.com, www.geography.about.com, and www.
thinkquest.org.

Escheverria, J. D., et al. Rivers at Risk: The Concerned Citizen’s Guide to Hy-
dropower. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1990.
McCutheron, S. Electric Rivers: The Story of the James Bay Project. New
York: Black Rose Books, 1991.
WEB SITES
http://www.hydropower.org/
The International Hydropower Association (IHA) addresses the
role of hydropower in meeting the world’s growing water and energy
needs as a clean, renewable, and sustainable technology.
http://www.hydropower-dams.com/
The International Journal on Hydropower and Dams is a bimonthly
publication, is read in 176 countries, and deals with all technical, en-
vironmental, social, and economic aspects of hydro plants and multi-
purpose water resources development projects.
http://www.hydro.org/
The National Hydropower Association (NHA) is a nonprofit na-
tional association dedicated exclusively to advancing the interests of
the hydropower industry. It seeks to secure hydropower’s place as a
climate-friendly, renewable, and reliable energy source that serves
national environmental and energy policy objectives.
http://www.usbr.gov/power/edu/edu.htm
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Hydropower Information, estab-
lished in 1902, is best known for the dams, power plants, and canals
it constructed in the 17 western states. Reclamation has constructed
more than 600 dams and reservoirs, including Hoover Dam on the
Colorado River and Grand Coulee on the Columbia River. The Bu-
reau of Reclamation is the largest wholesaler of water in the United
States.
http://water.usgs.gov
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collects information needed to
understand the Nation’s water resources and provides access to water
data, publications, and maps, as well as to recent water projects and
events.
VIDEOS
Hydroelectricity: What Is It? From the invention of the water wheel
to hydroelectricity, this video explains how humankind harnesses the
power of water: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/30198-
really-big-things-hydroelectric-power-video.htm (2:26 minutes).
Large-Scale Hydroelectricity: To learn about how this electricity is
produced, including the environmental advantages and disadvan-
tages, view the following video: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
yt-LEc2-43J7zI/large_scale_hydro_electricity/ (3:43 minutes).
Micro Systems: Microhydropower systems in the Peruvian Andes con-

nect rural communities to the modern world. To view the difference
made by hydropower and how electricity has revolutionized rural
Peru, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xepODtFXjk4 (4:33
minutes).
Riverbank Power: Aquabank, a forerunner in underground renewable
energy, claims to produce 1,000 megawatts of reliable power to boost
the demand for electricity during “peak hours.” For more informa-
tion, review the following video: http://www.alternative-energy-
news.info/technology/hydro/ (4:21 minutes).
Chapter 5
a
Ocean Tidal Power,

Ocean Wave Power, and
Ocean Thermal Energy
In a 1980 issue of Popular Science, the magazine published an article on

how an energy company was developing plans to use the movements of
deep-sea ocean currents to generate electricity. The plan included building
a huge undersea turbine to generate electrical power for 25,000 homes.
The planned turbine was to be 30 stories high and be anchored to the sea
floor. The installed turbine’s twin rotors would drive an electric genera-
tor using the energy from the flowing ocean currents. The plan was never
completed, but it was one of many technology proposals at that time to
use ocean waves and tidal energy to generate electricity. Since the 1980s,
several countries have been developing plans to build equipment for ocean
energy power systems.
Oceans, which cover 70 percent of Earth’s surface, are enormous solar
energy collectors. Oceans have vast amounts of kinetic energy in their
waves, currents, and tides. The various forms of energy include the thermal
energy generated by the sun’s heat and absorbed by marine waters and the
kinetic or mechanical energy of moving water such as waves and tides.
The oceans provide the following types of energy that can be harnessed
for power.
• Tidal energy. Tidal energy is the result of the movement of ocean
waters that are derived directly from the relative motions of the
Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent from the Earth–Sun

system.
• Wave energy. Wave energy is produced from the movement of sur-
face water. Winds create currents that can transport large volumes of
water across the oceans.
• Ocean thermal energy. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OETC), is
an energy technology that uses the ocean’s natural thermal gradient
to generate electricity.
This chapter discusses tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal en-
ergy. Let’s begin with tidal power.
TIDAL POWER
Tidal power is a form of hydroelectric power. In all hydroelectric power
plants, electrical energy is generated when water flows over a turbine.
As water pushes on the turbine’s blades, the turbine spins. This spinning
action is transferred to coils of wire inside a generator, which produces
electricity.
What Are Tides?

Tides are caused by the periodic rise and fall of ocean waters as well as
the rise and fall in some large lakes such as Lake Erie and inland seas as
a result of the gravitational pull of the sun and moon on Earth. High tide
occurs when the ocean level is high and the tide flows in. Low tide occurs
when the ocean level is low and water flows out toward the ocean. The
low tide and high tide alternate in a continuous and predictable cycle as
recorded in local papers near ocean beach resorts.
Along most coastlines throughout the world, two high tides, or flow
tides, and two low tides, or ebb tides, occur each 24-plus-hour day. The
VIDEO
Tidal Power: Homegrown power from New York’s East River? Drawing technology
from wind turbines, Verdant Power harvests tidal power in this small pilot project
with huge potential. To play a CBS News video on this project, go to http://www.
cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=1534819n&tag=related;photovideo (2:05 minutes).
Tidal Power, Wave Power, and Ocean Thermal Energy a 105
amount of mechanical energy associated with tidal movement is now

being utilized by tidal power plants throughout the world to generate
electricity.
For there to be potential tidal power, the difference between high and
low tides must be at least 15 feet. As of 2010, there are only about 40
coastal areas on Earth with tidal ranges of this size.
The rise and fall of tides in Portland, Maine, have been recorded by a gauge. The
gauge has been in place since January 1912 on the Portland waterfront. This
graph illustrates the tidal elevations (both predicted and actually observed) at
the Portland tide gauge for two days during April 6 and 7, 2009. The dotted line
shows that the predicted tides would have reached a height of about 4.5 feet
mean sea level. However, the unbroken line documents the actual water level
with additional height due to a storm. The difference in height is the result of
storm surge activity and it was recorded at about 1.5 feet. The data is useful
for geological studies of coastal erosion by tides during storm surges. (Source:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
DID YOU KNOW?

The motions of the sun and moon are completely predictable, so are the tides.
Therefore, the amount of tidal power can be accurately forecasted.
DID YOU KNOW?

The largest tidal power station in the world is in the Rance estuary, in northern
France, and was built in the 1960s.
Brief History of Tidal Power

Tidal power is one of the oldest forms of energy resources. For example,
the tide mill, a special type of water mill driven by rise and fall of tides,
was used in Europe for nearly 1,000 years. The tide mill was mainly used
for grinding grains for local communities. The first tidal power plant in
North America was built on the bay in 1984 at Annapolis Royal, Nova
Scotia. The power plant uses tidal energy to generate about 20 megawatts
of electricity.
Most would agree that tidal power has potential as a renewable energy
source. However, converting the movement of tides to generate electric-
ity economically and on a steady basis is a challenge. For example, a tidal
power station can generate only electricity when the tide is flowing either
in or out along the coast.
How Does Tidal Power Work?

On most coastlines, tides move in and out very slowly. As a result, the
energy in these tides is insufficient to spin a turbine generator. To solve
this problem, most tidal power plants use dams to capture and later release
water that can be made to flow with more force. For example, each time
the tide comes in, a dam prevents the water from receding back into the
ocean. When the water level reaches its maximum height, the gates of the
dam are opened. The water can then flow very rapidly and spin a turbine
and generator. At low tide, the gates open again, allowing the water to flow
back into the ocean. Again, the energy in the moving water is used to spin
the turbine generator.
DID YOU KNOW?

Some scholars believe the earliest tidal mill was located in London on the River
Fleet, dating back to Roman times.
Tidal Power Plants

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, tidal power technologies
include the following.
Barrage technologies. A barrage is a low dam built across a river estuary.
Gates and turbines are installed along the dam. The large lock gates, like
the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass. As the tides change during
the day, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The rise and fall of the
tidal waters spins a turbine. The turbine activates a generator to produce
electricity.
Tidal fence technology. A tidal fence has an H-shaped vertical axis that
can be constructed between small islands or between the mainland and an
island. The action of the tidal currents flowing through the fence, at speeds
between six and nine miles per hour, can spin the blades of a turbine/
Tidal turbines. Tidal turbines are constructed and installed in any loca-
tion where there is strong tidal flow. Installed under the water, the tidal
turbines are arranged in rows. The turbines go into operation when the
coastal tidal currents flow at between four and six miles per hour. In cur-
rents of that speed, a 50-foot-diameter tidal turbine can generate as much
energy as a 200-foot-diameter wind turbine. The best location and place-
ment for a tidal turbine is at depths of 60–100 feet, close to the shoreline.
According to the U.S. Department of

Energy, tidal turbines are basically
wind turbines in the water that can
be located anywhere there is strong
tidal flow. Because water is about
800 times denser than air, tidal tur-
bines have to be much sturdier than
wind turbines. Tidal turbines are
heavier and more expensive to build
but capture more energy. (Illustra-
tor: Jeff Dixon)
Underwater seabed turbines. The world’s most northerly town is Kval-

sund, in the Arctic area of Norway. The town is preparing to receive its
electricity from an underwater turbine power station that will be built on a
nearby seabed. The underwater tidal turbines weigh about 200 tons and are
installed deep below the keels of passing ships to prevent accidents.
A seabed turbine is designed to always move in the direction of incom-
ing or outgoing tidal currents. This is true even when the currents change
direction. The movement of the seawater turns the blades of the turbine
to generate electrical power. The quiet seabed turbines have slow-moving
blades that pose little danger to fish because the fish can swim around the
slow-moving turbine without being harmed.
The turbines are designed to be maintenance-free for three years. How-
ever, divers can go down into the water if needed for repair work. When
in full production, the Norwegian turbine will generate electricity for ap-
proximately 1,000 homes.
Proponents of seabed turbine energy believe there are many advantages
of using underwater tidal turbines. Some of these advantages include low
operating costs, zero greenhouse gas emissions, low ecological impact, and
the fact that seabed turbines can provide more power than wind or solar
technologies.
Tidal Power in the United States?

The United States has no tidal power plants. If any are to be built, both
the Pacific Northwest and the Atlantic Northeast area of the country have
excellent sites for potential tidal power.
For example, in Eastport, Maine, studies have been conducted to exploit
the tidal power of Passamaquoddy Bay. The tides of Passamaquoddy Bay
range from 12 to nearly 26 feet during neap and spring tide conditions.
This extreme range in the footage between the two tides is the greatest
tidal change in the continental United States. Studies have reported that
DID YOU KNOW?

Oceans are the world’s largest solar energy collector and energy storage system. If
only a small percentage of this stored solar energy could be converted into electric
power, it would supply on a daily basis the total amount of electricity consumed in
the United States.
a tidal power plant on Passamaquoddy Bay has the potential to produce

enough electricity for an estimated 20,000 households.
Countries Using Tidal Power Energy

Many countries are examining the potential to harness tidal energy to drive
turbines for electricity. However, only a few sites in the world have been
identified as possible tidal power stations. Presently, tidal power stations
are operating in France, Canada, and China. The largest is in France.
France
Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear en-
ergy power plants, the country has a tidal power plant as well. The Rance
tidal power plant is in operation on the estuary of the Rance River, located
in the northwest corner of France. The power plant went online in 1966
and became the world’s first electricity-generating station powered by tidal
energy. The plant produces 240 megawatts of power.
An aerial view of the Rance River tidal power plant near Saint Malo in western
France. The approximately 2,400-foot-long barrage of the Rance River tidal
power plant was completed in 1966. It is the world’s first tidal power station.
(Marcel Mochet AFP/Getty Images)
Canada
The U.S.-based Electric Power Research Institute identifies the Bay of
Fundy as perhaps the best site for tidal power generation in North America.
The site has the potential to generate 300 megawatts of electrical energy
for approximately 100,000 residents. Presently, Nova Scotia’s tidal gener-
ating power plant uses the tides in the Bay of Fundy to produce enough
electricity for 6,000 nearby homes.
China
China has been developing tidal energy for more than 40 years. The coun-
try’s first tidal power station went into operation in eastern China. Pres-
ently, China has installed eight tidal power stations with a total capacity
of 6,120 kilowatts.
Northern Ireland
In 2008 in Northern Ireland, a tidal turbine near the mouth of Strangford
Lough began generating enough power to meet the electricity needs of
approximately 1,000 homes.
South Korea
A team of South Korean engineers has recently succeeded in generating
1,000 kilowatts of electricity by using an underwater turbine. The turbines
generate electricity from tidal currents near Jindo, a small island in the
south sea. Jindo is a place where two tides meet—one coming from the
south sea and the other from the west sea. The speed of the tidal currents
in the sea of Jindo is among the fastest in the world.
The underwater turbines generate enough electricity to meet the needs
of 1,000 homes. Engineers are planning to increase the power output to
1,200 kilowatts in the near future. The project is the first of its kind in Asia,
and the country plans to build more underwater power turbines capable of
generating 50 megawatts by 2013.
New Zealand
A 200-megawatt tidal power plant has been proposed in New Zealand,
with completion scheduled for 2011. The turbines will be installed in the
deepest part of the channel in Kaipara Harbor and will generate 4 percent
of New Zealand’s electrical power.
Potential Sites for Tidal Energy

As mentioned previously, there are not many potential sites for tidal en-
ergy in the world. However, there are some promising tidal power energy
sites in Mexico, South Korea, Chile, western Australia, western India, and
along the Patagonian coast of Argentina.
In England, tidal energy studies have estimated that tidal barrages built
in the estuaries of the northwest part of the United Kingdom could pro-
duce 50 percent of the region’s electricity needs. Russia is planning to build
the Meijin tidal power station, which will have a capacity of 15.2 million
kilowatts. Other potential sites under consideration include new areas in
New Zealand, Wales, the East River in New York City, and the Golden
Gate Bridge in San Francisco Bay.
The Economics of Tidal Power

Location, location, location. Location is critical for a tidal turbine to be ec-
onomically feasible. Tidal systems need to be located in areas where there
are fast-flowing tide currents. For example, the best locations would be
at the entrances to bays and rivers and in gaps between islands and other
coastal land areas.
Probably the main drawback to tidal energy, however, is that construc-
tion costs are very high. As a result, the high cost per kilowatt-hour of
tidal power is not competitive with conventional fossil fuel power or with
other nonrenewable sources. Therefore, these projects may not produce a
financial payback for investors for several years.
DID YOU KNOW?

Tidal Power for San Francisco? According to an article published in the San Fran-
cisco Chronicle, underwater turbines below the Golden Gate Bridge could gen-
erate enough alternative energy to provide electric power to nearly 40,000 San
Francisco homes.
Waves crash against the shore near

the Golden Gate Bridge in San Fran-
cisco, California. In 2007 Pacific Gas
and Electric launched an estimated
$1.5 million research program to
study the possibility of submerging
turbines under the water to gather
energy from tidal flows to generate
electricity. (Corel)
Benefits of Tidal Power

Tidal power, like solar energy and wind power, is a relatively “clean” renew-
able energy source. It is nonpolluting and has little or no impact on the
environment.
Following are some of the benefits of tidal power:
• Emits no greenhouse gases and does not generate other wastes
• Requires no fuel to power the system
• Produces electricity reliably
• Is not costly to maintain
• Tides are totally predictable
Environmental Issues
Installing a barrage across an estuary can impact the environment for many
miles upstream and downstream. Tidal power plants that dam up estuar-
ies can slow down the migratory paths of marine organisms. Silt can also
build up behind such facilities and can impact ecological systems.
In summary, tidal power has a number of advantages. The timely tides
turn twice a day no matter what kind of weather conditions. The tides
provide a steady and predictable source of power. The technology requires

fewer turbines to produce the same amount of electricity as wind because
of water’s greater density per volume than that of wind. Underwater tur-
bines are also unlikely to draw too many complaints from shoreline resi-
dents because tidal power is installed under the water and out of sight.
OCEAN WAVE ENERGY

There is much potential energy in the waves, caused by the wind blowing
over the ocean surfaces. The best sites in the world to harness wave energy
include the western coasts of Scotland, northern Canada, southern Africa,
and Australia. In the United States, the northeastern and northwestern
coasts are favorable potential sites for ocean wave energy. As an example,
in the Pacific Northwest alone, it is possible that wave energy along the
western coast could produce 40–70 kilowatts for every 3.3 feet of coastline.
And because the West Coast of the United States is more than 1,000 miles
long, there is the potential that many kilowatts of wave energy could be
produced along this shoreline.
Waves
In many areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and
force to provide continuous waves. Ocean waves travel forward in an up-
and-down motion. The height of the waves is the key factor of their power.
Therefore, the rougher the sea, the more the potential power of the waves.
However, to combat rough water, wave energy engineers have to design
a tidal energy station that can absorb the most ferocious waves without
being wrecked.
Harnessing Wave Energy

One way to harness wave energy is to design a system that bends the direc-
tion of the waves into a narrow channel, increasing their power and size.
DID YOU KNOW?

The greatest amount of wave energy is available in deep offshore waters because
waves lose energy as they reach shallower waters.
The energy of the waves can then be converted into electricity through
both offshore and onshore power plant installations.
Offshore Wave Generation Systems

There are several kinds of offshore wave generation systems. The offshore
systems are situated in deep water of approximately 120 feet. One kind of
system uses the bobbing motion of the waves to power a pump that gener-
ates electricity. Other offshore devices use long hoses connected to floats
that ride the waves. The rise and fall of the floats causes the hoses to ex-
pand and contract, which in turn causes enough motion to rotate a turbine.
Two offshore wave generation systems include Ocean Power Technologies
and the Pelamis Wave Energy Converter.
Ocean Power Technologies

PowerBuoy® is a wave generation system developed by Ocean Power
Technologies that uses an ocean-going buoy to capture and convert wave
energy into low-cost, clean electricity. This system consists of modular,
ocean-going buoys, which are designed to be installed one to five miles
offshore in water at a depth of 100–200 feet. The rising and falling of the
waves moves the buoy-like structure, creating mechanical energy that is
converted into electricity. The electricity is then transmitted to shore from
a submerged transmission line.
The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter

Pelamis Wave Power, Ltd., is the manufacturer of the Pelamis Wave En-
ergy Converter. This machine can generate electricity to a utility power
grid from offshore wave energy. The Pelamis resembles a giant sea snake
because it is long and narrow. When the waves move, the various long
segments of the Pelamis move too. This action drives a generator that pro-
duces electricity.
Onshore Systems
Onshore wave power systems use the energy in the breaking waves along
shorelines. Onshore system technologies in use and in development in-
clude the following wave energy converters.
The Oscillating Water Column Converter

The oscillating water column converter is the most common form of con-
verting wave energy into power. To oscillate means to move or swing from
side to side regularly.
Simply stated, the oscillating wave generator has a partially submerged
concrete- or steel-structured chamber that has an opening to the sea
below the waterline. As the energy of the wave passes through the cham-
ber, the water inside the chamber rises and falls compressing and dis-
placing the air inside the chamber. This action causes the airflow to pass
through the turbine that drives an electrical generator.
Wave Energy Converter

In the 1980s a new kind of system to capture energy directly from surface
waves was installed on a Norwegian island. The system is called TAP-
CHAN and consists of a tapered channel that gradually becomes nar-
rower at one end in a reservoir. The channel funnels the ocean water into a
reservoir that is constructed on cliffs above sea level. The channel’s narrow
width causes the waves in the front to increase in height as they move
toward the narrow end of the channel into the reservoir. Then the high
waves spill over the walls of the channel into the reservoir, where the water
is stored and used later to power a turbine-generator.
Pendulor Devices
Another onshore technology for wave energy collection is the pendulor
wave-power device. This technology consists of a rectangular box that is
open to the waves at one end. A special flap is hinged over the opening.
The energy of the waves causes the flap to swing back and forth like a
pendulum. The motion powers a hydraulic pump and a generator. Further
installations are being planned in Japan and Sri Lanka.
Terminator Devices
Terminator devices are built to extend perpendicular to the direction of
wave travel. The angle puts the device in a good position to capture or
reflect the power of the wave. Terminator systems are typically installed
onshore or near shore. The steady back-and-forth motion of the waves
One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow
channel, increasing their power and size. The tapered channel (TAPCHAN)
consists of a collector that funnels waves into an elevated reservoir several
feet above sea level. The kinetic energy of the moving wave is converted
into potential energy as the water is stored in the reservoir. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
passes through an opening into a chamber, causing air to be trapped above

it. The wave action causes a water column to move up and down like a
piston. When this happens, the trapped air is forced out though an open-
ing and rushes forth to spin the blades of a turbine for the production of
electrical energy.
Countries Using Wave Energy

Wave energy power is now being considered as a viable renewable energy
source in Europe. Presently, a few countries, such as Sweden, Portugal, and
Norway, are researching and testing wave energy power plants.
Sweden
A wave energy plant located off the coast of Sweden has been very suc-
cessful. This success has motivated institutions across Sweden to research
further possibilities of wave energy. Some of the researchers are involved
in pioneering a project called the AquaBuoy, a concept being tested as of
2010. The AquaBuoy is a floating buoy structure that converts the kinetic
energy of the vertical motion of oncoming waves to produce electricity

energy.
Portugal
Several wave power turbines are scheduled to be installed off the coast of
Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. The wave power generators will look like
giant floating sausages and will rock with the waves. The up-and-down
wave action will pump water into hydraulic motors that drive generators to
produce electricity. When in operation, a typical power plant will generate
2.25 megawatts of power, enough to supply 1,500 homes.
Norway
One company in Norway is exploring the feasibility of a wave energy
converter conceived by Fred Olsen, Ltd., in Oslo, Norway. The design
In this artistic rendering by Finavera Renewables, wave energy converters

called AquaBuOYs are shown. Finavera’s 35-ton buoys rise above the water
about six feet but extend beneath the surface some 60 feet, where a pis-
ton encased in an underwater steel cylinder rises and falls with the waves
and pushes pressurized seawater through rubber hoses. The water is then
pumped into a turbine inside the buoy, which spins to create electrical power.
(AP Photo/Finavera Renewables)
resembles an oil rig–like platform that floats on special absorbers mounted

on vertical rods. The up-and-down motion of special buoys in the waves is
converted into electrical energy.
The Benefits and Challenges of Wave Power Energy

As many countries address global climate change and aim for less depen-
dence on fossil fuels, they are examining and developing a wide variety of
renewable energy sources, including wave power systems. Besides provid-
ing a source of electricity, other benefits of wave power research include
water pumping for aquaculture farming and desalination.
One of the major concerns is that wave power devices need to be built
to survive storm damage, to reduce saltwater corrosion, and to prevent
snapped mooring lines.
Wave power systems will continue to find it difficult to compete with
traditional renewable sources unless the costs of installing wave energy
systems are reduced. However, some European energy experts believe that
wave power devices will find a small but high-paying niche market. Their
reason is that once a wave power system is installed, it has low operation
and maintenance costs.
Environmental and Economic Challenges

Finding the right coastal location is the key in reducing any environmental
impacts of wave power. Therefore, wave energy planners can choose loca-
tions that preserve scenic coastal areas. They also need to build in locations
that do not change the flow patterns of sediment on the ocean floor or
interfere with marine life.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

Brief History of Ocean Thermal Energy
In 1881 Jacques Arsene d’Arsonval, a French physicist, suggested that
thermal energy of the ocean could be harnessed as a possible energy source.
Later, in the 1930s, Georges Claude built an ocean thermal energy con-
version (OTEC) plant off the coast of Cuba. The system produced ap-
proximately 20 kilowatts of electricity for the island country, but it was
destroyed later in a hurricane.
The United States became involved in OTEC research in 1974 with the
establishment of the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority. The
laboratory has become one of the world’s leading test facilities for OTEC
technology.
What Is Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion?

Ocean thermal energy conversion uses the ocean as a solar collector. The
ocean has layers of water with different temperatures, as you would observe
when swimming in different depths of ocean water. The OTEC system
uses these temperature differences between the warm surface waters of
the ocean and the cold water at the bottom. In deep water of 3,000 feet
or more, the difference can amount to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. The OTEC
station uses an intake pipe to pump cold water from the deeper layers of
the ocean to the surface. The water goes through heat-exchange cycles to
drive a turbine and generate electricity. The cold, deep seawater used in the
OTEC process is also rich in nutrients and, therefore, can be used to raise
both marine organisms and plant life near the shore or on land.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Technologies

The types of OTEC systems include closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid
technologies.
Closed-Cycle
Ocean thermal energy conversion plants can be installed on land or in the
ocean. One kind of OTEC system is the closed-cycle system. The closed-
cycle OTEC plant consists of pipes arranged in a closed loop. A liquid
chemical with a low boiling point is placed inside the pipes. At one end
of the loop is the turbine of an electric generator. Warm surface seawater
at the top of the loop is pumped around the network of pipes, causing
the liquid inside the pipes to be heated and changed to a gas. The move-
ment of this gas through the pipes causes the turbine to power an electric
generator to generate electricity. After passing through the turbine/gen-
erator, the gas flows downward into the bottom part of the loop. At this
stage, cold water pumped from the deep ocean is circulated around the
gas-containing loop. The cold water absorbs heat energy from the loop,
causing the gas to condense back into a liquid. The cycle then repeats over
and over again.
The ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) system is a technology that

converts the ocean’s thermal energy to electric power. The system uses tem-
perature differences between the warm surface waters of the ocean and the
colder water at the bottom to produce electricity. The OTEC system must have
a large temperature difference of at least 77 degrees Fahrenheit to operate,
limiting its use to tropical regions. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
In 1979, according to the Department of Energy, “the Natural En-

ergy Laboratory and several private-sector partners developed the mini
OTEC experiment, which achieved the first successful at-sea production
of net electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC. The mini OTEC ves-
sel was moored 1.5 miles off the Hawaiian coast and produced enough
net electricity to illuminate the ship’s light bulbs and run its comput-
ers and televisions. In 1999, the Natural Energy Laboratory tested a
250-kW pilot OTEC closed-cycle plant, the largest such plant ever put
into operation.”
Open-Cycle
Another kind of OTEC system is the open-cycle system. In this type of
plant, warm ocean water is boiled within a vacuum chamber. As the water
evaporates, it produces low-pressure steam that is used to generate elec-
tricity. Cold ocean water is then used to condense the steam into fresh
water, which can be pumped to communities for use as drinking water or
to agricultural regions for use in irrigation. In a May 1993 experiment, an
open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced 50,000 watts
of electricity.
This OTEC plant was built on the Big Island of Hawaii in 1993 to demonstrate
the potential of ocean energy technology. The 210 kilowatt land-based experi-
mental plant operated between 1993 and 1998. The turbine generator was
designed for an output of 210 kilowatts for 79 degrees Fahrenheit from warm
surface water, and from deepwater temperatures of approximately 42 degrees
Fahrenheit. Hawaii has experimented with OTEC since the 1970s. There is no
large-scale operation of OTEC today, mainly because there are many chal-
lenges posed by the system. (Courtesy Pacific International Center for High
Technology Research [PICHTR])
Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems combine the features of the open and closed systems.
Warm seawater is flash-evaporated into steam within a vacuum chamber,
which in turn vaporizes a low-boiling-point fluid that drives a turbine.
OTEC Environmental and Economic Challenges

The major step in reducing or minimizing any environmental concerns
is to determine the right location. So the location of the OTEC plant is
critical. As an example, an OTEC station in operation may alter ocean
water temperatures in the areas where they are used. Too much altera-
tion of water temperatures can affect the ability of the region to support
area sea life. The construction of OTEC plants and the laying of pipes in
coastal waters may cause localized damage to reefs and near-shore marine
ecosystems.
Another factor is that there are only a few hundred land-based sites in
the tropical regions where deep-ocean water is close enough to shore to
make OTEC plants possible. However, the tropical areas are subject to
seasonal natural disasters such as hurricanes and typhoons. Such storms
can completely destroy an OTEC plant.
Producing electricity from OTEC systems is not cheap. In fact, it is
more costly than electricity that is generated by hydroelectric power plants
and fossil fuel plants.
The Future of OTEC Systems

Although Hawaii has experimented with OTEC since the 1970s, there is
no large-scale operation of OTEC today, mainly because there are many
challenges. One of the main reasons is that the OTEC systems are not
very energy-efficient. Pumping water is a major engineering challenge. For
example, to produce 10 megawatts of electricity, an OTEC station would
DID YOU KNOW?

An OTEC station was built in 1956 off the coast of Africa. However, the station was
replaced by a dam that generated hydroelectric power at a lower cost than did the
OTEC plant.
DID YOU KNOW?

Mariculture is the farming of various aquatic organisms in salt water. Some of the
organisms raised are mollusks, finfish, and seaweeds.
need to pump nearly 1,500 cubic feet per second of both warm and cold
water through its heat exchangers while being moored 3,000 feet deep.
However, OTEC technology may be an excellent energy resource for
tropical island communities that rely heavily on imported fuel. Ocean
thermal energy conversion systems installed in these locations could pro-
vide islanders with much-needed power, as well as desalinated water and
assistance in raising a variety of mariculture products.
More Research Is Needed for OTEC Systems

It may be 10–20 years before the technology is available to produce and
transmit electricity economically from OTEC systems. However, OTEC
research is continuing, especially in Japan, Canada, Great Britain, France,
and Taiwan.
SOMETHING TO DO
Countries in the European Union have agreed to energy standards that
include obtaining 20 percent of their energy from renewable resources by
2020. The United Kingdom wants to tap into its potential for tidal power
in an effort to achieve that goal. One plan is to build a barrage across the
mouth of the Severn River to take advantage of its tidal range, which is the
second longest in the world.
Explore the impact of the plan in terms of electricity output, natural
habitats, and commercial and recreational activities.

co.uk.
co.uk.
WEB SITES
http://www.energy.gov/energysources/hydropower.htm
The mission of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Hydropower Pro-
gram is to develop, conduct, and coordinate research and devel-
opment with industry and other Federal agencies to improve the
technical, societal, and environmental benefits of hydropower.
http://www.noaa.gov
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
is an agency that enriches life through science. NOAA’s reach goes
from the surface of the sun to the depths of the ocean floor and
its goal is to keep citizens informed of the changing environment
around them.
http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com
One of the purposes of the Ocean Energy Council is to educate the
public on the potential and current status of development of ocean
energy.
http://www.oceanrenewablepower.com
Since 2004, the Ocean Renewable Power Company (ORPC) has
been hard at work developing breakthrough technology and eco-
conscious projects that use river and ocean energy to produce clean,
predictable electricity to power our homes and businesses while pro-
tecting our environment.
VIDEOS
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plug-ins.
Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the videos. You
also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Ocean and Tidal Technologies: To view seven short, multimedia vid-
eos exploring and demonstrating seven different technologies, go
to the following Michigan State University–sponsored link: http://

www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydro/tidal-power/
(range 0:38–4:28 minutes).
Pelamis Wave Power Converter: Portugal opened the first wave power
farm. Each Pelamis wave power converter produces 750 kilowatts per
hour. For more information go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=7k5r89IseEM&feature=related (2:40 minutes).
Tidal Power: Homegrown power from New York’s murky East River?
Drawing technology from wind turbines, Verdant Power harvests
tidal power in a small pilot project with huge potential. To play a
CBS News video on the project, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/
video/watch/?id=1534819n&tag=related;photovideo (2:05 minutes).
BOOKS AND
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Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
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2003.
2002.
2008.

2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.
lishers, 2003.

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awea.org.
2006.
the Pacific, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
haven Press, 2007.
text Press, 2005.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.

2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
1949–2008
138 a Energy Data

Coal Nuclear
1949 11,980,905 –6,671 5,145,142 11,882,722 29,002,099 0 1,424,722
1950 12,347,109 992 5,968,371 13,315,484 31,631,956 0 1,415,411
1951 12,552,996 –21,452 7,048,518 14,428,043 34,008,105 0 1,423,795
1952 11,306,479 –11,879 7,549,621 14,955,682 33,799,903 0 1,465,812
1953 11,372,684 –9,002 7,906,645 15,555,829 34,826,156 0 1,412,859
1954 9,714,667 –6,746 8,330,202 15,839,176 33,877,300 0 1,359,772
1955 11,167,259 –10,044 8,997,935 17,254,955 37,410,105 0 1,359,844
1956 11,349,723 –13,020 9,613,975 17,937,473 38,888,151 0 1,434,711
1957 10,820,631 –17,459 10,190,753 17,931,667 38,925,592 112 1,515,613
1958 9,533,287 –6,721 10,663,199 18,526,937 38,716,702 1,915 1,591,967
1959 9,518,353 –8,358 11,717,422 19,322,650 40,550,068 2,187 1,548,465
1960 9,837,785 –5,630 12,385,366 19,919,230 42,136,751 6,026 1,607,975
1961 9,623,351 –7,886 12,926,392 20,216,387 42,758,243 19,678 1,656,463
1962 9,906,454 –5,506 13,730,841 21,048,981 44,680,770 26,394 1,816,141
1963 10,412,538 –7,390 14,403,306 21,700,828 46,509,283 38,147 1,771,355
1964 10,964,385 –10,441 15,287,850 22,301,257 48,543,050 39,819 1,886,314
1965 11,580,608 –18,451 15,768,667 23,245,680 50,576,504 43,164 2,059,077
1966 12,143,080 –24,949 16,995,332 24,400,523 53,513,987 64,158 2,061,519
1967 11,913,750 –15,326 17,944,788 25,283,661 55,126,873 88,456 2,346,664
1968 12,330,677 –17,310 19,209,656 26,979,447 58,502,470 141,534 2,348,629
1969 12,381,540 –36,109 20,677,984 28,338,336 61,361,751 153,722 2,647,983
1970 12,264,528 –57,660 21,794,707 29,520,695 63,522,269 239,347 2,633,547
1971 11,598,411 –33,108 22,469,052 30,561,290 64,595,645 412,939 2,824,151
1972 12,076,917 –25,966 22,698,190 32,946,738 67,695,880 583,752 2,863,865
1973 12,971,490 –7,465 22,512,399 34,839,926 70,316,351 910,177 2,861,448
1974 12,662,878 56,098 21,732,488 33,454,627 67,906,091 1,272,083 3,176,580
1975 12,662,786 13,541 19,947,883 32,730,587 65,354,796 1,899,798 3,154,607
1976 13,584,067 –99 20,345,426 35,174,688 69,104,082 2,111,121 2,976,265
1977 13,922,103 14,582 19,930,513 37,122,168 70,989,367 2,701,762 2,333,252
1978 13,765,575 124,719 20,000,400 37,965,295 71,855,989 3,024,126 2,936,983
1979 15,039,586 62,843 20,665,817 37,123,381 72,891,627 2,775,827 2,930,686
1980 15,422,809 –35,018 20,235,459 34,202,356 69,825,607 2,739,169 2,900,144
1981 15,907,526 –15,946 19,747,309 31,931,050 [R] 67,569,939 [R] 3,007,589 2,757,968
1982 15,321,581 –21,650 18,356,222 30,231,608 [R] 63,887,761 [R] 3,131,148 3,265,558
1983 15,894,442 –15,624 17,220,836 30,053,921 [R] 63,153,575 [R] 3,202,549 3,527,260
1984 17,070,622 –11,482 18,393,613 31,051,327 66,504,079 3,552,531 3,385,811
1985 17,478,428 –13,491 17,703,482 30,922,149 [R] 66,090,567 [R] 4,075,563 2,970,192
1986 17,260,405 –16,740 16,591,364 32,196,080 66,031,109 [R] 4,380,109 3,071,179
1987 18,008,451 8,630 17,639,801 32,865,053 [R] 68,521,935 [R] 4,753,933 2,634,508
1988 18,846,312 39,556 18,448,393 34,221,992 [R] 71,556,253 [R] 5,586,968 2,334,265
1989 19,069,762 30,405 19,601,689 34,211,114 72,912,970 [R] 5,602,161 2,837,263
1990 19,172,635 4,786 19,603,168 33,552,534 72,333,123 6,104,350 3,046,391
1991 18,991,670 9,697 20,032,957 32,845,361 71,879,686 [R] 6,422,132 3,015,943
1992 19,122,471 34,621 20,713,632 33,526,585 [R] 73,397,310 [R] 6,479,206 2,617,436
1993 19,835,148 27,106 21,228,902 33,744,490 [R] 74,835,647 [R] 6,410,499 2,891,613
1994 19,909,463 58,330 21,728,065 34,561,665 76,257,523 6,693,877 2,683,457
1995 20,088,727 61,058 22,671,138 34,436,967 [R] 77,257,890 [R] 7,075,436 3,205,307
1996 21,001,914 22,816 23,084,647 35,673,290 [R] 79,782,668 [R] 7,086,674 3,589,656
Energy Data a 139
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
NA NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 5,420 31,981,503
NA NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 6,094 34,615,768
NA NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 7,461 36,974,030
NA NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 7,740 36,747,825
NA NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 6,852 37,664,468
NA NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 7,983 36,639,382
NA NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 13,879 40,207,971
NA NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 15,519 41,754,252
NA NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 12,288 41,787,186
NA NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 11,320 41,645,028
NA NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 12,127 43,465,722
774 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 15,474 45,086,870
2,181 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 7,689 45,739,017
2,331 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,829 47,827,707
3,726 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 334 49,646,160
4,520 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 6,671 51,817,177
4,197 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 –482 54,017,221
4,170 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 3,725 57,016,544
6,886 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 –1,020 58,908,107
9,416 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 –2,152 62,419,392
13,281 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 3,656 65,620,879
11,347 NA NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 6,688 67,844,161
11,862 NA NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 12,046 69,288,965
31,479 NA NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 26,227 72,704,267
42,605 NA NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 48,715 75,708,364
53,158 NA NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 43,311 73,990,880
70,153 NA NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 21,103 71,999,191
78,154 NA NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 29,378 76,012,373
77,418 NA NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 59,422 77,999,554
64,350 NA NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 67,318 79,986,371
83,788 NA NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 69,381 80,903,214
109,776 NA NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 71,399 78,121,594
123,043 NA NA 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 113,406 76,168,488 [R]
104,746 NA NA 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 100,026 73,153,394 [R]
129,339 NA 28 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 120,547 73,039,001 [R]
164,896 55 68 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 135,323 76,715,459 [R]
198,282 111 60 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 139,655 76,492,565 [R]
219,178 147 44 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 122,481 76,758,526 [R]
229,119 109 37 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 158,101 79,175,130 [R]
217,290 94 9 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 108,399 82,821,858 [R]
317,163 55,291 22,033 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 37,450 84,946,248 [R]
335,801 59,718 29,007 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 7,888 84,653,651 [R]
346,247 62,688 30,796 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 66,965 84,608,869 [R]
349,309 63,886 29,863 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 86,733 85,958,380 [R]
363,716 66,458 30,987 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R] 94,910 87,605,453 [R]
338,108 68,548 35,560 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 152,937 89,261,391 [R]
293,893 69,857 32,630 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R] 133,856 91,174,089 [R]
315,529 70,833 33,440 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R] 137,144 94,175,664 [R]
140 a Energy Data
Coal Nuclear
1997 21,445,411 46,450 23,222,718 36,159,835 [R] 80,874,414 [R] 6,596,992 3,640,458
1998 21,655,744 67,084 22,830,226 36,816,619 81,369,672 7,067,809 3,297,054
1999 21,622,544 57,685 22,909,227 37,838,081 [R] 82,427,536 [R] 7,610,256 3,267,575
2000 22,579,528 65,348 23,823,978 38,264,303 [R] 84,733,157 [R] 7,862,349 2,811,116
2001 21,914,268 29,264 22,772,558 38,186,476 [R] 82,902,566 [R] 8,032,697 2,241,858
2002 21,903,989 60,760 23,558,419 38,226,666 [R] 83,749,834 [R] 8,143,089 2,689,017
2003 22,320,928 50,518 22,897,268 38,809,183 [R] 84,077,896 [R] 7,958,858 2,824,533
2004 22,466,195 137,739 22,931,481 40,294,351 85,829,766 8,221,985 2,690,078
2005 22,796,543 44,194 22,583,385 40,393,325 85,817,446 8,160,028 2,702,942
2006 22,447,160 60,810 22,223,903 [R] 39,958,151 [R] 84,690,024 [R] 8,213,839 2,869,035
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197 23,627,629 [R] 39,773,213 [R] 86,175,506 [R] 8,457,783 [R] 2,446,389 [R]
2008 P 22,420,827 40,771 23,837,695 37,136,675 83,435,968 8,455,236 2,452,073
a
b
c
d
e
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
324,959 70,237 33,581 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R] 116,203 94,765,811 [R]
328,303 69,787 30,853 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R] 88,224 95,183,293 [R]
330,919 68,793 45,894 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R] 98,924 96,817,452 [R]
316,796 66,388 57,057 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R] 115,199 98,975,100 [R]
311,264 65,454 69,617 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R] 75,156 96,326,089 [R]
328,308 64,391 105,334 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R] 71,595 97,858,314 [R]
330,554 63,620 114,571 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R] 21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
341,082 64,500 141,749 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R] 38,597 100,350,624 [R]
342,576 66,130 178,088 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R] 84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
342,876 72,222 263,738 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R] 62,849 99,875,196 [R]
348,730 [R] 80,943 [R] 340,503 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R] 106,632 101,553,855 [R]
358,497 91,003 514,224 3,884,252 7,300,048 112,381 99,303,634
142 a Energy Data

1949 NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 1,424,722 NA NA
1950 NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 1,415,411 NA NA
1951 NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 1,423,795 NA NA
1952 NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 1,465,812 NA NA
1953 NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 1,412,859 NA NA
1954 NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 1,359,772 NA NA
1955 NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 1,359,844 NA NA
1956 NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 1,434,711 NA NA
1957 NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 1,515,613 NA NA
1958 NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 1,591,967 NA NA
1959 NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 1,548,465 NA NA
1960 NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 1,607,975 774 NA
1961 NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 1,656,463 2,181 NA
1962 NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,816,141 2,331 NA
1963 NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 1,771,355 3,726 NA
1964 NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 1,886,314 4,520 NA
1965 NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 2,059,077 4,197 NA
1966 NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 2,061,519 4,170 NA
1967 NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 2,346,664 6,886 NA
1968 NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 2,348,629 9,416 NA
1969 NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 2,647,983 13,281 NA
1970 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 2,633,547 11,347 NA
1971 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 2,824,151 11,862 NA
1972 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 2,863,865 31,479 NA
1973 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 2,861,448 42,605 NA
1974 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 3,176,580 53,158 NA
1975 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 3,154,607 70,153 NA
1976 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 2,976,265 78,154 NA
1977 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 2,333,252 77,418 NA
1978 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 2,936,983 64,350 NA
1979 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 2,930,686 83,788 NA
1980 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 2,900,144 109,776 NA
1981 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 2,757,968 123,043 NA
1982 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 3,265,558 104,746 NA
1983 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 3,527,260 129,339 NA
1984 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 3,385,811 164,896 55
1985 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 2,970,192 198,282 111
1986 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 3,071,179 219,178 147
1987 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 2,634,508 229,119 109
1988 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 2,334,265 217,290 94
1989 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 2,837,263 317,163 55,291
1990 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 3,046,391 335,801 59,718
1991 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 3,015,943 346,247 62,688
1992 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 2,617,436 349,309 63,886
1993 172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R] 2,891,613 363,716 66,458
1994 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 2,683,457 338,108 68,548
1995 201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R] 3,205,307 293,893 69,857
1996 144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R] 3,589,656 315,529 70,833
Energy Data a 143
Consumption
NA 1,549,262 NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984
NA 1,562,307 NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718
NA 1,534,669 NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464
NA 1,474,369 NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181
NA 1,418,601 NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460
NA 1,394,327 NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099
NA 1,424,143 NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987
NA 1,415,871 NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582
NA 1,333,581 NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194
NA 1,323,123 NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090
NA 1,352,874 NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339
NA 1,319,870 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619
NA 1,294,762 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406
NA 1,300,242 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714
NA 1,323,316 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396
NA 1,336,802 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637
NA 1,334,761 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036
NA 1,368,985 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674
NA 1,340,249 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799
NA 1,419,495 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541
NA 1,440,487 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751
NA 1,428,649 2,313 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857
NA 1,430,229 2,094 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335
NA 1,500,992 2,073 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409
NA 1,527,012 2,056 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121
NA 1,537,755 1,902 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395
NA 1,496,928 1,806 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494
NA 1,711,484 1,889 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792
NA 1,836,524 1,808 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002
NA 2,036,150 1,455 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938
NA 2,149,854 2,052 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379
NA 2,473,861 1,639 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420
NA 2,495,563 88,000 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
NA 2,510,048 119,000 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
28 2,684,271 157,000 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
68 2,685,817 208,000 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
60 2,686,765 236,317 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
44 2,562,134 262,861 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
37 2,463,159 289,000 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
9 2,576,663 315,328 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
22,033 2,679,623 354,357 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
29,007 2,216,165 408,078 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
30,796 2,214,083 439,715 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
29,863 2,313,471 473,201 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
30,987 2,259,774 479,336 [R] 172,512 [R] 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R]
35,560 2,323,820 515,324 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
32,630 2,369,869 531,476 [R] 203,875 [R] 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R]
33,440 2,437,027 576,990 145,703 [R] 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R]
144 a Energy Data
1997 190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R] 3,640,458 324,959 70,237
1998 206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R] 3,297,054 328,303 69,787
1999 215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R] 3,267,575 330,919 68,793
2000 237,904 3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R] 2,811,116 316,796 66,388
2001 259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R] 2,241,858 311,264 65,454
2002 314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R] 2,689,017 328,308 64,391
2003 411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R] 2,824,533 330,554 63,620
2004 500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R] 2,690,078 341,082 64,500
2005 580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R] 2,702,942 342,576 66,130
2006 743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R] 2,869,035 342,876 72,222
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R] 2,446,389 [R] 348,730 [R] 80,943 [R]
2008P 1,428,745 3,899,915 7,315,711 2,452,073 358,497 91,003
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
fuels).
k
Energy Data a 145
Consumption
33,581 2,370,991 550,602 [R] 187,375 [R] 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R]
30,853 2,184,160 542,295 205,137 [R] 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R]
45,894 2,214,167 540,156 213,232 [R] 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R]
57,057 2,261,715 510,800 [R] 240,523 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R]
69,617 2,005,833 363,874 257,769 [R] 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R]
105,334 1,995,283 402,006 309,456 [R] 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R]
114,571 2,002,040 401,347 413,217 [R] 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R]
141,749 2,121,251 [R] 389,044 [R] 512,571 [R] 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R]
178,088 2,136,351 [R] 403,219 [R] 593,576 [R] 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R]
263,738 2,151,731 [R] 414,226 [R] 794,656 [R] 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R]
340,503 [R] 2,142,417 [R] 430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R]
514,224 2,040,616 430,554 1,413,082 3,884,252 7,300,048
146 a Energy Data

End-use Sectors
1949 4,475,121 5,613,938 2,660,963 3,660,910 12,626,532
1950 4,847,590 6,006,806 2,824,267 3,883,472 13,881,079
1951 5,124,031 6,399,747 2,727,158 3,862,700 15,118,070
1952 5,178,644 6,580,694 2,661,902 3,862,377 14,661,778
1953 5,074,890 6,581,124 2,500,330 3,758,937 15,328,413
1954 5,286,016 6,869,767 2,444,814 3,720,157 14,305,657
1955 5,633,095 7,303,271 2,547,641 3,881,530 16,090,702
1956 5,866,467 7,689,809 2,592,274 4,008,279 16,562,350
1957 5,771,579 7,739,679 2,434,391 3,945,887 16,512,867
1958 6,155,096 8,230,400 2,541,202 4,103,153 15,797,985
1959 6,223,822 8,447,378 2,630,274 4,353,069 16,518,951
1960 6,688,963 9,077,668 2,702,042 4,588,973 16,977,066
1961 6,814,611 9,325,376 2,743,974 4,706,925 16,993,115
1962 7,122,112 9,825,201 2,901,109 5,013,919 17,589,807
1963 7,135,126 10,034,384 2,896,921 5,226,862 18,365,964
1964 7,161,257 10,290,804 2,949,284 5,438,649 19,426,503
1965 7,328,128 10,688,770 3,150,462 5,819,530 20,123,911
1966 7,549,262 11,218,183 3,383,741 6,299,383 21,029,715
1967 7,740,902 11,669,926 3,738,448 6,870,845 21,012,628
1968 7,963,327 12,368,421 3,866,000 7,296,778 21,872,069
1969 8,276,760 13,205,347 4,045,666 7,795,301 22,653,721
1970 8,352,750 13,798,057 4,196,051 8,307,155 22,974,833
1971 8,456,799 14,277,629 4,282,718 8,681,492 22,732,356
1972 8,655,327 14,890,531 4,369,078 9,144,775 23,532,489
1973 8,250,226 [R] 14,929,771 [R] 4,381,061 9,506,982 24,740,862 [R]
1974 7,927,553 [R] 14,683,314 [R] 4,221,192 9,362,537 23,816,329 [R]
1975 8,005,740 14,841,755 [R] 4,022,853 [R] 9,465,906 [R] 21,454,213 [R]
1976 8,408,252 [R] 15,440,661 [R] 4,332,587 [R] 10,035,225 [R] 22,685,371
1977 8,207,376 [R] 15,688,729 [R] 4,217,258 [R] 10,177,267 [R] 23,192,694 [R]
1978 8,272,389 [R] 16,155,929 [R] 4,268,843 [R] 10,480,604 [R] 23,276,491 [R]
1979 7,933,806 [R] 15,841,970 [R] 4,333,251 10,626,851 24,211,500 [R]
1980 7,453,254 [R] 15,786,781 [R] 4,074,270 10,562,769 [R] 22,610,288 [R]
1981 7,057,589 [R] 15,295,246 [R] 3,805,343 10,601,863 [R] 21,338,216 [R]
1982 7,154,067 [R] 15,557,340 [R] 3,835,241 [R] 10,847,354 [R] 19,075,786 [R]
1983 6,840,628 [R] 15,456,669 [R] 3,806,026 [R] 10,922,977 [R] 18,578,019 [R]
1984 7,220,681 [R] 15,998,041 [R] 3,968,567 [R] 11,436,092 [R] 20,197,515 [R]
1985 7,160,776 [R] 16,088,348 [R] 3,694,740 [R] 11,443,724 [R] 19,467,805 [R]
1986 6,921,722 [R] 16,029,197 [R] 3,656,730 [R] 11,603,742 [R] 19,098,662 [R]
1987 6,940,917 16,321,196 3,736,106 [R] 11,943,383 [R] 19,977,070 [R]
1988 7,372,024 [R] 17,186,278 [R] 3,957,548 [R] 12,575,483 [R] 20,884,381 [R]
1989 7,586,093 [R] 17,858,128 [R] 4,004,442 [R] 13,202,580 20,897,403 [R]
1990 6,570,463 [R] 17,014,681 [R] 3,858,007 13,332,926 21,208,225 [R]
1991 6,758,442 [R] 17,490,321 3,905,836 [R] 13,512,501 [R] 20,854,317 [R]
1992 6,963,482 [R] 17,426,920 [R] 3,951,199 13,453,951 21,786,666 [R]
1993 7,155,529 [R] 18,288,984 3,933,859 [R] 13,835,823 [R] 21,784,999 [R]
1994 6,990,569 18,181,216 3,978,979 [R] 14,111,283 [R] 22,422,272 [R]
1995 6,946,268 18,577,978 [R] 4,063,119 [R] 14,697,525 [R] 22,747,660 [R]
1996 7,471,455 [R] 19,562,439 [R] 4,234,533 [R] 15,181,207 [R] 23,443,770 [R]
Energy Data a 147

14,716,733 7,879,581 7,990,087 4,339,470 –165 31,981,503
16,232,875 8,383,528 8,492,594 4,679,283 21 34,615,768
17,669,234 8,933,753 9,042,162 5,070,830 188 36,974,030
17,301,575 8,907,235 9,003,096 5,338,183 82 36,747,825
18,200,961 9,030,518 9,123,484 5,730,355 –39 37,664,468
17,146,242 8,823,059 8,903,125 5,779,745 91 36,639,382
19,472,329 9,475,032 9,550,811 6,461,471 30 40,207,971
20,196,256 9,791,039 9,860,083 6,942,296 –174 41,754,252
20,204,730 9,837,442 9,897,017 7,231,035 –128 41,787,186
19,306,571 9,952,797 10,004,893 7,197,936 11 41,645,028
20,315,979 10,298,441 10,349,357 7,794,295 –61 43,465,722
20,823,424 10,560,452 10,596,801 8,158,344 3 45,086,870
20,936,742 10,734,679 10,770,077 8,452,741 –103 45,739,017
21,768,109 11,185,922 11,220,519 9,028,798 –42 47,827,707
22,729,891 11,621,165 11,654,898 9,626,860 124 49,646,160
24,089,579 11,964,508 11,998,284 10,315,765 –140 51,817,177
25,074,894 12,400,149 12,433,906 11,014,449 121 54,017,221
26,397,297 13,069,166 13,101,884 11,984,863 –203 57,016,544
26,615,564 13,718,214 13,752,106 12,698,249 –333 58,908,107
27,888,371 14,831,020 14,865,583 13,886,738 238 62,419,392
29,114,339 15,470,880 15,506,152 15,174,112 –260 65,620,879
29,641,226 16,061,232 16,097,603 16,259,175 119 67,844,161
29,600,938 16,693,481 16,729,212 17,123,917 –307 69,288,965
30,952,764 17,681,086 17,716,273 18,466,362 –75 72,704,267
32,652,616 [R] 18,576,065 18,611,660 19,752,816 7,334 [R] 75,708,364
31,818,721 [R] 18,085,915 [R] 18,119,206 [R] 19,932,789 7,102 [R] 73,990,880
29,447,184 [R] 18,209,133 [R] 18,243,706 [R] 20,306,611 640 [R] 71,999,191
31,429,542 19,065,144 [R] 19,099,331 [R] 21,513,405 7,613 [R] 76,012,373
32,306,559 [R] 19,784,143 [R] 19,819,581 [R] 22,590,665 7,418 [R] 77,999,554
32,733,452 [R] 20,580,415 [R] 20,614,766 [R] 23,586,613 1,619 [R] 79,986,371
33,962,118 [R] 20,436,369 [R] 20,470,711 [R] 23,986,723 1,564 80,903,214
32,077,090 [R] 19,658,353 [R] 19,696,034 [R] 24,326,509 –1,080 [R] 78,121,594
30,756,076 [R] 19,476,200 [R] 19,512,537 [R] 24,488,373 2,766 [R] 76,168,488 [R]
27,656,788 [R] 19,050,580 [R] 19,087,723 [R] 24,033,531 4,189 [R] 73,153,394 [R]
27,481,484 [R] 19,132,451 [R] 19,175,075 [R] 24,679,081 2,796 [R] 73,039,001 [R]
29,624,598 [R] 19,606,799 [R] 19,653,933 [R] 25,719,102 2,794 [R] 76,715,459 [R]
28,877,080 [R] 20,040,687 [R] 20,087,315 [R] 26,132,459 –3,903 [R] 76,492,565 [R]
28,333,363 [R] 20,739,703 [R] 20,788,771 [R] 26,338,257 3,452 76,758,526 [R]
29,443,635 [R] 21,419,125 [R] 21,469,449 [R] 27,104,445 –2,533 [R] 79,175,130 [R]
30,738,557 [R] 22,266,855 [R] 22,318,176 [R] 28,337,687 3,364 [R] 82,821,858 [R]
31,397,833 [R] 22,424,597 [R] 22,478,708 [R] 30,024,713 [4] 8,999 [R] 84,946,248 [R]
31,895,492 [R] 22,366,185 [R] 22,419,888 [R] 30,660,106 –9,335 [R] 84,653,651 [R]
31,486,967 [R] 22,065,034 [R] 22,118,484 [R] 31,024,645 595 [R] 84,608,869 [R]
32,661,236 [R] 22,363,309 [R] 22,415,918 [R] 30,893,368 355 [R] 85,958,380 [R]
32,721,292 [R] 22,716,447 22,769,843 [R] 32,025,108 –10,490 [R] 87,605,453 [R]
33,607,366 [R] 23,311,806 [R] 23,367,224 [R] 32,563,463 –5,698 89,261,391 [R]
34,046,786 [R] 23,793,148 [R] 23,848,651 [R] 33,620,747 3,148 [R] 91,174,089 [R]
34,988,791 [R] 24,383,906 [R] 24,438,890 [R] 34,637,665 4,336 [R] 94,175,664 [R]
148 a Energy Data
End-use Sectors
e e
1997 7,039,505 [R] 19,025,680 [R] 4,256,507 [R] 15,693,953 [R] 23,721,864 [R]
1998 6,423,825 [R] 19,020,712 [R] 3,963,729 [R] 15,979,296 [R] 23,210,838 [R]
1999 6,783,779 [R] 19,620,860 [R] 4,007,378 [R] 16,383,617 [R] 22,990,578 [R]
2000 7,168,979 [R] 20,487,621 [R] 4,227,143 [R] 17,176,087 [R] 22,870,804 [R]
2001 6,878,917 [R] 20,106,132 [R] 4,036,108 [R] 17,141,259 [R] 21,835,587 [R]
2002 6,938,187 [R] 20,873,763 [R] 4,099,189 [R] 17,366,740 21,857,313 [R]
2003 7,251,896 21,208,021 [R] 4,238,672 [R] 17,351,447 [R] 21,575,582 [R]
2004 7,019,274 [R] 21,177,889 [R] 4,180,422 [R] 17,664,445 [R] 22,454,620 [R]
2005 6,920,879 [R] 21,697,240 [R] 4,013,701 [R] 17,875,276 [R] 21,465,855 [R]
2006 6,190,514 [R] 20,769,777 [R] 3,703,258 [R] 17,723,994 [R] 21,632,057 [R]
2007 6,625,793 [R] 21,619,373 [R] 3,895,928 [R] 18,287,222 [R] 21,454,002 [R]
2008 P 6,778,379 21,636,900 3,972,150 18,541,387 20,630,137
a
b
c
d
power producers.
e
f
g

Energy Data a 149

35,288,218 [R] 24,697,145 [R] 24,751,817 [R] 35,044,648 6,142 [R] 94,765,811 [R]
34,928,190 [R] 25,203,168 [R] 25,258,473 [R] 36,385,110 –3,378 [R] 95,183,293 [R]
34,855,491 [R] 25,893,727 [R] 25,951,203 [R] 37,135,709 6,281 [R] 96,817,452 [R]
34,757,478 [R] 26,491,500 [R] 26,551,610 [R] 38,214,371 2,304 [R] 98,975,100 [R]
32,806,204 [R] 26,215,564 [R] 26,278,577 [R] 37,365,995 –6,084 [R] 96,326,089 [R]
32,764,483 [R] 26,787,738 [R] 26,848,508 [R] 38,171,067 4,820 [R] 97,858,314 [R]
32,649,843 [R] 26,927,646 [R] 27,002,137 [R] 38,217,654 [R] –2,908 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
33,609,067 [R] 27,820,116 [R] 27,899,279 [R] 38,876,247 [R] –55 [R] 100,350,624 [R]
32,545,253 [R] 28,279,693 [R] 28,361,295 [R] 39,798,935 [R] 5,694 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
32,541,235 [R] 28,761,209 [R] 28,840,577 [R] 39,588,544 [R] –385 [R] 99,875,196 [R]
32,523,120 [R] 29,046,175 [R] 29,134,189 [R] 40,542,007 [R] –10,049 [R] 101,553,855 [R]
31,210,299 27,842,133 27,924,560 40,090,347 –9,512 99,303,634
150 a Energy Data
Year
Appliance 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1987
Natural Gas 55 55 55 56 57 55 55
Electricitya 16 17 18 17 16 17 20
Wood 2 4 6 6 7 7 6
Central Systemc 23 24 27 27 28 30 34
None 44 45 43 42 42 40 36
Natural Gas 55 55 54 55 56 54 54
Electricitya 33 33 32 33 32 33 35
One 86 NA 86 87 86 88 86
Two or more 14 NA 14 13 13 12 14
Natural gas 14 NA 14 16 15 16 15
Electric 45 NA 47 45 45 46 51
Dishwasher 35 NA 37 37 36 38 43
Natural gas 48 NA 46 46 47 46 43
Electric 53 NA 57 56 56 57 60
One or two NA NA 85 84 83 80 75
a
Retail electricity.
b
c
d
Energy Data a 151
Year Change
1990 1993 1997 2001 2005 1980 to 2005
94 97 101 107 111 29
55 53 52 [R] 55 52 –3
23 26 29 29 30 12
5 5 5 5 5 0
11 11 9 7 [R] 7 –8
4 3 2 2 3 –3
2 2 2 2 [R] 3 [R] 1 [R]
39 44 47 55 59 32
29 25 25 23 25 –5
32 32 28 23 16 –27
53 53 52 54 53 –1
37 38 39 38 39 7
3 3 3 3 4 0
5 5 5 4 4 –5
1 1 1 0 0 –1
100 100 100 100 100 0

84 85 85 83 78 –8
15 15 15 17 22 8
34 35 33 32 32 –6
76 77 77 79 83 9
69 70 71 74 79 18
16 14 [R] 15 [R] 16 [R] 17 [R] 3 [R]
53 57 55 57 61 14
45 45 50 53 58 21
100 100 99 100 99 0
42 33 35 35 35 –11
59 63 62 62 62 5
79 84 83 86 88 74
99 99 99 [R] 99 [R] 99 [R] 1 [R]
71 70 69 63 56 –29
28 28 29 36 43 29
NA [R] NA [R] 35 56 68 NA
NA NA 29 42 45 NA
NA NA 6 15 23 NA
152 a Energy Data

North America 113.13 113.53 115.82 118.26

Canada 12.67 [R] 12.37 [R] 12.96 [R] 12.95 [R]
Mexico 5.68 5.96 6.04 6.32
United States 94.77 95.18 96.82 98.98
Other .02 .02 .02 .02
Argentina 2.47 2.58 2.61 2.67
Brazil 7.86 8.12 [R] 8.27 [R] 8.55 [R]
Venezuela 2.66 2.85 2.73 2.77
Other 6.46 6.57 6.67 6.85
Europe a 79.87 [R] 80.44 [R] 80.51 [R] 81.53 [R]
Belgium 2.65 [R] 2.70 [R] 2.66 [R] 2.73 [R]
France 10.36 10.58 10.71 10.85
Germany 14.36 14.34 14.13 14.26
Italy 7.22 7.43 7.56 7.63
Netherlands 3.70 3.70 3.69 3.79
Poland 4.09 [R] 3.85 3.98 3.62
Spain 4.76 4.99 5.26 5.62
Sweden 2.32 [R] 2.40 [R] 2.37 [R] 2.27 [R]
Turkey 2.93 3.00 2.91 3.16
Other 17.74 17.72 17.47 [R] 17.87
Eurasia b 39.02 [R] 38.73 [R] 39.83 [R] 40.61 [R]
Russia 25.81 [R] 25.93 [R] 27.01 [R] 27.47 [R]
Ukraine 6.07 5.85 5.76 5.75
Uzbekistan 1.88 1.84 1.86 1.94
Other 5.26 5.11 5.19 5.45 [R]
Middle East 15.61 16.28 [R] 16.62 17.32
Iran 4.43 4.58 4.83 5.01
Saudi Arabia 4.37 4.54 4.60 4.85
Other 6.81 7.15 7.18 7.46
Africa 11.40 11.30 [R] 11.62 [R] 12.03 [R]
Egypt 1.79 1.85 1.92 2.00
South Africa 4.56 4.35 4.46 4.59
Other 5.05 5.10 [R] 5.23 5.44 [R]
Australia 4.56 4.59 4.82 4.85
China 37.91 37.32 37.23 37.18 [R]
India 11.64 12.17 12.99 13.46
Indonesia 3.66 3.56 3.91 4.06
Japan 21.91 [R] 21.52 [R] 21.97 [R] 22.43 [R]
Malaysia 1.67 1.69 1.74 1.87
Energy Data a 153
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P
115.36 117.25 118.20 120.74 121.62 121.18

12.76 [R] 13.13 [R] 13.56 [R] 13.84 [R] 14.23 [R] 13.95
6.26 6.25 [R] 6.42 [R] 6.53 6.86 [R] 7.36
96.33 97.86 98.21 100.35 100.51 [R] 99.86
.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
21.16 21.12 21.61 22.44 23.40 24.18
2.61 2.48 [R] 2.67 2.78 2.95 [R] 3.15
8.47 [R] 8.58 [R] 8.69 [R] 9.02 [R] 9.37 [R] 9.64
3.03 2.93 2.72 2.93 3.12 [R] 3.19
7.05 7.13 7.54 7.71 7.96 8.20
82.77 [R] 82.50 [R] 84.24 [R] 85.70 [R] 86.18 [R] 86.42
2.70 [R] 2.68 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.81 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.75
11.08 11.00 11.11 [R] 11.39 11.36 [R] 11.44
14.62 14.33 14.59 [R] 14.74 [R] 14.50 [R] 14.63
7.67 [R] 7.70 7.99 [R] 8.08 [R] 8.14 [R] 8.07
3.93 3.94 4.00 4.11 4.23 [R] 4.14
3.45 3.44 3.60 3.70 3.68 [R] 3.86
5.87 5.95 6.26 6.39 [R] 6.51 [R] 6.51
2.40 [R] 2.27 [R] 2.17 [R] 2.30 [R] 2.33 [R] 2.22
2.89 3.15 3.32 3.51 3.73 [R] 3.91
9.86 [R] 9.72 [R] 9.86 [R] 9.88 [R] 9.92 [R] 9.80
18.28 [R] 18.33 [R] 18.56 [R] 18.77 [R] 19.01 [R] 19.10
40.94 [R] 41.59 [R] 43.37 [R] 44.69 [R] 45.79 [R] 45.88
27.72 [R] 27.93 [R] 28.77 [R] 29.60 [R] 30.06 [R] 30.39
5.64 5.82 6.28 6.26 6.32 [R] 5.87
2.03 2.08 2.10 2.22 2.13 [R] 2.21
5.55 [R] 5.75 [R] 6.22 [R] 6.62 [R] 7.27 [R] 7.41
17.95 18.98 19.76 20.89 22.75 [R] 23.81
5.39 5.89 6.18 6.39 7.22 [R] 7.69
5.14 5.38 5.76 6.21 6.59 [R] 6.89
7.42 7.71 7.82 8.29 8.93 [R] 9.23
12.63 [R] 12.72 13.36 [R] 13.97 [R] 14.54 [R] 14.50
2.23 [R] 2.26 [R] 2.44 [R] 2.59 2.73 [R] 2.54
4.66 4.54 4.88 5.21 5.12 [R] 5.18
5.74 [R] 5.91 [R] 6.04 [R] 6.18 [R] 6.69 [R] 6.77
111.34 [R] 116.41 [R] 125.48 [R] 138.71 [R] 147.78 [R] 156.31
5.02 5.13 5.14 [R] 5.26 [R] 5.57 [R] 5.61
39.44 [R] 43.30 [R] 50.62 [R] 59.99 [R] 66.80 [R] 73.81
13.94 13.84 14.29 15.54 [R] 16.34 [R] 17.68
4.46 4.64 4.56 [R] 4.88 [R] 4.91 [R] 4.15
22.24 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.79
2.11 2.18 2.42 2.66 2.58 [R] 2.56
154 a Energy Data
South Korea 7.41 6.83 7.55 7.89
Taiwan 3.21 3.40 3.55 3.77
Thailand 2.60 2.44 2.50 2.58
Other 8.34 [R] 8.47 [R] 9.01 [R] 9.23 [R]
World 381.35 [R] 382.38 [R] 389.95 [R] 397.93 [R]
a
b
Energy Data a 155
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

8.10 8.39 [R] 8.64 [R] 8.91 [R] 9.23 [R] 9.45
3.86 4.02 4.21 4.36 4.43 [R] 4.57
2.70 2.94 3.22 3.45 [R] 3.67 [R] 3.74
9.47 [R] 9.80 [R] 10.23 [R] 10.92 [R] 11.52 [R] 11.97
402.15 [R] 410.56 [R] 426.02 [R] 447.15 [R] 462.06 [R] 472.27
156 a Energy Data
Oil & Gas
North America 211.6 57.5 309.8 314.1
Canada 178.6a 25.2b 58.2 58.3
Mexico 11.7 11.1 13.9 18.1
United States 21.3 21.3 237.7 237.7

Argentina 2.6 2.7 15.8 16.5
Bolivia .5 .5 26.5 28.0
Brazil 12.2 12.5 12.3 12.9
Chile .2 .0 3.5 1.0
Colombia 1.5 1.5 4.3 6.7
Cuba .1 .7 2.5 .8
Peru .4 .4 11.9 12.0
Venezuela 87.0 81.0 166.3 152.0
Europed 14.3 13.8 172.0 169.0

Austria .1 .1 .6 1.1
Croatia .1 .1 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.2 1.1 2.5 2.6
Germany .4 .2 9.0 5.2
Italy .4 .4 3.3 3.0
Norway 6.9 6.7 79.1 81.7
Poland .1 .2 5.8 4.7
Romania .6 .5 2.2 4.2
Serbia .1 NR 1.7 NR
Otherc .8 .7 1.9 2.1
Eurasiae 98.9 126.0 2,014.8 2,104.0

Russia 60.0 76.0 1,680.0 1,654.0
Otherc .3 50.0 .8 450.0
Energy Data a 157

Oil & Gas Oil & Gas
Middle East 748.3 727.3 2,548.9 2,570.2
Iran 138.4 137.0 948.2 985.0
Iraq 115.0 126.0 111.9 91.0
Kuwaitf 104.0 99.4 56.0 66.3
Oman 5.5 5.7 30.0 32.0
Qatar 15.2 20.0 905.3 903.2
Saudi Arabiaf 266.8 264.8 253.1 254.0
Syria 2.5 2.9 8.5 12.1
Yemen 3.0 2.7 16.9 16.8
Otherc (s) .7 1.3 13.6
Africa 114.8 114.7 489.6 504.2

Algeria 12.2 11.9 159.0 160.0
Angola 9.0 9.5 9.5 5.7
Egypt 3.7 3.7 58.5 68.5
Gabon 2.0 3.2 1.0 2.5
Libya 41.5 36.5 50.1 52.8
Nigeria 36.2 37.2 184.0 184.5
Sudan 5.0 6.7 3.0 4.0
Tunisia .4 .6 2.3 3.5
Otherc 1.9 1.8 7.6 15.4

Australia 1.5 4.2 30.0 151.9
Brunei 1.1 1.1 13.8 11.0
Burma .1 .2 10.0 15.0
China 16.0 18.1 80.0 61.8
India 5.6 4.0 38.0 31.8
Indonesia 4.4 4.5 93.9 92.0
Japan (s) NR .7 NR
Malaysia 4.0 5.5 83.0 88.0
Pakistan .3 .3 28.0 29.8
Thailand .5 .4 11.7 11.2
Vietnam .6 1.3 6.8 8.2
Otherc .2 .2 5.5 10.2
World 1,332.0 1,184.2 6,212.3 6,436.0

158 a Energy Data
a
oil sands.
b
c
d
e
f
Arabia.

Canada 3,826 3,425 7,251
Greenland 0 202 202
Mexico 948 387 1,335
Brazil 0 7,791 7,791
Chile 34 1,268 1,302
Colombia 7,251 420 7,671
Peru 154 0 154
Other 529 494 1,023
Europeb 9,296 41,485 50,781
Bulgaria 6 2,195 2,200
Germany 168 7,227 7,394
Greece 0 4,299 4,299
Hungary 219 3,420 3,640
Poland 6,627 1,642 8,270
Romania 13 452 465
Turkey 0 2,000 2,000
Other 241 1,834 2,076
Energy Data a 159
Eurasiac 103,186 145,931 249,117
Kazakhstan 31,052 3,450 34,502
Russia 54,110 118,964 173,074
Ukraine 16,922 20,417 37,339
Uzbekistan 1,102 2,205 3,307
Other 0 895 895
Iran 1,528 0 1,528
Africa 54,488 192 54,680
Botswana 44 0 44
South Africa 52,911 0 52,911
Zimbabwe 553 0 553
Other 980 192 1,172
Australia 40,896 43,541 84,437
China 68,564 57,651 126,215
India 57,585 4,694 62,278
Indonesia 1,897 2,874 4,771
Pakistan 1 2,184 2,185
Thailand 0 1,493 1,493
Other 721 1,046 1,767
World 472,731 [R] 456,599 [R] 929,331 [R]
a
b
c
R = Revised.
160 a Energy Data

Canada 549 [R] 554 [R] 568 [R] 565 [R]
Mexico 350 [R] 372 [R] 364 [R] 383 [R]
Other 1 1 1 1
Argentina 130 136 [R] 140 [R] 138 [R]
Brazil 326 [R] 325 [R] 336 [R] 345 [R]
Venezuela 135 [R] 142 133 134
Other 359 [R] 372 [R] 374 [R] 375
Europeb 4,503 [R] 4,487 [R] 4,436 [R] 4,500 [R]
Belgium 146 [R] 151 [R] 143 [R] 149 [R]
France 385 [R] 410 [R] 404 [R] 402 [R]
Germany 889 [R] 872 [R] 841 [R] 857 [R]
Italy 425 [R] 441 [R] 441 [R] 448 [R]
Poland 339 [R] 316 [R] 329 [R] 295 [R]
Romania 120 [R] 101 [R] 91 93
Spain 272 [R] 282 [R] 309 [R] 327 [R]
Turkey 182 [R] 184 [R] 182 [R] 202 [R]
Other 935 [R] 924 [R] 898 [R] 913 [R]
Eurasiac 2,244 [R] 2,235 [R] 2,320 [R] 2,356 [R]
Kazakhstan 120 [R] 116 [R] 133 [R] 143 [R]
Russia 1,483 [R] 1,482 [R] 1,560 [R] 1,582 [R]
Ukraine 344 [R] 333 [R] 328 [R] 327 [R]
Uzbekistan 103 102 [R] 103 106
Other 194 [R] 201 [R] 195 [R] 197 [R]
Middle East 989 [R] 1,019 [R] 1,057 [R] 1,094 [R]
Iran 291 [R] 295 [R] 317 [R] 321 [R]
Other 443 [R] 467 [R] 475 [R] 483 [R]
Africa 872 [R] 861 [R] 877 [R] 892 [R]
Egypt 112 [R] 115 [R] 117 [R] 119
Other 371 [R] 376 [R] 378 [R] 381 [R]
Australia 334 [R] 340 [R] 359 [R] 360 [R]
China 3,133 [R] 3,029 [R] 2,992 [R] 2,967 [R]
India 878 [R] 914 [R] 971 [R] 1,012 [R]
Indonesia 247 [R] 241 [R] 266 [R] 274 [R]
Japan 1,161 [R] 1,116 [R] 1,158 [R] 1,204 [R]
Energy Data a 161
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

6,697 [R] 6,782 [R] 6,870 [R] 6,970 [R] 7,034 [R] 6,954
554 [R] 573 [R] 602 [R] 615 [R] 632 [R] 614
380 [R] 384 389 385 [R] 407 [R] 436
5,762 [R] 5,824 [R] 5,878 [R] 5,969 [R] 5,994 [R] 5,903
1 1 1 1 1 1
1,016 [R] 1,005 [R] 1,023 [R] 1,066 [R] 1,111 [R] 1,138
128 [R] 121 [R] 134 [R] 141 [R] 152 [R] 162
349 [R] 347 [R] 346 [R] 356 [R] 371 [R] 377
149 [R] 147 [R] 134 [R] 143 [R] 150 [R] 152
389 390 [R] 408 [R] 426 [R] 438 447
4,559 [R] 4,532 [R] 4,679 [R] 4,713 [R] 4,717 [R] 4,721
146 [R] 143 [R] 151 [R] 154 [R] 151 [R] 148
406 [R] 402 [R] 409 [R] 416 [R] 414 [R] 418
878 [R] 857 [R] 874 [R] 872 [R] 853 [R] 858
445 [R] 453 [R] 475 [R] 470 [R] 473 [R] 468
278 [R] 259 [R] 261 [R] 271 [R] 273 [R] 260
279 [R] 276 [R] 289 [R] 295 [R] 290 [R] 303
102 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 98 [R] 99
332 [R] 349 [R] 357 [R] 371 [R] 384 [R] 373
184 [R] 195 [R] 207 [R] 211 [R] 231 [R] 236
575 [R] 564 [R] 575 [R] 582 [R] 585 [R] 586
934 [R] 934 [R] 980 [R] 972 [R] 966 [R] 973
2,332 [R] 2,354 [R] 2,471 [R] 2,529 [R] 2,600 [R] 2,601
148 [R] 154 [R] 166 [R] 185 [R] 203 [R] 213
1,571 [R] 1,572 [R] 1,627 1,663 [R] 1,699 [R] 1,704
319 [R] 327 [R] 357 [R] 347 [R] 350 [R] 329
111 114 [R] 115 [R] 122 [R] 117 [R] 121
184 [R] 188 206 [R] 212 [R] 231 [R] 233
1,119 [R] 1,175 [R] 1,240 [R] 1,330 [R] 1,444 [R] 1,505
334 [R] 365 [R] 387 [R] 407 [R] 446 [R] 471
301 [R] 312 [R] 347 [R] 389 [R] 406 [R] 424
483 [R] 499 [R] 506 [R] 535 [R] 593 [R] 610
923 [R] 924 [R] 975 [R] 1,025 [R] 1,062 [R] 1,057
130 [R] 134 [R] 144 [R] 153 [R] 161 [R] 152
399 [R] 385 [R] 418 [R] 448 [R] 438 [R] 444
394 [R] 405 [R] 413 [R] 424 [R] 463 [R] 461
7,608 [R] 8,050 [R] 8,806 [R] 9,821 [R] 10,517 [R] 11,220
374 [R] 383 [R] 381 [R] 391 [R] 417 [R] 417
3,108 [R] 3,441 [R] 4,062 [R] 4,847 [R] 5,429 [R] 6,018
1,035 [R] 1,034 [R] 1,048 [R] 1,151 [R] 1,194 [R] 1,293
300 [R] 315 [R] 305 [R] 323 [R] 324 [R] 280
1,197 [R] 1,203 [R] 1,253 [R] 1,258 [R] 1,250 [R] 1,247
162 a Energy Data
Malaysia 102 103 [R] 107 [R] 112 [R]
South Korea 435 [R] 375 [R] 433 [R] 446 [R]
Taiwan 210 [R] 225 [R] 224 [R] 252 [R]
Thailand 177 [R] 162 [R] 171 [R] 162 [R]
Other 520 [R] 530 [R] 567 [R] 578 [R]
World 23,247 [R] 23,160 [R] 23,535 [R] 24,011 [R]
a
b
c
international.
Energy Data a 163
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

125 [R] 134 [R] 150 [R] 166 [R] 160 [R] 164
452 [R] 468 [R] 478 [R] 489 [R] 497 [R] 515
249 [R] 274 [R] 290 [R] 287 [R] 290 [R] 300
172 [R] 187 [R] 206 [R] 226 [R] 243 [R] 245
594 [R] 612 [R] 633 [R] 683 [R] 714 [R] 741
24,253 [R] 24,823 [R] 26,064 [R] 27,453 [R] 28,485 [R] 29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:
3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a

various localities.
habitants warm.

trains.
confirmed.
and transmission.
transportation.

gas and air.
purposes.
eration.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
large numbers.
War II.
source.
pacity at the time.

standard.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
172 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
ing standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM

DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 173
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
174 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 175
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a


and recruiters.


positions.


businesses.


economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS—



WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.


WWW.DOE.GOV




WWW.KAHKE.COM
AND MANUFACTURERS
a



altarockenergy.com



FARMINGTON, CT


SAN FRANCISCO, CA

BREVARD, NC
dupont.com


FEIBURG, GERMANY

IBM, SAN JOSE, CA



www.acciona-na.com





energysiemens.com


suncor.com


DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function


Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell

Geochemical cycles


Grades 9–12
Population growth
Natural resources

History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f 5:38f
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Aeroturbine, 3:14
4:173, 5:170, 5:175 1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
188 a Index

Cells 2:127
Hydropower 5:91
2:92 – 94 4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
2:117, 5:118 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
3:33f Anode, 2:88
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170 5:88 – 89; for green roof, 5:81 – 82
Index a 189
Society of, 5:122 – 23; NiMH, 5:122 – 23;
4:183 – 84, 5:185 – 86 Biliran, 4:33
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f 4:22, 4:40f
190 a Index

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
Index a 191

3:182, 4:184, 5:186 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 2:115 – 16
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 (CYES), 1:30
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173, Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
192 a Index

3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, 5:5, 5:105, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Index a 193

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, (CDM), 4:51
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, (CUTE), 2:112
4:102 pump (GCHP), 4:68
2:17 – 21 1:109 – 11, 1:128 – 29; exporters of,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, and, 1:115 – 16, 5:106; history of,
4:115 – 16 Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
1:122 of, 1:190t – 191t, 2:160t – 161t,
194 a Index

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
Index a 195

natural gas, 1:83 – 84 3:116 – 18
2:4 Service
196 a Index

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
5:105 DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115 cells
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138; Dongtan, China, 5:94
4:182, 5:184; net metering 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Deposits, coal, 1:106 4:8 – 9, 4:8f
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169, 2:12f
5:171
Index a 197

ECR Industries, 4:75 3:16, 3:21 – 22
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 4:168, 5:170
3:166, 4:168, 5:170 3:110
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
198 a Index

El Salvador, 4:42 – 43 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
5:73 – 74, 5:94. See also Carbon 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31,
Index a 199

4:171, 5:173 2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f, 4:175, 5:177
4:48f Ethane, 1:74 – 75
200 a Index

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Ethylene, 1:53 4:175, 5:172, 5:177
(EREC), 3:98 1:151 – 52
4:185, 5:187 Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
5:170, 5:177 2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
Index a 201

2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, ing of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
5:131 – 32 2:106 – 7; history notes of, 5:120;
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 – 102 2:104
5:170, 5:177 2:107 – 9
1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t, Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 – 72, 4:102
202 a Index

3:173, 4:175, 5:177 Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
5:125 – 26 4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
3:183, 4:185, 5:187 in Italy, 4:35 – 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 203
1:35, 4:27 – 28 4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
204 a Index

1:25 – 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
Geysers, 4:4 – 5, 4:52 Gore, Al, 5:129
Gill, Dena, 3:65 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39;
1:184 – 87t, 2:154 – 57t, 3:152 – 55t, 4:176, 5:178
and, 3:56 Gray, Rande, 5:102 – 5
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 – 67 School, 5:35
3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t, 5:26 – 27
Index a 205
2:77f, 5:4 3:42f
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 – 43, 5:82; ar- 4:176, 5:178
206 a Index

5:56 – 57; energy saving, 5:47 – 48;
Harris, Matt, 2:8 3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t,
wastes 2:127, 5:69
Index a 207

1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; 2:100 – 101; in Germany, 2:117;
208 a Index
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185, steel, 1:20 – 21; US coal, 1:113 – 15,
combined cycle 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 209

and Dams, 3:99
2:124 Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
2:33, 2:83 Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Ions, 2:88 in, 5:32
4:71 Kerosene, 1:53
210 a Index

Cells 5:102 – 5
4:33
energy, 5:56 – 57 1:85
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also 5:138
Index a 211

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40 2:126, 4:110 – 11
cells
Malaysia, 4:87 5:71
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, ing, 1:98
2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 1:96 – 97
212 a Index
Motion, 1:6
Cells 4:176, 5:170, 5:178
Hydropower 4:108
Murphy, John, 2:98
1:138 – 40
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36 5:114f, 5:116
Mojave Desert, 2:36 – 38, 2:51, 3:32, 2:90, 5:120
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127 4:117, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119 4:73
Index a 213

4:187 – 88, 5:189 – 90 safety of, 1:92
Authority, 3:119 4:177, 5:179
214 a Index

Cells 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
New York, 2:17, 2:114 – 15, 5:34, 5:82 3:117 – 18
3:110 – 11 NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
(NiMH), 5:122 – 23 1:137 – 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 – 41,
Index a 215
source, 1:131 – 32 (ORPC), 3:124
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173; Octane rating, 1:47
ers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 – 44; in 4:185, 5:187
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
5:124, 5:129 1:45; US fields of, 1:46; US im-
216 a Index

Hydropower 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 3:115
3:158, 4:160, 5:162 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Index a 217
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 uses for, 2:6
1: 151 5:113
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169; Poland, 1:116
2:119 3:81; double-flash, 4:11; flash-
218 a Index
1:81 – 82; Poland’s coal, 1:116;

Cells 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
Pressures, 4:3
1:144 Quantum dots, 5:114 – 15
1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, Radiant energy, 1:5
4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88 Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Index a 219

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84; China
1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on 2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind sion of, 2:28 – 29
1:190 – 91t, 2:160t – 161t, Renovation, 5:27 – 28
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, 2:98
220 a Index

2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
4:40, 4:44 San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 – 6
1:29, 1:31 2:111
2:110f, 5:69 San Juan Basin, 1:80
Index a 221
in, 4:66 4:11
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, ficiency, 5:23
3:185, 4:187, 5:189 plants, 3:89 – 90
5:146t – 149t 2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
222 a Index
2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31,

5:132 – 33; schools using, 2:16 – 17;
2:3 – 4; US projects of, 2:21 – 23; US
5:64 – 65, 5:64f Solar heaters, 2:79f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185; Solar ovens, 2:71
2:4; cost of, 2:30 – 31; econom- 3:64f
Index a 223
Solatubes, 5:37 4:98 – 102, 4:99f
5:121 4:169, 5:171
4:186, 5:188 Rotor
4:69 1:60f
4:188, 5:190 (SEAT), 1:28
224 a Index

3:116 – 17
Cells 3:9
5:35 – 36
Index a 225
Thailand, 4:39 – 40, 4:87 Tiwi, 4:41
226 a Index

5:173 of, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; geothermal
energy in, 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 227
of, 3:17 – 18, 5:115; wind energy 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75;
4:137, 5:139 plant, 3:59
1:144 3:14 – 15
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 – 20 3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:28 5:108f
4:123
228 a Index

1:145
4:168, 5:170 3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 – 18;
3:116f rials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
Index a 229
3:46, 3:46f Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 – 67
230 a Index
Xeriscape, 5:87
Cells 5:188
4:9, 4:52
2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139 2:33
opment, 5:101f ment, 3:67 – 68
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4 5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 4: Geothermal and

Biomass Energy
John F. Mongillo
Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66 2011
621.042—dc22 2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Geothermal Energy 1
What Is Geothermal Energy? 2
Where Can You Find Geothermal Resources? 6
Harnessing Geothermal Energy 7
How Is Electricity Generated from Geothermal Plants? 8
Geothermal Energy in the United States 13
Advantages of Geothermal Power Plants 24
Other Uses of Geothermal Energy 25
Protection of the Environment 25
The Future of Geothermal Energy 27
Interview
John W. Lund 20
Chapter 2 Countries Using Geothermal Energy 31

United States 31
Philippines 32
Mexico 34
Japan 35
vi a Contents
Italy 35
Iceland 37
Canada 38
China 39
Thailand 39
Indonesia 40
Turkey 41
United Kingdom 41
Australia 42
El Salvador 42
Kenya 43
Costa Rica 43
New Zealand 44
Germany 45
Other Countries Interested in Geothermal Energy 45
Hot Dry Rock or Enhanced Geothermal System 46
Many Uses for Geothermal Energy 49
Benefits 52
Environmental Concerns of Geothermal Energy 53
The Future of Geothermal Energy 53
Chapter 3 Geothermal Heat Pumps 57
How Do Geothermal Heat Pumps Work? 59
Types of Geothermal Heat Pump Systems 60
Evaluating a Site for a Geothermal Heat Pump 63
Schools Using Geothermal Energy 64
The Benefits of Geothermal Heat Pumps 68
Use of Geothermal Heat Pumps in the United States 70
Geothermal Use in Europe 72
Economics of Geothermal Heat Pumps 73
Advantages and Disadvantages 74
Geothermal Heat Pump Manufacturers 75
Chapter 4 Biomass, Biofuels, and Biogas 79
What Is Biomass and What Is It Used For? 81
Renewed Interest in Biomass 85
Major Asian Countries Using Biomass 85
Other Users of Biomass 88
Biofuels 89
Contents a vii
Biogas 96
Benefits of Biomass 103
Interview
Sister Susan Frazer 98
Chapter 5 Biodiesel Fuel 107
What Is Biodiesel Fuel? 109
How Is Biodiesel Made? Composition of Biodiesel 112
How Does a Diesel Engine Operate? 112
Straight Vegetable Oil as a Fuel 114
Waste Vegetable Oil as a Fuel 114
Industry and Federal Specifications
for Biodiesel Production 114
How Do Biodiesel Emissions Compare
to Petroleum Diesel? 116
Can Biodiesel Be Used in an Existing Diesel Engine? 117
School Districts Use Biodiesel for Vehicles
and Heating Purposes 117
Other Uses for Biodiesel Fuels 120
Students Build Biodiesel Cars 121
What Are the Advantages of Biodiesel Fuel? 121
What Are the Disadvantages of Biodiesel Fuel? 121
Interviews
Ross McCurdy 110
Phillip Cantor 122
Energy Data 139
Profiles 173
Index 189
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a



xiv a Introduction

21st century.

Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction


ogy milestones.
powered car.
Introduction a xvii


Petroleum

Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
New York, and Colorado.
xx a Introduction
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy

one in France.

Geothermal

xxiv a Introduction
Energy’s Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
Geothermal Energy
The schools with geothermal systems have energy costs about

half those of the schools with conventional heating and cooling
equipment.
—Doug Bantam, Chief Engineer, Lincoln
Electric Systems, Nebraska
The word “geothermal” comes from Greek words geo (earth) and therme
(heat). Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because heated
material located in the interior of Earth is constantly being produced. The
following is a brief overview of how one school uses a geothermal energy
system to produce electricity for its campus needs.
On January 24, 2009, the Oregon Institute of Technology, at its main
campus at Klamath Falls, began detailed plans to use geothermal energy.
After finalizing the project, a drilling rig was used to break into a geologi-
cal fracture almost a mile below ground, tapping water at a temperature of
300 degrees Fahrenheit. The water, converted to steam, runs the generators
for the school’s 1.5-megawatt electrical power plant. In fact, the power
plant generates enough electricity for the entire Klamath Falls campus.
When the geothermal steam turbine went online, the Oregon Institute
of Technology became the first university in the world to be powered en-
tirely by geothermal technology, according to the university report. The
VIDEO
Geothermal: It’s Hot! This video explains the benefits of the greatest source of un-
tapped, practical clean energy in the world: http://www.discoversolarenergy.com/
solar/videos-geotherm.htm (1:55 minutes).
Oregon Institute of Technology was also the first university in the nation
to be heated and cooled entirely by geothermal energy. Besides heating the
classrooms and the university’s swimming pool, geothermal energy is also
used to melt and remove snow from campus sidewalks.
The new geothermal power plant will also save $500,000 in electric
utility bills, and any excess electricity will be sold to a commercial power
company. The geothermal power plant study is part of the school’s energy
curriculum to teach students about renewable energy sources.
The Oregon Institute of Technology is located on a known geothermal
resource area, which has been used by hometown residents primarily for
space heating since the turn of the century. At present, there are more
than 500 geothermal wells being used in a variety of ways, including in
the heating of homes, schools, businesses, and swimming pools and in
snow-melting systems for sidewalks and even sections of highway pave-
ment. (For more information about this project, see the interview with
Dr. John W. Lund, the director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Insti-
tute of Technology featured later in this chapter.)
Presently, the use of geothermal energy for electricity and heating has
grown worldwide, and as of 2010 more than 20 countries use some sort
of geothermal energy. As an example, the United States alone produces
thousands of megawatts of electricity from geothermal energy.
WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?

Geothermal energy is the use of natural renewable heat energy from the
interior of Earth that is extracted from such sources as steam, hot water,
and hot dry rocks. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy and renew-
able resource that can be used as power for the direct heating of buildings
or for generating electricity. Geothermal energy works only where magma
materials exist close to Earth’s surface.
Geothermal Energy 3
Earth’s Interior
Magma is hot, melted rock material beneath Earth’s surface located at
depths between 35 and 120 miles. The temperature of the magma at these
depths can reach 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit. Nearby underground rock lay-
ers and water absorb the hot temperatures from this magma.
When temperatures and pressures are just hot enough, some of the
magma is forced upward toward Earth’s surface and flows from volcanoes
as lava. All volcanoes are fueled by magma deep in Earth’s surface. How-
ever, in many locations, the magma most often remains below Earth’s crust,
continuously heating nearby rock layers and underground water reservoirs.
A good demonstration of how hot Earth’s interior can get is to observe a
geyser’s ejection of hot water and steam.
Earth’s interior consists of the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. (Anita
Potter/Dreamstime.com)
DID YOU KNOW?

The temperature of the ground just a few feet below Earth’s surface is relatively
stable, about 45–58 degrees Fahrenheit, throughout the year.
Geysers
Geologically speaking, a geyser is a vent or hole in Earth’s surface that
periodically ejects a column of hot water and steam. Some geysers have
eruptions that eject into the air thousands of gallons of boiling hot water,
reaching heights of a several hundred feet.
Old Faithful is one of the world’s best-known geysers. It is located in
Yellowstone National Park in the northwestern area of Wyoming. Old
Faithful erupts every 60–90 minutes and explodes gallons of boiling hot
water hundreds of feet into the air.
How does the geyser work? When underground water is heated to its
boiling point, it becomes steam. Steam occupies much more space than
Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park erupts every 60 to 90 minutes

for 1½ to 5 minutes. Its maximum height ranges from 90 to 184 feet. The water
during an eruption has been measured at 204 degrees Fahrenheit and the
steam at more than 350 degrees Fahrenheit. (Steve Byland/Dreamstime.com)
Geothermal Energy 5
DID YOU KNOW?

The heat from the outer core of Earth continuously flows, primarily by conduction.
This interior heat of Earth is estimated to be the equivalent to 42 million megawatts
of power, and this is expected to remain the case for billions of years to come,
providing an inexhaustible supply of energy.
the original volume of water. The geyser erupts when superheated ground
water becomes hot enough to blast its way through vents in the surface.
Most of the world’s geysers occur in only a few countries, including the
United States, Russia, Chile, New Zealand, and Iceland. All of these gey-
ser locations are in areas where there has been recent volcanic activity and
where there are hot-temperature rocks below the surface.
A Brief History of Geothermal Energy

The first use of geothermal resources in North America took place more
than 10,000 years ago. According to historians, early humans used the
minerals in hot springs as a source of healing. Some historians believe that
Native Americans in the United States settled in many locations where
hot springs were available.
In 1830 the first known commercial use of geothermal energy occurred
in the city of Hot Springs, Arkansas. The owner, Asa Thompson, charged
people for their use of bathing in tubs filled by heated water from three
hot springs.
In 1892, in Boise, Idaho, the world’s first district heating system for
the town was installed. Water was piped from nearby hot springs to town
buildings and homes. Within a few years, the geothermal system served
many homes and several downtown businesses. Even today, there are
several district geothermal heating systems in Boise that provide heat to
homes and businesses.
In 1921 the United States’ first geothermal power plant went into oper-
ation at The Geysers, an area north of San Francisco. In that year, the geo-
thermal plant produced 250 kilowatts of energy. This was enough power
to provide electricity for lighting the local Geyser Resort Hotel and other
buildings and street lights. But, according to the Department of Energy,
the geothermal plant was not competitive with other energy sources of
power and it was soon disused.
In 1948 Professor Carl Nielsen of Ohio State University developed the

first geothermal heat pump for use at his residence. (Geothermal heating
pumps are covered in chapter 3 of this volume.) During the same time,
J. D. Krocker, an engineer in Portland, Oregon, installed a geothermal heat
pump to heat a local commercial building.
The Geysers made a comeback in the 1960s, becoming the country’s
first large-scale geothermal electricity-generating plant. The power plant’s
first turbine produced 11 megawatts of power.
In 1970 the Geothermal Resources Council was formed to encourage
the development of geothermal resources worldwide.
In 1997 the Lake County–Southeast Geysers Effluent Pipeline Project
was the first of its kind to deliver treated water to The Geysers every day to
be used as a geothermal resource.
In 2000 The Geysers celebrated 40 years in operation with some 350
steam wells and about 80 miles of pipelines.
In 2007 Calpine, a major U.S. power company, launched a $200 million
program to enhance geothermal production by up to 80 megawatts.
WHERE CAN YOU FIND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES?

The Ring of Fire
If you are a geothermal engineer, the first place to start in your quest for
geothermal resources is to look at a map showing the Pacific Ring of Fire.
The Pacific Ring of Fire (or sometimes just Ring of Fire) is an area in the
Pacific Ocean where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
occur. Some of the countries along or near the Ring of Fire include the
western United States (including Alaska), New Zealand, Indonesia, Phil-
ippines, Japan, and Russia.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is associated with oceanic trenches, volcanic
belts (earthquake areas, too), and with plate movements. In fact, the Pacific
Ring of Fire includes a long list of hundreds of active and dormant volca-
noes and a number of major earthquakes.
DID YOU KNOW?

More than 85 percent of the world’s earthquakes are found along the Pacific Ring
of Fire.
Geothermal Energy 7
More than half of the world’s active volcanoes above sea level encircle the
Pacific Ocean to form the circum-Pacific “Ring of Fire.” The Ring provides
excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens.
HARNESSING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy can be harnessed from Earth’s natural heat where there
are active volcanoes and even inactive volcanoes that still produce interior
heat. The internal fluids of the volcanoes can range from low-temperature
to high-temperature heat. Steam from high-temperature fluids is powerful
enough to drive turbines and generate electrical power. Lower tempera-
ture geothermal fluids can also be used to provide heat sources for homes,
industrial uses, greenhouses, and hot or warm springs at resort spas. In
addition to being an energy resource, some geothermal waters also contain
minerals such as sulfur, gold, silver, and mercury that can be recovered as a
byproduct of geothermal energy production.
HOW IS ELECTRICITY GENERATED FROM

GEOTHERMAL PLANTS?
In geothermal power plants, steam, heat, or hot water from geothermal
reservoirs provides the power that rotates the turbine generators to pro-
duce electricity. Any excess geothermal water is then returned into the
geothermal reservoir to be reheated naturally and recycled.
There are several commercial types of geothermal power plants, accord-
ing to the Department of Energy, including the dry steam power plant,
the binary cycle power plant, the single-flash steam power plant, and the
double-flash power plant. There is also much interest in using hot dry
rock systems, or enhanced geothermal systems, as a geothermal source of
energy.
Dry Steam Power Plants

As stated previously, the first geothermal power plants in the United States
were built in 1962 at The Geysers, located in a dry steam geothermal field.
Located about 100 miles north of San Francisco, this area is still the largest
producing geothermal field in the world.
However, dry steam geothermal fields are rare. The Geysers is one of
only two locations in the world (the other is Larderello, Italy) where a
high-temperature, dry steam resource is used to turn turbines and generate
Dry steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are primarily steam. The steam
goes directly to a turbine, which drives a generator that produces electricity.
The steam eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine. (Illustra-
tor: Jeff Dixon)
Geothermal Energy 9
electricity. A dry steam reservoir produces steam but very little water. The
steam can be piped out directly from underground wells into turbines,
which generate electricity.
In the United States there are only two known underground geothermal
resources of steam: The Geysers in Northern California and Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming. Yellowstone National Park is protected from
any major commercial developments.
Binary Power Plants

A geothermal reservoir with moderate temperature water, between 250
and 360 degrees Fahrenheit, is not hot enough to produce enough steam
energy. However, the reservoir can still be used to produce electricity in
a binary power plant system. According to the Department of Energy
(DOE), in this system, energy is extracted from the hot geothermal fluid
and a secondary or binary fluid with a much lower boiling point than
water. As the two fluids pass through a heat exchanger, the heat from the
geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor, which then
drives the turbines.
Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water (below 400

degrees Fahrenheit). Energy is extracted from these fluids in binary-cycle
power plants. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence “binary”) fluid
with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a heat exchanger.
Heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor,
which then drives the turbines. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
In geothermal resources, lower-temperature waters are much more

plentiful than high-temperature waters. Therefore, binary cycle systems
will probably be the dominant geothermal power plants of the future.
An example of a geothermal binary power generation system is located
at the Mammoth Pacific power plant, located in the California Sierra Ne-
vada mountains. Built in 1984, the plant generates 40 megawatts of re-
newable electricity that is sold to Southern California Edison. The power
company produces enough power for more than 30,000 homes. The plant
is painted in a green, forest-like color to blend with the landscape, which
reduces its visible impact.
Flash-Steam Power Plants

A geothermal reservoir that produces mostly hot water is called a hot water
reservoir and is used in a flash-steam power plant. Flash-steam power
plants are more complicated, more expensive, and somewhat less efficient
than steam-powered plants. In this system, the heat is contained in liquid
water, not steam.
In a flash-steam power plant, the hot water is brought to the surface
under pressure. Then the liquid is sprayed into a special flash tank where
it vaporizes—or flashes—to steam, which is then piped directly to the
turbine.
Hydrothermal fluids above 360 degrees Fahrenheit (182 degrees Celsius) can
be used in flash plants to make electricity. Fluid is sprayed into a tank held
at a much lower pressure than the fluid, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize, or “flash.” The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
Geothermal Energy 11
Single-Flash
According to the Department of Energy, single-flash geothermal power
plants are the most commonly installed plants at geothermal fields. A
single-flash resource system has temperatures of approximately 300–370
degrees Fahrenheit. During the processing of geothermal energy in this
system, the steam and liquid are separated in two distinct phases. In the
first phase, the steam is sent to the turbine while the liquid is sent back
to the injection well. Then in the second phase, after the steam is used to
generate power, it is condensed back to a liquid in a cooling tower before
being reinjected into the reservoir.
Double-Flash
A double-flash steam power plant costs more than a single-flash system be-
cause it is more complicated to manufacture the system and maintain it.
However, double-flash plants may produce from 20 to 25 percent more power
than a single-flash system using the same geothermal setup and conditions.
The double-flash system operates in much the same way as the single-
flash system. However, instead of the separated liquid being sent directly
to the reinjection well, the liquid is sent to a second separator tank. In the
second tank, the fluid is flashed into steam. This steam, together with the
exhaust from the principal turbine, is used to drive a second turbine to
generate additional electricity.
Flash-steam plant generators can range in size from 10 to 55 mega-
watts. A typical standard size of 20 megawatts is used in some countries,
including the Philippines and Mexico.
Coso Geothermal Field: A Flash-Steam Plant

In the United States, the CalEnergy Navy I is a flash geothermal power
plant at the Coso geothermal field. The power plant is located in the
Mojave Desert of Southern California. CalEnergy Navy I is the United
States’ second-largest producer of geothermal electricity, having a continu-
ous output of 190 megawatts. The geothermal field relies on superheated
groundwater from the Coso Hot Springs.
This desert geothermal power plant has been producing electricity at
the Coso site since 1987 by a private contractor for the U.S. Navy. The
geothermal power produced at the plant is sold into the local utility grid.
The Navy’s Geothermal Program Office is also exploring other military

bases for geothermal energy resources.
Hot Dry Rock, or Enhanced Geothermal, System

Geothermal energy can also be produced by a hot dry rock system, also
know as an enhanced geothermal system. The hot dry rocks are usually
granite rock layers in Earth’s interior. These rocks are hot as a result of
consistent heat produced by the decay of radiogenic elements.
Hot dry rock geothermal technology offers enormous potential for electricity
production. Much of the hot dry rock energy comes from hot rocks found at
depths of 4,000 meters or more beneath the Earth’s surface. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
One method for exploiting the hot dry rocks is to fracture the granite
rock layers either by using small, explosive charges or by injecting water
at sufficient pressure to ensure fracturing. After the rocks are fractured in
the injection well, surface water is pumped down through the broken hot
rocks. The water is heated by the hot rocks and then pumped back to the
surface from a production well to drive turbines for electricity or to provide
heat. According to geologists, a hot dry rock well is expected to have a use-
ful life of 20–30 years before the well becomes uneconomic.
Researchers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico
have studied hot dry rock since 1974. According to the laboratory, an ex-
perimental facility was built in Fenton Hill, New Mexico. To demonstrate
the feasibility of hot dry rock technology, a well was drilled 11,500 feet into
rock layers where temperatures reached 430 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at
80 degrees was pumped down into the well, and the liquid returned to the
surface at 360 degrees. Although the Fenton Hill facility was closed down
in 1996, the plant produced as much as five megawatts of power, proving
that a hot dry rock system has the potential to be an excellent geothermal
energy resource.
Hot dry rock research programs have now stopped in the United States
but research continues in France and Japan and many other countries. Sev-
eral geothermal energy specialists like the hot dry rock system technique
because it does not have many environmental concerns or issues.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE UNITED STATES

Presently, geothermal energy is the fourth-largest source of renewable
energy in the United States. Today the United States has about 3,000
megawatts of geothermal electricity connected to the grid. According to
the Department of Energy, energy generated from geothermal sources ac-
counted for 4 percent of renewable energy-based electricity consumption
in the United States. The United States continues to produce more geo-
thermal electricity than any other country, representing approximately 30
percent of the world’s total. According to the U.S. Energy Information
Agency, geothermal has the potential to provide the United States with
12,000 megawatts of electricity by the year 2010 and with 49,000 mega-
watts by 2030.
Most U.S. geothermal plants are located in California, Nevada, Idaho,
Hawaii, New Mexico, Arizona, Alaska, and Utah. Other states with proj-
ects currently under consideration or development are Colorado, Florida,
Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. Combined, as of 2008 these states

have approximately 103 projects in development ranging from initial to
advanced stages.
California
California is a major player in geothermal power production. Geothermal
power accounted for 5 percent of all the state’s electricity generation as of
2003.
The Geysers, mentioned previously in the chapter, is located approxi-
mately 70 miles north of San Francisco. This geothermal resource site en-
compasses an area of about 30 square miles and is the largest geothermal
development in the world. The Geysers accounts for one-fourth of the
non-hydropower green power produced in California.
In The Geysers area, there are about 20 separate geothermal power
plants that utilize steam from more than 350 producing wells. These
power plants produce more than 800 megawatts of electricity, enough to
power one million Northern California households of four people each.
The Geysers plant also helps Californians reduce their need for thousands
and thousands of barrels of oil per year.
The geothermal power plant at The Geysers near Santa Rosa, California, is
the largest geothermal development in the world. (Julie Donnelly-Nolan/U.S.
Geological Survey)
DID YOU KNOW?

The thermal energy in the uppermost six miles of Earth’s crust is the equivalent of
50,000 times the energy of all the world’s gas and oil resources.
The Geysers recharge project in Sonoma County and the Southeast

Geysers recharge project in Lake County make use of recycled reclaimed
wastewater. The wastewater replenishes the geysers’ geothermal steam res-
ervoir. Using the reclaimed wastewater at these sites extends the life span
of the steam field.
Nevada
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada ranks number two
in the United States, behind California, in capacity for electric power pro-
duction with an installed capacity of 264 megawatts of electrical power.
Besides producing electrical power from geothermal resources, Nevada
is a leader in the direct use of the thermal waters at more than 25 sites. In
the direct-use application, heat is extracted and transferred directly from
thermal waters for such uses as agricultural drying, space heating, and
aquaculture. The thermal waters, as in other areas of the United States, are
commonly used for bathing and spas.
High-temperature geothermal resources that are suitable for electric
power production are located in the northwestern portion of the state.
High-temperature geothermal waters are above 212 degrees Fahrenheit.
However, moderate- to low-temperature geothermal resources, those wa-
ters that are between 68 degrees and about 212 degrees Fahrenheit, are
suitable for heating purposes and are widespread throughout Nevada.
The University of Nevada at Reno is now developing a geothermal re-
source at its Redfield campus, located near the Steamboat Springs. The
college campus will be powered and heated entirely with geothermal
energy.
Idaho
In 2008 a 13-megawatt geothermal power plant was built in Raft River in
southern Idaho. It will be the first commercial geothermal plant in Idaho.
The site is both a new and old geothermal location.
U.S. Geothermal president of operations Chris Harriman opens a valve on

an injection well at the company’s Raft River site in Idaho in 2007. Originally
intended to pump geothermal water back into the aquifer a mile beneath the
Idaho desert, the well has turned out to be another potential source of hot
water for its 13-megawatt geothermal power plant. (AP Photo/John Miller)
In addition to the Raft River site, there are 24 other sites in Idaho that
have potential for power generation. Estimates of the geothermal electricity-
producing capacity in Idaho have large ranges. One geological report esti-
mates that Idaho has such potential for geothermal energy that it could be
producing 855 megawatts by 2015 and 1,670 megawatts by 2025.
Hawaii
The Hawaiian Islands lie above a geothermal hot spot that has been volca-
nically active for millions of years. Geothermal research conducted in the
1970s found that the Kilauea Volcano on Hawaii’s Big Island has the most
potential for generating electricity.
The Puna Geothermal Venture is the first and only commercial geother-
mal power plant in the state. The plant has generated sustainable electricity
for Hawaii Island for 15 years. Under a power purchase agreement with
Hawaii Electric Light Company, Puna Geothermal Venture sends all the
electricity it produces, on average 25–30 megawatts, to the utility company,
supplying approximately 20 percent of the total electricity needs of the Big
Island.
Colorado
There are a number of geothermal wells and hot springs throughout Colo-
rado. And believe it or not you can find a fish farm using these geother-
mal wells near Alamosa, Colorado. The fish farm utilizes three geothermal
wells to raise white tilapia fish for table use. According to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), from 50 to100 thousand pounds
of fish per year are harvested at this location.
New Mexico
In New Mexico, geothermal energy has been used for small-scale electric-
ity generation and in direct use to supply geothermal water for aquaculture,
FEATURE
Fort Atkinson School District, Wisconsin
As of 2008, the Fort Atkinson School District in Wisconsin decided to use geother-
mal energy as a method to save money while teaching the students about alterna-
tive energy.
One middle school is already using a geothermal system that includes deep
wells under the football field. Geothermal water is pumped out of these wells to
both heat and cool the middle school.
According to the school report, the wells are about 3,300 feet deep and can
reach 250 degrees Fahrenheit, warm enough to heat the building. Located as part
of the Yellowstone aquifer, the hot water gets pumped through the six-inch line and
then goes throughout the building to each individual classroom.
Each classroom has a radiated heater hooked up to the geothermal water pipes;
the hot water flows through the pipes to each of the 27 heaters. The fans blow the
warm air into the building. A thermostat is used to turn on or off the heat.
The school has saved thousands of dollars using geothermal energy, and the
savings are expected to increase. The school also uses solar panels to heat the
swimming pool, so energy from both Earth and sun is used to cut expenses.
greenhouses, swimming pools, resorts, space heating, and hot water. New
Mexico also has many hot springs.
In 2008 Raser Technologies and New Mexico governor Bill Richardson
announced New Mexico’s first geothermal power plant. The potential plant
will be capable of generating power at low temperatures below 165 degrees
Fahrenheit. According to the company, the plant will use a new kind of
technology that employs water heated by geothermal energy to vaporize a
special “working fluid” in a heat exchanger. The pressure from the vapor-
ized fluid is then used to drive a turbine.
Arizona
Arizona is a state well known for its solar power installations. However,
the state is exploring the potential for geothermal energy. So far, high-
temperature geothermal resources needed for electric power production
have not been discovered, but much of Arizona’s geothermal assets contain
low-temperature resources that can be put to direct use. Presently, Arizona
uses geothermal energy primarily for aquaculture programs. For example,
there are several aquaculture businesses in the state that use geothermal
resources for raising fish and shrimp. One aquaculture business, the Desert
Springs tilapia facility, uses 50 percent of the installed geothermal direct-
use capacity. Additionally, the heated water is used for crop irrigation, spas,
and greenhouse heating.
Arizona also has many areas with low- to moderate-temperature geo-
thermal fluids at shallow depths. These geothermal fields could be used
directly for various heating applications, including for greenhouses and
nurseries, grain and vegetable drying, and soil warming for mushroom
growing and earthworm farms.
Alaska
Alaska has many geothermal resources throughout the state. According to
government geological reports, the geothermal resources are in three major
regions:
1. The Ring of Fire, which includes the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Penin-
sula, and Baranof Island
2. The hot springs in central Alaska, extending from the Seward Penin-
sula east to the Canadian border
3. The area near the Wrangell Mountains, a high mountain range in
eastern Alaska
Alaska’s Chena Hot Springs geothermal power plant went online in

2006. Because the geothermal water at Chena Hot Springs never reaches
the boiling point of water, the plant cannot use a traditional steam-driven
turbine. Instead, a secondary fluid called R-134a is used. The fluid, which
is similar to a refrigerant used in air conditioning systems, has a lower
boiling point than water. The special fluid passes through a heat exchanger
that contains water from geothermal wells at a temperature of 165 degrees
Fahrenheit. Heat from the geothermal water causes the R-134a to flash to
a vapor, which then drives the turbine. In this system virtually nothing is
emitted into the atmosphere.
Utah
Within the state of Utah, electrical utility power companies and various
business enterprises such as greenhouses, fish farms, and recreational re-
sorts use geothermal energy. According to geological surveys, Utah’s geo-
thermal reservoirs range in liquid temperature from below 165 to above
240 degrees Fahrenheit. The reservoirs are located mostly throughout the
central and western regions of the state.
A worker makes adjustments on a heat exchanger/generator unit at Raser

Technologies’ Thermo Power Plant west of Minersville, Utah. Within six months
of discovering a massive geothermal field, Raser had erected and fired up the
power plant. (AP Photo/Douglas C. Pizac)
DID YOU KNOW?

There are several geothermal companies in the United States, including U.S. Geo-
thermal, Ormat, Calpine Corporation, Enel, Caithness/COC, and California Energy.
These moderate- to high-temperature geothermal resources are suitable

for power production. One geothermal power plant in the southwestern
portion of the state generates enough electricity to supply nearly 8,000
homes. The thermal or heat energy from lower-temperature resources
can be used directly for such applications as space heating for homes and
businesses.
One of the newest geothermal power plants has been installed in Beaver
County, Utah. The Beaver County power plant has been named Thermo
and was built by Raser Technologies, Inc., which specializes in geothermal
power generation.
Montana
Geothermal resources as cool as 85 degrees Fahrenheit are being used
to heat Montana homes, greenhouses, and commercial buildings. In the
western part of the state geothermal heating is used for aquaculture (com-
mercially raised fish), greenhouses, and spas and resorts.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: John W. Lund, Director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Institute
of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon

I am the director of the Geo-Heat Center at Oregon Institute of Technology in Kla-
math Falls, Oregon, an emeritus professor of civil engineering, and a past president
of the International Geothermal Association. I am a registered professional engi-
neer, and I taught civil engineering at OIT for 32 years. Presently, I am responsible
for promoting the development and use of geothermal energy through providing
technical assistance, writing publications, disseminating information, training, and
lecturing, with funding support form the U.S. Department of Energy and the Oregon
University System.
Diagram of the 280 kilowatt organic Rankine cycle (ORC) geothermal power
plant at the Oregon Institute of Technology campus in Klamath Falls, Ore-
gon. (Courtesy Dr. John Lund/Oregon Institute of Technology)
I grew up in California but have lived in North Carolina, Maryland, Colorado, and
Norway and now in Oregon for the past 42 years. I went to school in Norway as
a boy while my father worked for the U.S. Embassy in Oslo. I attended Bethesda
Chevy-Chase High School in Bethesda, Maryland.
school?
My favorite subjects in high school were math and science, with interest in history
and geography. I had to work at English, especially writing reports and speaking—as
this is one of the most important parts of any technical career. My favorite sports are
cross-country skiing and soccer.
My university training was at the University of Colorado (BS in civil engineering,
1958; PhD in civil engineering, 1967) and the University of California, Berkeley (ME
degree in transportation engineering, 1962).
Describe your interest in geothermal energy.

From college, I had a background in geotechnical engineering (geology, soil me-
chanics, and various road building materials such as aggregates, concrete and
asphalt). I then taught engineering geology and soil mechanics at Oregon Institute
of Technology. This background helped me understand the workings of a geother-
mal reservoir and how geothermal energy is utilized. Since the OIT campus was
already heated with geothermal energy (192 degrees Fahrenheit), it peaked my
interest in this renewable and green energy resource. It was natural to explore this
interesting domestic energy source. Bathing in hot springs throughout the west
also helped my interest. I now live in a geothermally heated home, where my hot
water and hot tub also are heated with water from a 420-foot-deep well in my front
yard.
As a result of my interest in geothermal energy, I have traveled all over the
world, lecturing in 30 countries and providing training at the United Nations Univer-
sity Geothermal Training Program in Reykjavik, Iceland, and the Geothermal Train-
ing Program at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. Rotorua, New Zealand,
another geothermal city, is the sister city of Klamath Falls.
What kind of geothermal power plant is installed on the campus?

In addition to campus being heated with geothermal hot water since the early
1960s, we recently installed a 280-kilowatt binary geothermal power plant on
campus, using water from our existing wells. Early this year, we drilled a 5,300-
foot-deep well on campus that will produce about 2,000 gpm (126 L/s) of 200
degree F (93 degrees C) water. This well will then provide the energy for an ap-
proximately one-megawatt binary power plant. These two plants will provide the
base load electricity required for campus and meet about 80 percent of the peak
demand (hot summer and cold winter days). A binary plant uses a low-temper-
ature geothermal fluid to heat a secondary working fluid (hydrocarbon such as
isopentane, isobutane, etc.). The working fluid boils, and the vapor turns a tur-
bine, which in turn turns a generator to produce electricity. The working fluid is
then condensed and starts the cycle over again. The geothermal fluid never sees
the “light of day” and is injected back into the reservoir—thus conserving the
resource—or it can be used for space heating in a cascade mode, before being
injected.
OIT saves about 1 million dollars in heating costs per year and will save ap-
proximately $100,000 from the 280-kilowatt plant and $400,000 from the 1-megawatt
plant per year. The “waste water” from the larger power plant can be used to
provide heat to adjacent buildings, earning up to an additional $200,000 per year
approximately.
How do you use the power plants as a training program?

The geothermal heating system has served as a demonstration site for interested
developers and users of geothermal energy, along with serving as a training site for
students. (This we refer to as the direct use of geothermal energy, which includes
space heating, greenhouse and aquaculture pond heating, industrial application,
and drying of timber and food products.) The new power plants will also serve as
a demonstration site and for training students. This fits in well with our new re-
newable energy engineering bachelor’s degree program on both our Portland and
Klamath Falls campuses. We are also planning to build a Sustainable Energy Park
(Source: Geothermal Education Office)

on campus that will have room for solar, wind, biofuels, and biomass renewable
energy projects.
Describe the greenhouse plans and aquaculture projects.
We also plan to build geothermally heated greenhouse and aquaculture projects
on campus that will use the “waste water” from the heating system and power
plants. These will be used to demonstrate the potential for using low-temperature
geothermal resources, as well as to provide fish, vegetables, and flowers for use
on campus. They will also be a research site for our students to test various heating
systems and electrical control systems and to determine energy-efficiencies and
cost savings.
What are some of your future plans for using geothermal programs?
We hope to expand the geothermal programs on campus by hiring additional engi-
neers and developing more projects, to help promote the use of geothermal energy
in the nation and worldwide. This growth will support our renewable energy engi-
neering degree and training students for this new and exciting market. Using this
domestic and renewable energy resource will help to lower our dependency on
imported fossil fuel sources and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. Small
power plants and direct-use projects can help small communities with employ-
ment and help them to be self-sufficient with a distributed energy program. You
can learn more about the uses of geothermal energy from our Web site: http://
geoheat.oit.edu.
View from inside the 280 kilowatt organic Rankine cycle (binary cycle) geo-
thermal power plant on the campus of the Oregon Institute of Technology.
The turbine-generator set has an insulating cover over it, and the large
tubes are the condenser (upper) and evaporator (lower) heat exchangers.
(Courtesy Geo-Heat Center)
ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

Geothermal energy has proven to be extremely reliable and flexible. Hy-
drothermal electric power plants operate very consistently, approximately
97 percent of the time. That means that they are not shut down too often
for maintenance.
Geothermal power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have
to burn fossil fuels to manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Therefore,
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions are much less than at fossil
power plants.
What are some of the benefits or advantages of using geothermal
energy?
• Land use. The land area needed for a geothermal power plant is
smaller than that needed by most other types of power plants.
DID YOU KNOW?

Lake County, California, home to five geothermal electric power plants, meets the
most stringent governmental air-quality standards in the United States.
• Reliability. Geothermal power plants are designed to operate 24

hours a day, all year. A geothermal power plant is built directly on top
of its fuel source. There are no interruptions of power generation as a
result of weather or natural disasters.
• Flexibility. Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with
additional units installed in increments when needed to fit growing
demand for electricity.
OTHER USES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal water is used around the world, even when it is not hot enough
to generate electricity. The main nonelectric geothermal energy is for direct
uses and geothermal heat pumps.
Geothermal water employed for direct use ranges in temperature from
50 to over 300 degrees Fahrenheit. These waters are ideal for health spas,
greenhouses, aquaculture, and milk pasteurization and can also be piped
into homes and individual buildings for space heating.
In the western United States, hundreds of communities use geothermal
resources for district heating. The world’s largest district heating system is
in Reykjavik, Iceland. Since the country started using geothermal energy
as its main source of heat, Reykjavik has become one of the cleanest cities
in the world. Modern district heating systems also serve homes in Russia,
China, France, Sweden, Hungary, Romania, and Japan.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Geothermal power plants have minimal or no negative impacts on the
environment and ecological systems.
Protection of the Air and Atmosphere

Hydrogen sulfide gas sometimes occurs in geothermal reservoirs. It smells
like rotten eggs at low concentrations and can cause humans to quickly lose
their sense of smell. There are government health regulations for worker
safety because the gas can be toxic at high concentrations. Companies have
special equipment for scrubbing hydrogen sulfide from geothermal steam.
About 99 percent of this gas can be removed using these scrubbers.
Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in geothermal steam, but geothermal
plants release less than 4 percent of the total carbon dioxide emissions
released by power plants. However, if a closed-cycle (binary) technology
system is used, there are no emissions at all.
Protection of Groundwater
Geothermal water contains higher concentrations of dissolved minerals
than water from cold groundwater aquifers. In geothermal wells, all the
piping and casings used in drilling are cemented into the ground to pre-
vent the mixing of geothermal water with other groundwater.
When the geothermal water needs to be stored at the surface, it is kept
in lined, impermeable storage basins. After use, the geothermal water is
either evaporated or injected back into its deep reservoir, again through
sealed piping, for recycling.
Emissions from a geothermal plant in Iceland. Special scrubbers installed at

geothermal plants like this one in Iceland can remove up to 99 percent of dan-
gerous emissions such as hydrogen sulfide. (iStockphoto)
FEATURE
Geothermal Energy Association
The Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) is a trade association composed of U.S.
companies. They support the expanded use of geothermal energy. The GEA devel-
ops geothermal resources worldwide for electrical power generation and direct-
heat uses. The members have offices or operations in many states and in numerous
countries throughout the world.
The GEA advocates for public policies that will promote the development and
utilization of geothermal resources. The association provides a forum for the in-
dustry to discuss issues and problems, encourages research and development to
improve geothermal technologies, presents industry views to governmental orga-
nizations, provides assistance for the export of geothermal goods and services,
compiles statistical data about the geothermal industry, and conducts educa-
tion and outreach projects. You can visit the association Web site at http://www.
geo-energy.org/gea.asp.
Visual Protection
A geothermal plant is constructed right on top of the surface of its fuel source.
No additional land or other expansion is needed. The plants have a low pro-
file, reaching about 25 feet in height, and are constructed to blend in with the
natural scenery so that they do not distract from popular scenic landscapes.
THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

According to government officials, geothermal energy has the potential
to play a significant role in the energy portfolios of the United States and
other countries. Geothermal’s major asset is that it is a renewable energy
technology that can provide a continuous supply of energy around the
clock. The utility costs for electricity supplied from geothermal facilities
FEATURE
Does Geothermal Energy Contribute to Local U.S. Economies?
According to town officials in a rural area of Imperial County, California, as of 2009
geothermal activities produced more than $12 million in tax revenue. The geother-
mal businesses provided jobs for more than 250 people. Since enactment of the
2005 Geothermal Steam Act Amendments, state and local governments have re-
ceived substantial revenues from geothermal leasing and production.
are also declining. In fact, some geothermal power plants have reported
50 percent reductions in the price of electricity since the 1980s. Presently,
new geothermal facilities can produce electricity for between 4.5 and 7.3
cents per kilowatt-hour. This kind of pricing makes it competitive with
conventional fossil fuel–fired power plants.
In 2009 a new report by the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA)
showed strong growth in new geothermal power projects continuing into
2009. The report identified a total of more than 100 projects under develop-
ment with the potential to put 5,500 megawatts of new geothermal power
online, providing enough power for 5.5 million California homes, accord-
ing to the GEA. The GEA also reported that Nevada, with 58 planned
geothermal projects, has the most production under development of any
state. California is second with 27 projects, followed by Idaho, Oregon,
Utah, and Alaska. In all, new geothermal power projects were identified
in Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada,
New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. The GEA estimates that
bringing these projects online could help economic recovery, with the po-
tential of 100,000 new jobs.

Media, 2007.
Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor, MI: Cherry Lake, 2008.
Saunders, Nigel. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens,
2008.
2007.
Sherman, Josepha. Geothermal Power. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press, 2004.
SOMETHING TO DO
Using the U.S. geothermal map, determine whether your state would be a
candidate for installing geothermal energy systems. Why or why not?
WEB SITES
www.osti.gov/geothermal
Geothermal Technologies Legacy Collection is a set of documents,

journals, and citations where users can expect to find valuable re-
sources in the geothermal technology field.
www.sandia.gov/geothermal-energy-drilling
Sandia National Laboratories investigates new drilling processes and
tools that could make geothermal energy a practical and affordable
energy source.
www.energy.gov
The U.S. Department of Energy and its geothermal technologies
program supports the U.S. geothermal industry in providing diversity
in domestic energy supply options.
www.geothermal.marin.org
The Geothermal Education Office promotes public understanding
of geothermal resources through environmental and renewable en-
ergy educational materials for educators, students, and the general
public.
www.geothermal.org
The Geothermal Resources Council’s goals are to encourage world-
wide development of geothermal resources through the distribution
of data and technical information and to promote research, explo-
ration, and development of geothermal energy compatible with the
environment.
VIDEOS
ins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the vid-
eos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current version.
Geothermal: What Is It? Where Is It Located? To view a Google
Earth video explaining the advantages of “digging deeper” to tap
emissions-free and carbon-neutral geothermal energy, go to http://
www.google.org/egs/ (3:23 minutes).
Geothermal: It’s Hot! This video explains the benefits of the greatest
source of untapped, practical clean energy in the world: http://www.
discoversolarenergy.com/solar/videos-geotherm.htm (1:55 minutes).
Geothermal: Global Consumption—Iceland: The most inventive,

progressive, and eco-friendly energy system in the world is the cor-
nerstone of a national consciousness that is a blueprint for the world’s
future. The United States could learn from Iceland and produce 10
percent of its total power from geothermal energy. For more infor-
mation, view the first 4:30 minutes of this video: http://www.you
tube.com/watch?v=XRAQrDduaU0.
Chapter 2
a
Countries Using
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy supplies approximately 10,000 megawatts of electric-

ity for more than 15 countries worldwide. How much electricity is that?
That is enough electricity to meet the needs of 60 million people.
Much of the geothermal-producing countries are located along the
Circum-Pacific Belt, also called the Pacific Ring of Fire. As stated in chap-
ter 1, the Pacific Ring of Fire stretches along the western coasts of North
and South America, across the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, and downward
along the eastern coast of Asia. The countries in this ring-like-shaped area
include the western United States (including Alaska), New Zealand, Indo-
nesia, Philippines, Japan, and Russia.
UNITED STATES
Two countries, the United States and the Philippines, account for 50 per-
cent of the world’s use of geothermal energy. As of August 2008, geother-
mal capacity in the United States totaled nearly 3,000 megawatts, produced
by several states such as Alaska, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, New
Mexico, and Utah. In fact, California produces more megawatts of geother-
mal energy than any country in the world. See chapter 1 for more infor-
mation on California’s geothermal energy, produced in an area called The
Geysers, a geological region north of San Francisco.
This chapter concentrates on how other countries use geothermal
power.
(Source: Casey Research)
PHILIPPINES
After the United States, the second-largest producer of geothermal power
in the world is the Philippines. The Philippines is located in the western
part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, and in this area of the world, there are deep
geological fractures where hot molten material (magma) inside the crust is
close enough to Earth’s surface to heat the underground water reservoirs.
These underground heated reservoirs can provide hot steam and hot water
for renewable energy production.
DID YOU KNOW?

The world’s oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France,
has been operating since the 14th century.
Countries Using Geothermal Energy a 33
DID YOU KNOW?

There are more than 22 active volcanoes in the geographic region know as the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
The Philippines produces 350 megawatts from geothermal sources—

enough to power 700,000 local households. Most of the geothermal power
plants are on the islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao, and Leyte. In fact,
Leyte was the first island in the Philippines where geothermal power
plants were installed. As of 2009, there were 16 geothermal power plants in
the Philippines generating almost 2,000 megawatts of electricity in total,
according to the Philippine government’s Department of Energy.
The Philippine government plans to increase to more megawatts of
renewable energy by 2013. As an example, Biliran, one of the smallest
provinces in the Philippines, is estimated to have at least 100 megawatts
of potential geothermal energy, which will be an excellent location for fu-
ture geothermal explorations. Besides this province, there are many other
View of the main power plant at the Leyte Geothermal Production Field on
Leyte Island, the Philippines. (Blaine Harden/Washington Post/Getty Images)
potential geothermal sites in the country still waiting to be explored for

energy uses.
The energy portfolio of the Philippines includes a variety of other re-
sources besides geothermal. They country has diesel fuel plants, hydro-
power plants, coal-fired plants, natural gas plants, and petroleum-powered
thermal plants.
MEXICO
In 2009 Los Angeles mayor Antonio Villaraigosa signed an agreement to
purchase geothermal power from Mexico, saying: “Just to make this deal
even sweeter, geothermal power doesn’t vary with the wind or the sunlight.
It will be steady, stable, and available for use at virtually all times.”
Mexico’s national utility agency is located in Mexico’s geothermal area,
which is one of the largest geothermal power–producing areas in the world.
The purchase of geothermal power from Mexico will assist Mayor Vil-
laraigosa in his goal of having Los Angeles obtain 20 percent of its power
from renewable sources in 2010.
According to the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partner-
ship (REEEP), as of 2007, Mexico, with its 960 megawatts of geothermal
energy power, occupies third place in the world for the generation of elec-
trical power from geothermal sources—after the United States and the
Philippines. The electricity generated from geothermal accounts for almost
3 percent of the total energy used in Mexico.
Mexico also has a geothermal agreement with the country of Belize
similar to the one with Los Angeles. Belize, situated in Central America
and a short distance from Mexico, gets much of its power from Mexico.
Mexico has also negotiated a geothermal agreement with Guatemala, an-
other nearby country. Mexico claims that its sales of geothermal energy to
other countries bring in more than 80 million dollars a year. As of 2005,
to keep pace with demand, Mexico was actively exploring additional
VIDEO
Geothermal—Philippines Eco Solution: This CNN video highlights the Philippines’
active pursuit of this alternative energy source. The Philippines produces 350
megawatts from geothermal sources—enough to power 700,000 local households.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoDBKvnRDIA&feature=related (2:44 minutes).
geothermal productions sites in its Baja California and the Central Mexi-
can Volcanic Belt locations.
JAPAN
Do you know that Japan is located in an area of more than 100 active vol-
canoes? The 100 or so volcanoes represent 10 percent of the world’s active
volcanoes. So Japan is in a good position to tap into underground geother-
mal energy sources near these volcano sites.
As a nation with few natural resources, Japan has long been dependent
on importing large quantities of crude oil and natural gas from other coun-
tries. Now the country is trying to cut back on it dependency on imported
energy sources by planning to explore geothermal resources and other re-
newable energy sources.
Presently, Japan has an estimated geothermal electricity–generating ca-
pacity of more than 60,000 megawatts. This is enough energy production
to provide one-third of the country’s electricity requirements.
In 2010 Japan started construction on new geothermal projects, includ-
ing a geothermal power plant in northern Japan. When in operation, the
power plant will tap into hot water and steam at approximately 6,000 feet
below the surface. If the drilling is successful, the project could generate up
to 60,000 kilowatts of power when it begins operating in 2016.
ITALY
Italy is the European leader in geothermal energy production. The country
is also one of the world’s largest producers of geothermal energy, behind
the United States, the Philippines, Mexico, and Japan. Italy has a long his-
tory of using geothermal resources.
Going back a few thousand years, the early Romans built many large
communal baths using natural hot water throughout their empire. Their
empire extended from the countries in northern Africa to northern En-
gland and from Turkey to Spain. In many of these locations, the Romans
DID YOU KNOW?

As of 2009, Toshiba (Japan) holds 44 percent of the world’s market share of geo-
thermal turbines and is the top supplier of geothermal turbines in the world.
heated their buildings using hot steam piped in through hollow tiles from
the thermal underground springs. This piped-in hot steam technique was
an early use of direct geothermal heating.
However, it was in 1904 that the first modern geothermal power plants
were built in the region of Larderello, a community in Tuscany in central
Italy.
But the major production of geothermal energy at Larderello began
in the 1930s, and by 1970 the electrical power capacity had reached 350
megawatts. Since the 1980s, there has been more drilling in this region to
increase geothermal power production.
There are currently 32 operating geothermal plants in Italy, with a total
installed capacity of 790 megawatts. These geothermal plants also make
use of wastewater from nearby cities. The wastewater is injected into the
geothermal field, providing an environmentally safe disposal method to
increase steam production in the power plants. Italy is expected to nearly
double its installed capacity by 2020.
The geothermal power plant in Larderello is located in central Italy just south
of Tuscany. This geothermal project started in 1904 when Prince Piero Ginori
Conti tested the first geothermal power generator at the Larderello dry steam
field. It was reported that the little generator produced just enough electricity
to light up a few lightbulbs. (Dreamstime.com)
So today, after 100-plus years, the Larderello field is still producing geo-
thermal energy to meet the requirements of two million Italian households.
The use of geothermal energy also plays a part in the country’s reduction of
carbon dioxide emissions.
ICELAND
Do you know that people in Iceland use geothermal heat to wash clothes,
take warm baths, bake bread, and heat up footpaths, streets, and parking
places? Iceland, sometimes referred to as the Land of Volcanoes, is consid-
ered the success story in the world of geothermal production. As of 2009,
Iceland ranked 14th in the world for geothermal resources but was the
highest per capita (per person) producer of geothermal power.
Iceland has many hot springs, geysers, and high-temperature geother-
mal reservoirs. The high-temperature sources are in a volcanic area where
there are natural steam vents; a vent, also known as a fumarole, is an open-
ing at Earth’s surface through which volcanic materials such as magma and
gases as well as steam or water are released.
Hot springs and geysers are located all over Iceland. As mentioned in
chapter 1, a geyser is a natural phenomenon of hot water flowing up from
underground and it proves heat exists in Earth’s interior. There are more
than 100 geysers in Iceland. The most famous one is the Great Geysir in
South Iceland from which the international word geyser is derived. The
geyser has been known to erupt a long column of hot water to a height of
about 180 feet.
Iceland’s population of more than 300,000 people is now fully powered
by renewable forms of energy, with 17 percent of its electricity and 87 per-
cent of its heating needs provided by geothermal energy. However, some
fossil fuels are still imported for fishing vessels and for vehicle and other
transportation needs.
Over the years, Iceland has been improving and expanding its geother-
mal power production to meet growing industrial and commercial energy
DID YOU KNOW?

Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced
nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes.
The Stokkur Geysir in Haukadalur, southern Iceland, erupts about every four to
eight minutes and spouts water approximately 60 feet high. The word geyser
means gusher or spouter in Danish. (Rzihlman/Dreamstime.com)
demands. As an example of geothermal growth, in 2004 Iceland was re-

ported to have generated 1,465 gigawatt-hours from geothermal resources,
and by 2009 geothermal production had reached 3,000 gigawatt-hours.
How Does the Geothermal Plant

Work in Iceland?
In Iceland, a mixture of steam and geothermal brine is extracted from wells
and transferred to a central separation station. After being separated from the
brine, the steam is piped through special steam heat exchangers inside the
plant building. At this stage, the steam is piped to steam turbines for generat-
ing electricity. The leftover excess steam is released through a steam exhaust
system.
CANADA
Much of the geothermal activity in Canada is located in Meager Mountain
in British Columbia. Presently, a large geothermal electrical generation proj-
ect is under development. In this plan, geothermal fluids with temperatures
of greater than 350 degrees Fahrenheit will be used to produce electricity.

Low-temperature geothermal fluids will be used for direct-use applications
such as space heating, crop drying, aquaculture, and so on.
The schools in Manitoba take advantage of geothermal energy as well.
Approximately 20 schools in Manitoba currently use some form of geo-
thermal system, in which underground pipes assist the heating and cooling
systems in the buildings. According to school officials, although geother-
mal systems can be more expensive to install, they produce virtually no
greenhouse gases and can reduce annual heating costs by 50–70 percent.
CHINA
Did you know that the oldest known pool fed by a hot spring was built in
the Qin dynasty in the third century b.c.?
In China, there are several thousand geothermal areas that include many
geothermal sites with total potential reserves of 3.2 million megawatts. At
present, geothermal energy has been used for electric power generation,
textile printing and dyeing, heating sources, and medical care. The geother-
mal power stations that have been put into operation are mainly in Tibet.
High-temperature geothermal resources are mainly distributed in the
northern area of Tibet and in the southwestern areas of Yunnan and in the
Taiwan province. The geothermal fluid temperature is above 150–200 de-
grees Fahrenheit. High-temperature geothermal resources are mainly used
for electrical power generation.
In 2009 a new geothermal district heat development system was installed
in a province near Beijing. The geothermal reservoir used in the district
heating system has water temperatures ranging from 132 to 200 degrees
Fahrenheit at a well depth of 1,500–4,500 feet. The installation of the geo-
thermal district heating system heats homes and helps improve the district’s
air quality because the heating of homes would otherwise be powered by
coal-fired heating plants. China’s plan for the future is to rely less on coal-
powered plants for energy and to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions by
using renewable energy sources such as wind, tidal power, hydropower, and
solar and geothermal energy.
THAILAND
Thailand has much potential to use geothermal energy sources in the fu-
ture. Thailand’s Department of Mineral Resources has reported that more
than 100 geyser sources have been found in many sections of the country.
The geysers, with hot geothermal water temperatures ranging from 70
to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, can provide enough energy for a geothermal
plant.
INDONESIA
Much of Indonesia lies in a region of active volcanoes in the Pacific Ring
of Fire. More than 200 locations across the country have been identified as
possible sites for geothermal power production. Presently, a major oil and
gas company, which operates two geothermal power plants in the West
Java province, is hoping to double the size of its geothermal business in
Indonesia. So 20 years after the first geothermal plant came online, the
government’s goal is now to install 8,000 megawatts of new geothermal
power plants by 2026.
A small 300 kilowatt geothermal binary plant provides electric power to the
small village of Fang, Thailand. The power plant replaced a diesel-powered
electrical generator. The hot water, at a temperature of 250 degrees Fahren-
heit, is used for other applications. (PRNewsFoto/Ormat Technologies, Inc.)
FEATURE
Chevron
Chevron, a global company, is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the
world, accounting for more than half of all privately developed geothermal power.
The company’s geothermal operations started more than 30 years ago when Chev-
ron discovered Darajat, a major field in Indonesia. Its three other important sites
for geothermal energy production include Gunung Salak in Indonesia and Tiwi and
Mak-Ban in the Philippines. Combined, the four Pacific Rim sites generate 1,273
megawatts of geothermal energy. The company reports that the Indonesian sites
produce enough energy to supply approximately 3.9 million homes in the area. In
the Philippines, Chevron geothermal power supplies 7 percent of the electricity
needed by Luzon, the country’s largest island and home to 48 million people.
TURKEY
Turkey is ranked seventh in the world in geothermal resources. The coun-
try is located on the Mediterranean volcanic belt, which has one of the
most promising geothermal fields.
Much of the geothermal resources in Turkey are of low temperatures that
are not suitable for electricity production. However, the low-temperature
geothermal resources are still useful for district direct-heating applications,
such as in some cities in China.
In 2010, 125,000 homes in Turkey were heated with geothermal energy.
The country plans to have 550 megawatts of on-line geothermal power by
2013.
UNITED KINGDOM
The first geothermal power plant in the United Kingdom is being planned
for development in Cornwall. The Cornwall Geothermal Project is a hot
dry rock system, also known as a geothermal enhanced system, which drills
into granite rock outcrops near Earth’s surface for heat energy to generate
electricity.
The hot dry rock system requires drilling holes down into Earth to ap-
proximately 1–2 miles to reach the high-temperature granite rocks. After
the drilling is completed, the next phase is to pump water down into the
holes of the injection well. The pumped-in water passing through the
hot rocks heats up to about 250–300 degrees Fahrenheit before return-
ing to the production well at the surface. The hot water is then converted
to electricity through a heat exchanger. The Cornwall project should be
completed and the power plant should be producing electricity by 2012.
Further studies have indicated that the geothermal resource of the Corn-
wall area has the potential to supply 10 percent of the United Kingdom’s
electricity for 200 years.
There is already a geothermal project in Southampton that supplies
heated water to a number of customers. However, the Cornwall project
will be the first to convert heated water into electricity.
AUSTRALIA
In 2009 the Australian government approved funds for two projects to
begin the installation of geothermal power resources in the country. Geo-
logical reports state that geothermal power plants could provide up to
2,200 megawatts of electrical capacity by 2020.
The geothermal power companies will be also implementing the hot dry
rock system, or the enhanced geothermal system. As mentioned previously,
instead of locating pockets of steam underground, the enhanced geothermal
system requires using high-pressure water to fracture and break up the hot
rock layers. When this process is completed, water is then pumped through
the rocks to make steam. When the plant is in operation, it can produce
around 7.5 megawatts of power and up to 30 megawatts in the future.
Australia presently has the Birdsville geothermal power plant in
Queensland. The power station was first commissioned in 1992 and it is
Australia’s only operational geothermal power station capable of electricity
generation 24 hours a day. The plant generates a modest 80–90 kilowatts
net power. However, there are plans to upgrade and retrofit this plant to
increase its electrical output from a minimum of 90 kilowatts up to 340
kilowatts. The retrofitting of this geothermal program is part of Australia’s
goal to achieve a 60 percent reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from
year-2000 levels by 2050.
EL SALVADOR
El Salvador is situated on the Pacific coast of Central America and is
about the size of Massachusetts. However, this small country is one of
the top geothermal energy producers in the world. Geothermal power

in El Salvador represents 14 percent of the country’s total electricity
production. Since 1975, the Ahuachapán geothermal field has been in
continuous and successful commercial operation. Ahuachapán is a city
in western El Salvador with a population of about 110,000 people. Since
1992, the geothermal field in this city area has provided 10 megawatts
of power.
In 2009 another geothermal power plant went into full operation. The
plant is a 9.3-megawatt binary plant at Berlin in El Salvador. The Berlin
plant uses lower-temperature geothermal heat reservoirs to generate elec-
tricity. The plant utilizes a fluid boiling at lower temperatures in a closed
cycle system. However, if the temperature of 270 degrees Fahrenheit in-
creases, a heat exchanger creates steam, which itself turns a turbine to gen-
erate electricity.
KENYA
The geothermal development potential of the Great Rift Valley in Africa
looks very promising. Africa’s Great Rift Valley is a large crack more than
5,000 miles long in Earth’s crust that runs from Lebanon to Mozambique.
This is an excellent and extensive location to explore geothermal resources.
So in June 2008, President Mwai Kibaki announced a plan to install some
1,700 megawatts of new geothermal capacity within 10 years. This would
represent a huge increase in the current capacity of geothermal energy in
this country.
COSTA RICA
It has been reported that Costa Rica gets about 99 percent of all of its elec-
trical energy from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric power,
wind power, and geothermal energy. The largest share of that energy is
from hydroelectric power plants, but as much 5–15 percent comes from
geothermal resources.
When in operation, the Las Pailas Geothermal Plant in the northern
province of Costa Rica will be the country’s second major geothermal
field to generate electricity. The plant is scheduled to become operational
in 2011, adding 35 megawatts to the 163.5 that are already supplied by
the five units of the Miravalles volcano power station, in operation since
1994, according to the government of Costa Rica. The new plant will use
water-cooled condensers and a high-efficiency turbine to produce energy

applications.
NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand is another country that lies in the southwest corner of the
Pacific Ring of Fire chain of volcanic activity and geothermal resources. The
main geothermal area is centered near the towns of Taupo and Rotorua in
the North Island of New Zealand. The original settlers of New Zealand, the
Maoris, used the natural geothermal springs for bathing and the hot springs
and geysers for cooking. The region became home to one of the world’s ear-
liest geothermal projects when a geothermal power station was constructed
in the mid-1950s. The indigenous Maori people own New Zealand’s largest
privately developed geothermal project. Presently, about 10 percent of the
electricity in New Zealand comes from geothermal sources.
A geothermal power station located at Wairakei, New Zealand. The plant

was built in 1958 and is located within the Taupo Volcanic Zone. According
to reports, New Zealand’s geothermal energy potential could supply a third of
the total electricity needs of the country if fully developed. (Andrew Wrighting/
StockphotoPro)
GERMANY
As of 2004, less than 1 percent of Germany’s total primary energy supply
was from geothermal sources. Since then, new power plants have started to
come online. Right now, there are only four small geothermal power plants
successfully operating in Germany, but more than 100 geothermal power
plant projects are being planned.
The first geothermal plant in operation is in the northeastern part of
Germany. The plant provides both electrical power and thermal energy.
The 230-kilowatt combined electricity and heat power plant went into
operation in 2003 and extracts water with a temperature of 220 degrees
Fahrenheit from a well approximately 1.5 miles underground. The plant
supplies 1,300 households with heat and approximately 500 households
with electricity. Another plant close to Munich supplies 20,000 house-
holds with electricity and heat.
In Germany one of the best geothermal areas is located in southern
Bavaria, the biggest state in Germany, in the southeastern section of the
country and with a population of approximately 12 million people. The
geothermal reservoirs in this section have water temperatures of 280 de-
grees Fahrenheit or hotter. Most of these reservoirs are found at three
miles below the ground.
Besides geothermal energy plants, geothermal heat pumps are popu-
lar in Germany. In 2007 there were an estimated 130,000 geothermal
heat pumps operating in residential and commercial buildings. About
25,000–30,000 new geothermal heat pumps are being added to the list
each year.
OTHER COUNTRIES INTERESTED

IN GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
As of 2010, the following countries were exploring the potential of geo-
thermal energy: Armenia, Chile, Djibouti, Dominica, Greece, Honduras,
Hungary, India, Iran, Korea, Nevis, Rwanda, Slovakia, Solomon Islands,
St. Lucia, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, and Yemen.
As a result of this interest, geothermal electricity generation is likely
to expand. According to the International Geothermal Association, total
global geothermal capacity was expected to rise to 11 gigawatts by 2010.
Fortunately, many countries now have enough technology, experience, and
engineering capabilities to tap this vast resource.
FEATURE
What Factors Influence the Cost of a Geothermal Power Plant?
According to a report by the Geothermal Energy Association, many factors influ-
ence the cost of a geothermal power plant. In general, geothermal plants are af-
fected by the cost of steel, other metals, and labor. Some of the specific costs
include funds for drilling and the costs to connect the geothermal plant to the elec-
tric grid, which can vary from one project to the next. The purchase and leasing of
land also varies for a geothermal site to be fully explored. Other factors to consider
before installing a geothermal plant include the following:
• Size of the plant
• Power plant technology
• Knowledge of the resource
• Temperature of the resource
• Chemistry of the geothermal water
• Resource depth and permeability
• Environmental policies
• Tax incentives
• Financing options and cost
• Time delays
HOT DRY ROCK OR ENHANCED

GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
Additional applications and technologies of geothermal systems continue
to emerge. One technology is the hot dry rock system, or the enhanced
geothermal system, which was mentioned previously in the chapter.
Let’s review this technology again. The hot dry rocks found in granite
outcrops are an excellent source of geothermal energy. To generate elec-
tricity or to produce thermal energy, the rock layers are first fractured and
broken up into particles. Next, water is pumped into and out of the hot
rock. The heated water is transferred to a production well and then to geo-
thermal power plant.
The hot dry rocks are usually granite, an igneous rock found in many
parts of the world. These rocks have abnormally high heat production as a
result of the decay of a type of radioactive particle that makes up this kind
of igneous rock.
Although hot dry rock geothermal studies have stopped in the United
States, research applications of this technology are being pursued in France,
Japan, Australia, and elsewhere. Europe and Australia are aggressively
According to the U.S. Department of Energy, enhanced geothermal systems are

engineered reservoirs created to produce energy from geothermal resources
that are otherwise not economical due to lack of water and/or permeability. To
see a video of how a geothermal-enhanced system works go to http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/geothermal/egs_animation.html. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
working toward the potential of using hot dry rock systems on a large scale
to produce electricity in their countries.
Australia
In 1994 the Australian government concluded in a report that the country
had extensive hot dry rock resources with the potential to generate elec-
tricity. Several thousand cubic miles of high-temperature heat-producing
granite rocks were identified throughout northeastern South Australia and
in New South Wales. According to the government report, the hot dry
rock resources have the potential heat energy to meet Australia’s total elec-
tricity demand for the next hundred years or more.
European Hot Dry Rock Project

Besides Australia, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland have joined to-
gether in a single European program to research hot dry rock technologies.
The European hot dry rock system project is at Soultz-sous-Forêts in
Alsace in northeastern France. It is a pilot program based on 20 years of
research and development in hot dry rock technology. Soultz-sous-Forêts
is an area where there are many fractures in underground rock layers con-
taining flowing water. In demonstration tests, the work on the Soultz proj-
ect has shown that the underground water can be made to flow at a steady,
constant rate inside a closed loop. The loop is made up a network of several
natural fissures, reaching a depth of about 10,000 feet. The water is heated
inside the rock from 130 to 220 degrees Fahrenheit, and the thermal en-
ergy is transferred to the surface power plants to produce electricity. If
these tests continue to be successful, they could be the starting point for a
European industrial project in hot dry rock systems.
One of the world’s enhanced geothermal systems is in Soultz-sous-Forêts in

northern Alsace, France. The European Union’s Enhanced Geothermal System
(EGS) is a 1.5 megawatt demonstration plant that is connected to the local
grid. (Courtesy GEIE Exploitation Minière de la Chaleur)
VIDEO
Hot Dry Rock EnviroVideo Documentary: http://www.encyclopedia.com/video/
Szdx8F_g3Z0-hot-dry-rock-envirovideo-documentary.aspx.
Advantages of Hot Dry Rock

Systems in Europe
Hot dry rock/enhanced geothermal systems can utilize the vast amount
of heat stored in Earth’s crust. And because the hot dry rock resources are
widely distributed throughout Europe, these resources can provide a rich
source of geothermal potential and data for many countries.
One of Europe’s long-term objectives is to ensure a sustainable energy
supply based on renewable energy sources. The hot dry rock technology
system could contribute much to Europe’s total energy supply because this
technology offers a clean, steady, and constant supply of energy.
MANY USES FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

In addition to large power generation, geothermal is used for direct-
use purposes worldwide. In 2005, 72 countries reported that homeowners
and businesses use geothermal energy for direct uses such as space heat-
ing for greenhouses, snow melting of roads, aquaculture, and industrial
buildings.
FEATURE
The Kalina System
The Kalina system is another geothermal technology. As of January 2009, the Ka-
lina system was being used at two power plants in Germany and Iceland.
The Kalina cycle uses an ammonia and water mixture to achieve greater heat
transfer efficiency for power. Proponents of the Kalina system state that the Kalina
cycle system could boost geothermal plant efficiency by as much as 20–40 percent
and reduce plant construction costs by 20–30 percent. If these percentages are
accurate, the system would lower the cost of geothermal power generation. How-
ever, more research and demonstration tests are being conducted in this technol-
ogy field.
Heating Purposes
Iceland and France are major users of geothermal energy for space heat-
ing. In Iceland, 85 percent of the country’s 300,000 plus people use geo-
thermal energy to heat their homes. It has been reported that the country
saves $100 million per year by avoiding major oil imports. As mentioned
previously, geothermal energy accounts for much of Iceland’s energy use
in general.
In the 1970s some 60 geothermal district heating facilities began oper-
ating in France. Most of them, 41 in all, are in the Paris region. These fa-
cilities provide both heat and hot water for some 200,000 housing units.
Other countries that have extensive geothermal-based district heating
systems include Japan, Turkey, and as mentioned previously, China. In the
United States, there are individual homes that are supplied directly with
geothermal heat in Reno, Nevada, and in Klamath Falls, Oregon.
Geothermal energy is an excellent source of heat for greenhouses, par-
ticularly in northern climates. Russia, Hungary, Iceland, and the United
States all use geothermally heated greenhouses to produce fresh veg-
etables in cold weather conditions. Geothermal energy is also used for
aquaculture.
Aquaculture
Approximately 20 countries use geothermal energy for aquaculture.
Among these are China, Israel, and the United States. In California, for
example, several fish farms produce tilapia, striped bass, and catfish with
warm waters from underground geothermal reservoirs. This process en-
ables farmers to produce larger fish in a shorter period of time and to
raise the fish stocks without interruption all year long. Collectively, these
California farms provide thousands of pounds of fish per year.
The number of countries turning to geothermal energy both for elec-
tricity and for direct use is increasing rapidly. Romania, for example, uses
its geothermal energy for district heating, for greenhouses, for hot water
for dwellings, and to supply industrial hot water for factories.
Spas and Pools

Geothermal energy has also long been enjoyed by swimmers and bathers.
In Japan alone, hot geothermal water runs through more than 2,500 spas,
Located two miles west of Alamosa, Colorado, this fish farm utilizes three geo-
thermal wells. These wells are 2,000 feet deep with 105 degree Fahrenheit,
85 degree Fahrenheit, and 70 degree Fahrenheit water, respectively, all with
artesian flow. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
5,000 public bathhouses, and 15,000 hotels. Many public swimming pools
are also heated by geothermal energy, including approximately 100 in Ice-
land and 1,200 in Hungary. Most spas heated with geothermal energy are
open-air pools used year-round.
FEATURE
Carbon Credits for Global Geothermal Users
Companies using geothermal energy projects will earn carbon dioxide credits
under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the United Nations Kyoto ac-
cord on climate change. Projects that demonstrate non-carbon dioxide emissions
would gain credits that can be sold into carbon markets or used by companies to
offset their own carbon dioxide emissions.
An elderly Japanese man in Kirishima City, Japan, relaxes by soaking his

feet at a free outdoor hot spring especially made for that purpose. (Wdeon/
Dreamstime.com)
BENEFITS
Geothermal energy provides reliable, alternative, and renewable fuel; sup-
plies thousands of jobs; boosts rural economies; increases tax bases; reduces
foreign oil imports; and diversifies the fuel supply.
According to a 2006 Geothermal Energy Association publication, “be-
sides the costs expended through the development and construction of a
power plant, geothermal developers often make significant contributions
to the communities in which they are located, as well as to the local, state,
and federal governments under whose jurisdiction they operate. Some
contributions come as royalties or taxes, which are mandated by the gov-
ernment, while some come voluntarily from the geothermal company.”
DID YOU KNOW?

Many geothermal areas are national treasures. Geothermal areas in the national
parks, such as the geysers and fumaroles in Yellowstone National Park, are pro-
tected by law to prevent the land from being disturbed or degraded.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy has some disadvantages. It can be more expensive to
use than other fuels. Thermal pollution can occur from the wastewater un-
less it is treated. The construction of geothermal plants in rain forests can
destroy sensitive ecological habitats. The drilling of wells can also disrupt
underground faults and fissures, which may lead to seismic activity and
landslides.
THE FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy could play a role in moving the United States and
some other countries toward a cleaner energy system, especially as the cost
of creating electricity from geothermal plants declines. Since 1980 the
cost of electricity at several geothermal facilities has been cut in half. Like
fossil fuels and unlike most other renewable energy sources, geothermal
plants can supply continuous, base-load power, making them an attractive
option. And as hot dry rock/enhanced geothermal system technologies
improve and become competitive, this largely untapped and underused
geothermal resource could be a major source of geothermal energy. In ad-
dition to electric power generation, there is a bright future for the direct
use of geothermal resources as a heating source for homes, greenhouses,
and businesses.
However, the future of using geothermal energy is still uncertain. Pres-
ently, it is not a major energy supplier in the overall energy needs on the
global scene. Many believe that geothermal energy has great potential as
an energy source, but more research and development has to be initiated
and financed by governments.

Orr, Tamra. Geothermal Energy. Ann Arbor: Cherry Lake, 2008.
Saunders, Nigel. Geothermal Energy. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens,
2008.
2007.
2004.
SOMETHING TO DO
Research and discuss why the United States dropped further research of
hot dry rock systems when many countries in Europe and elsewhere are
interested in this technology.
WEB SITES
www.energysavers.gov
Energy Savers is a site providing consumers and installers of geo-
thermal heat pump systems information about the economics, energy
efficiency, and the meaning of the Energy Star rating system on geo-
thermal products.
www.eia.doe.gov
The Energy Information Administration publishes an annual report
that includes data tables, text, and graphics covering various aspects
of the renewable energy marketplace. The renewable energy sources
included are biomass, geothermal, wind, solar, and conventional
hydropower.
www.geoexchange.org
GEO Mission is a nonprofit trade association for the geothermal in-
dustry whose mission is to support national and state efforts to pro-
mote maximum sustainable growth of geothermal pump technology.
www.alliantenergygeothermal.com
GeoThermal promotes the use of geothermal energy by explaining
economic and environmental benefits, system development funda-
mentals, and types of equipment needed for homeowners and con-
tractors to construct open- and closed-loop systems.
VIDEOS
ins. Therefore, you may need to download certain software to view the
videos. You also may need to upgrade your player to the most current
version.
Geothermal—History of Geothermal Power Plants: Covering Italy
to California, this video can be accessed via http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=9XlWSurevy4&feature=related (3:08 minutes).
Geothermal—Philippines’ Eco Solution: This CNN video highlights
the Philippines’ active pursuit of this alternative energy source. The
Philippines produces 350 megawatts from geothermal sources—
enough to power 700,000 local households. http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=QoDBKvnRDIA&feature=related (2:44 minutes).
Geothermal Heat Pumps—Geothermal Heating and Cooling: Patrick
Dixon explains the advantages of installing geothermal pumps. He cites
Sweden, Switzerland, and New Zealand as the pioneers in this field.
http://video.yahoo.com/watch/2386719/7444409 (4:34 minutes).
Chapter 3
a
Geothermal Heat Pumps
We have installed over 75 GHP (Geothermal Heat Pumps) in the

Austin Independent School District alone. In addition to the savings,
low noise, low maintenance, and numerous other benefits, these sys-
tems are also environmentally friendly and convenient to use
—Bob Lawson, Austin Independent Schools, Texas
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), geother-

mal heat pumps are the most energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and
cost-effective systems for temperature control. Although most homes still
use traditional or conventional furnaces and air conditioners, geothermal
heat pumps are becoming more popular. In recent years, the U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy and the EPA have joined with the geothermal industry to
promote the use of geothermal heat pumps.
The use of geothermal heat pumps is not new. In fact, many homes and
buildings throughout the world have been using geothermal heat pumps
for years.
Simply stated, a geothermal heat pump is a central heating and/or
cooling system that pumps heat to or from the ground. The geothermal
heat pump uses Earth’s underground temperature as a heat source in cold
weather. In a sense, heat pumps move heat from one place to another, for
example from outside to inside a home.
DID YOU KNOW?

A geothermal heat pump is also referred to as a ground source heat pump.
A report by the Department of Energy’s Energy Information Adminis-

tration (EIA) stated that in 2007, the U.S. geothermal heat pump industry
had double-digit growth each year for the past four years. The growth of
geothermal heat pumps was the result, in part, of the increasing energy
prices for conventional fuels as well as the desire for reliable and clean
energy alternatives. According to the EIA report, in 2007 total geothermal
heat pump shipments reached 86,396 units. The report further stated that
despite costing more initially than traditional heating and cooling systems,
the high efficiency and ongoing cost-saving potential of geothermal heat
pumps has resulted in their becoming the heating and cooling system of
choice for many consumers.
According to the Energy Information Administration, in 2008, total shipments

of geothermal heat pumps surged more than 40 percent to 121,243 units. In
2008 there were about 23 known domestic manufacturers of geothermal heat
pumps, including brand-name manufacturers that shipped geothermal heat
pumps manufactured by others under contract. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy/Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-902, “Annual Geothermal
Heat Pump Manufacturers Survey”)
Geothermal Heat Pumps a 59
VIDEO
Geothermal Heat Pumps—Geothermal Radial Drilling: This highly mo-
bile and flexible pioneering German process intelligently increases the potential to
extract more geothermal energy from fewer boreholes: http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=uNzcJfamMMs.
The United States is the largest user in the world of geothermal heat
pumps. However, although most of this growth has occurred in the United
States and Europe, other countries such as Japan and Turkey have shown
interest in the application of geothermal heat pumps.
HOW DO GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS WORK?

Geothermal heat pumps use the temperature in shallow ground, which
is approximately the upper 10 feet of Earth’s surface. At this depth, the
ground maintains a nearly constant temperature of between 50 and 60
degrees Fahrenheit. Like in a cave, the ground temperature is warmer than
the air above it in the winter and cooler than the above air in the summer.
According to the Department of Energy, heat pumps and most central air
conditioners are called split systems because there is an outdoor unit, called a
condenser, and an indoor unit, called an evaporator coil. The heat pump (or
air conditioner) transfers heat from one of these units to the other.
In the summer, for example, the system removes hot air from indoors
and transfers it outside. The cooled indoor air is recirculated through the
ducts by a fan.
The outdoor unit has a compressor that will change the gaseous refriger-
ant in the coil. As the gas flows through the outdoor coil, it loses heat. This
action causes the gaseous refrigerant to condense into a high-temperature,
high-pressure liquid that flows through copper tubing into the evaporator
coil located in the fan unit.
At that point, the liquid refrigerant expands. When this happens, the
liquid refrigerant turns into a low-temperature, low-pressure gas. The gas
then absorbs heat from the hot air circulating inside the house. This system
leaves cooler air to be distributed throughout the house. Meanwhile, the
low-temperature, low-pressure refrigerant gas returns to the compressor to
begin the cycle all over again.
During the winter, the geothermal heat pump system collects heat from the
ground and transfers it to the building. In warmer weather, cooling is done
by collecting the heat in the building and transferring it outside to the ground.
The same process works in reverse in a heat pump during the winter.
The heat pump takes heat out of the outside air and moves that heat in-
side, where it is transferred from the evaporator coil to the air circulating
through a building.
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

According to the Department of Energy, geothermal heat pumps are gen-
erally classified as either closed-loop or open-loop systems based on the type
of ground loop that they use.
Closed-Loop Systems
The closed-loop system uses sealed horizontal or vertical pipes as heat ex-
changers. Water, or water and antifreeze, flowing through the pipes trans-
fers geothermal heat to or from the ground. The closed-loop tubing can be
installed horizontally as a loop field in trenches or vertically as a series of
long U-shapes in wells. The size of the loop field depends on the kind of
soil and its moisture content and the average ground temperature.
The installation of the horizontal closed-loop system is generally most cost-

effective for residential installations, particularly for new construction where
sufficient land is available, according to the Department of Energy. It requires
trenches at least four feet deep. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Open-Loop Systems
Unlike the closed-loop system, which can use antifreeze in the heat ex-
changers, the open-loop system circulates only water drawn from a surface
water source, such as from a pond or stream. The collected groundwater
is transferred to a geothermal heat pump and then discharged back to its
original water source or to another location. The piping of an open-loop
system is open at both ends, and the water is used only once.
The open-loop system is advantageous because the source water is used
only once and then discharged. However, it has two disadvantages:
The open-loop system uses well or surface water as the heat exchange fluid.
The fluid circulates directly through the geothermal heat pump system. Once it
has circulated through the system, the water returns to the ground through the
well, a recharge well, or surface discharge. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
1. The water quality needs to be carefully checked for such corrosives as

sulfur, iron, or manganese.
2. If the pH is low, the costs of pumping water through an open loop
are higher than those associated with circulating water through a
closed loop. The pH (potential of hydrogen) is a measure of the
degree of the acidity or the alkalinity of a solution as measured on a
scale (pH scale) of 0–14.
Hot water for use in homes can be supplied with geothermal heat pump
water heaters. These geothermal heat pump heaters can be installed right
into the same ground loop that services heating and cooling. According to
studies, this method of heating water is four times more cost-efficient than
standard electric water heating.
The energy in geothermal heat pumps can also be used to power com-
mercial freezers, walk-in and reach-in coolers, and icemakers. Geothermal
heat pumps can provide hot water for laundry or dishes and even snow
removal.
EVALUATING A SITE FOR A GEOTHERMAL

HEAT PUMP
Geothermal heat pumps can be effectively used almost anywhere because
shallow ground temperatures are relatively constant throughout the United
States. However, knowing the geology and hydrology of the land is impor-
tant in determining the best type of ground loop for a geothermal heat
pump site. Land availability is a factor as well.
Geology
The soil’s chemical composition and physical properties are important fac-
tors to consider during the planning of a ground loop at a land site. For
example, soil that can transfer heat very well requires less piping than soil
with poor heat-transfer properties.
Hydrology
Also important to consider when evaluating a site is the availability of
ground or surface water, which will impact what type of ground loop to
use. Because surface water such as ponds and lakes can be used as a source
of water for an open-loop system, several factors need to be investigated,
such as the depth, volume, and water quality of the surface water. Geother-
mal heat pump contractors advise that anyone purchasing an open-loop
system must take the time to investigate the site’s hydrology to avoid po-
tential problems. Some of the potential problems include aquifer depletion
and groundwater contamination.
Land Availability
The layout of the land, the landscaping, and the location of underground
utilities are important in determining the geothermal pump system design
FEATURE
Using Stored Water from a Former Granite Quarry to Cool a Building
Is it possible to use a water-filled former granite quarry to cool a building? Well,
it has been done. Biogen Idec, Inc., a company in Weston, Massachusetts, de-
cided to use cold water from a nearby water-filled quarry to cool their new 356,000-
square-foot building. The quarry is about 400 feet deep and the water temperature
at the bottom is about 41 degrees Fahrenheit. A pumping station draws up the cold
water and transports it through pipes and then to the building. Inside the building, a
special heat exchanger and other equipment filter the cooled water and circulate
it throughout the many offices in building. After the water passes through the cool-
ing system, it is recirculated and returned to the water-filled quarry. The system
keeps the building cool in the summer and without the need of using a traditional
air conditioning system, according to the company.
and installation. Horizontal ground loops are used for newly constructed
buildings that have sufficient land area. Vertical installations are used for
existing buildings.
SCHOOLS USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

According to the EPA, geothermal pumps are used in homes, stores,
zoos, and office buildings nationwide. However, as of 2009, more than
600 schools in 30 states also have installed a variety of geothermal heat
pumps. Following are some reasons geothermal heat pumps are popular
for schools:
• Reduced energy use and energy costs

• Reduced maintenance costs
• No complicated controls required
• Lower life-cycle cost
• Saves money for school district
• No outdoor equipment
• Quiet operation
• Reduced mechanical room space
• Individual room control
• Low source energy use and low air pollutant emissions—green
technology
Construction of an eco-friendly school in Greensburg, Kansas, that will use

geothermal wells for energy. On May 4, 2007, Greensburg, a typical Midwest-
ern U.S. farming town of some 1,400 people, was 95 percent destroyed by a
tornado. After the tornado, residents decided to rebuild as a model green
community for rural America, attracting a group of experts and enthusiasts
who not only helped the community try to achieve economical, environmental,
and cultural sustainability using renewable energy and LEED building stan-
dards but also encouraged residents and businesses to go green. (Emmanuel
Dunand/AFP/Getty Images)
Kentucky
Paint Lick Elementary School in Garrard County, Kentucky, was the first
newly constructed school in Kentucky to be heated and cooled by geother-
mal heat pumps. The school has 35 separate heat pumps throughout the
building, which allow the classrooms, the library, the cafeteria, the offices,
and the gym to have individual thermostats. The school has a science cur-
riculum that helps students learn about geothermal energy.
Arizona
Some school districts in Arizona are considering geothermal energy to
reduce utility costs. The Cave Creek Unified School District governing
In 2008 the Williston Northampton School transformed a landmark Victorian

home into a 25,000-square-foot dormitory with geothermal heating and cool-
ing. The 15 geothermal wells are 350 feet deep. An antifreeze mixture circu-
lates through the pipes and back into compressors in the basement.
board approved the drilling of a test well at its high school campus. The
plan is to drill a 250-foot test well at Cactus Shadows High School. The
test includes attaching geothermal heat pumps to a series of buried plastic
pipes. The pipes circulate water in closed-loop systems. During the win-
ter, the ground’s heat warms the circulating water and transfers it to the
pumps. The process is reversed in the summer, with the pumps sending
heat back into the ground.
Minnesota
Approximately 40 schools in Minnesota are using geothermal systems. For
one example, the West Central Area Secondary School in Barrett, Min-
nesota, uses geothermal heat pumps for space heating and cooling and for
hot water.
Wisconsin
As mentioned in chapter 1, the Fort Atkinson School District in Wis-
consin uses geothermal energy as one way to save money while teaching
students about alternative energy. Four schools within the district will be
renovated to incorporate alternative energy methods. One middle school
is already using a geothermal system that starts with geothermal wells deep
below the football field equipped with pumps to provide both heating and
cooling throughout the middle school. So far the school has saved thou-
sands of dollars with geothermal energy, and the savings are expected to
rise in the near future. The school is also using solar panels to heat the
swimming pool, so energy from both Earth and sun is being used to cut
expenses and as a teaching tool.
South Dakota
In South Dakota, geothermal water has heated the Midland elementary
and high schools for more than 30 years. In 1969 the town of Midland
decided to tap geothermal energy by drilling a well into a hot underground
water source. The well is about 3,300 feet deep and is located in part of the
Yellowstone aquifer.
The temperature of the water is about 150 degrees Fahrenheit. Pumps
bring the water into each of 27 individual classrooms, where the pipes
connect to heaters. According to school staff, heating issues are rare, and
maintenance is largely limited to greasing the water pumps.
Massachusetts
The Noble and Greenough School in Dedham, Massachusetts, is getting
geothermal wells installed on campus. School officials say that although the
system will cost more than a conventional setup, using geothermal energy
to provide heat and air conditioning for its middle-school building will save
$17,000 a year and will help the school’s goal to become more eco-friendly.
FEATURE
Toledo Zoo Uses Geothermal Energy
In the Midwest, the Toledo Zoo in Ohio is now drilling geothermal wells to help
both heat and cool the center. The geothermal energy will mainly be used to keep
the facility’s aquarium at the correct temperature and will reduce the zoo’s carbon
footprint by 38 percent annually.
The Williston Northampton School is located in Easthampton, Massa-

chusetts, and consists of three buildings. All three buildings are heated and
cooled using a geothermal well system. The system eliminates the need for
conventional heating oil—cutting energy costs and at the same time help-
ing to save the environment by reducing the school’s carbon footprint.
According to the construction company, the geothermal system uses sev-
eral vertical wells, each 350 feet deep, in order to tap into Earth’s constant
temperature at that level. Pumps in the building circulate a fluid that is used
as fuel to heat or cool the entire building depending on the time of year.
Nebraska
Some elementary schools in the Lincoln, Nebraska, school district will use
a closed-loop ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) system for their heat-
ing and cooling operations. GCHP technology meets the schools’ heating
and cooling needs at the lowest energy costs. In fact, the GCHP systems
are expected to save the school district at least $100,000 a year and Lincoln
School District taxpayers nearly $3.8 million over the next 20 years.
Indiana
Ball State University (BSU), located in Muncie, Indiana, has plans to
drill 400-foot-deep, five-inch-diameter geothermal wells through athletic
fields, parking lots, and lawns. BSU expects nearly 4,000 wells to be dug.
The wells will be equipped with two loops of polyethylene piping—one for
cold water and one for warm.
During the winter the cold water will flow down the wells to absorb
heat from the surrounding Earth, which stays around 55 degrees Fahr-
enheit year-round. Water warmed by the wells will flow back to a heat
exchanger that collects and concentrates the warmth to heat buildings.
To cool those same buildings in summer, the process reverses: water
warmed by the heat exchanger is cycled into the wells where the surround-
ing Earth cools it. BSU expects to save an estimated $2 million a year in fuel
costs while cutting in half the campus’s yearly carbon dioxide emissions.
THE BENEFITS OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS

Geothermal heat pumps are quieter than conventional systems and have
lower maintenance costs. Surveys show customer satisfaction at usually
well over 90 percent. In a 1993 EPA report titled Space Conditioning: The
Next Frontier, the agency concluded that geothermal heat pump technolo-
gies represent a major opportunity for reducing national energy use and
pollution, while delivering comfort, reliability, and savings to homeowners.
Those conclusions remain valid in the early 21st century.
The EPA estimates that, on average, a properly sized and installed En-
ergy Star–labeled geothermal heat pump can save consumers 30–40 per-
cent on heating and cooling bills. Results vary based on resident behavior,
climate, and other factors such as abnormally hot or cold seasons.
Greenhouse gas emissions associated with the use of geothermal heat
pumps are 55–60 percent lower than those from standard air-source heat
pumps. The EPA found that in most areas of the United States, geother-
mal heat pumps had the lowest CO2 emissions and the lowest overall en-
vironmental impact of any space conditioning technology evaluated by the
EPA in its study. In even the coldest climates, geothermal heat pumps offer
cost savings, durability, low maintenance, year-round comfort, and other
benefits.
Cost-Effectiveness
Geothermal heat pumps can save money in operating and maintenance
costs. The purchase price of a home geothermal heat pump system
costs more than that of a comparable gas-fired furnace and central air-
conditioning system. However, the geothermal heat pump is more effi-
cient, thereby saving money every month and for years to come.
In addition, some electric utilities have financing packages and incen-
tives that make the purchase of a geothermal heat pump system even less
expensive. Other utilities are providing special electric rates for homes with
geothermal heat pump systems installed.
DID YOU KNOW?

For further savings, geothermal heat pumps equipped with a device called a desu-
perheater can heat household water. In the summer cooling period, the heat that is
taken from the house is used to heat the water. In the winter, water-heating costs
are reduced by about half.
Durability and Maintenance

Geothermal heat pump systems have fewer components and maintenance
requirements than most other systems. The components in geothermal
heat pump systems are protected from leaves and dirt. Geothermal heat
pumps are durable and highly reliable. The underground piping used often
has a 25- to 50-year warranty, and the heat pumps themselves typically last
20 years or more.
USE OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS IN THE UNITED STATES

The Geothermal Energy Association reports that geothermal heat pump
installations have been growing at an annual rate of 15 percent, with more
than 600,000 units installed in the United States by the end of 2005—the
largest growth in the world for geothermal heat pumps. As of 2010, ap-
proximately 80,000 units are being installed annually, of which 46 percent
are vertical closed-loop systems, 38 percent are horizontal closed-loops
systems, and 15 percent are open-loop systems.
States Using Geothermal Heat Pumps

A number of states provide incentives for homeowners and businesses to
utilize geothermal heat pumps and other geothermal energy technologies.
Some of the state and federal programs include property tax exemptions
for the value of installed geothermal heat pumps, income tax credits, and
grant programs for public–private geothermal energy projects. Here are a
few of the states that use geothermal heat pumps.
Kentucky
The Waterfront Office Building in Louisville, Kentucky, completed in
1994, has the largest geothermal heat pump system in the world. The Lou-
isville geothermal heat pump system includes 130-foot-deep wells. Each
DID YOU KNOW?

In the United States, heat pumps are rated in tonnage and are equal to 12,000 Btu/
hour or 3.51 kilowatts. A unit for a typical residential requirement would be around
three tons or 10.5 kilowatts installed capacity.
Iowa Central Community College carpentry students stand near a construction

site at the school in Fort Dodge, Iowa. The students helped in the construction
of an energy-efficient home that will feature a geothermal heat pump system,
windows that maximize solar energy, energy-efficient insulation, and even
shingles made of recycled materials. (AP Photo/Charlie Neibergall)
well provides up to 700 gallons per minute from the Louisville aquifer.
The ground water, at a temperature of 58 degrees Fahrenheit, is pumped
into a 150,000-gallon reservoir under the mechanical-maintenance room.
The water is then circulated through special heat exchangers and other
equipment that provides heating and air conditioning for the large office
building. The adjoining 750,000-square-foot Galt House East Hotel com-
plex, with its 600 hotel rooms, 100 apartments, and 120,000 square feet of
public areas, is served by geothermal heat pumps.
Idaho
Idaho allows an income tax deduction to taxpayers who install a solar, wind,
or geothermal device used for heating or generating electricity. Geother-
mal heat pumps are also eligible. The deduction starts at 40 percent of the
cost of the system for the year in which it is installed. The deduction then
falls to 20 percent for each of the following three years. In addition, the
state’s energy office offers a low-interest loan program for projects using
geothermal heat, including geothermal heat pumps. According to the tax
code, to qualify, the project must be located within the state and the sav-
ings must repay the installation costs within 10 years.
Michigan
At Davenport University in Grand Rapids, Michigan, a 134,000-square-
foot main building and a 75,000-square-foot adjacent residence hall re-
ceive heating and cooling capacity from 150 on-site geothermal holes in
the ground, which the university estimates has reduced its energy usage in
these buildings by as much as 40 percent.
North Dakota
North Dakota is another state that provides tax incentives for geothermal
heat pumps and other geothermal energy systems. According to its tax
code, any North Dakota taxpayer, whether an individual or a corporation,
who installs a geothermal, solar, or wind energy device may claim an in-
come tax credit of 5 percent per year for three years for the actual cost of
acquisition and installation.
Mississippi
The new Herbert Bryant Conference Center in Vicksburg, Mississippi,
has a geothermal heating and cooling system. Officials decided to install
this system in the new conference center because it seemed to match its
philosophy of using natural resources wisely. The conference center is right
next to a small lake. Although geothermal pumps are more expensive than
traditional heating and cooling systems, the center hopes the system will
pay for itself in less than 10 years.
GEOTHERMAL USE IN EUROPE

In many countries in the European Union, people use the heat pump sys-
tem instead of gas-fired boilers and oil-burning boilers. In Germany, Swit-
zerland, Austria, Denmark, Norway, and France, large numbers of geother-
mal heat pumps are already operational, especially in Sweden.
In Sweden, heat pumps became popular in the early 1980s. By 1985
about 50,000 units had been installed and as of 2009, about 116,900 heat
pumps were sold.
The total sales volume of the heat pump system in the European Union
was about 520,000 units in 2009, which increased about 110 percent when
compared to the volume of units sold in 2005.
FEATURE
The Federal Role
The EPA and Department of Energy’s Energy Star program helps draw consumer
attention to the energy-saving and environmental qualities of geothermal heat
pumps. In addition, the National Earth Comfort Program, established under the
Department of Energy’s Energy Partnerships for a Strong Economy, promotes the
use of geothermal heat pumps nationwide. The program is a collaborative effort
of the U.S. Department of Energy, the EPA, and other public and private-sector or-
ganizations, including 120 electric utilities. The goal is to increase annual sales
of geothermal heat pumps in the United States, reduce carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gas emissions, and to save consumers millions of dollars per year in
energy bills.
ECONOMICS OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS

Many geothermal heat pump systems carry the U.S. Department of Energy
and EPA Energy Star label. According to the Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, geothermal heat pumps save money in operating
and maintenance costs. On average, a geothermal heat pump system costs
about $2,500 per ton of capacity, or roughly $7,500 for a three-ton unit
(Source: World Geothermal Conference [2010])

FEATURE
Air-to-Water Heat Pumps
Although the European market is largely oriented toward space heating, use of
geothermal technology for clean, sanitary hot water is also becoming popular.
Many manufacturers in Sweden, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France are
increasing their product line to sell air-to-water heat pumps (exhaust-air type) that
can provide sanitary hot water. An air-to-water heat pump transfers heat in the
outdoor air to water for space or water heating.
The European market for air-to-water heat pumps is expected to see large
growth through 2015 and in fact become a popular product in several countries.
One reason for the popularity of this product is the ease of installation and low costs
when compared with ground-source heat pumps. In 2009 Germany and France re-
ported a large sale of geothermal air-to-water heat pumps for residential use.
(a typical residential size). A system using horizontal ground loops will

generally cost less than a system with vertical loops. In comparison, other
systems would cost about $4,000 with air conditioning.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A study by the EPA found that geothermal heat pumps are as much as 72
percent more efficient than electric heating and air conditioning systems.
The U.S. Department of Energy found that heat pumps could save a typi-
cal home hundreds of dollars in energy costs each year, with the system
paying for itself in 2–10 years.
Despite their long-term savings, geothermal heat pumps have a higher
initial cost than conventional heating and cooling units. In addition, in-
stalling them in existing buildings can be difficult. Also, some heating and
cooling installers are just not familiar with the technology.
Let’s look at a list of advantages and disadvantages of geothermal heat
pumps.
Advantages
• High efficiency
• Lower energy consumption
• Lower energy cost
• Low maintenance cost
• Low life-cycle cost

• No outdoor equipment
• Greater occupant comfort
Disadvantages
• Higher initial cost than for conventional systems
• Not all system types feasible in all locations
• Limited number of geothermal heat pump contractors and installers
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP MANUFACTURERS

Many geothermal heat pump manufacturers provide comprehensive Web
sites, including online catalogs and information on all aspects of geo-
thermal heat pumps, such as designs and techniques for geothermal heat
pumps and care and maintenance of geothermal heat pumps. Following is
a list of a few of these manufacturers.
Econar. Based in Elk River, Minnesota, Econar is a manufacturer of geo-
thermal heat pumps. It has been producing geothermal heat pumps
in Minnesota for more than 20 years and has specialized in “cold
climate” geothermal heat pumps; these are suited to places where the
principal requirement is heating rather than cooling.
Water Furnace. Based in Fort Wayne, Indiana, Water Furnace is a maker
of geothermal heating pumps for both residential and commercial
applications. Water Furnace geothermal heating pumps can save
users up to 70 percent of their heating, cooling, and hot water costs.
ECR Industries. Based in Reading, Pennsylvania, ECR Industries is
a maker of geothermal heating pumps. The company’s geothermal
heating pumps have been on the market since 2000.
SOMETHING TO DO
A heat pump extracts ambient heat from the environment, hot buildings,
roads, and so on. Find a metal hubcap and measure its temperature with
a thermometer. Now place the hubcap in bright sunlight for 10 minutes.
Take its temperature again. One calorie of heat raises the temperature of
one gram of water 1 degree Celsius. How many calories of heat did the
hubcap absorb?

“Beyond Fossil Fuels: Lucien Bronicki on Geothermal Energy.” Scientific
American, April 30, 2009. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.
cfm?id=energy-bronicki-ormat-technologies.
2007.
2004.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites are representative, although not inclusive, of gov-
ernment and nongovernmental organizations.
www.energy.gov/programs_offices
supports research and development of energy efficiency and renew-
able energy technologies.
www.energysavers.gov
The Energy Savers home page describes ways in which homeowners
can save money and use clean, renewable technologies at home, while
driving, and at work.
www.epa.gov/aboutepa
The Environmental Protection Agency’s mission is to protect human
health and the environment. The purpose is to protect all Americans
from risks to human health and the environment where they work,
learn, and live. This is done through developing and enforcing regula-
tions, studying and supporting grants on environmental issues, and
providing instruction about protecting the environment.
www.inlportal.inl.gov
The Idaho National Laboratory’s Geothermal Program works with
U.S. industry to establish geothermal energy as an economically
competitive contributor to the U.S. energy supply.
www.geoheat.oit.edu
The Geo-Heat Center provides technical analysis, assistance, and data-
based resources for those actively involved in geothermal development.
www.igshpa.okstate.edu
The International Ground Source Heat Pump Association was es-
tablished to advance ground source heat pump technology on local,
state, national, and international levels. Its goal is to promote the

use of geothermal technology worldwide through education and
communication.
http://www.silobreaker.com/FlashNetwork.aspx?DrillDownItems
=11_4167539
This site links to a network of geothermal blog sites, related news
articles, and general facts.
VIDEOS
Geothermal Heat Pumps—Geothermal Radial Drilling: This
highly mobile and flexible pioneering German process intelligently
increases the potential to extract more geothermal energy from
fewerboreholes.http://www.science.tv/watch/8035d23f69e30bb19218/
Geothermal-Radial-Drilling (4:31 minutes).
Geothermal Power and Nanotechnology: Could nanotechnology
boost geothermal power and reduce earthquake risk? For more
information, see the video at the end of the following report: http://
www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2009-07/nanotech-could-boost-
geothermal-pow (1:45 minutes).
Chapter 4
a
Biomass, Biofuels,
and Biogas
Do you have any idea what biomass is and what it is used for? Simply
stated, biomass refers to the leftovers or waste products of organic materi-
als such as wood chips and plants.
Middlebury College in Vermont provides an example of how biomass
can be used. In 2004 Middlebury decided to cut by 8 percent its carbon
emissions. To help reduce its emissions, the college invested in a biomass-
fueled district heating and cooling system. A few years later, Middlebury
built an $11 million biomass gasification plant. Middlebury College
expects its biomass plant to
• cut the volume of greenhouse gases that it emits by almost 12,500
tons per year, or about 40 percent
• replace a distant fuel source with a local one, with the college requir-
ing that all of its biomass come from less than 75 miles away
• generate from 2 to 2.5 million kilowatt hours of electricity with a
renewable fuel
• benefit the economy of its home region, especially its forest-products
industry, along with area farmers
• serve as a learning and demonstration lab for biomass gasification
technology in action
Middlebury College in Vermont has a biomass gasification plant that uses

wood chips. According to college sources, between 20 and 35 tons of wood
chips arrive by truck at the college every day. This daily tonnage adds up to
thousands of tons of chips each year. The chips are fed into the $12 million bio-
mass plant. The use of the new boiler at the plant has cut the campus’ Number
6 fuel oil consumption in half, according to the college. (Courtesy Middlebury
College)
Besides Middlebury College and other institutions, the U.S. govern-

ment is also very interested in the development of biomass and bioenergy
technology projects. In 2009 the U.S. Department of Energy and Depart-
ment of Agriculture announced up to $25 million in funding for research
and development of technologies and processes to produce biofuels, bio-
energy, and high-value biomass products.
“These projects will be among many Obama Administration invest-
ments that will help strengthen our economy and address the climate crisis.
A robust biofuels industry—focused on the next generation of biofuels—is
critical to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, reducing our addiction to
foreign oil and putting Americans back to work,” said Secretary of Energy
Steven Chu.
Biomass, Biofuels, and Biogas a 81
VIDEO
Biomass—A Global Revolution (General): What is biomass? See this video
explaining all the plants, terms, and definitions associated with biomass: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NZHFo6DcDk&feature=related (6:08 minutes).
WHAT IS BIOMASS AND WHAT IS IT USED FOR?

Biomass refers to organic material such as trees, agricultural food and
feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and resi-
dues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and other waste
materials.
Producing fuels and chemicals from biomass is not a new idea. Cel-
lulose, ethanol, methanol, vegetable oils, and many other biomass-based
chemicals were manufactured in the early 1800s. The biomass produced
during that period was used to make such products as paint, adhesives,
and glue. It was not until the 1930s and 1940s that products made from
Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass resources
include pulp and paper operations, agricultural and forestry wastes, urban
wood wastes, garbage, and animal wastes. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
petroleum or petrochemicals began to be more popular than products de-

rived from biomass.
Biomass resources are used to generate electricity and power and for
producing liquid transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
This chapter highlights the new technologies that are being used to
produce energy from a wide range of agricultural and forestry resources.
For more on biofuels see chapter 5.
Switchgrass: A Biomass Energy Crop

According to government sources, biomass crops, which include such
plants as poplar, willow, and switchgrass, could become important feed-
stocks for liquid fuel and chemical production. Of all of these plants, there
is a lot of attention to using switchgrass, a native grass in North America,
as an energy crop.
Unfamiliar with switchgrass? Well, it is not like the grass growing on
your front lawn. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a native grass of the
prairie states. The prairie states are in the Great Plains of the north-central
region of the United States. The prairie states are also called the heartland
or the breadbasket of America.
Switchgrass is used for heating

and for the production of diesel
fuel. Switchgrass, a plant native to
Texas, contains enormous amounts
of sugar that can be refined into
ethanol. It can be burned to pro-
duce electricity or used as a feed-
stock for cellulosic ethanol. (Jochen
Schneider/Dreamstime.com )
Switchgrass is a tall and hardy grass plant. After its growing season,
switchgrass can stand 10 feet high in a field, with stems that are thick and
strong like hardwood pencils, according to the scientists at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory in Tennessee.
Switchgrass is a summer perennial grass that is native to North Amer-
ica. It is found in a tall-grass prairie ecosystem, which covers much of
the Great Plains, but switchgrass can also grow on the prairie soils in the
southern regions of Alabama and Mississippi. Switchgrass is ideal for en-
ergy crops: it grows fast, and the cellulose in the plant can be liquefied,
gasified, or burned directly (cellulose is a major part of the cell walls of
plants, and chemically, it is a carbohydrate).
Test plots of switchgrass at Auburn University have produced up to
15 tons of dry biomass per acre, and five-year yields average 11.5 tons—
enough to make 1,150 gallons of ethanol per acre each year. The U.S.
Department of Energy believes that biofuels made from crops of native
grasses, such as fast-growing switchgrass, could reduce the nation’s depen-
dence on foreign oil, curb emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide,
and strengthen America’s farm economy.
Hybrid Poplars as Biomass Energy

The Natural Resources Research Institute (NRRI) at the University of
Minnesota in Duluth is developing a variety of projects aimed at meeting
the growing demand for biomass energy. One of the biomass projects at the
institute involves the growing and harvesting of hybrid poplars, which are
some of the fastest-growing and most productive trees in North America.
A cross between North America’s cottonwoods and aspens and European
poplars, these hybrid poplars are a source for alternative fuels and fiber
and are also grown on tree farms for pulpwood and for the manufacturing
of paper goods. The U.S. Forest Service’s Wisconsin lab is a leader in U.S.
hybrid poplar research.
The NRRI poplar-breeding program is one of the largest in the world
to develop hybrid poplars for industrial uses. Hybrid poplars can produce
three to six times more wood per acre per year than natural forests, accord-
ing to the Minnesota Department of Agriculture. The plant is well suited
as a source of bioenergy (such as heat, power, and transportation fuels),
fiber (paper, pulp, or particle board), and other biomass products such as
organic chemicals and adhesives. Compared to corn and other annual row
A stand of hybrid poplars at GreenWood Resources tree farm, a Forest Stew-

ardship Council–certified poplar tree farm in Boardman, Oregon. The fast-
growing hybrid poplars are an excellent source of biomass. GreenWood grows
the poplars for multiple markets including feedstock for biomass energy.
(Courtesy GreenWood Resources, Inc.)
crops, the hybrid poplar (like other perennial plants) is an excellent bio-
mass alternative because it can greatly reduce erosion and runoff. Accord-
ing to the Minnesota Department of Agriculture, hybrid poplar trees can
be harvested on 5- to 15-year cycles, and they often regrow from the roots
and trunks, eliminating the need to replant.
With a boost in crop yields for switchgrass, poplars, and other plants,
biomass might compete with fossil fuels for a number of energy uses.
Compared to fossil fuels, biomass feedstocks do provide significant
DID YOU KNOW?

A hybrid poplar can grow to a height of 60 feet in 10 years.
environmental benefits. As stated previously, biomass crops do not add

greenhouse gases to the atmosphere during their life cycle.
RENEWED INTEREST IN BIOMASS

Biomass continues to be a major source of energy in much of the devel-
oping world. In the United States, wood and waste (bark, sawdust, wood
chips, and wood scrap) provide about 2 percent of the energy we use today.
There are some main reasons for the renewed interest in biomass, includ-
ing economics and environmental concerns.
Economically, new advances in biotechnology and other technologies
can reduce the costs of producing biochemicals from biomass materials. As
stated previously, biomass fuels generally have less impact on the environ-
ment than the mining and production of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil.
Biomass crops could also perform other environmental tasks such as filter-
ing and removing fertilizers and pesticides from runoff areas near ranching
and farming activities.
Department of Energy research scientists suggests that yields of bio-
mass crops such as poplar, willow, and switchgrass could be increased sig-
nificantly. Such a development would benefit farmers by adding energy
crops to their traditional food-production operations.
MAJOR ASIAN COUNTRIES USING BIOMASS

The use of present-day conventional energy sources such as petroleum, oil,
coal, and natural gas has increased enormously in many Asian countries.
In these countries during the 1980s, consumption of these conventional
energy sources more than doubled, with an average annual growth rate of
7 percent. However, consumption of biomass energy also increased over
the same time period. The biomass materials used for fuels in these coun-
tries include fuelwood, charcoal, and agricultural wastes.
DID YOU KNOW?

About 3 percent of the energy used in the United States is produced from biomass
fuels.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, biomass is an important energy source. The International
Energy Agency expects biomass consumption to account for 25 percent of
all energy consumption in Indonesia by 2010.
Indonesia has tested several biomass energy-conservation technologies,
including the following:
• The gasification of wood from unproductive rubber trees to generate

heat energy for the drying of fermented chocolate seeds for sale
• Energy conversions from organic vegetable waste by using special
fermentation methods that manufacture biogas as a fuel and for gen-
erating electricity for homes and businesses
• Gasification of charcoal and wood sawdust for electricity generation
Sugarcane field in Indonesia. According to the Department of Energy, crops

such as sugarcane are being studied for their ability to serve as energy crops
for the production of biofuels. As an example, the Indonesian government
is interested in ethanol production using the country’s abundant biomass
resources such as sugarcane, one of its major crops. (Photosoup/Dreams
time.com)
Malaysia
Biomass energy is highly popular in the country of Malaysia. In this region
of the world, biomass technologies convert the biomass into solid fuels
such as briquettes and charcoal. The country also uses the combustion of
biomass to provide heat for use in the palm oil, rubber, and brick-making
industries.
Philippines
Philippines president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed the Renewable
Energy Act of 2008 in a bid to make the Philippines 60 percent energy
self-sufficient by 2010. “With our Renewable Energy Act, we can now
move aggressively to develop these resources,” the President said. One
of the renewable resources includes biomass energy technologies. In the
Phillipines, biomass energy can be generated from agricultural wastes
such as wood, straw, animal manure, rice husks, and sugarcane residues.
Burning these agricultural wastes can generate heat, steam, and electrical
energy.
Thailand
In Thailand, about 80 percent of the total energy used in the country
comes from conventional nonrenewable energy sources such as petroleum.
Almost half of the energy used in the country is imported. Therefore, re-
newable energy from biomass looks very promising as an alternate en-
ergy source. Thailand has an excellent opportunity and has the resources
to utilize biomass for energy production. Waste products from rice husks,
bagasse, oil palm residue, and rubber wood residue, for example, can be use
for biomass fuels.
Vietnam
The major source of energy in Vietnam is biomass. The majority of both
rural and urban populations use biomass. It is estimated that approximately
90 percent of the domestic energy consumption in rural areas is derived
from biomass such as fuelwood, agricultural residues such as rice straw and
husks, and charcoal. Much of this biomass is used mainly for household
cooking.
FEATURE
Burn Wood More Efficiently: Use the Rocket Stove
Rocket stoves are being used all over the world to help families cook using less
fuel and less time. The rocket stove is a variety of a wood-burning cooking stove
that makes it possible to cook with small twigs and branches; the stoves are also
easy to build. The rocket stove was developed for use in nations where the use
of wood for cooking has led to the vast wholesale deforestation of large areas of
Earth’s surface.
Rocket stoves can be built out of metal or masonry and feature an L-shaped
tube at the bottom where the wood is placed. The chimney provides a highly ef-
ficient, largely smoke-free burn. A few small branches or twigs are all you need
to start a fire. The unique design of the stove allows the person to use just small-
diameter pieces of wood, such as small branches. The small twigs and branches
provide sufficient fuel for cooking tasks. Also, the small branches can be gathered
in less time and without the benefit of tools for cutting and sawing.
OTHER USERS OF BIOMASS

Several industrialized countries use native wood and biomass fuels as alter-
natives to oil or coal, including Sweden, Finland, Austria, and Denmark.
Sweden
In Sweden, biomass and peat contribute about 12 percent of the total en-
ergy supply. The main source is liquids from the biomass of pulp mills.
Fuelwoods (logs, bark, and sawdust), municipal solid waste, and peat are
all used for district heating, for home heating, and in the forest products
industry.
Finland
The utilization of biomass to produce liquids in Finland is similar to that
in Sweden. Of the total biofuels available in Finland, the liquids produced
from biomass pulp wastes account for the largest proportion (45%), fol-
lowed by peat (19%), wood waste (18%), and firewood (18%), with mu-
nicipal waste representing less than 1 percent. Tree planting is another
ongoing strategy to produce biomass.
Austria
In Austria, renewable energy sources supply 27 percent of the country’s
total energy consumption. Of this percentage, biomass provides 13 percent.
Tree-bark residue and wood chips are among the biomass products used in
this country. Most of these products are used in small wood-burning stoves
as well as larger furnaces and district heating plants.
Denmark
Denmark is an agricultural country and generates large amounts of straw
and animal wastes, which are increasingly being used as sources of energy.
At present, 6 percent of Denmark’s total energy consumption is covered by
biomass energy, representing 75 percent of the country’s renewable energy
production.
Municipal solid waste is also increasingly being used for energy in the
country. Households separate organic from nonorganic waste in a recy-
cling program, and the organic waste is used in biogas digester plants,
which generate heat and electricity from the biogas.
BIOFUELS
accelerate advanced biofuels research and development and to provide
additional funding for commercial-scale biorefinery demonstration projects.
“Developing the next generation of biofuels is key to our effort to end
our dependence on foreign oil and address the climate crisis—while cre-
ating millions of new jobs that can’t be outsourced,” Secretary Chu said.
“With American investment and ingenuity—and resources grown right
here at home—we can lead the way toward a new green energy economy.”
The Department of Energy biomass program will include the depart-
ment’s national laboratories, universities, and the private sector. These
groups will help improve biofuels’ reliability and work together to over-
come technology challenges, with the goal of creating third-generation
biofuels such as green gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels.
The $786.5 million from the Recovery Act provides additional funding
for existing projects. Biofuels are a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived
Biorefinery plants, like this one in Nebraska, process renewable forms of

energy from biological material. (iStockPhoto)
from biomass. Biofuels are used as an alternative to fossil fuels and include
biogas, biodiesel, and methane. About 5 percent of the energy consumed
in the United States is provided by biofuels.
What Are Biofuels?

The biofuels section in this chapter concentrates on biofuels such as etha-
nol and biogas. Biodiesel fuels are covered in chapter 5.
Most biofuels are produced from wood wastes from logging operations.
However, biofuels can also be produced from corn and sugar crops. The
term biofuel basically refers to fuel ethanol, biodiesel, and some other bio-
mass products.
Biofuels include various types of alcohols, oils, gases, and solid fuels.
All of the biofuels are extracted from organic remains or from recently
living organisms. At present, biofuels are blended with fossil-based fuels at
a ratio of 1 percent for diesel and 5–20 percent for gasoline. However, car
manufacturers have already begun development of vehicles that run solely
on biofuels.
Biofuels are cleaner than fossil fuels because they release few green-
house gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur into the atmosphere.
DID YOU KNOW?

In France, Italy, and Germany, biodiesel fuels are produced from domestic oilseeds
and cottonseeds.
Bioethanol
Bioethanol is a sustainable and renewable energy source. Fermenting car-
bohydrates, such as starch or sugar, from agricultural plants produces it.
Bioethanol is also known as ethanol; however, ethanol also can be produced
from petroleum, and petroleum-based ethanol would not be considered
a renewable energy source. Note that both kinds of ethanol (bioethanol
and petroleum-based ethanol) have the same chemical composition and
chemical formula.
Carbon (C) is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen
(H), helium (He), and oxygen (O). The carbon cycle includes the circulation of
chemical components through the biosphere from or to the lithosphere, atmo-
sphere, and hydrosphere. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Here, the term ethanol refers to alcohol produced exclusively from plant
starches. Ethanol is currently being used in Brazil, the United States,
China, India, and Thailand. The first three countries are also the world’s
top producers of bioethanol. Sources of bioethanol include corn, sugar,
cassava, sweet sorghum, molasses, and potatoes. In the Philippines, the
primary source of bioethanol is sugarcane.
The use of bioethanol has been gaining popular worldwide acceptance
for the following reasons:
1. It is a clean fuel. Bioethanol’s high oxygen content reduces carbon

monoxide levels and harmful exhaust emissions.
2. It boosts the octane levels in fuels to help vehicles run smoothly.
3. It is biodegradable and therefore produces no harmful effects to the
environment.
Corn Ethanol
Ethanol is the chemical name for ethyl alcohol, or grain alcohol, a sub-
stance made from renewable natural resources that are used as a fuel or a
fuel additive. Distilling biomass materials such as sugarcane, beets, grain,
and corn can produce ethanol. Ethanol can also be produced from garbage
and agricultural wastes and even from animal dung.
Ethanol is a colorless, volatile, flammable liquid that is used in liquors,
as a fuel, and as a solvent. When burned, ethanol produces a pale blue
flame with no residue. These characteristics make ethanol an ideal fuel or
fuel additive.
Ethanol is often used as an additive in unleaded gasoline to boost its
octane rating and make the fuel burn more efficiently. Gasolines contain-
ing ethanol produce fewer carbon monoxide emissions than other fuels.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has determined that ethanol-
blended fuels reduce carbon monoxide emissions by as much as 25–30
percent. Ethanol also releases little sulfur in the form of sulfur dioxide to
the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is a major component in the formation of
acid rain.
In the United States, about 8 percent of ethanol exists as a blend called
gasohol—a fuel containing about 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gaso-
line. The 10 percent variety, called E10, is common today. E85, which is
85 percent ethanol, is the highest practical blend; some gas is still required
for combustion in most climates.
Ethanol-gasoline fuel pump. At most gasoline stations in the United States,

ethanol is combined with unleaded gasoline to improve efficiency. (Pat Lalli/
Dreamstime.com )
About 4 percent of the corn crop in the midwestern United States is

currently used to produce ethanol. Experts believe that new manufactur-
ing processes and technologies will lead to increased production and use
of ethanol in the future. However, some scientists believe that biomass
products other than corn can be used to produce ethanol as well.
How Is Ethanol Produced?

Most of the ethanol in the United States is made in several production
facilities in 20 different states; most of these are located in the Midwest.
In the production, the starch in kernels of corn needs to be changed to
sugar. The next step is to change the sugar to ethanol, a complex process
because technologies from several fields are required, include microbiol-
ogy, chemistry, and engineering.
All the ethanol from corn can be produced with two standard pro-
cesses: dry milling or wet milling. Dry-milling plants cost less to build and
produce higher yields of ethanol. Therefore, most of the ethanol plants in

the United States utilize a dry-milling process.
Dry Milling
In dry milling, the entire corn kernel or other starchy grain is first ground
into flour. The flour, known as the meal, is processed without separating out
the various component parts of the grain. The meal is mixed with water to
form a mash-like material. Enzymes are added to the mash to convert the
starch to dextrose, a simple sugar. Ammonia is added for pH control and
as a nutrient for growing the yeast.
When the mash is ready, it is placed in a high-temperature cooker to
reduce bacteria levels before fermentation. After the mash is cooled and
transferred to fermenters, the conversion of sugar to ethanol and carbon
dioxide begins.
According to the Department of Energy, in dry milling corn kernels are ground
into a fine powder and processed without fractionating the kernel into its com-
ponent parts. Most ethanol comes from dry milling. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
The fermentation process generally takes about 40–50 hours. During

this part of the process, the mash is mixed and kept cool. This helps in-
crease the activity of the yeast. After fermentation, the resulting liquid is
transferred to special distillation units. Here the ethanol is separated from
the remaining materials. The ethanol is concentrated to 190 proof using
conventional distillation, and then it goes through another process that is
used to dehydrate the liquid further to approximately 200 proof.
Wet Milling
The wet-milling operation requires more steps than dry milling. In the wet-
milling operation, the corn is heated in a solution of water and sulfur dioxide.
For 24–48 hours the solution loosens the germ and the hull fiber. The germ
is then removed from the kernel, and corn oil is extracted from the germ.
A high-protein portion of the kernel called gluten is separated and becomes
corn gluten meal, which is used for animal feed. In wet milling, only the starch
is fermented, unlike dry milling, in which the entire mash is fermented.
Wet milling is used to convert grain to ethanol. The wet milling process is the
most common process used to produce ethanol. In the wet mill process, grain
such as corn is steeped and separated into starch, germ, and fiber compo-
nents. To produce ethanol, yeast is added to the slurry or mash. (Illustrator:
Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Each bushel of corn can produce up to 2.5 gallons of ethanol fuel. Only the starch
from the corn is used to make ethanol.
Benefits of Ethanol
A new University of Nebraska study reports that higher ethanol blends
increase engine efficiency. The study, which was funded by the Nebraska
Corn Board, found that high ethanol blends provide better energy conver-
sion within an engine than other fuels, meaning less energy is needed to
travel farther.
According to the Department of Energy, ethanol results in fewer green-
house gas emissions than gasoline and is fully biodegradable, unlike some
fuel additives. Ethanol-blended fuels currently on the market—whether
E10 or E85—meet stringent tailpipe emission standards.
Ethanol breaks down or biodegrades without harm to the environment
and is a safe, high-performance replacement for fuel additives.
Some Concerns about Ethanol

Ethanol contains one-third less energy than gasoline, which means mileage
with ethanol is 30–40 percent lower than with gasoline fuel. Large-scale
ethanol production from corn could cause a shortage in food production
for countries that depend on the U.S. corn crop. However, corn is only one
source of ethanol. Future ethanol production will come from crop residues
such as stalks and hulls; forestry residues; energy crops such as switchgrass,
sorghum, and hybrid poplar trees; and municipal wastes.
BIOGAS
Biogas is mainly used as fuel, like natural gas. It is a combustible mixture of
gases produced by microorganisms when biological wastes such as animal
wastes are allowed to ferment in the absence of air in closed containers.
The major parts of biogas include methane (60% or more by volume) and
carbon dioxide (about 35%) and small amounts of water vapor, hydrogen
sulfide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen. However, the composition of bio-
gas can vary depending on the biological material from which it is made.
DID YOU KNOW?

In landfills, biomass rots and releases methane gas. The resulting gas is also called
biogas or landfill gas. Some landfills have a system that collects the methane gas
so that it can be used as a fuel source to generate electricity. Some dairy farmers
collect biogas from tanks called digesters where they put all of the animal wastes
from their barns.
One type of biogas, mentioned previously, is produced by the anaerobic

digestion—a biological activity that occurs without oxygen—or fermen-
tation of biodegradable materials such as manure or sewage, municipal
waste, green wastes, and energy crops. This type of biogas is composed
primarily of methane and carbon dioxide.
The other principal type of biogas is wood gas. This gas is produced
by gasification of wood or other biomass. The components in this biogas
are primarily nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, with some small
amounts of methane.
Biogas production facilities like this one are located in farming areas through-
out Asia, the United States, and Europe. Biogas is normally used locally, for
cooking purposes, as a furnace fuel for heating, and in some cases, to power
generators for electrical applications. (Manfredxy/Dreamstime.com)
FEATURE
Biogas Project in California
In California a dairy farmer has a project that uses cow manure to produce biogas.
The biodigester sends the gas to the small plant where it is “scrubbed” of hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide. The end product is close to 99 percent pure methane,
and according to bioenergy authorities, it is then transported and shipped by pipe-
lines to a gas power plant in Northern California.
How Biogas Is Produced

A biogas plant consists of two components: a biodigester (or fermenta-
tion tank) and a gasholder (a tank to hold the gas). The biodigester is a
cube-shaped or cylindrical waterproof container with a trough; the trough
allows wastes to enter the biodigester.
The gasholder is usually an airproof steel container that collects the
gas generated. In one of the most widely used designs, the gasholder is
equipped with a gas outlet, and the digester is provided with an overflow
pipe to lead the sludge out into a drainage pit. A biodigester offers two
major benefits: it produces gas that can be used for cooking, lighting, and
electricity generation, and it produces nutrient-rich fertilizer.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Sister Susan Frazer, RSM, MSW, Director of St. John Bosco Boys’
Home, Jamaica, West Indies
Go-Green Project: Biogas Digester at Boys’ Home in Jamaica, West Indies
Please tell us about the early beginnings of St. John Bosco Boys’ Home.
The Sisters of Mercy opened St. John Bosco Boys’ Home in 1960 to care for 88
abandoned, neglected, orphaned, and delinquent boys between the ages of 7 and
18 who came to the home through the family court system as well as the police
from all parts of the island. Since that time, however, the home has have expanded
to 160 boys due to the rising need for alternate forms of care for boys coming from
extremely difficult family backgrounds.
This residential home is situated on 35 acres of rocky hillside in rural Jamaica
(Mandeville, Manchester). Farming has always been a part of the history of the
The biogas digester at St.

John Bosco Boys’ Home
in Jamaica. (Courtesy
Sister Susan Frazer)
Home, but in the past 20 years, we have moved from more crop farming to more
animal husbandry.
Describe your present position.
I am a social worker and received my master’s degree in 1984 from Barry University
in Miami, Florida. The main thrust of my training was in administration and systems
change. I hail originally from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and grew up in small
towns all my life until moving to Cincinnati, Ohio, when I was 16 years old. It was
there that I met and joined the Sisters of Mercy after graduating from McAuley
High School in 1966. I didn’t have a specific interest in farming per se but always
liked the outdoors and working in a variety of different situations. I’ve always had a
keen desire to work with those less fortunate.
What are some of the programs at the Home?
At the present time, the Home supports the following programs for the boys:
• Primary/Grade School Program: St. John Bosco boasts of being one of the
finest primary school programs on the island. The boys are tested upon
entrance and placed in a grade appropriate to their learning level and not
on their age. Since the boys have been on the streets and out of school
for many years, their educational level is far behind their chronological
age. Our primary job is to help the boys become numerate and literate
before entering into one of the four trade programs.
Animal Husbandry: We train the boys in raising the following animals: pigs (600);
broiler chickens (9,000); and sheep (30).
• Piggery: St. John Bosco has a state-of-the-art pig rearing facility com-
plete with slated floors allowing excrement to be scraped through chan-
nels to our biogas digester. We house approximately 55 sows and sell
replacement stock to local farmers as well as raise pigs for our meat-
processing/cutting butcher shop trade. The proceeds from the sale of
meat then help to run the Home.
• Chickens: Our broiler program has increased significantly in the past
5 years due to a grant from USAID. This grant funded our 6,000-bird coop
completed with automated feeding and water, which allows the boys to
learn technical farming and give them the experience they need to find
jobs in the larger businesses after leaving the Home. We also have two
smaller broiler coops of 1,500 each where the boys hand-feed chickens
with automatic water.
• Sheep: This is a small number of animals to give some added experience
in raising a ruminate animal. We are also able to easily sell this meat to
our customers from the butcher shop.
Do you have a greenhouse?
We only recently started greenhouse technology with the assistance of FINTRAC/
USAID and the Canadian High Commission. We have a small house with 800 tomato
plants. The substrates (or slurry from the biogas) are used for the tomato bags as
well as in other areas on the property that we farm using biogas slurry to enhance
the growing.
Tell us about your background in biogas science and technology.
The term “biogas digester” is commonly used to describe what is more correctly
called an anaerobic digestion plant. The term “biogas digester” may also be used
more specifically to refer to the biogas reactor vessel, which is the location in
all anaerobic digestion plants where the digestion (or the biological reaction of
anaerobic decomposition) takes place and is also known as a fermenter. The ef-
fluent from the reactor, dark slurry, is a nutrient-rich fertilizer, which is useful for
agriculture and aquaculture, due to conservation of nitrogen during the anaerobic
process.
Whatever you call it, a biogas digester is a natural processing system for or-
ganic materials and is a highly sustainable method by which biogas is created that
can be used to provide a renewable energy source for an extremely wide range
of uses.
Biogas refers to a gas made from anaerobic digestion of agricultural and ani-
mal waste, food waste, and sometimes municipal solid waste, plus biofuel crops.
Design differences for the various plant types mainly depend on the type of organic
waste to be used as raw material, the temperatures to be used in digestion, and the
materials available for construction.
When was the biodigester started?
St. John Bosco started a biogas digester first in 1980 with a small 50-cubic-meter
floating steel-top design. At the time, we had only about 100 pigs total, so the di-
gester was able to manage that amount of excrement. The job for the boys, how-
ever, was much harder than it is now. We had to then manually sweep out the pig
houses and wash down through cement channels the material to a pit and then
hand-bucket it into another concrete container where it was “mixed” to the cor-
rect consistency. Then it was released into the digester.
Who helped in the initial planning of the biodigester?
The initial reason for beginning biogas was to control the amount of flies on the
property as a result of having to burying manure all over the property. We had been
encouraged through the Scientific Research Council in Kingston, which gave us our
first design and helped in the planning and building. The first grant for this small di-
gester came from the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica. The production of cook-
ing gas was a wonderful extra benefit in addition to the initial reason for building.
At first we utilized the gas only in our school kitchen, which cooked three meals
a day for our growing population of now 102 boys. Although it took our cooking staff
a little time to adjust to the benefits of cooking with biogas and to overcome their
disbelief that a small little blue flame would produce more heat that a large orange
flame, they were quickly won over.
How do you process the wastes for the biodigester and how is the biogas used?
The building we use is a new 600+ pig-rearing operation that is complete with slat-
ted floors and channels below to contain manure and urine. This excrement is then
scraped down into the digester (now a new 100-cubic-meter digester) by an elec-
tric scrapping system, where the fermentation begins. There is no need for any
hands-on handling of the manure.
In addition to the biogas being used for cooking for our now 160 boys, our much
larger digester also heats the hot nursery for the weaning pigs and provides heat
for the three chicken coops, which use methane gas brooders for the day-old baby
chicks until about day 10.
Are there any problems using methane gas?
One of the drawbacks to the methane gas is that it is highly corrosive. The methane
heaters in both the piggery and the boiler houses have a tendency to corrode quite
quickly. The roofing material, which is also metal, has had to be redesigned with
layers of wood and insulation between the area with the gas and the metal roof.
Have you noticed any savings using biogas?
Although the specific monetary savings to the Home have never been measured,
I know that the savings are significant since the methane heaters run almost 24/7
in both the piggery and in one or another of the three broiler houses. Cooking also
takes place three times per day with little or no need for the traditional propane
gas on the property.
All in all, biogas technology has provided great saving to the Home as well as
helped the environment in which we live. It should be highly encouraged through-
out communities where the organic waste is available.
Early Biogas Technology

China used biogas technology early in its history. By the end of the 19th
century, simple biogas digesters had appeared along the coastal areas of
southern China. Luo Guorui invented and built an eight-cubic-meter bio-
gas tank in the 1920s. In 1932 he started his company, the Chinese Guorui
Biogas Company, in Shanghai.
China began a major promotion of biogas development in the 1970s, con-
structing and installing biodigesters under the slogan “biogas for every house-
hold.” More than five million biodigesters were installed in China, which
became the biogas capital of the world. The “China Dome” digester became
the standard design and construction for present-day small-scale domestic
use. However, many new types of household digesters have also been built.
FEATURE
Tanzania
Farming is an important rural occupation in Tanzania but it does not generate much
income. As in most of Africa, fuelwood and charcoal are the primary sources of en-
ergy for Tanzania’s rural population. On average the members of many households
spend several hours per week searching for fuelwood, or they spend money on
fuelwood and charcoal. The heavy consumption of charcoal and fuelwood has led
to serious problems in deforestation, air pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions.
Scientists from Tanzania learned how to design and build a low-cost, tubular-
shaped plastic biodigester from their visits to Vietnam. They adapted the Vietnamese-
made biodigester to their Tanzanian farming system where cows are used to supply
manure for the biodigester.
When operating, the Vietnamese biodigester produces gas that can be used as
fuel for cooking and heating as well as for lighting. It costs about $100 to build one
of these digesters and takes about four hours to assemble. Using biogas for cooking
reduces the need for fuelwood and charcoal. Each biogas unit is estimated to reduce
deforestation by 60 acres per year. Because it also uses cow manure that would
otherwise have degraded, further greenhouse gas emissions are avoided as well.
The “China Dome” digester is still used throughout much of China, especially
for small-scale domestic applications in rural areas. China is considered the
biogas capital of the world, and Chinese companies are now finding numerous
other uses for biogas, bioslurry, and biosludge. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
Besides China, there are presently several other countries using biogas, in-
cluding India, Vietnam, Colombia, Cambodia, Bangladesh, and Tanzania.
BENEFITS OF BIOMASS
Biomass is a renewable resource that can be used as a fuel for produc-
ing electricity and other forms of energy. Biomass is any organic matter
FEATURE
Biodesign Project: Tubes in the Desert
Is there a better biofuel in the future? The answer may be in the development of a
new bacteria-based biofuel. Researchers at Arizona State University are using tiny,
photosynthetic bacteria to produce a sustainable, high-yield biofuel that can be
used in conventional engines. The bacteria would be grown in transparent tubes
that could be constructed anyplace where there is sufficient sunlight. The deserts
of the American Southwest would be ideal for this project, and so the project is
called “Tubes in the Desert.” Bacteria-based biofuel offers several benefits: it re-
sults in a higher yield per acre, does not compete with food crops, requires less
water than plant-based biofuels, and fertilizers are not needed.
that is available on a renewable basis for conversion to energy. Agri-

cultural crops and residues, industrial wood and logging residues, farm
animal wastes, and the organic portion of municipal waste are all biomass
materials.
Biomass is a proven option for electricity generation. Currently, there
are more than 7,000 megawatts of biomass power capacity installed at
more than 350 plants in the United States. In the future, farms cultivating
energy crops, such as trees and grasses, could significantly expand the sup-
ply of biomass materials.
Economic Benefits of Biomass

Economic activity associated with biomass currently supports about
66,000 jobs in the United States, most of which are in rural regions. The
Department of Energy predicts that by the year 2010, more than 13,000
megawatts of biomass power could be installed, with over 40 percent of the
fuel supplied from four million acres of energy crops and the remainder
from biomass residues. This would support more than 170,000 U.S. jobs
and could significantly benefit rural economies.
SOMETHING TO DO
Use the carbon cycle diagram in this chapter to come up with a project that
young people like you could do to clean up the air in your neighborhood as
well as make your surroundings more beautiful.

Rourke, 2009.
de la Garza, Amanda, ed. Biomass: Energy from Plants and Animals. De-
Morris, Neil. Biomass Power. Edited by Mary-Jane Wilkins. North
Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2007.
WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government, non-
governmental, and commercial organizations.
www.afdc.energy.gov/afc/data/biomass
The Alternate Fuels and Advanced Vehicles data center produces a
biofuel atlas for comparing biomass feed stocks and biofuels by loca-
tion. It helps users select from and apply biomass data layers from a
map and summarizes energy use and infrastructure for traditional
bioenergy power, fuels, and resources, and calculates the biofuel’s po-
tential use for a given area.
www.eere.energy.gov/biomass
EERE Biomass Programs work with industry, academia, and national
laboratories on biomass feed stocks and conversion technologies. The
Biomass Program is helping to transform the nation’s renewable and
abundant biomass resources into cost-competitive, high-performance
biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower.
www.alternativeenergyprimer.com
Alternate Energy Primer provides information for homeowners to
be able to produce their own energy from available resources with
little or no carbon footprint such as biomass, wind, solar, wood, and
geothermal energy.
www.biomasscenter.org
The Biomass Research Center’s mission is to achieve a healthier, eco-
nomically strong and secure country through the development and
use of sustainable biomass energy systems.
VIDEOS
version.
Biomass—Devon, England: Wood-burning boilers are a turnkey

solution for biomass heating, making biomass as convenient as
fossil fuels without the environmental impact. For more informa-
tion, go to http://greenenergytv.com/Watch.aspx?v=1741177393
(4:32 minutes).
Biomass—Ohio, United States: This video covers Ohio’s bid for fed-
eral funds to jump-start its economy and clean up the environment:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UO0n_1ci_e0.
About Biomass Fuels. What is biomass? This video gives an introduc-
tion to biomass fuels: http://www.youtube.com/watch%3Fv%3DAsnqy
6kC0as.
Chapter 5
a
Biodiesel Fuel
What would you think about a chocolate-powered biodiesel-fueled race

car, jet plane, and train? Simply stated, biodiesel is the name of a clean-
burning alternative fuel produced from domestic, renewable resources.
In 2009 a chocolate-powered biodiesel race car participated in a For-
mula 3 racing event in Europe. The Formula 3, or F3, is a class of open-
wheel formula racing events that are held in Europe, Australia, South
America, and Asia. Winners in Formula 3 class racing can move up to
more senior racing events that include the famous Grand Prix.
What was unusual about this eco-friendly racing car in the Formula 3
event was that it was built with vegetable parts. The car was also powered
by biodiesel fuel made from waste cocoa butter leftover from a nearby
candy company. The steering wheel was partially made of carrot fiber, and
the front wing and the mirrors were partly made with potato starch and
flax fiber.
For the race, the car ran on 30 percent biodiesel and 70 percent standard
diesel fuel. The chocolate-powered race car achieved 130 miles an hour,
stayed in one piece, and finished the race.
In 2007 a Biojet, a 40-year-old Delfin L-29 model, was the first jet
aircraft to fly on 100 percent biodiesel and the first to fly transcontinental
on biofuel. Biodiesel Solutions of Sparks, Nevada, produced the fuel, made
from restaurant waste oil. The Delfin L-29 is a simple jet capable of speeds
The WorldFirst F3 Formula 3 racing car is powered by chocolate, has a steering

wheel made out of plant-based fibers derived from carrots, has bodywork made
from potatoes, and can still reach speeds of up to 125 miles per hour. The race
car was designed and made from sustainable and renewable materials. The
car meets all the Formula 3 racing standards except for its biodiesel engine,
which is configured to run on fuel derived from waste chocolate and vegetable
oil. Pictured with the car are its creators (from left to right): Dr. Kerry Kirwan,
Dr. Steve Maggs, and Dr. James Meredith. (AP Photo/University of Warwick)
well in excess of 330 miles per hour and is still in service in many air forces
throughout the world.
In 2008 Engine 9 at the Mount Washington Cog Railway was con-
verted to run a diesel engine powered by biodiesel instead of coal-powered
steam. Located on Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the Cog Rail-
way has been taking visitors to the 6,288-foot summit since 1869. It was
the world’s first mountain-climbing cog railway.
In the previous chapter, several kinds of biofuels were reported. This
chapter concentrates on one major category of biofuel—biodiesel fuels. It
also describes how some teachers and their students have produced biodie-
sel fuels in hands-on laboratory activities and converted diesel engine cars
into biodiesel vehicles.
Presently, many school districts throughout the United States use
biodiesel fuels for heating purposes and for fueling their buses and other
vehicles.
Biodiesel Fuel a 109
VIDEO
Biodiesel: In this video, Kris Moller, founder of Conserv Fuels, discusses the
pros of biodiesel: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/video/1066929:Video:40840
(1:10 minutes).
WHAT IS BIODIESEL FUEL?

Biodiesel is a biofuel made from soybeans or waste vegetable oil used in
cooking. Biodiesel fuel can be used in place of petroleum diesel fuel for
vehicles or as a heating fuel oil for homes and buildings. Unlike petroleum
diesel, biodiesel is a renewable resource, and it creates less pollution than
petroleum diesel. The biofuel can be used alone or in combination with pe-
troleum diesel or with heating oil. Generally, there are no expensive modi-
fications or add-on-installations to use biodiesel in diesel-powered engines
in cars and trucks. So this makes it easier for vehicle owners to integrate
biodiesel into current diesel engine systems than to use other alternative
energy sources, which often require new equipment.
A soybean-powered bus advertises its biodiesel fuel source. Biodiesel is a clean-

burning, alternative fuel produced from renewable resources. Because it is biode-
gradable, nontoxic, and free of sulfur and aromatics, its use in public transportation
holds great potential for many urban areas. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
INTERVIEW
Driving to California in a Biodiesel-Powered Pickup Truck
Green Advocate: Ross McCurdy, Ponaganset High School, Rhode Island
Go-Green Project: Biodiesel Pickup Truck
During the summer of 2008, Ponaganset High School teacher Ross McCurdy and
three students completed a coast-to-coast road trip from Ponaganset High School
in Gloucester, Rhode Island, to Los Angeles, California. They completed the 7,000-
mile round trip in a 1997 GMC K3500 biodiesel-powered pickup truck as a high
school renewable energy project. And the interesting news is they made the trip
without refueling along the way. I asked Mr. McCurdy about the biodiesel pickup
truck and his trip to California.
Ponaganset High School teacher Ross McCurdy (left) poses with students
(from left to right) Wylie Smith, Seth Keighley, and Zane Lewis after arriving
at Surfrider Beach in Malibu, California, having traveled from Rhode Island
in a biodiesel pickup truck. They arrived with around 40 gallons of biodie-
sel remaining after traveling about 3,100 miles without refueling. (Courtesy
Ross McCurdy)
Why use a biodiesel truck rather than a biodiesel automobile?
We first thought about a Volkswagen—but the downside was that we could not fit
as many students in this small a car. The truck can haul a ton of fuel and carry six
passengers. This was the advantage of a pickup truck that was built for work and
recreation.
Where did you obtain the fuel?

The fuel was obtained from Newport Biodiesel, who makes fuel from used cook-
ing oil.
T.H. Molloy distributes their biodiesel for home heating and sells it for vehicles
at their biodiesel pumps in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The fuel is called B99 and is
99 percent or higher biodiesel.
How much fuel did it take to get to California?
Two-hundred-forty gallons of biodiesel took us the 3,100 miles to Surfider Beach in
Malibu, California. Based on the miles per gallon when driving the pickup the month
before the trip, we calculated that 250 gallons would get us there. We wanted some
reserve and left Rhode Island with 280 gallons of biodiesel. We were able to carry
all the extra fuel by mounting 250 gallons of Delta auxiliary tanks in the pickup bed.
How many students went on the trip?
There were three students, Zane Lewis, Seth Keighley, and Wylie Smith.
Were there any problems that you encountered on the trip?
Actually, everything went pretty smoothly. Good food, lodging but the weather was
terrifically hot at 115 degrees going through the Mojave Desert. We tried to travel at
night but that didn’t always work. We just rolled down the windows and went through
eight gallons of Gatorade. We had to change one headlight and when we got back
had to replace the alternator—which had nothing to do with the biodiesel.
What kind of resources and advice would you give to teachers who might be in-
terested in doing what you did?
I’d advise everyone interested in biodiesel fuels to talk to people, use the Internet,
speak to teachers from other states and try to get both students and their parents
involved. One student I have is making biodiesel fuel for a school project. Another
student’s dad is making biodiesel from cooking oil. There are workshops and con-
ferences that teachers and others can attend to learn more about biodiesel appli-
cations in chemistry and physics.
How helpful were some of the donors?
This trip would not have been possible without the help, sponsorships, and dona-
tions from many people and organizations listed on our Web site. The generous
donation of a vehicle from ConEdison Solutions enabled us to achieve this project.
The students and faculty at Ponaganset High School are committed to renewable
energy education and demonstration, and this pickup has enabled us to demon-
strate the viability of biodiesel fuel by safely and reliably driving 3,000 miles coast
to coast with all the biodiesel fuel we needed to make the trip. The diesel pickup
donated by ConEdison Solutions is a classic American truck, like the majority of
privately owned diesel vehicles in the United States. This has been a great oppor-
tunity to promote biodiesel fuels.
You can view the trip by going to the following Web site: Videos From ConEdison
Solutions: Students Travel Cross-Country in Biodiesel Pick-up Truck, http://www.
conedsolutions.com/streaming/dieseltruck/diesel_truck_video.html.
HOW IS BIODIESEL MADE? COMPOSITION

OF BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is made in a chemical process, where such oils as vegetable oils,
animal fats, and recycled restaurant greases are combined with alcohol. As
the oils and fats break down chemically, fatty esters such as methyl ester
are formed. Esters are chemical compounds and include many naturally
occurring fats and oils. The esters can be blended with conventional diesel
fuel or used as 100 percent biodiesel fuel. When completed, the chemi-
cal process results in two products—methyl esters (the chemical name for
biodiesel) and glycerin, which is another by-product that is usually used
in the production of soap products. Notice that there is no left-over waste
products in this chemical process. Everything produced is used.
To understand how biodiesel fuel is used in diesel engine, you need to
know a little bit about the diesel engine and how it works.
HOW DOES A DIESEL ENGINE OPERATE?

German engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine. Like the gaso-
line engine in most U.S. cars, a diesel is an internal combustion engine.
Combustion engines convert chemical energy found in gasoline or diesel
fuel to mechanical energy. The mechanical energy powers pistons, called
cylinders, that move up and down in the engine. The pistons are connected
to the engine’s crankshaft, which provides the rotary motion needed to
move the vehicle’s wheels.
In both gasoline and diesel engines, a series of small explosions or com-
bustion takes place inside the cylinder as the fuel reacts chemically with
oxygen in the air. However, whereas gasoline engines start the explosion
from spark plugs, in the diesel engine, the fuel ignites on its own. The
reason is that the air heats up when it is highly compressed inside the
diesel engine’s cylinders. When it is hot enough, diesel fuel is then injected
VIDEO
Biodiesel: Learn how veterans and restaurant owners are gelling together to make
their own fuel in a grassroots effort in Louisiana after Katrina to reduce the need for
foreign oil and give “power back to the people” by turning cooking oil and weeds
into biodiesel: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/video/1066929.
under high pressure into the hot air inside the cylinder at exactly the right
time. The fuel gets ignited immediately, causing combustion, which moves
the pistons up and down to turn the crankshaft for rotary motion to the
wheels. The burned exhaust gases are ejected out of the cylinders. The very
hot air temperature, which is compressed under huge pressure inside the
cylinder, makes a spark plug unnecessary. The diesel engine has remained
pretty much the same since the early 1900s.
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that converts chemical

energy, such as diesel fuel, to mechanical energy. Diesel engines power a
variety of vehicles, including buses, cars, tractors, trucks, and even ships.
DID YOU KNOW?

When Rudolf Diesel designed his prototype diesel engine in 1898, he ran it on peanut
oil. He planned that diesel engines would operate on a variety of vegetable oils. But
when petroleum diesel fuel arrived on the marketplace, it was cheap, reasonably ef-
ficient, and readily available and therefore quickly became the diesel fuel of choice.
STRAIGHT VEGETABLE OIL AS A FUEL

Some vehicle owners are burning vegetable oil directly into their diesel
engines. Vegetable oil can be used as diesel fuel just as it is, without being
converted to biodiesel. The vegetable oil is usually new oil that is fresh and
uncooked. However, there is one problem. Straight vegetable oil is much
thicker than conventional diesel fuel or biodiesel. It does not burn the
same in the engine. Therefore, straight vegetable oil can damage engines
if not used properly and safely, and precautions have to be taken before it
is used. Another major drawback of using straight vegetable oil is that it
thickens up a bit in colder temperatures and must be heated before starting
the engine during cold weather.
WASTE VEGETABLE OIL AS A FUEL

As of 2000, the United States was producing in excess of 2.9 billion U.S.
gallons of waste vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial deep fryers
used in potato chip processing plants or for cooking fries in snack food
factories and fast food restaurants.
As mentioned previously, before it can be used as a fuel, the waste veg-
etable oil must be filtered because it contains many food particles. Both
straight vegetable oil and waste vegetable oil are derived from plants such
as peanuts, soy, canola/rapeseed, and other grains. Both oils thicken at
colder temperatures and can clog fuel systems unless they are heated and
filtered before using them in the vehicle’s engine. A vegetable oil conver-
sion kit includes a heating system and usually a second gas tank.
INDUSTRY AND FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
Fuel-grade biodiesel must be produced to strict industry specifications in
order to ensure proper performance. Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel
to have fully met the health-effects testing requirements of the 1990 Clean
DID YOU KNOW?

Vegetable oil can solidify below 25 degrees Fahrenheit.
FEATURE
Algae: Biofuels of the Future?
Scientists are experimenting with ways to utilize algae as alternative biofuel oil.
Algae can be more suitable than other biofuels because algae can grow practically
anywhere, unlike other biofuel plants that need good soil conditions and weather.
Algae can grow in seawater and other salty water and even in sewage. They can
bear extreme temperatures and can grow even on desolated wastelands, accord-
ing to researchers. By growing and multiplying very fast, algae can double their
weight many times in a single day. Algae can produce 15 times more oil per acre
than other plants used for biofuels.
Researchers believe that algae could supply enough fuel to meet much of the
U.S. transportation needs in the form of biodiesel. In fact, a land area of algae about
the size of the state of Maryland could replace much of the transportation fuels in
the United States.
Air Act Amendments. (Note: raw vegetable oil cannot meet biodiesel fuel
specifications because it is not registered with the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency [EPA] and is not a legal motor fuel.)
Biodiesel can be used as a pure fuel or blended with petroleum in any
percentage. For example, B20 (a blend of 20 percent by volume biodiesel
with 80 percent by volume petroleum diesel) has demonstrated significant
environmental benefits with a minimum increase in cost for fleet opera-
tions and other consumers.
Biodiesel is registered as a fuel and fuel additive with the EPA and
meets clean diesel standards established by the California Air Resources
Board. The U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of Transpor-
tation have designated 100 percent biodiesel as an alternative fuel.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the leaders in biodiesel production is the Blue Sun Company in Colorado.
The company makes its biodiesel fuel from a variety of seed crops grown locally,
including canola (rapeseed). The company sells its products to several gas stations
in the state.
Lyle Rudensey holds a container of homemade biodiesel fuel. Rudensey is an

environmental health educator and former research scientist who makes all
his own fuel using discarded restaurant oil. He is passionate about biodiesel
and the need for renewable energy, and has done presentations on this topic
for more than 1,200 K–12 students and many community organizations. (AP
Photo/Ted S. Warren)
HOW DO BIODIESEL EMISSIONS COMPARE

TO PETROLEUM DIESEL?
According to government reports and information from the EPA, the use
of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in a reduction of pollut-
ants such as unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and small particle
matter when compared to those emissions from burning diesel fuels. Based
on the most stringent emissions testing required by the EPA for certifi-
cation of fuels in the United States, the ozone-forming potential of the
hydrocarbon emissions from biodiesel fuel was nearly 50 percent less than
that measured for diesel fuel.
DID YOU KNOW?

Vehicle exhaust emissions of sulfur oxides and sulfates are major sources of acid
rain.
CAN BIODIESEL BE USED IN AN EXISTING

DIESEL ENGINE?
Biodiesel can operate in any diesel engine with little or no modification to
the engine or the fuel system. However, the combustion of biodiesel fuel
in the engine may release deposits that have accumulated in the fuel tank
walls, pipes, and hoses from previous diesel fuel engines and tanks. If these
deposits are released, they may clog filters so precautions should be taken.
Again, only fuel meeting the biodiesel specification and safeguards should
be used.
SCHOOL DISTRICTS USE BIODIESEL FOR VEHICLES

AND HEATING PURPOSES
Several health studies have raised concerns about the harmful effects of
diesel emissions on schoolchildren who ride school buses. Studies have
proved that biodiesel has reduced harmful effects in comparison with pe-
troleum diesel. Several school districts nationwide have made the switch
to biodiesel because of its reduced emissions. Some diesel-powered buses
have been converted to biodiesel with few or no modifications. Biodiesel
also offers schools an option to address air-quality concerns if they wish.
FEATURE
The National Biodiesel Board
Biodiesel can be made available anywhere in the United States. The National Biod-
iesel Board (NBB) maintains a list of registered fuel marketers. The NBB also main-
tains the largest library of biodiesel information in the United States. Information,
including the list of marketers, can be requested by visiting the biodiesel Web site
at www.biodiesel.org, by e-mailing the NBB at info@nbb.org, or by calling NBB’s
toll-free number: (800) 841-5849.
FEATURE
Nanotechnology and Biofuels
Instead of fossil fuels going in your gas tank, how about adding a salted biofuel?
This may be possible in the future: a new technology process is under develop-
ment to convert a type of salt into a biofuel, according to a study by researchers at
Singapore’s Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology.
Arkansas
In Pulaski County, Arkansas, 149 school buses using biodiesel blends were
part of a pilot program intended to reduce reliance on nonrenewable fossil
fuels. The biodiesel fuel for the buses in the pilot program was a blend of
80 percent standard diesel fuel and 20 percent soy-based oil. Although the
cost of using the biodiesel blend was 20 cents more a gallon than regular
diesel fuel, the transportation director stated, “We actually got a little bet-
ter fuel economy on the biodiesel than we did with the regular.”
New Jersey
In 1997 the Medford, New Jersey, school district began using B20 (20 percent
biodiesel, 80 percent petroleum diesel). According to school officials, the fuel
has performed well even in temperatures as low as 11 degrees below zero.
Idaho
The Meridian, Idaho, school district and the Community Planning Asso-
ciation of Southwest Idaho are participating in a special biodiesel project.
The project involves using up to 125,000 gallons of B20 biodiesel fuel for
their school buses.
Rhode Island
Since 2002 the Warwick school district has been successfully using vari-
ous blend levels of biodiesel in their heating boilers. The U.S. Department
of Energy Clean Cities Program and the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory provided funding for the project. The results show that using
biodiesel reduced emissions from the boilers in three schools compared to
a fourth where standard petroleum-based diesel was used as a control. The
staff members noticed fewer odors with biodiesel and found no soot in the
An employee of the Medford Township school district in New Jersey refuels

one of the district’s biodiesel school buses. According to Medford Township
school officials, during the past decade the district’s biodiesel school buses
have traveled more than four million miles and eliminated more than 127,000
pounds of hazardous emissions. The buses use B20 fuel, a 20 percent blend of
biodiesel. (Courtesy Medford Township Board of Education)
equipment. Biodiesel also did not slow down or impact the efficiency of
the boilers. The school is now starting to use biodiesel in its fleet of school
buses.
Kentucky
The Campbell County School District in Kentucky uses a B20 blend in its
65 school buses. School officials became interested in biodiesel after learn-
ing about the fuel’s benefits from a soybean farmer in the community.
Illinois
The Olympia, Illinois, school district began using biodiesel (B20) in Au-
gust 2002 in all 33 of its school buses and about 20 operation and main-
tenance support vehicles such as lawnmowers, pickup trucks, and tractors.
The 377-square-mile school district is the second-largest school district

in the state outside Cook County. The large fleet of buses travel a total of
4,000 miles a day, or an average of 600,000 miles a year.
Indiana
The Hammond School District in northwest Indiana first began fueling
its school buses with B20 in the 2001 school year under a grant from the
Indiana Department of Commerce.
Virginia
Arlington County, Virginia, recently began using B20 in the county’s 500
diesel-powered vehicles, including 120 school buses. School officials like
the biodiesel because it is a renewable fuel with low emissions.
OTHER USES FOR BIODIESEL FUELS

Biodiesel is also very good for a variety of other applications, including
space heaters, forklifts, tractors, generators, and oil-powered furnaces.
Home Heating with Biodiesel

Any heating oil furnace can use B20 biodiesel fuel without modification to
the furnace unit. However, fuel oil companies warn that homeowners need
to be very careful in understanding the specific regulations and guidelines
before switching from petroleum diesel fuel to biodiesel.
Before using biodiesel as a heating fuel, a homeowner should first get
a yearly furnace tune-up and inspection from a qualified fuel oil techni-
cian. When the inspection is finalized, the technician will ensure that the
system is free of leaks, has a new fuel filter and nozzle, and that the furnace
and boiler are operating at peak performance and efficiency.
DID YOU KNOW?

B20 biodiesel burns cleaner and produces as much heat as petroleum-based
heating oil. In one study, B20 biodiesel performed well for several years in heating
homes in Portland and Eugene, Oregon.
STUDENTS BUILD BIODIESEL CARS

Pennsylvania
Students in one school have built a soybean-powered car as an after-school
project. The project took them one year. The students claim that the car not
only runs on soybean biodiesel but also gets 51 miles to the gallon and can
go from 0 to 60 in four seconds. The car was featured at the Philadelphia
auto show.
California
Some schools have alternative energy programs where students convert
used cooking oil into biodiesel and learn chemistry and automotive science
along the way.
The School of Science and Technology at San Diego High has a biodie-
sel processor installed in its auto shop. Since its installation, students have
been making biodiesel out of used cooking oil gathered from school caf-
eterias. The goal is to power the San Diego Unified School District’s food
services trucks with clean energy. The biodiesel made by students already
has been used to run San Diego High School’s power washer equipment.
Other schools have also built biodiesel vehicles.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES

OF BIODIESEL FUEL?
Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy-
beans grown for fuel or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This
means it is a renewable resource, unlike petroleum-based diesel. There is
excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore, biodiesel
is an economic way to utilize this surplus.
Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum
diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, un-
burned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. The absence of sulfur in 100 percent
biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters in cars and trucks.
WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES

OF BIODIESEL FUEL?
Biodiesel is currently more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of
this cost difference is because the most common source of biodiesel oil is
INTERVIEW
The Veggie Oil Vehicle
Green Advocate: Phillip Cantor, North-Grand High School, Chicago, Illinois
Go-Green Project: The Veggie Oil Vehicle
Mr. Cantor has been teaching biology and AP psychology at North-Grand High
School, a neighborhood Chicago Public School, since 2006. Before coming to
North-Grand, Mr. Cantor taught sixth-grade earth and physical sciences at North-
west Middle School. Prior to teaching, Mr. Cantor had a career in video production
and photography.
Teacher Phil Cantor poses with the North Grand High School’s veggie oil
vehicle. (Courtesy Phil Cantor)
I grew up in Skokie, Illinois, a suburb just north of Chicago. I went to Grinnell Col-
lege in Iowa, where I received a degree in psychology. After college I worked in
photography and video production for nearly 20 years until I went back to school to
get my teaching certificate.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects in school?
Unfortunately, I didn’t have really good teachers in my science classes when
I was in high school. In high school, my favorite classes were literature and social
studies.
I had always loved science, though, and did have wonderful science teachers
when I was in sixth and seventh grade. I still remember some of those labs and the
science fair projects I worked on.

I’ve had a couple of different careers, but I feel that the teaching I do now has
helped me merge many of my interests together. During the last few years of my
work as a video producer, I got to work on some wonderful science projects, in-
cluding the videos for the “Underground Adventure” and “Sue the T.rex” exhibits
at Chicago’s Field Museum.
Describe the Veggie Oil Vehicle.
My students and I purchased an old diesel car and converted it to run on waste
vegetable oil, which we collect from local restaurant deep fryers. The project ties
so many aspects of science together: environmental science, biology, chemistry,
and physics.
The main challenge of running a diesel vehicle on waste vegetable oil is keeping
the veggie oil running thought the engine smoothly. The two things that can cause
the veggie oil to clog the engine are crumbs in the oil and the thickness of the oil.
We solved the crumb problem by building a filtration system that pumped the
waste veggie oil (WVO) through four different filters, starting with a 400 micron
filter, then going to 100 micron, 30 micron, and finally a 15 micron filter. Once the
oil is clean, it goes into an auxiliary fuel tank, which we installed in the back of our
station wagon. We also installed a separate fuel filter in the car’s engine to clean
the oil one last time before it enters the engine’s cylinders.
Because vegetable oil is so much thicker than diesel fuel at room temperature,
it is also important to heat the WVO so that it thins out as it enters the engine. The
main work of the car conversion is to install a heat exchanger, which takes heat
from the engine and uses it to warm the veggie oil in the fuel tank and then super-
heat it as it is pushed through the WVO fuel filter before it is burned in the engine.
We also had to install a switch, which would allow us to start the car on diesel fuel
and then switch it over to the WVO once it warmed up enough to go through the
engine smoothly.
The idea for the project came from another teacher at my school, Allister Scott,
who thought the students would love it because, as he put it, “what high school
student isn’t interested in cars?” We were brainstorming ideas for an application
we were writing for the BP A+ for Energy Grant. The grant required that the project
involve energy in some way, and we decided the veggie oil vehicle would be a
perfect way to learn about energy as well as address an important issue in envi-
ronmental science. BP liked the idea too and awarded us a $10,000 grant to do the
project.
Few issues are as pressing right now as energy, resource usage, and climate
change. By creating a car that can run on a waste product (used fryer oil), we are
facilitating recycling and reducing the amount of waste to be disposed of. The crops
that the oil comes from absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The waste
vegetable oil fuel is close to being carbon-neutral because when we burn it in the
car, we are releasing only carbon that was recently absorbed from the atmosphere,
rather than carbon from fossil fuels that has been safely in the ground for 100 mil-
lion years or so. Although there isn’t enough waste veggie oil to power all our cars
and trucks, it is a good example of how something considered garbage can actually
prove to be a resource and benefit the earth and those of us who depend on it.
There are many resources online about converting vehicles to run on vegetable oil.
One very helpful site is a blog that follows the conversion of a vehicle from start to
finish: http://greasebenz.com/. The most important resource we had was a group
called Chicago Biofuels (http://chicagobiofuels.org/), which put us in touch with
Pete Probst, who guided us through the process. Pete had done two or three simi-
lar conversions already, so he was our local expert. He helped us find the right ve-
hicle and conversion kit. We purchased our conversion kit from Greasecar (http://
www.greasecar.com/) specifically for the model of car we ended up purchasing.
Another huge resource for us was a community organization called the Cob
Connection. They helped us get another grant so that our students could actually
get paid for some of their work after school and we could afford more help from
Pete, the experienced WVO car converter.
Unless you are very mechanically inclined, get some help from someone who has
done a conversion before. At least find a car that already has been converted, and
see how it was done.
It would have been difficult to do this project without the grant we received
from BP. That grant allowed us to purchase and insure the car, buy tools and the
conversion kit, and even pay for some expert advice and help from an experienced
biofuel organization.
their reactions or comments if you want.
The students spent a whole semester after school three days a week to get this
project done. They did all the work, from searching for a vehicle to buy to research-
ing various conversion kits and then doing all the hands-on work of converting
the car, building an oil filtration unit, collecting the used oil, and finally decorating
the car with a mural meant to educate passers-by about waste veggie oil and our
vehicle. In the process students also did some labs such as comparing the en-
ergy content of various plants by burning them in calorimeters and creating a small
amount of biodiesel fuel through chemical reactions.
The students really enjoyed figuring out how to solve problems as they came up
and using the tools to modify the car. For example, we were planning to use oil from
our school cafeteria’s deep fryers, but our school district banned fried foods and
got rid of the deep fryers just as we started our project. The students went around
to different restaurants in the neighborhood and asked for donations of used oil.
We collected samples, and after some filtration tests, we found which restaurants
had the best oil for us to use.
Once we finished the project, the students designed a brochure and murals that
would teach people about the WVO energy chain and the process of converting the
car. Of course, the most exciting parts of the project were the first time we ran dirty
used veggie oil through the filtration system we built and the first time we started
up the car and put it in full veggie oil mode. The smell of egg rolls that came from
the tailpipe smelled better to us than any perfume.
From start to finish, the project took about four months, but the actual mechanical
conversion took about three weeks.
Now we are mostly using the car as a teaching tool. Students will be taking our
veggie oil vehicle to middle and elementary schools in the area to teach others
about the project and how we need to come up with creative solutions to problems
such as climate change. We are even thinking about selling the car and buying a
new one to do the whole project again.
[Please note: Safety first if students produce biodiesel fuel for science projects.
Biodiesel is made first by mixing methanol (methyl alcohol) derived from natural
gas with sodium hydroxide or lye. Both methanol and lye must be handled very
carefully. Skin and eyes must be covered, and the worker should be careful not to
breathe the fumes. Adult supervision and safety regulations must be applied.]
the soybean plant, which is only 20 percent oil. However, making biodiesel
from recycled cooking oils rather than from new soybeans can reduce the
costs of biodiesel. Another source is to make it from plant matter with
higher oil content. But it must be remembered that it takes energy to pro-
duce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertil-
izing, and harvesting, adding to the cost of the biodiesel fuel. Biodiesel fuel
can also damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built
before 1994. As noted previously, a vehicle owner should check with the
manufacturer before using biodiesel fuel.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. Both biofuels ethanol and butanol are of interest to your boss at the
plant. Your job is to make a list of the advantages and disadvantages
of each fuel. Use this list to tell your boss how to power the plant
and why.
2. Read about the Venice, Italy, canal algae project using nuisance algae
from the canals to make biodiesel fuels that will power a seaport. This
is one way of making biodiesel. What are other methods?
BOOKS AND OTHER READING MATERIAL

WEB SITES
The following Web sites, although not inclusive, include government, non-
governmental, and commercial organizations.
www.epa.gov/region9/waste/biodiesel
Fat to Fuel is a production of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency that offers information on the benefits of biodiesel energy as
an alternative to conventional petroleum-based diesel power.
www.energy.gov/biodiesel_publications
Biodiesel Publications provides a large selection of biodiesel-related
documents, publications, and newsletters available online.
www.biofueloasis.com
The Berkeley Biodiesel Collective is a community-based collective
focused on both educating communities about the environmental,
social, and political benefits of biodiesel and promoting the use of
sustainably produced biodiesel energy.
www.biodieselofamerica.com
Biodiesel of America focuses on producing and selling biodiesel and
other biodiesel products made from virgin oil and used cooking oil
for industrial use.
www.missouri.edu/biofuel
Biodiesel/Biofuel Research focuses on the use of biodiesel as an al-
ternative fuel for diesel engines. Related published papers on biodie-
sel and biofuels are listed on the site.
www.cleanfuelsdc.org
Clean Fuels Development Coalition members have taken on a leader-
ship role in developing new national energy strategies to foster clean
fuel technology, reduce oil imports, and improve air quality through
reduced emissions.
www.ecoversity.org
Ecoversity, through its educational center, explores the benefits and
complexities of sustainable living, ecological design, and wise stew-
ardship of Earth’s natural resources. It offers workshops on the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of various alternate fuel sources such as
biomass and biofuel energy.
www.biodiesel.org
The National Biodiesel Board serves as the industries’ central co-
ordinating organization. Its goal is for industry and government to
recognize biodiesel technology and use it as an integral part of a na-
tional energy policy to encourage the use of clean, domestic, renew-
able fuels.
www.veggievan.org
The Veggie Van organization seeks to facilitate the transition from
fossil fuels toward a green economy by educating people about sus-
tainable energy sources such as biodiesel fuels and providing infor-
mation that incorporates sustainable energy into homes, schools,
communities, cities, and nations.
VIDEOS
sites may move or longer be available.
version.
Biodiesel: Kris Moller, founder of Conserv Fuels, discusses the pros
of biodiesel in this video: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/
video/1066929:Video:40840 (1:10 minutes).
Biodiesel: David James discusses how to make human-made die-
sel and gasoline from algae in 5 minutes as opposed to 4,000 years
(via Mother Nature). Learn more about gasification versus trans-
esterification in this video: http://www.alternativeenergy.com/
video/1066929:Video:38314 (3:50 minutes).
Biodiesel: Learn how veterans and restaurant owners are gelling together
to make their own fuel in a grassroots effort in Louisiana after Katrina
to reduce the need for foreign oil and give “power back to the people”
by turning cooking oil and weeds into biodiesel: http://www.alterna-
tiveenergy.com/video/1066929:Video:36146 (6 minutes).
Biogas: No smell, no mess, reduced fuel bills, and more tourists: in a
sustainable, enterprising, and “beautiful and inventive” solution for
managing waste, the streets of India are being cleaned to turn house-
hold waste into biogas and fertilizer: http://www.metacafe.com/
watch/yt-LrtINiLgNKY/biotech_india_turning_food_waste_into_
biogas/ (5:09 minutes).
Biogas: Did you know 18th-century London was lit up by gas lamps
powered by sewage gases? Learn how to build your own biogas gen-
erator: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/yt-0WCv4-_-nwk/biogas_
generator/ (2:02 minutes).
Biogas: Anaerobic digestion is biogas made easy. This schematic shows
the process of making biogas and compost: http://www.metacafe.com/
watch/yt-but5ntRMQQc/biogas_how_it_works/ (1:01 minutes).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.

2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.
lishers, 2003.

2007.

awea.org.
2006.
the Pacific, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
haven Press, 2007.
text Press, 2005.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.

2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
1949–2008
140 a Energy Data

Coal Nuclear
1949 11,980,905 –6,671 5,145,142 11,882,722 29,002,099 0 1,424,722
1950 12,347,109 992 5,968,371 13,315,484 31,631,956 0 1,415,411
1951 12,552,996 –21,452 7,048,518 14,428,043 34,008,105 0 1,423,795
1952 11,306,479 –11,879 7,549,621 14,955,682 33,799,903 0 1,465,812
1953 11,372,684 –9,002 7,906,645 15,555,829 34,826,156 0 1,412,859
1954 9,714,667 –6,746 8,330,202 15,839,176 33,877,300 0 1,359,772
1955 11,167,259 –10,044 8,997,935 17,254,955 37,410,105 0 1,359,844
1956 11,349,723 –13,020 9,613,975 17,937,473 38,888,151 0 1,434,711
1957 10,820,631 –17,459 10,190,753 17,931,667 38,925,592 112 1,515,613
1958 9,533,287 –6,721 10,663,199 18,526,937 38,716,702 1,915 1,591,967
1959 9,518,353 –8,358 11,717,422 19,322,650 40,550,068 2,187 1,548,465
1960 9,837,785 –5,630 12,385,366 19,919,230 42,136,751 6,026 1,607,975
1961 9,623,351 –7,886 12,926,392 20,216,387 42,758,243 19,678 1,656,463
1962 9,906,454 –5,506 13,730,841 21,048,981 44,680,770 26,394 1,816,141
1963 10,412,538 –7,390 14,403,306 21,700,828 46,509,283 38,147 1,771,355
1964 10,964,385 –10,441 15,287,850 22,301,257 48,543,050 39,819 1,886,314
1965 11,580,608 –18,451 15,768,667 23,245,680 50,576,504 43,164 2,059,077
1966 12,143,080 –24,949 16,995,332 24,400,523 53,513,987 64,158 2,061,519
1967 11,913,750 –15,326 17,944,788 25,283,661 55,126,873 88,456 2,346,664
1968 12,330,677 –17,310 19,209,656 26,979,447 58,502,470 141,534 2,348,629
1969 12,381,540 –36,109 20,677,984 28,338,336 61,361,751 153,722 2,647,983
1970 12,264,528 –57,660 21,794,707 29,520,695 63,522,269 239,347 2,633,547
1971 11,598,411 –33,108 22,469,052 30,561,290 64,595,645 412,939 2,824,151
1972 12,076,917 –25,966 22,698,190 32,946,738 67,695,880 583,752 2,863,865
1973 12,971,490 –7,465 22,512,399 34,839,926 70,316,351 910,177 2,861,448
1974 12,662,878 56,098 21,732,488 33,454,627 67,906,091 1,272,083 3,176,580
1975 12,662,786 13,541 19,947,883 32,730,587 65,354,796 1,899,798 3,154,607
1976 13,584,067 –99 20,345,426 35,174,688 69,104,082 2,111,121 2,976,265
1977 13,922,103 14,582 19,930,513 37,122,168 70,989,367 2,701,762 2,333,252
1978 13,765,575 124,719 20,000,400 37,965,295 71,855,989 3,024,126 2,936,983
1979 15,039,586 62,843 20,665,817 37,123,381 72,891,627 2,775,827 2,930,686
1980 15,422,809 –35,018 20,235,459 34,202,356 69,825,607 2,739,169 2,900,144
1981 15,907,526 –15,946 19,747,309 31,931,050 [R] 67,569,939 [R] 3,007,589 2,757,968
1982 15,321,581 –21,650 18,356,222 30,231,608 [R] 63,887,761 [R] 3,131,148 3,265,558
1983 15,894,442 –15,624 17,220,836 30,053,921 [R] 63,153,575 [R] 3,202,549 3,527,260
1984 17,070,622 –11,482 18,393,613 31,051,327 66,504,079 3,552,531 3,385,811
1985 17,478,428 –13,491 17,703,482 30,922,149 [R] 66,090,567 [R] 4,075,563 2,970,192
1986 17,260,405 –16,740 16,591,364 32,196,080 66,031,109 [R] 4,380,109 3,071,179
1987 18,008,451 8,630 17,639,801 32,865,053 [R] 68,521,935 [R] 4,753,933 2,634,508
1988 18,846,312 39,556 18,448,393 34,221,992 [R] 71,556,253 [R] 5,586,968 2,334,265
1989 19,069,762 30,405 19,601,689 34,211,114 72,912,970 [R] 5,602,161 2,837,263
1990 19,172,635 4,786 19,603,168 33,552,534 72,333,123 6,104,350 3,046,391
1991 18,991,670 9,697 20,032,957 32,845,361 71,879,686 [R] 6,422,132 3,015,943
1992 19,122,471 34,621 20,713,632 33,526,585 [R] 73,397,310 [R] 6,479,206 2,617,436
1993 19,835,148 27,106 21,228,902 33,744,490 [R] 74,835,647 [R] 6,410,499 2,891,613
1994 19,909,463 58,330 21,728,065 34,561,665 76,257,523 6,693,877 2,683,457
1995 20,088,727 61,058 22,671,138 34,436,967 [R] 77,257,890 [R] 7,075,436 3,205,307
1996 21,001,914 22,816 23,084,647 35,673,290 [R] 79,782,668 [R] 7,086,674 3,589,656
Energy Data a 141
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
NA NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 5,420 31,981,503
NA NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 6,094 34,615,768
NA NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 7,461 36,974,030
NA NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 7,740 36,747,825
NA NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 6,852 37,664,468
NA NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 7,983 36,639,382
NA NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 13,879 40,207,971
NA NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 15,519 41,754,252
NA NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 12,288 41,787,186
NA NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 11,320 41,645,028
NA NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 12,127 43,465,722
774 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 15,474 45,086,870
2,181 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 7,689 45,739,017
2,331 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,829 47,827,707
3,726 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 334 49,646,160
4,520 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 6,671 51,817,177
4,197 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 –482 54,017,221
4,170 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 3,725 57,016,544
6,886 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 –1,020 58,908,107
9,416 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 –2,152 62,419,392
13,281 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 3,656 65,620,879
11,347 NA NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 6,688 67,844,161
11,862 NA NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 12,046 69,288,965
31,479 NA NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 26,227 72,704,267
42,605 NA NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 48,715 75,708,364
53,158 NA NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 43,311 73,990,880
70,153 NA NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 21,103 71,999,191
78,154 NA NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 29,378 76,012,373
77,418 NA NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 59,422 77,999,554
64,350 NA NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 67,318 79,986,371
83,788 NA NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 69,381 80,903,214
109,776 NA NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 71,399 78,121,594
123,043 NA NA 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 113,406 76,168,488 [R]
104,746 NA NA 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 100,026 73,153,394 [R]
129,339 NA 28 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 120,547 73,039,001 [R]
164,896 55 68 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 135,323 76,715,459 [R]
198,282 111 60 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 139,655 76,492,565 [R]
219,178 147 44 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 122,481 76,758,526 [R]
229,119 109 37 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 158,101 79,175,130 [R]
217,290 94 9 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 108,399 82,821,858 [R]
317,163 55,291 22,033 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 37,450 84,946,248 [R]
335,801 59,718 29,007 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 7,888 84,653,651 [R]
346,247 62,688 30,796 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 66,965 84,608,869 [R]
349,309 63,886 29,863 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 86,733 85,958,380 [R]
363,716 66,458 30,987 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R] 94,910 87,605,453 [R]
338,108 68,548 35,560 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 152,937 89,261,391 [R]
293,893 69,857 32,630 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R] 133,856 91,174,089 [R]
315,529 70,833 33,440 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R] 137,144 94,175,664 [R]
142 a Energy Data
Coal Nuclear
1997 21,445,411 46,450 23,222,718 36,159,835 [R] 80,874,414 [R] 6,596,992 3,640,458
1998 21,655,744 67,084 22,830,226 36,816,619 81,369,672 7,067,809 3,297,054
1999 21,622,544 57,685 22,909,227 37,838,081 [R] 82,427,536 [R] 7,610,256 3,267,575
2000 22,579,528 65,348 23,823,978 38,264,303 [R] 84,733,157 [R] 7,862,349 2,811,116
2001 21,914,268 29,264 22,772,558 38,186,476 [R] 82,902,566 [R] 8,032,697 2,241,858
2002 21,903,989 60,760 23,558,419 38,226,666 [R] 83,749,834 [R] 8,143,089 2,689,017
2003 22,320,928 50,518 22,897,268 38,809,183 [R] 84,077,896 [R] 7,958,858 2,824,533
2004 22,466,195 137,739 22,931,481 40,294,351 85,829,766 8,221,985 2,690,078
2005 22,796,543 44,194 22,583,385 40,393,325 85,817,446 8,160,028 2,702,942
2006 22,447,160 60,810 22,223,903 [R] 39,958,151 [R] 84,690,024 [R] 8,213,839 2,869,035
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197 23,627,629 [R] 39,773,213 [R] 86,175,506 [R] 8,457,783 [R] 2,446,389 [R]
2008 P 22,420,827 40,771 23,837,695 37,136,675 83,435,968 8,455,236 2,452,073
a
b
c
d
e
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
324,959 70,237 33,581 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R] 116,203 94,765,811 [R]
328,303 69,787 30,853 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R] 88,224 95,183,293 [R]
330,919 68,793 45,894 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R] 98,924 96,817,452 [R]
316,796 66,388 57,057 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R] 115,199 98,975,100 [R]
311,264 65,454 69,617 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R] 75,156 96,326,089 [R]
328,308 64,391 105,334 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R] 71,595 97,858,314 [R]
330,554 63,620 114,571 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R] 21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
341,082 64,500 141,749 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R] 38,597 100,350,624 [R]
342,576 66,130 178,088 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R] 84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
342,876 72,222 263,738 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R] 62,849 99,875,196 [R]
348,730 [R] 80,943 [R] 340,503 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R] 106,632 101,553,855 [R]
358,497 91,003 514,224 3,884,252 7,300,048 112,381 99,303,634
144 a Energy Data

1949 NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 1,424,722 NA NA
1950 NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 1,415,411 NA NA
1951 NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 1,423,795 NA NA
1952 NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 1,465,812 NA NA
1953 NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 1,412,859 NA NA
1954 NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 1,359,772 NA NA
1955 NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 1,359,844 NA NA
1956 NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 1,434,711 NA NA
1957 NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 1,515,613 NA NA
1958 NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 1,591,967 NA NA
1959 NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 1,548,465 NA NA
1960 NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 1,607,975 774 NA
1961 NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 1,656,463 2,181 NA
1962 NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,816,141 2,331 NA
1963 NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 1,771,355 3,726 NA
1964 NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 1,886,314 4,520 NA
1965 NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 2,059,077 4,197 NA
1966 NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 2,061,519 4,170 NA
1967 NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 2,346,664 6,886 NA
1968 NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 2,348,629 9,416 NA
1969 NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 2,647,983 13,281 NA
1970 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 2,633,547 11,347 NA
1971 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 2,824,151 11,862 NA
1972 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 2,863,865 31,479 NA
1973 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 2,861,448 42,605 NA
1974 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 3,176,580 53,158 NA
1975 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 3,154,607 70,153 NA
1976 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 2,976,265 78,154 NA
1977 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 2,333,252 77,418 NA
1978 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 2,936,983 64,350 NA
1979 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 2,930,686 83,788 NA
1980 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 2,900,144 109,776 NA
1981 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 2,757,968 123,043 NA
1982 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 3,265,558 104,746 NA
1983 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 3,527,260 129,339 NA
1984 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 3,385,811 164,896 55
1985 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 2,970,192 198,282 111
1986 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 3,071,179 219,178 147
1987 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 2,634,508 229,119 109
1988 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 2,334,265 217,290 94
1989 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 2,837,263 317,163 55,291
1990 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 3,046,391 335,801 59,718
1991 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 3,015,943 346,247 62,688
1992 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 2,617,436 349,309 63,886
1993 172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R] 2,891,613 363,716 66,458
1994 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 2,683,457 338,108 68,548
1995 201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R] 3,205,307 293,893 69,857
1996 144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R] 3,589,656 315,529 70,833
Energy Data a 145
Consumption
NA 1,549,262 NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984
NA 1,562,307 NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718
NA 1,534,669 NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464
NA 1,474,369 NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181
NA 1,418,601 NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460
NA 1,394,327 NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099
NA 1,424,143 NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987
NA 1,415,871 NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582
NA 1,333,581 NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194
NA 1,323,123 NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090
NA 1,352,874 NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339
NA 1,319,870 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619
NA 1,294,762 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406
NA 1,300,242 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714
NA 1,323,316 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396
NA 1,336,802 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637
NA 1,334,761 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036
NA 1,368,985 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674
NA 1,340,249 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799
NA 1,419,495 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541
NA 1,440,487 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751
NA 1,428,649 2,313 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857
NA 1,430,229 2,094 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335
NA 1,500,992 2,073 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409
NA 1,527,012 2,056 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121
NA 1,537,755 1,902 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395
NA 1,496,928 1,806 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494
NA 1,711,484 1,889 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792
NA 1,836,524 1,808 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002
NA 2,036,150 1,455 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938
NA 2,149,854 2,052 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379
NA 2,473,861 1,639 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420
NA 2,495,563 88,000 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
NA 2,510,048 119,000 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
28 2,684,271 157,000 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
68 2,685,817 208,000 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
60 2,686,765 236,317 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
44 2,562,134 262,861 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
37 2,463,159 289,000 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
9 2,576,663 315,328 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
22,033 2,679,623 354,357 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
29,007 2,216,165 408,078 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
30,796 2,214,083 439,715 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
29,863 2,313,471 473,201 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
30,987 2,259,774 479,336 [R] 172,512 [R] 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R]
35,560 2,323,820 515,324 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
32,630 2,369,869 531,476 [R] 203,875 [R] 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R]
33,440 2,437,027 576,990 145,703 [R] 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R]
146 a Energy Data
1997 190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R] 3,640,458 324,959 70,237
1998 206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R] 3,297,054 328,303 69,787
1999 215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R] 3,267,575 330,919 68,793
2000 237,904 3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R] 2,811,116 316,796 66,388
2001 259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R] 2,241,858 311,264 65,454
2002 314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R] 2,689,017 328,308 64,391
2003 411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R] 2,824,533 330,554 63,620
2004 500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R] 2,690,078 341,082 64,500
2005 580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R] 2,702,942 342,576 66,130
2006 743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R] 2,869,035 342,876 72,222
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R] 2,446,389 [R] 348,730 [R] 80,943 [R]
2008P 1,428,745 3,899,915 7,315,711 2,452,073 358,497 91,003
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
fuels).
k
Energy Data a 147
Consumption
33,581 2,370,991 550,602 [R] 187,375 [R] 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R]
30,853 2,184,160 542,295 205,137 [R] 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R]
45,894 2,214,167 540,156 213,232 [R] 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R]
57,057 2,261,715 510,800 [R] 240,523 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R]
69,617 2,005,833 363,874 257,769 [R] 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R]
105,334 1,995,283 402,006 309,456 [R] 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R]
114,571 2,002,040 401,347 413,217 [R] 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R]
141,749 2,121,251 [R] 389,044 [R] 512,571 [R] 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R]
178,088 2,136,351 [R] 403,219 [R] 593,576 [R] 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R]
263,738 2,151,731 [R] 414,226 [R] 794,656 [R] 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R]
340,503 [R] 2,142,417 [R] 430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R]
514,224 2,040,616 430,554 1,413,082 3,884,252 7,300,048
148 a Energy Data

End-use Sectors
1949 4,475,121 5,613,938 2,660,963 3,660,910 12,626,532
1950 4,847,590 6,006,806 2,824,267 3,883,472 13,881,079
1951 5,124,031 6,399,747 2,727,158 3,862,700 15,118,070
1952 5,178,644 6,580,694 2,661,902 3,862,377 14,661,778
1953 5,074,890 6,581,124 2,500,330 3,758,937 15,328,413
1954 5,286,016 6,869,767 2,444,814 3,720,157 14,305,657
1955 5,633,095 7,303,271 2,547,641 3,881,530 16,090,702
1956 5,866,467 7,689,809 2,592,274 4,008,279 16,562,350
1957 5,771,579 7,739,679 2,434,391 3,945,887 16,512,867
1958 6,155,096 8,230,400 2,541,202 4,103,153 15,797,985
1959 6,223,822 8,447,378 2,630,274 4,353,069 16,518,951
1960 6,688,963 9,077,668 2,702,042 4,588,973 16,977,066
1961 6,814,611 9,325,376 2,743,974 4,706,925 16,993,115
1962 7,122,112 9,825,201 2,901,109 5,013,919 17,589,807
1963 7,135,126 10,034,384 2,896,921 5,226,862 18,365,964
1964 7,161,257 10,290,804 2,949,284 5,438,649 19,426,503
1965 7,328,128 10,688,770 3,150,462 5,819,530 20,123,911
1966 7,549,262 11,218,183 3,383,741 6,299,383 21,029,715
1967 7,740,902 11,669,926 3,738,448 6,870,845 21,012,628
1968 7,963,327 12,368,421 3,866,000 7,296,778 21,872,069
1969 8,276,760 13,205,347 4,045,666 7,795,301 22,653,721
1970 8,352,750 13,798,057 4,196,051 8,307,155 22,974,833
1971 8,456,799 14,277,629 4,282,718 8,681,492 22,732,356
1972 8,655,327 14,890,531 4,369,078 9,144,775 23,532,489
1973 8,250,226 [R] 14,929,771 [R] 4,381,061 9,506,982 24,740,862 [R]
1974 7,927,553 [R] 14,683,314 [R] 4,221,192 9,362,537 23,816,329 [R]
1975 8,005,740 14,841,755 [R] 4,022,853 [R] 9,465,906 [R] 21,454,213 [R]
1976 8,408,252 [R] 15,440,661 [R] 4,332,587 [R] 10,035,225 [R] 22,685,371
1977 8,207,376 [R] 15,688,729 [R] 4,217,258 [R] 10,177,267 [R] 23,192,694 [R]
1978 8,272,389 [R] 16,155,929 [R] 4,268,843 [R] 10,480,604 [R] 23,276,491 [R]
1979 7,933,806 [R] 15,841,970 [R] 4,333,251 10,626,851 24,211,500 [R]
1980 7,453,254 [R] 15,786,781 [R] 4,074,270 10,562,769 [R] 22,610,288 [R]
1981 7,057,589 [R] 15,295,246 [R] 3,805,343 10,601,863 [R] 21,338,216 [R]
1982 7,154,067 [R] 15,557,340 [R] 3,835,241 [R] 10,847,354 [R] 19,075,786 [R]
1983 6,840,628 [R] 15,456,669 [R] 3,806,026 [R] 10,922,977 [R] 18,578,019 [R]
1984 7,220,681 [R] 15,998,041 [R] 3,968,567 [R] 11,436,092 [R] 20,197,515 [R]
1985 7,160,776 [R] 16,088,348 [R] 3,694,740 [R] 11,443,724 [R] 19,467,805 [R]
1986 6,921,722 [R] 16,029,197 [R] 3,656,730 [R] 11,603,742 [R] 19,098,662 [R]
1987 6,940,917 16,321,196 3,736,106 [R] 11,943,383 [R] 19,977,070 [R]
1988 7,372,024 [R] 17,186,278 [R] 3,957,548 [R] 12,575,483 [R] 20,884,381 [R]
1989 7,586,093 [R] 17,858,128 [R] 4,004,442 [R] 13,202,580 20,897,403 [R]
1990 6,570,463 [R] 17,014,681 [R] 3,858,007 13,332,926 21,208,225 [R]
1991 6,758,442 [R] 17,490,321 3,905,836 [R] 13,512,501 [R] 20,854,317 [R]
1992 6,963,482 [R] 17,426,920 [R] 3,951,199 13,453,951 21,786,666 [R]
1993 7,155,529 [R] 18,288,984 3,933,859 [R] 13,835,823 [R] 21,784,999 [R]
1994 6,990,569 18,181,216 3,978,979 [R] 14,111,283 [R] 22,422,272 [R]
1995 6,946,268 18,577,978 [R] 4,063,119 [R] 14,697,525 [R] 22,747,660 [R]
1996 7,471,455 [R] 19,562,439 [R] 4,234,533 [R] 15,181,207 [R] 23,443,770 [R]
Energy Data a 149

14,716,733 7,879,581 7,990,087 4,339,470 –165 31,981,503
16,232,875 8,383,528 8,492,594 4,679,283 21 34,615,768
17,669,234 8,933,753 9,042,162 5,070,830 188 36,974,030
17,301,575 8,907,235 9,003,096 5,338,183 82 36,747,825
18,200,961 9,030,518 9,123,484 5,730,355 –39 37,664,468
17,146,242 8,823,059 8,903,125 5,779,745 91 36,639,382
19,472,329 9,475,032 9,550,811 6,461,471 30 40,207,971
20,196,256 9,791,039 9,860,083 6,942,296 –174 41,754,252
20,204,730 9,837,442 9,897,017 7,231,035 –128 41,787,186
19,306,571 9,952,797 10,004,893 7,197,936 11 41,645,028
20,315,979 10,298,441 10,349,357 7,794,295 –61 43,465,722
20,823,424 10,560,452 10,596,801 8,158,344 3 45,086,870
20,936,742 10,734,679 10,770,077 8,452,741 –103 45,739,017
21,768,109 11,185,922 11,220,519 9,028,798 –42 47,827,707
22,729,891 11,621,165 11,654,898 9,626,860 124 49,646,160
24,089,579 11,964,508 11,998,284 10,315,765 –140 51,817,177
25,074,894 12,400,149 12,433,906 11,014,449 121 54,017,221
26,397,297 13,069,166 13,101,884 11,984,863 –203 57,016,544
26,615,564 13,718,214 13,752,106 12,698,249 –333 58,908,107
27,888,371 14,831,020 14,865,583 13,886,738 238 62,419,392
29,114,339 15,470,880 15,506,152 15,174,112 –260 65,620,879
29,641,226 16,061,232 16,097,603 16,259,175 119 67,844,161
29,600,938 16,693,481 16,729,212 17,123,917 –307 69,288,965
30,952,764 17,681,086 17,716,273 18,466,362 –75 72,704,267
32,652,616 [R] 18,576,065 18,611,660 19,752,816 7,334 [R] 75,708,364
31,818,721 [R] 18,085,915 [R] 18,119,206 [R] 19,932,789 7,102 [R] 73,990,880
29,447,184 [R] 18,209,133 [R] 18,243,706 [R] 20,306,611 640 [R] 71,999,191
31,429,542 19,065,144 [R] 19,099,331 [R] 21,513,405 7,613 [R] 76,012,373
32,306,559 [R] 19,784,143 [R] 19,819,581 [R] 22,590,665 7,418 [R] 77,999,554
32,733,452 [R] 20,580,415 [R] 20,614,766 [R] 23,586,613 1,619 [R] 79,986,371
33,962,118 [R] 20,436,369 [R] 20,470,711 [R] 23,986,723 1,564 80,903,214
32,077,090 [R] 19,658,353 [R] 19,696,034 [R] 24,326,509 –1,080 [R] 78,121,594
30,756,076 [R] 19,476,200 [R] 19,512,537 [R] 24,488,373 2,766 [R] 76,168,488 [R]
27,656,788 [R] 19,050,580 [R] 19,087,723 [R] 24,033,531 4,189 [R] 73,153,394 [R]
27,481,484 [R] 19,132,451 [R] 19,175,075 [R] 24,679,081 2,796 [R] 73,039,001 [R]
29,624,598 [R] 19,606,799 [R] 19,653,933 [R] 25,719,102 2,794 [R] 76,715,459 [R]
28,877,080 [R] 20,040,687 [R] 20,087,315 [R] 26,132,459 –3,903 [R] 76,492,565 [R]
28,333,363 [R] 20,739,703 [R] 20,788,771 [R] 26,338,257 3,452 76,758,526 [R]
29,443,635 [R] 21,419,125 [R] 21,469,449 [R] 27,104,445 –2,533 [R] 79,175,130 [R]
30,738,557 [R] 22,266,855 [R] 22,318,176 [R] 28,337,687 3,364 [R] 82,821,858 [R]
31,397,833 [R] 22,424,597 [R] 22,478,708 [R] 30,024,713 [4] 8,999 [R] 84,946,248 [R]
31,895,492 [R] 22,366,185 [R] 22,419,888 [R] 30,660,106 –9,335 [R] 84,653,651 [R]
31,486,967 [R] 22,065,034 [R] 22,118,484 [R] 31,024,645 595 [R] 84,608,869 [R]
32,661,236 [R] 22,363,309 [R] 22,415,918 [R] 30,893,368 355 [R] 85,958,380 [R]
32,721,292 [R] 22,716,447 22,769,843 [R] 32,025,108 –10,490 [R] 87,605,453 [R]
33,607,366 [R] 23,311,806 [R] 23,367,224 [R] 32,563,463 –5,698 89,261,391 [R]
34,046,786 [R] 23,793,148 [R] 23,848,651 [R] 33,620,747 3,148 [R] 91,174,089 [R]
34,988,791 [R] 24,383,906 [R] 24,438,890 [R] 34,637,665 4,336 [R] 94,175,664 [R]
150 a Energy Data
End-use Sectors
e e
1997 7,039,505 [R] 19,025,680 [R] 4,256,507 [R] 15,693,953 [R] 23,721,864 [R]
1998 6,423,825 [R] 19,020,712 [R] 3,963,729 [R] 15,979,296 [R] 23,210,838 [R]
1999 6,783,779 [R] 19,620,860 [R] 4,007,378 [R] 16,383,617 [R] 22,990,578 [R]
2000 7,168,979 [R] 20,487,621 [R] 4,227,143 [R] 17,176,087 [R] 22,870,804 [R]
2001 6,878,917 [R] 20,106,132 [R] 4,036,108 [R] 17,141,259 [R] 21,835,587 [R]
2002 6,938,187 [R] 20,873,763 [R] 4,099,189 [R] 17,366,740 21,857,313 [R]
2003 7,251,896 21,208,021 [R] 4,238,672 [R] 17,351,447 [R] 21,575,582 [R]
2004 7,019,274 [R] 21,177,889 [R] 4,180,422 [R] 17,664,445 [R] 22,454,620 [R]
2005 6,920,879 [R] 21,697,240 [R] 4,013,701 [R] 17,875,276 [R] 21,465,855 [R]
2006 6,190,514 [R] 20,769,777 [R] 3,703,258 [R] 17,723,994 [R] 21,632,057 [R]
2007 6,625,793 [R] 21,619,373 [R] 3,895,928 [R] 18,287,222 [R] 21,454,002 [R]
2008 P 6,778,379 21,636,900 3,972,150 18,541,387 20,630,137
a
b
c
d
power producers.
e
f
g

Energy Data a 151

35,288,218 [R] 24,697,145 [R] 24,751,817 [R] 35,044,648 6,142 [R] 94,765,811 [R]
34,928,190 [R] 25,203,168 [R] 25,258,473 [R] 36,385,110 –3,378 [R] 95,183,293 [R]
34,855,491 [R] 25,893,727 [R] 25,951,203 [R] 37,135,709 6,281 [R] 96,817,452 [R]
34,757,478 [R] 26,491,500 [R] 26,551,610 [R] 38,214,371 2,304 [R] 98,975,100 [R]
32,806,204 [R] 26,215,564 [R] 26,278,577 [R] 37,365,995 –6,084 [R] 96,326,089 [R]
32,764,483 [R] 26,787,738 [R] 26,848,508 [R] 38,171,067 4,820 [R] 97,858,314 [R]
32,649,843 [R] 26,927,646 [R] 27,002,137 [R] 38,217,654 [R] –2,908 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
33,609,067 [R] 27,820,116 [R] 27,899,279 [R] 38,876,247 [R] –55 [R] 100,350,624 [R]
32,545,253 [R] 28,279,693 [R] 28,361,295 [R] 39,798,935 [R] 5,694 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
32,541,235 [R] 28,761,209 [R] 28,840,577 [R] 39,588,544 [R] –385 [R] 99,875,196 [R]
32,523,120 [R] 29,046,175 [R] 29,134,189 [R] 40,542,007 [R] –10,049 [R] 101,553,855 [R]
31,210,299 27,842,133 27,924,560 40,090,347 –9,512 99,303,634
152 a Energy Data
Year
Appliance 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1987
Natural Gas 55 55 55 56 57 55 55
Electricitya 16 17 18 17 16 17 20
Wood 2 4 6 6 7 7 6
Central Systemc 23 24 27 27 28 30 34
None 44 45 43 42 42 40 36
Natural Gas 55 55 54 55 56 54 54
Electricitya 33 33 32 33 32 33 35
One 86 NA 86 87 86 88 86
Two or more 14 NA 14 13 13 12 14
Natural gas 14 NA 14 16 15 16 15
Electric 45 NA 47 45 45 46 51
Dishwasher 35 NA 37 37 36 38 43
Natural gas 48 NA 46 46 47 46 43
Electric 53 NA 57 56 56 57 60
One or two NA NA 85 84 83 80 75
a
Retail electricity.
b
c
d
Energy Data a 153
Year Change
1990 1993 1997 2001 2005 1980 to 2005
94 97 101 107 111 29
55 53 52 [R] 55 52 –3
23 26 29 29 30 12
5 5 5 5 5 0
11 11 9 7 [R] 7 –8
4 3 2 2 3 –3
2 2 2 2 [R] 3 [R] 1 [R]
39 44 47 55 59 32
29 25 25 23 25 –5
32 32 28 23 16 –27
53 53 52 54 53 –1
37 38 39 38 39 7
3 3 3 3 4 0
5 5 5 4 4 –5
1 1 1 0 0 –1
100 100 100 100 100 0

84 85 85 83 78 –8
15 15 15 17 22 8
34 35 33 32 32 –6
76 77 77 79 83 9
69 70 71 74 79 18
16 14 [R] 15 [R] 16 [R] 17 [R] 3 [R]
53 57 55 57 61 14
45 45 50 53 58 21
100 100 99 100 99 0
42 33 35 35 35 –11
59 63 62 62 62 5
79 84 83 86 88 74
99 99 99 [R] 99 [R] 99 [R] 1 [R]
71 70 69 63 56 –29
28 28 29 36 43 29
NA [R] NA [R] 35 56 68 NA
NA NA 29 42 45 NA
NA NA 6 15 23 NA
154 a Energy Data

North America 113.13 113.53 115.82 118.26

Canada 12.67 [R] 12.37 [R] 12.96 [R] 12.95 [R]
Mexico 5.68 5.96 6.04 6.32
United States 94.77 95.18 96.82 98.98
Other .02 .02 .02 .02
Argentina 2.47 2.58 2.61 2.67
Brazil 7.86 8.12 [R] 8.27 [R] 8.55 [R]
Venezuela 2.66 2.85 2.73 2.77
Other 6.46 6.57 6.67 6.85
Europe a 79.87 [R] 80.44 [R] 80.51 [R] 81.53 [R]
Belgium 2.65 [R] 2.70 [R] 2.66 [R] 2.73 [R]
France 10.36 10.58 10.71 10.85
Germany 14.36 14.34 14.13 14.26
Italy 7.22 7.43 7.56 7.63
Netherlands 3.70 3.70 3.69 3.79
Poland 4.09 [R] 3.85 3.98 3.62
Spain 4.76 4.99 5.26 5.62
Sweden 2.32 [R] 2.40 [R] 2.37 [R] 2.27 [R]
Turkey 2.93 3.00 2.91 3.16
Other 17.74 17.72 17.47 [R] 17.87
Eurasia b 39.02 [R] 38.73 [R] 39.83 [R] 40.61 [R]
Russia 25.81 [R] 25.93 [R] 27.01 [R] 27.47 [R]
Ukraine 6.07 5.85 5.76 5.75
Uzbekistan 1.88 1.84 1.86 1.94
Other 5.26 5.11 5.19 5.45 [R]
Middle East 15.61 16.28 [R] 16.62 17.32
Iran 4.43 4.58 4.83 5.01
Saudi Arabia 4.37 4.54 4.60 4.85
Other 6.81 7.15 7.18 7.46
Africa 11.40 11.30 [R] 11.62 [R] 12.03 [R]
Egypt 1.79 1.85 1.92 2.00
South Africa 4.56 4.35 4.46 4.59
Other 5.05 5.10 [R] 5.23 5.44 [R]
Australia 4.56 4.59 4.82 4.85
China 37.91 37.32 37.23 37.18 [R]
India 11.64 12.17 12.99 13.46
Indonesia 3.66 3.56 3.91 4.06
Japan 21.91 [R] 21.52 [R] 21.97 [R] 22.43 [R]
Malaysia 1.67 1.69 1.74 1.87
Energy Data a 155
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P
115.36 117.25 118.20 120.74 121.62 121.18

12.76 [R] 13.13 [R] 13.56 [R] 13.84 [R] 14.23 [R] 13.95
6.26 6.25 [R] 6.42 [R] 6.53 6.86 [R] 7.36
96.33 97.86 98.21 100.35 100.51 [R] 99.86
.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
21.16 21.12 21.61 22.44 23.40 24.18
2.61 2.48 [R] 2.67 2.78 2.95 [R] 3.15
8.47 [R] 8.58 [R] 8.69 [R] 9.02 [R] 9.37 [R] 9.64
3.03 2.93 2.72 2.93 3.12 [R] 3.19
7.05 7.13 7.54 7.71 7.96 8.20
82.77 [R] 82.50 [R] 84.24 [R] 85.70 [R] 86.18 [R] 86.42
2.70 [R] 2.68 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.81 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.75
11.08 11.00 11.11 [R] 11.39 11.36 [R] 11.44
14.62 14.33 14.59 [R] 14.74 [R] 14.50 [R] 14.63
7.67 [R] 7.70 7.99 [R] 8.08 [R] 8.14 [R] 8.07
3.93 3.94 4.00 4.11 4.23 [R] 4.14
3.45 3.44 3.60 3.70 3.68 [R] 3.86
5.87 5.95 6.26 6.39 [R] 6.51 [R] 6.51
2.40 [R] 2.27 [R] 2.17 [R] 2.30 [R] 2.33 [R] 2.22
2.89 3.15 3.32 3.51 3.73 [R] 3.91
9.86 [R] 9.72 [R] 9.86 [R] 9.88 [R] 9.92 [R] 9.80
18.28 [R] 18.33 [R] 18.56 [R] 18.77 [R] 19.01 [R] 19.10
40.94 [R] 41.59 [R] 43.37 [R] 44.69 [R] 45.79 [R] 45.88
27.72 [R] 27.93 [R] 28.77 [R] 29.60 [R] 30.06 [R] 30.39
5.64 5.82 6.28 6.26 6.32 [R] 5.87
2.03 2.08 2.10 2.22 2.13 [R] 2.21
5.55 [R] 5.75 [R] 6.22 [R] 6.62 [R] 7.27 [R] 7.41
17.95 18.98 19.76 20.89 22.75 [R] 23.81
5.39 5.89 6.18 6.39 7.22 [R] 7.69
5.14 5.38 5.76 6.21 6.59 [R] 6.89
7.42 7.71 7.82 8.29 8.93 [R] 9.23
12.63 [R] 12.72 13.36 [R] 13.97 [R] 14.54 [R] 14.50
2.23 [R] 2.26 [R] 2.44 [R] 2.59 2.73 [R] 2.54
4.66 4.54 4.88 5.21 5.12 [R] 5.18
5.74 [R] 5.91 [R] 6.04 [R] 6.18 [R] 6.69 [R] 6.77
111.34 [R] 116.41 [R] 125.48 [R] 138.71 [R] 147.78 [R] 156.31
5.02 5.13 5.14 [R] 5.26 [R] 5.57 [R] 5.61
39.44 [R] 43.30 [R] 50.62 [R] 59.99 [R] 66.80 [R] 73.81
13.94 13.84 14.29 15.54 [R] 16.34 [R] 17.68
4.46 4.64 4.56 [R] 4.88 [R] 4.91 [R] 4.15
22.24 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.79
2.11 2.18 2.42 2.66 2.58 [R] 2.56
156 a Energy Data
South Korea 7.41 6.83 7.55 7.89
Taiwan 3.21 3.40 3.55 3.77
Thailand 2.60 2.44 2.50 2.58
Other 8.34 [R] 8.47 [R] 9.01 [R] 9.23 [R]
World 381.35 [R] 382.38 [R] 389.95 [R] 397.93 [R]
a
b
Energy Data a 157
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

8.10 8.39 [R] 8.64 [R] 8.91 [R] 9.23 [R] 9.45
3.86 4.02 4.21 4.36 4.43 [R] 4.57
2.70 2.94 3.22 3.45 [R] 3.67 [R] 3.74
9.47 [R] 9.80 [R] 10.23 [R] 10.92 [R] 11.52 [R] 11.97
402.15 [R] 410.56 [R] 426.02 [R] 447.15 [R] 462.06 [R] 472.27
158 a Energy Data
Oil & Gas
North America 211.6 57.5 309.8 314.1
Canada 178.6a 25.2b 58.2 58.3
Mexico 11.7 11.1 13.9 18.1
United States 21.3 21.3 237.7 237.7

Argentina 2.6 2.7 15.8 16.5
Bolivia .5 .5 26.5 28.0
Brazil 12.2 12.5 12.3 12.9
Chile .2 .0 3.5 1.0
Colombia 1.5 1.5 4.3 6.7
Cuba .1 .7 2.5 .8
Peru .4 .4 11.9 12.0
Venezuela 87.0 81.0 166.3 152.0
Europed 14.3 13.8 172.0 169.0

Austria .1 .1 .6 1.1
Croatia .1 .1 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.2 1.1 2.5 2.6
Germany .4 .2 9.0 5.2
Italy .4 .4 3.3 3.0
Norway 6.9 6.7 79.1 81.7
Poland .1 .2 5.8 4.7
Romania .6 .5 2.2 4.2
Serbia .1 NR 1.7 NR
Otherc .8 .7 1.9 2.1
Eurasiae 98.9 126.0 2,014.8 2,104.0

Russia 60.0 76.0 1,680.0 1,654.0
Otherc .3 50.0 .8 450.0
Energy Data a 159

Oil & Gas Oil & Gas
Middle East 748.3 727.3 2,548.9 2,570.2
Iran 138.4 137.0 948.2 985.0
Iraq 115.0 126.0 111.9 91.0
Kuwaitf 104.0 99.4 56.0 66.3
Oman 5.5 5.7 30.0 32.0
Qatar 15.2 20.0 905.3 903.2
Saudi Arabiaf 266.8 264.8 253.1 254.0
Syria 2.5 2.9 8.5 12.1
Yemen 3.0 2.7 16.9 16.8
Otherc (s) .7 1.3 13.6
Africa 114.8 114.7 489.6 504.2

Algeria 12.2 11.9 159.0 160.0
Angola 9.0 9.5 9.5 5.7
Egypt 3.7 3.7 58.5 68.5
Gabon 2.0 3.2 1.0 2.5
Libya 41.5 36.5 50.1 52.8
Nigeria 36.2 37.2 184.0 184.5
Sudan 5.0 6.7 3.0 4.0
Tunisia .4 .6 2.3 3.5
Otherc 1.9 1.8 7.6 15.4

Australia 1.5 4.2 30.0 151.9
Brunei 1.1 1.1 13.8 11.0
Burma .1 .2 10.0 15.0
China 16.0 18.1 80.0 61.8
India 5.6 4.0 38.0 31.8
Indonesia 4.4 4.5 93.9 92.0
Japan (s) NR .7 NR
Malaysia 4.0 5.5 83.0 88.0
Pakistan .3 .3 28.0 29.8
Thailand .5 .4 11.7 11.2
Vietnam .6 1.3 6.8 8.2
Otherc .2 .2 5.5 10.2
World 1,332.0 1,184.2 6,212.3 6,436.0

160 a Energy Data
a
oil sands.
b
c
d
e
f
Arabia.

Canada 3,826 3,425 7,251
Greenland 0 202 202
Mexico 948 387 1,335
Brazil 0 7,791 7,791
Chile 34 1,268 1,302
Colombia 7,251 420 7,671
Peru 154 0 154
Other 529 494 1,023
Europeb 9,296 41,485 50,781
Bulgaria 6 2,195 2,200
Germany 168 7,227 7,394
Greece 0 4,299 4,299
Hungary 219 3,420 3,640
Poland 6,627 1,642 8,270
Romania 13 452 465
Turkey 0 2,000 2,000
Other 241 1,834 2,076
Energy Data a 161
Eurasiac 103,186 145,931 249,117
Kazakhstan 31,052 3,450 34,502
Russia 54,110 118,964 173,074
Ukraine 16,922 20,417 37,339
Uzbekistan 1,102 2,205 3,307
Other 0 895 895
Iran 1,528 0 1,528
Africa 54,488 192 54,680
Botswana 44 0 44
South Africa 52,911 0 52,911
Zimbabwe 553 0 553
Other 980 192 1,172
Australia 40,896 43,541 84,437
China 68,564 57,651 126,215
India 57,585 4,694 62,278
Indonesia 1,897 2,874 4,771
Pakistan 1 2,184 2,185
Thailand 0 1,493 1,493
Other 721 1,046 1,767
World 472,731 [R] 456,599 [R] 929,331 [R]
a
b
c
R = Revised.
162 a Energy Data

Canada 549 [R] 554 [R] 568 [R] 565 [R]
Mexico 350 [R] 372 [R] 364 [R] 383 [R]
Other 1 1 1 1
Argentina 130 136 [R] 140 [R] 138 [R]
Brazil 326 [R] 325 [R] 336 [R] 345 [R]
Venezuela 135 [R] 142 133 134
Other 359 [R] 372 [R] 374 [R] 375
Europeb 4,503 [R] 4,487 [R] 4,436 [R] 4,500 [R]
Belgium 146 [R] 151 [R] 143 [R] 149 [R]
France 385 [R] 410 [R] 404 [R] 402 [R]
Germany 889 [R] 872 [R] 841 [R] 857 [R]
Italy 425 [R] 441 [R] 441 [R] 448 [R]
Poland 339 [R] 316 [R] 329 [R] 295 [R]
Romania 120 [R] 101 [R] 91 93
Spain 272 [R] 282 [R] 309 [R] 327 [R]
Turkey 182 [R] 184 [R] 182 [R] 202 [R]
Other 935 [R] 924 [R] 898 [R] 913 [R]
Eurasiac 2,244 [R] 2,235 [R] 2,320 [R] 2,356 [R]
Kazakhstan 120 [R] 116 [R] 133 [R] 143 [R]
Russia 1,483 [R] 1,482 [R] 1,560 [R] 1,582 [R]
Ukraine 344 [R] 333 [R] 328 [R] 327 [R]
Uzbekistan 103 102 [R] 103 106
Other 194 [R] 201 [R] 195 [R] 197 [R]
Middle East 989 [R] 1,019 [R] 1,057 [R] 1,094 [R]
Iran 291 [R] 295 [R] 317 [R] 321 [R]
Other 443 [R] 467 [R] 475 [R] 483 [R]
Africa 872 [R] 861 [R] 877 [R] 892 [R]
Egypt 112 [R] 115 [R] 117 [R] 119
Other 371 [R] 376 [R] 378 [R] 381 [R]
Australia 334 [R] 340 [R] 359 [R] 360 [R]
China 3,133 [R] 3,029 [R] 2,992 [R] 2,967 [R]
India 878 [R] 914 [R] 971 [R] 1,012 [R]
Indonesia 247 [R] 241 [R] 266 [R] 274 [R]
Japan 1,161 [R] 1,116 [R] 1,158 [R] 1,204 [R]
Energy Data a 163
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

6,697 [R] 6,782 [R] 6,870 [R] 6,970 [R] 7,034 [R] 6,954
554 [R] 573 [R] 602 [R] 615 [R] 632 [R] 614
380 [R] 384 389 385 [R] 407 [R] 436
5,762 [R] 5,824 [R] 5,878 [R] 5,969 [R] 5,994 [R] 5,903
1 1 1 1 1 1
1,016 [R] 1,005 [R] 1,023 [R] 1,066 [R] 1,111 [R] 1,138
128 [R] 121 [R] 134 [R] 141 [R] 152 [R] 162
349 [R] 347 [R] 346 [R] 356 [R] 371 [R] 377
149 [R] 147 [R] 134 [R] 143 [R] 150 [R] 152
389 390 [R] 408 [R] 426 [R] 438 447
4,559 [R] 4,532 [R] 4,679 [R] 4,713 [R] 4,717 [R] 4,721
146 [R] 143 [R] 151 [R] 154 [R] 151 [R] 148
406 [R] 402 [R] 409 [R] 416 [R] 414 [R] 418
878 [R] 857 [R] 874 [R] 872 [R] 853 [R] 858
445 [R] 453 [R] 475 [R] 470 [R] 473 [R] 468
278 [R] 259 [R] 261 [R] 271 [R] 273 [R] 260
279 [R] 276 [R] 289 [R] 295 [R] 290 [R] 303
102 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 98 [R] 99
332 [R] 349 [R] 357 [R] 371 [R] 384 [R] 373
184 [R] 195 [R] 207 [R] 211 [R] 231 [R] 236
575 [R] 564 [R] 575 [R] 582 [R] 585 [R] 586
934 [R] 934 [R] 980 [R] 972 [R] 966 [R] 973
2,332 [R] 2,354 [R] 2,471 [R] 2,529 [R] 2,600 [R] 2,601
148 [R] 154 [R] 166 [R] 185 [R] 203 [R] 213
1,571 [R] 1,572 [R] 1,627 1,663 [R] 1,699 [R] 1,704
319 [R] 327 [R] 357 [R] 347 [R] 350 [R] 329
111 114 [R] 115 [R] 122 [R] 117 [R] 121
184 [R] 188 206 [R] 212 [R] 231 [R] 233
1,119 [R] 1,175 [R] 1,240 [R] 1,330 [R] 1,444 [R] 1,505
334 [R] 365 [R] 387 [R] 407 [R] 446 [R] 471
301 [R] 312 [R] 347 [R] 389 [R] 406 [R] 424
483 [R] 499 [R] 506 [R] 535 [R] 593 [R] 610
923 [R] 924 [R] 975 [R] 1,025 [R] 1,062 [R] 1,057
130 [R] 134 [R] 144 [R] 153 [R] 161 [R] 152
399 [R] 385 [R] 418 [R] 448 [R] 438 [R] 444
394 [R] 405 [R] 413 [R] 424 [R] 463 [R] 461
7,608 [R] 8,050 [R] 8,806 [R] 9,821 [R] 10,517 [R] 11,220
374 [R] 383 [R] 381 [R] 391 [R] 417 [R] 417
3,108 [R] 3,441 [R] 4,062 [R] 4,847 [R] 5,429 [R] 6,018
1,035 [R] 1,034 [R] 1,048 [R] 1,151 [R] 1,194 [R] 1,293
300 [R] 315 [R] 305 [R] 323 [R] 324 [R] 280
1,197 [R] 1,203 [R] 1,253 [R] 1,258 [R] 1,250 [R] 1,247
164 a Energy Data
Malaysia 102 103 [R] 107 [R] 112 [R]
South Korea 435 [R] 375 [R] 433 [R] 446 [R]
Taiwan 210 [R] 225 [R] 224 [R] 252 [R]
Thailand 177 [R] 162 [R] 171 [R] 162 [R]
Other 520 [R] 530 [R] 567 [R] 578 [R]
World 23,247 [R] 23,160 [R] 23,535 [R] 24,011 [R]
a
b
c
international.
Energy Data a 165
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

125 [R] 134 [R] 150 [R] 166 [R] 160 [R] 164
452 [R] 468 [R] 478 [R] 489 [R] 497 [R] 515
249 [R] 274 [R] 290 [R] 287 [R] 290 [R] 300
172 [R] 187 [R] 206 [R] 226 [R] 243 [R] 245
594 [R] 612 [R] 633 [R] 683 [R] 714 [R] 741
24,253 [R] 24,823 [R] 26,064 [R] 27,453 [R] 28,485 [R] 29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:
3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a

various localities.
habitants warm.

trains.
confirmed.
and transmission.
transportation.

gas and air.
purposes.
eration.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
large numbers.
War II.
source.
pacity at the time.

standard.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
174 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
ing standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM

DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 175
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
176 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 177
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a


and recruiters.


positions.


businesses.


economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS—



WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.


WWW.DOE.GOV




WWW.KAHKE.COM
AND MANUFACTURERS
a



altarockenergy.com



FARMINGTON, CT


SAN FRANCISCO, CA

BREVARD, NC
dupont.com


FEIBURG, GERMANY

IBM, SAN JOSE, CA



www.acciona-na.com





energysiemens.com


suncor.com


DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function


Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell

Geochemical cycles


Grades 9–12
Population growth
Natural resources

History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f 5:38f
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Aeroturbine, 3:14
4:173, 5:170, 5:175 1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
190 a Index

Cells 2:127
Hydropower 5:91
2:92 – 94 4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
2:117, 5:118 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
3:33f Anode, 2:88
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170 5:88 – 89; for green roof, 5:81 – 82
Index a 191
Society of, 5:122 – 23; NiMH, 5:122 – 23;
4:183 – 84, 5:185 – 86 Biliran, 4:33
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f 4:22, 4:40f
192 a Index

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
Index a 193

3:182, 4:184, 5:186 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 2:115 – 16
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 (CYES), 1:30
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173, Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
194 a Index

3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, 5:5, 5:105, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Index a 195

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, (CDM), 4:51
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, (CUTE), 2:112
4:102 pump (GCHP), 4:68
2:17 – 21 1:109 – 11, 1:128 – 29; exporters of,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, and, 1:115 – 16, 5:106; history of,
4:115 – 16 Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
1:122 of, 1:190t – 191t, 2:160t – 161t,
196 a Index

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
Index a 197

natural gas, 1:83 – 84 3:116 – 18
2:4 Service
198 a Index

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
5:105 DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115 cells
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138; Dongtan, China, 5:94
4:182, 5:184; net metering 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Deposits, coal, 1:106 4:8 – 9, 4:8f
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169, 2:12f
5:171
Index a 199

ECR Industries, 4:75 3:16, 3:21 – 22
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 4:168, 5:170
3:166, 4:168, 5:170 3:110
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
200 a Index

El Salvador, 4:42 – 43 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
5:73 – 74, 5:94. See also Carbon 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31,
Index a 201

4:171, 5:173 2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f, 4:175, 5:177
4:48f Ethane, 1:74 – 75
202 a Index

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Ethylene, 1:53 4:175, 5:172, 5:177
(EREC), 3:98 1:151 – 52
4:185, 5:187 Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
5:170, 5:177 2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
Index a 203

2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, ing of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
5:131 – 32 2:106 – 7; history notes of, 5:120;
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 – 102 2:104
5:170, 5:177 2:107 – 9
1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t, Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 – 72, 4:102
204 a Index

3:173, 4:175, 5:177 Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
5:125 – 26 4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
3:183, 4:185, 5:187 in Italy, 4:35 – 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 205
1:35, 4:27 – 28 4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
206 a Index

1:25 – 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
Geysers, 4:4 – 5, 4:52 Gore, Al, 5:129
Gill, Dena, 3:65 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39;
1:184 – 87t, 2:154 – 57t, 3:152 – 55t, 4:176, 5:178
and, 3:56 Gray, Rande, 5:102 – 5
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 – 67 School, 5:35
3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t, 5:26 – 27
Index a 207
2:77f, 5:4 3:42f
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 – 43, 5:82; ar- 4:176, 5:178
208 a Index

5:56 – 57; energy saving, 5:47 – 48;
Harris, Matt, 2:8 3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t,
wastes 2:127, 5:69
Index a 209

1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; 2:100 – 101; in Germany, 2:117;
210 a Index
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185, steel, 1:20 – 21; US coal, 1:113 – 15,
combined cycle 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 211

and Dams, 3:99
2:124 Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
2:33, 2:83 Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Ions, 2:88 in, 5:32
4:71 Kerosene, 1:53
212 a Index

Cells 5:102 – 5
4:33
energy, 5:56 – 57 1:85
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also 5:138
Index a 213

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40 2:126, 4:110 – 11
cells
Malaysia, 4:87 5:71
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, ing, 1:98
2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 1:96 – 97
214 a Index
Motion, 1:6
Cells 4:176, 5:170, 5:178
Hydropower 4:108
Murphy, John, 2:98
1:138 – 40
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36 5:114f, 5:116
Mojave Desert, 2:36 – 38, 2:51, 3:32, 2:90, 5:120
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127 4:117, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119 4:73
Index a 215

4:187 – 88, 5:189 – 90 safety of, 1:92
Authority, 3:119 4:177, 5:179
216 a Index

Cells 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
New York, 2:17, 2:114 – 15, 5:34, 5:82 3:117 – 18
3:110 – 11 NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
(NiMH), 5:122 – 23 1:137 – 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 – 41,
Index a 217
source, 1:131 – 32 (ORPC), 3:124
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173; Octane rating, 1:47
ers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 – 44; in 4:185, 5:187
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
5:124, 5:129 1:45; US fields of, 1:46; US im-
218 a Index

Hydropower 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 3:115
3:158, 4:160, 5:162 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Index a 219
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 uses for, 2:6
1: 151 5:113
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169; Poland, 1:116
2:119 3:81; double-flash, 4:11; flash-
220 a Index
1:81 – 82; Poland’s coal, 1:116;

Cells 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
Pressures, 4:3
1:144 Quantum dots, 5:114 – 15
1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, Radiant energy, 1:5
4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88 Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Index a 221

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84; China
1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on 2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind sion of, 2:28 – 29
1:190 – 91t, 2:160t – 161t, Renovation, 5:27 – 28
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, 2:98
222 a Index

2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
4:40, 4:44 San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 – 6
1:29, 1:31 2:111
2:110f, 5:69 San Juan Basin, 1:80
Index a 223
in, 4:66 4:11
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, ficiency, 5:23
3:185, 4:187, 5:189 plants, 3:89 – 90
5:146t – 149t 2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
224 a Index
2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31,

5:132 – 33; schools using, 2:16 – 17;
2:3 – 4; US projects of, 2:21 – 23; US
5:64 – 65, 5:64f Solar heaters, 2:79f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185; Solar ovens, 2:71
2:4; cost of, 2:30 – 31; econom- 3:64f
Index a 225
Solatubes, 5:37 4:98 – 102, 4:99f
5:121 4:169, 5:171
4:186, 5:188 Rotor
4:69 1:60f
4:188, 5:190 (SEAT), 1:28
226 a Index

3:116 – 17
Cells 3:9
5:35 – 36
Index a 227
Thailand, 4:39 – 40, 4:87 Tiwi, 4:41
228 a Index

5:173 of, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; geothermal
energy in, 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 229
of, 3:17 – 18, 5:115; wind energy 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75;
4:137, 5:139 plant, 3:59
1:144 3:14 – 15
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 – 20 3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:28 5:108f
4:123
230 a Index

1:145
4:168, 5:170 3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 – 18;
3:116f rials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
Index a 231
3:46, 3:46f Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 – 67
232 a Index
Xeriscape, 5:87
Cells 5:188
4:9, 4:52
2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139 2:33
opment, 5:101f ment, 3:67 – 68
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4 5:94
About the Author

A STUDENT GUIDE
TO ENERGY
Volume 5: Energy Efficiency,

Conservation, and
Sustainability
John F. Mongillo
Mongillo, John F.
v. cm.
ISBN 978-0-313-37725-9 (v. 2 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37726-6
ISBN 978-0-313-37729-7 (v. 4 ebook) — ISBN 978-0-313-37730-3
TJ163.16.M66 2011
621.042—dc22 2011000481
ISBN: 978-0-313-37720-4
EISBN: 978-0-313-37721-1
15 14 13 12 11 1 2 3 4 5
Greenwood
ABC-CLIO, LLC
CONTENTS
a
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Go Green: Energy Efficiency and
Energy Conservation 1
NASCAR’s Go-Green Program 1
Go Green: Be Energy Efficient 3
Carbon Dioxide Emissions Are Increasing 4
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions 5
Carbon Footprint 5
Rock Bands and Musicians Reducing
Their Carbon Footprints 6
Carbon Footprints of Homes 8
Carbon Footprints of Schools and Colleges 9
Carbon Footprints of Cities 15
Carbon Footprints of Companies 18
How Can We Reduce Our Carbon Footprint? 19
Interview
Rick Peck 13
Chapter 2 Go-Green Schools 25
What Is a Sustainable Green School Building? 26
The U.S. Green Building Council 26
vi a Contents
21st Century Green High-Performing Public

Schools Facilities Act 27
Go-Green Public Schools 31
How to Lower Your School’s Utility Bills 36
Interviews
Marie Norman 28
Don Carmichael 37
Chapter 3 Greener Homes and Greener Vehicles 45

The Home of the Future? 46
Saving Energy: It Starts at Home 47
Electricity 48
Home Heating 50
Wastes 51
Help Parents Become More Home Energy Efficient 51
Home Energy Audits 54
The Building Trend for Smaller Homes 55
Home Energy Efficiency Outdoors 56
Renewable Energy Resources for Homes 63
Solar House Decathlon Homes of 2009 64
Green Roofs for Homeowners 65
Greener Vehicles for Travel 68
Driving and Car Maintenance 75
Interviews
Bhavna Rawal 57
Mr. and Mrs. Gerald McGrath 66
Chapter 4 Green Buildings and Green Cities 79

What Is a Green Building? 79
The Impact of Buildings on the Natural Environment 80
LEED Leads the Way 80
Criteria for Residential Green Building Products 80
Green Roof Architecture 81
University and College Courses in Green Architecture 88
Technical School Courses 88
U.S. Green Cities 89
Green Cities in Other Countries 92
Contents a vii
Chapter 5 Renewable Energy Systems for a Sustainable Future 99

Sustainable Development 100
Energy Consumption and Environmental Concerns 102
Changing to Sustainable Energy Systems 105
Renewable Energy to Power a Sustainable Future 107
Batteries 122
The Future of Renewable Energy Sources
and the Challenges 124
Interview
Rande Gray 102

Energy Data 141
Energy Time Line : 3000 B.C. To A.D. 2009 169
Profiles 175
Index 191
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a
x a Acknowledgments

series.
Racing (NASCAR).
much more.
INTRODUCTION
a



xiv a Introduction
World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international com-

panies, universities and colleges, entrepreneurs, and citizens are debating
present and future energy policies. A few of the questions they are address-
ing include the following:
21st century.

Introduction a xv
Organization
each chapter.
each chapter.
xvi a Introduction


ogy milestones.
powered car.
Introduction a xvii


Petroleum

Natural Gas
Coal
energy consumption.
Introduction a xix
Nuclear Energy

Solar Energy
two kilowatts.
New York, and Colorado.
xx a Introduction
Introduction a xxi
Fuel Cells
radios.
Wind Power
xxii a Introduction

look at Europe: Europe is high on wind power. In fact, wind turbines gen-
erate more electricity in Europe as an alternative source of energy than
Hydropower
Tidal Power Energy

one in France.

Geothermal

xxiv a Introduction
Energy’s Future
Energy Data
Chapter 1
a
Go Green: Energy
Efficiency and
Energy Conservation
NASCAR’S GO-GREEN PROGRAM

Can you name a professional sport, aside from football, that has more
American television viewers than any other? If you said NASCAR auto
racing, you are right.
Each year, the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NAS-
CAR) presents a full schedule of popular, well-attended auto racing
events in the United States and elsewhere. In fact, NASCAR reports that
more than 70 millions fans come to its racetracks during the stock car
race’s yearly season. Now NASCAR is going green. It wants to be more
energy-efficient.
Recently, NASCAR announced the “NASCAR Green Clean Air” ini-
tiative. The new initiative aims to neutralize the environmental impacts
of racing by capturing carbon emissions. NASCAR is planting 10 new
trees for each green flag that drops, which will amount to approximately
20 acres of trees yearly. Because a tree captures and stores about one ton
of carbon dioxide (CO2) over its lifetime, the emissions produced during a
typical race will be offset.
In explaining NASCAR’s motives for implementing the new program,
CEO and chairman Brian France said: “Fans are concerned about high
fuel cost, global warming, and energy independence. We recognize this
must be one of our priorities moving forward.” The tree-planting program
is only one component of NASCAR’s broader green initiative. NASCAR

also lists the following among its accomplishments:
• Bottles and cans are recycled at all NASCAR-sanctioned race tracks.
• All oils and car fluids used at the track are recycled by Safety-Kleen,
Incorporated.
• Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company recycles all tires used in racing.
• Exide Technologies provides a recycling program for the batteries
used in the races.
• All NASCAR offices have introduced a recycling program aimed at
100 percent recycling, and the new NASCAR plaza in Charlotte,
North Carolina, and the “Daytona Speedplex” will be built using Lead-
ership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards.
Brian France has set NASCAR the ambitious goal of being “an envi-
ronmental leader not only in sports but in all industry.” He describes the
new program as “a first, important step in an ambitious five-year plan to
significantly reduce the environmental footprint of NASCAR, while rais-
ing awareness of conservation among fans.”
NASCAR Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Brian France announces that
NASCAR will move to a 15 percent ethanol fuel mix for the 2011 season, Octo-
ber 16, 2010. (Rusty Jarrett/Getty Images for NASCAR)
Go Green a 3
VIDEO
To learn more about NASCAR’s go-green efforts, check out the video “NASCAR
Revs Up Green Effort”: http://www.environmentalleader.com/2009/12/03/nascar-
revs-up-green-efforts/ (1:41 minutes).
GO GREEN: BE ENERGY EFFICIENT

Everyone in the energy field believes that we need to become more efficient
in using our energy resources. In fact, many believe that energy efficiency is
the first step before considering renewable energy sources. Becoming more
energy efficient means wasting less.
In this volume in chapter 1, we look at energy efficiency and the steps
needed to reduce our carbon footprint in our homes, schools, cities, and
businesses.
• Chapter 2 discusses how school committees, teachers, and students
have made their schools more sustainable.
• Chapter 3 details how homeowners, assisted by their children, can
make their homes more energy-efficient by using a home energy
audit plan.
• Chapter 4 features green buildings and green cities that provide less
impact on the environment and a comfortable workplace for employees.
• Chapter 5 covers the power for a sustainable future through renew-
able energy.
There are many things we can do to use less energy and use it more
wisely. Two main ways to save energy are energy conservation and energy
efficiency. As discussed in volume 1, people often think these terms mean
the same thing, but they are different. The Department of Energy draws
the distinction in the following terms:
Energy conservation is any behavior that results in the use of less en-
ergy. Turning the lights off when you leave the room and recycling
aluminum cans are both ways of conserving energy.
Energy efficiency is the use of technology that requires less energy
to perform the same function. A compact fluorescent light bulb that
uses less energy than an incandescent bulb to produce the same
amount of light is an example of energy efficiency. However, the
decision to replace an incandescent light bulb with a compact fluo-

rescent is an act of energy conservation.
Both energy conservation and energy efficiency will be key in reducing

CO2 emissions.
CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS

ARE INCREASING
Most would agree that any excess CO2 in the atmosphere can have nega-
tive effects on the environment. Carbon dioxide emissions are of concern
to scientists because CO2 is the greenhouse gas that contributes most to
the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect maintains a global climate by
trapping heat near the surface of Earth. As with the glass panes of a green-
house, atmospheric gases, such as CO2, help warm the planet and make
Earth hospitable to all living organisms. However, scientists are concerned
that if the level of greenhouse gases continues to rise, an increase in Earth’s
temperatures will result and a climate-warming trend will follow. This con-
dition is known as global warming.
Breakdown of global human-caused greenhouse gas emissions by each gas

measured on a CO2-equivalent basis, 2004. (Source: IPCC 4th Assessment
Report: Climate Change 2007 Synthesis Report)
Go Green a 5
DID YOU KNOW?

The countries with the highest industrial emissions of carbon dioxide, in order, are
the United States, China, Russia, Japan, Germany, India, Ukraine, and the United
Kingdom. Some countries with the lowest industrial emissions of carbon dioxide
include Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Singapore.
According to the World Resources Institute, CO2 emissions have in-

creased from about one billion tons to more than six billion tons over the
past 47 years, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles, fac-
tories, buildings, and electrical power plants. Additional increases in CO2
levels are caused by deforestation. When trees are cut down and burned
to clear land for agriculture, CO2 is released. In addition, as forests are cut
down, there are fewer carbon sinks such as forests and other green plants
to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.
In 1997, according to one research study, CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere
reached 336.6 parts per million (ppm). In the future, if CO2 levels reach
550 ppm, the world’s average surface temperature will increase to about
3 degrees Celsius (37ºF). The increase will have an impact on the human
population and on Earth’s ecosystems.
WORLD CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS

As energy consumption increases with economic and population growth,
CO2 emissions are projected to rise from 29.0 billion metric tons in 2006
to 33.1 billion metric tons in 2015 and 40.4 billion metric tons in 2030.
This is an increase of 39 percent in just 24 years.
One idea for reducing carbon emissions and becoming more energy ef-
ficient is to examine and analyze our carbon footprint in our homes, build-
ings, and schools and even in our daily personal habits.
CARBON FOOTPRINT
Most definitions describe a carbon footprint as the total amount of green-
house gases produced directly and indirectly to support all of our activities.
Some of these activities include eating, riding the school bus, turning on
the lights, watching television, and the heating and cooling of the house.
Carbon footprints are usually expressed in equivalent tons of CO2 in a
given time period.
(Source: Carbon Footprint Ltd.)
You can divide the carbon footprint into a sum of two parts: the primary
footprint and the secondary footprint. The primary footprint is a measure of
the direct emissions of CO2 from, for example, the burning of fossil fuels
for energy consumption and transportation.
The secondary footprint is a measure of the indirect CO2 emissions from
the entire life cycle of a product. This cycle includes the early stage of the
manufacturing and producing of goods at the plant, which are then sold
to the consumer. The final stage of the used product is that it can either be
recycled or transported as trash to waste sites or incinerators.
Collecting and analyzing data on our carbon footprint is an excellent
way to understand the impact of our personal behavior on global warming.
However, reducing one’s carbon footprint takes a bit of planning to initiate
and is a major challenge for all of us in the 21st century. It may be hard to
get rid of some of our habits related to reducing our carbon footprint.
ROCK BANDS AND MUSICIANS REDUCING

THEIR CARBON FOOTPRINTS
In California, one popular go-green rock band is planning to record its
newest album in the band’s studio, the electricity for which is completely
supplied by solar energy. Other performers around the country are using
Go Green a 7
DID YOU KNOW?

Carbon is a naturally occurring nonmetallic element that is present in the cells of all
organisms. Carbon makes up approximately 19 percent of the mass of the human body
and is an essential component of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids.
FEATURE
Ecological Footprint
You may have heard of the ecological footprint. The ecological footprint measures
how much demand humans place on Earth’s ecosystems. The footprint compares
human demand with Earth’s ecological ability to recycle the resources a human
population consumes.
Some of the strategies for reducing our ecological footprint are to purchase and
use more ecologically friendly products, reuse and recycle natural resources, and con-
sume cleaner energy. The carbon footprint is 50 percent of the ecological footprint.
solar power and other renewable forms of energy to power such equipment
as speakers, lights, and sound equipment on their tours.
Here’s a short list of what some of rock bands, hip-hop singers, and
other musicians are doing to use energy more efficiently at concerts and at
the same time reduce their own carbon footprint:
• Going on tours using biofuel-powered buses
• Selling eco-friendly organic cotton and bamboo merchandise at concerts
• Using low-energy LED lights, solar-powered amps, and even elec-
tricity produced by wind power at their concerts
• Manufacturing concert merchandise strictly from recyclable materials
• Encouraging their fans to use refillable water bottles
• Distributing energy-efficient CFL bulbs to attendees
• Participating in student groups to discuss how students can calculate
their own carbon footprints and find ways to cut down on their car-
bon footprints
• Providing separate bins, with biodegradable bags, at concerts for
waste and for recycling bottles and cans
• Delivering unused backstage concert food to local homeless shelters
John Mayer performs at a concert

in Nashville, Tennessee, October 5,
2010. The environmentally conscious
performer tours using biodiesel-
fueled buses, sells eco-friendly mer-
chandise, and partnered with the
nonprofit eco-organization Reverb
on his 2010 tour. (Rick Diamond/
Getty Images)
One rock group has even hired an eco-crew to check tire air pressure for
concert fans attending their events. How are your favorite singers and rock
bands going green?
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF HOMES

The average American generates about 15,000 pounds of CO2 every year
from personal transportation and home energy use.
A partial list of items in the home that generate CO2 emissions include
such items as air conditioners, water heaters, electric ranges, furnaces, ceil-
ing fans, gas dryers, DVD players, power tools, exterior lights, electric heat
pumps, indoor lighting, freezers, cordless phones, stereos, hair dryers, and
the list goes on and on.
All of the products mentioned need electricity to operate and function,
and as a result they produce pounds of CO2. According to recent govern-
ment estimates, the average CO2 emissions associated with a two-person
household living a typical American lifestyle amount to about 42,000
pounds (22 tons) each year. Other energy reports state that a typical house-
hold produces about 150 pounds of CO2 a day.
Reduction in carbon emissions can be accomplished through greater
energy efficiency. Homeowners, business owners, and schools and colleges
Go Green a 9
FEATURE
Pounds of CO2 Emissions per Item Each Year
Central air conditioning: 4,000 pounds
Refrigerator: 1,200 pounds
Television: 540 pounds
Oil furnace: 14,000 pounds
Indoor lighting: 2,200 pounds
Gas furnace: 6,900 pounds
Cell phone: 5 pounds
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
are turning to energy efficiency to control CO2 emissions and to save fuel
costs, as well.
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

In response to mounting concern for the environment and to be more en-
ergy efficient, many schools and colleges throughout the United States are
actively involved in reducing their carbon footprint.
Minnesota
The Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon project is an innovative three-year
initiative with 100 participating public schools, colleges, and universities.
Student teams are charged with designing and creating projects to increase
campus energy efficiency, save money, and reduce carbon emissions under
the guidance of a faculty coach and with the support of campus staff and
administrators.
DID YOU KNOW?

In a New York gym, clients, using stationary spin bicycles, pedal hard and fast for
exercise and to generate electricity to reduce the carbon footprint of the gym. Ac-
cording to the owner, the dynamos on the spin bicycles transfer 12 volts of electric-
ity produced by the pedaling to a generator, which produces an alternating current
of 110 volts to power the gym’s electrical needs.
During the fall of 2009, the 100 participating schools competed for
ten $20,000 grants for the most innovative projects to lower their carbon
emissions, save energy, and/or produce clean energy.
To view the schools participating across the state, you can visit www.
SchoolsCuttingCarbon.org.
Vermont
An energy-efficiency program in Vermont schools reduced carbon emis-
sions by more than 100 tons. One school tallied up almost 23 tons of
reduced emissions.
New Hampshire
The Richmond Middle School in Hanover, New Hampshire, reduced its
emissions by more than 22 tons. One of the elementary schools in the state
Mark Fortman, assistant director of building and grounds, shows off one of the
many new air handling units in Henry Sibley Senior High School in Mendota
Heights, Minnesota, March 13, 2009. The new units adjust more efficiently to
demand and resulted in about 30 percent savings in 2008, in addition to reducing
the school’s carbon footprint. The school is one of more than 100 participating
in the Minnesota Schools Cutting Carbon program. (AP Photo/Craig Lassig)
Go Green a 11
reduced emissions by 5 tons, and one state high school reduced its CO2
emissions by more than 30 tons.
Washington
At the Redmond High School in Washington, students reduced the
school’s carbon footprint by 72 tons and saved the school about $7,500 in
its electric bill alone.
Virginia
The Seneca Ridge Middle School in Sterling, Virginia, has an experiment
to teach students how they can reduce their carbon footprint by conserving
energy. The experiment focuses on one wing of the school where electri-
cians had set up a meter to monitor how many kilowatts were being used
at a given time in that section of the school.
In one test, teachers plugged in every electrical appliance they could,
and students monitored the usage. The students also checked to see how
much electricity they were using on a typical day. The students observe the
actual kilowatts used at a particular moment.
Texas
Another green school building is in Houston, Texas. The Chrysalis build-
ing is the new campus for the Monarch School. The Monarch School is
a national leader in therapeutic education for hundreds of children with
neurological differences—many related to autism. The Chrysalis building
will use much less energy than an average, comparably sized building. The
new building will save more than $170,000 in energy bills over the next
25 years, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
Idaho
In 2009 the Van Buren Elementary School in Boise, Idaho, was designed
and constructed to conserve energy and enhance learning. The improve-
ments were specially designed to provide classroom windows to illuminate
90 percent of the building with sunlight. Other improvements included
high-performance kitchen and bathroom fixtures to maximize water ef-
ficiency and efficient heating and cooling systems that will keep class-
room temperatures consistent. The school is not only saving money while
decreasing its carbon footprint but it also is improving the teachers’ ability
to do their job and the students’ abilities to learn, according to one of the
school’s officials.
Some Ideas for Reducing Carbon

Footprints in Schools
Building networks with other schools and environmental organizations
can help generate ideas, increase buying power, increase a school’s influ-
ence on local authorities, and motivate pupils to be involved in practical
projects around the school. As an example, some schools have enlisted
pupils to read energy meters, recycle paper and plastic bottles, and monitor
and report energy consumption in a school energy audit.
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Green Schools Checklist. The

Illinois EPA publishes a green-school energy efficiency checklist that includes
a list of actions that the state’s schools can take to become more energy effi-
cient. (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency)
Go Green a 13
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate : Rick Peck, Science Teacher, Seneca Ridge Middle School, Ster-
ling, Virginia
Go-Green Project Goal: Reducing the middle school’s carbon footprint.
Rick Peck’s goal in his project was to help reduce the carbon footprint of his middle
school by measuring and then reducing the school’s electrical consumption.
I am a sixth-grade science teacher at Seneca Ridge Middle School, where I have
been teaching for 10 years.
What career did you have before switching to teaching?
Before teaching I had an active career in the financial world. I began as a CPA
(certified public accountant) where I became a partner of one of the big worldwide
firms. I spent over 29 years in the business world, and enjoyed the challenging and
fascinating times very much. But when the company I was working for got sold,
I decided it might be cool to teach. Because I have always been interested in the
natural world, the principal who hired me suggested I go with science rather than
the English position. That was a great suggestion, since teaching science has
Science teacher Rick

Peck with his students
at Seneca Ridge Middle
School checks the light
intensity in the main
locker area. (Sophia Syed)
become my passion—it’s both what I do and who I am, not just during the school
day but all 365.25 days a year.
In science nothing is more important than experiments, and you can’t do experi-
ments without measuring something. That thought was the one of the two main
motivations for the project. While you can measure the electricity on a micro basis
(one appliance, for example), and on a large macro basis (the entire school), you
often can’t measure on anything in between, and that is where the more meaning-
ful experimentation can occur.
With my background in the private sector, I knew that it was possible to sub-
meter portions of a large building, or to measure the electrical consumption of any
one part of a large facility. It’s done all the time, such as in residential apartments,
but never in K12 education. If we could actually measure the electricity a meaning-
ful unit of students used, then we could conduct an experiment about its use. So
I applied for a grant that would let us measure the electricity we used, and even
figure out how much carbon emissions resulted from our use. It was important that
students see the data in a convenient location for them, and that it be presented
visually.
How did you measure the electrical pulses?
We found some software that would let us take the electrical pulses from the high
voltage transformer in the sixth-grade wing and translate those pulses into minute-
by-minute reports of kilowatts used, daily kilowatt-hours of use, and even the car-
bon footprint for each kilowatt-hour. We then had a large screen monitor fixed high
on a wall in the sixth-grade locker area. Before we even had set up the electrical
meter, we showed the weather report, the lunch menu for the day, and even pic-
tures of students. This got students used to looking up at the monitor.
Then the second motivation for the project was the environment. It’s not just me,
but the students who, I have found, felt strongly about the environment. So, instead
of making energy usage the major dependent variable in an experiment, I thought it
made sense to make something more directly related to the environment be the de-
pendent variable. Reducing the carbon footprint seemed like a great objective, some-
thing that students would buy into. The idea is that they might not want to help the
school system save money and reduce energy use, but for sure they wanted to help
save the polar bears, since the Arctic is an area most threatened by climate change.
Even if they didn’t reduce our carbon footprint, at the very least students should
realize that the use of energy in the school does have an effect on more green-
house gas emissions. If they realize that there is an effect, then it’s a small step
for them to realize that their actions can affect what happens in the world and its
environment.
Climate change is a very real and students, especially young ones, often have a
sense of helplessness in the face of global issues.
Go Green a 15
What did you hope to change about students’ thinking as a result of the project?
I wanted to change the feeling of helplessness that many students had that no action
they took could have an effect. By measuring the effects of meaningful actions, and
by seeing many of the lights in the halls turned off permanently, students saw that
they could have an effect on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Overcoming
the sense of futility was the major objective of the project, and we believe it achieved
excellent success. The students are not suddenly going to change the world, but by
realizing they could change the energy use in one environment (the school), they
know they can apply that lesson to the larger environments around them.
What did your school system learn as a result of the project?
The major thing the school system learned was that their interest in our environ-
ment could motivate students. Our energy guru said that he used to try and explain
to assemblies how important it was to the school to save energy and money. Now,
his story is that if students want to save the polar bears, they have to do a better
job of saving energy.
Understand the plans for your school building and get some support on the facili-
ties side. Also, measuring the pulses is not enough; you have to think about how to
present measurements to students.
The people who were doing our energy submetering told us that businesses
looked at the energy use over a 15-minute or longer period, but we felt that was
way too long for middle school students. When we turned off all the lights or turned
them all on, plus hot plates, we wanted students to see the immediate change in
energy use. That turned out to be a good decision.
Discuss some of the students’ contributions in working with you on this project.
We had two “town hall meetings” of all 320 students and received their strong
support of the project. If they had not overwhelmingly voted to reduce lighting, we
would not have been able to do the project.
Three years. These things take time.
Yes, I hope to extend the experiment to the eighth-grade wing next, since their sci-
ence standards include energy also. I also want to tie in outside temperatures so
that we can factor in air conditioning demands.
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF CITIES

The U.S. Conference of Mayors hosted a 2007 summit in Seattle, Wash-
ington, to discuss how to take local and federal action in the fight against
climate change.
Mayors of U.S. cities applaud during the opening session of the U.S. Confer-
ence of Mayors’ “Climate Protection Summit,” November 1, 2007, in Seattle,
Washington. More than 100 mayors from across the country met to discuss
steps U.S. cities can make to address the effects of climate change. (AP
Photo/Ted S. Warren)
Out of this summit emerged the Mayors Climate Protection Center,

tasked with administering and tracking the U.S. Mayors Climate Protec-
tion Agreement of 2005. As of 2007, there were more than 710 signatories
to the agreement.
Under the agreement, participating cities are committed to take the fol-
lowing three actions:
• Strive to meet or beat the Kyoto Protocol targets in their own
communities through actions ranging from anti-sprawl land-use
policies to urban forest restoration projects to public information
campaigns.
• Urge their state governments, and the federal government, to enact
policies and programs to meet or beat the greenhouse gas emis-
sion reduction target suggested for the United States in the Kyoto
Protocol—7 percent reduction from 1990 levels by 2012.
• Urge the U.S. Congress to pass the bipartisan greenhouse gas reduc-
tion legislation, which would establish a national emission trading
system.
Go Green a 17
Cities Get Ranked for Their Carbon Footprint

In 2008 the Brookings Institution published a report that quantified the
carbon footprint for the nation’s 100 largest metro areas. The data in the
report was based on fuels used by vehicles (personal and freight) and
the energy used in residential buildings. Some of the cities with the small-
est carbon footprint included Boise, Idaho; Honolulu, Hawaii; Santa Ana,
California; and El Paso, Texas. A few of the cities with the largest carbon
footprint included Tulsa, Oklahoma; Knoxville, Tennessee; Toledo, Ohio;
and Indianapolis, Indiana.
The report showed that per capita emissions vary widely from city to
city. Availability of rail transit and population density both appear to have
a strong impact on emissions. Densely populated areas such as New York
and Los Angeles, despite being two of the country’s largest metropolitan
areas, actually have smaller footprints per capita than smaller, less-compact
populated cities such as Nashville and Oklahoma City.
Cities Are Reducing Their Carbon Footprint

Many cities are taking matters into their own hands to reduce their carbon
footprint. Here are just a few of the cities that are doing energy-efficiency
projects.
Santa Monica, California: Santa Monica was recently recognized as
being one of the five most sustainable cities in the United States. Santa
Monica has been able to balance its economy and protect the environ-
ment for future generations, while at the same time remain a sustainable
city.
Tucson, Arizona: All new city buildings and renovations in Tucson
greater than 5,000 square feet must meet the U.S. Green Building Coun-
cil’s LEED qualifications for a silver rating. According to the city’s
Sustainability Report, a range of renovations, including solar systems and
automated light controls, collectively reduced city greenhouse gas emis-
sions by 7,000 tons in 2007—roughly equivalent to the emissions pro-
duced by 400 city residents.
Albuquerque, New Mexico: The city of Albuquerque has purchased
only alternative-fuel vehicles for its fleet since March 2006. Addition-
ally, city parking is free for hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles, and ap-
proximately 20 percent of the city’s electric power is produced by wind
turbine.
Energy efficiency solar specialist Paul Scott recharges his 2002 Toyota RAV4
electric vehicle at a free power outlet at the Santa Monica City Hall in Santa
Monica, California, in August 2005. (AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)
CARBON FOOTPRINTS OF COMPANIES

In 2009 Newsweek magazine evaluated the 500 largest U.S. companies
based on their environmental impact, their green policies, and their repu-
tation among their peers and environmental experts. For more information
about the companies, the members of Newsweek’s advisory panel, and the
methodology, go to http://newsweek.com/green.
FEATURE
AutoDesk Helps Cities Track Their Carbon Emissions
In 2009 AutoDesk, Inc., a world leader in 2D and 3D design and engineering soft-
ware, announced that it would collaborate with the Clinton Climate Initiative and
the Microsoft Corporation to provide visualization technology for Project Two De-
grees. Project Two Degrees is an Internet-based application that provides cities
with a set of tools to measure, compare, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions at
a local level.
Go Green a 19
In a short, the magazine report indicated that a number of the compa-

nies made solid efforts to go green. One company offered software prod-
ucts to help customers reduce their own greenhouse emissions. Another
company provided a personal computer policy that paid its customers to
ship back to them any obsolete equipment. According to this company,
it had reclaimed almost two billion pounds of waste in the 10 years since
starting the program.
A heavy equipment company announced plans to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions of all of its big machines by 20 percent by 2020. A major
food outlet had set up three goals: to operate solely using renewable energy
sources, to create zero wastes, and to sell products that conserve natural
resources. Another large food market is reducing its number of grocery re-
frigerators. The store is making efforts to use less energy, reduce emissions,
and recycle obsolete machines.
HOW CAN WE REDUCE OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT?

How can we reduce our carbon footprint? Here are a few tips from the
Environmental Protection Agency:
• Contact a utility company that uses renewable energy sources as part

of its portfolio. Does the company supply electricity from renewable
sources such as wind and hydroelectric power? If it does, you will
reduce your carbon footprint contribution from electricity to zero.
• Turn off such items as lights, televisions, DVD players, computers,
and video games when they are not in use.
• Turning down the heating system a few degrees Fahrenheit will
translate into significant savings on the utility bill.
• Use compact fluorescent bulbs.
• Insulate the attic and walls.
• Replace the old refrigerator (more than 10 years old) with a new one
with an energy efficiency rating of “A.”
• Replace the old furnace with a new energy-efficient condensing
boiler.
• Carpool to work or school.
• Use the bus or a train rather than the car.
• For short journeys, either walk or cycle to the destination.
FEATURE
Use the EPA Online Calculator: Estimate Your Carbon Footprint
To quantify how you are reducing your carbon footprint, try using an online car-
bon footprint calculator. There are a number of free carbon footprint calculators
online that can help you assess your carbon footprint, including one from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
wycd/calculator/ind_calculator.html), which has developed tools to help individ-
uals (and households) reduce greenhouse gas emissions and take action. Busi-
nesses and organizations interested in educating their employees and members
about what they can do at home to help protect our climate can also use these
tools.
Use the EPA’s online calculator to obtain an estimate of your personal green-
house gas emissions or your family’s greenhouse gas emissions. Then move on
to the next section of the calculator to explore actions you and/or your family
can take to lower your emissions while reducing your energy and waste dis-
posal costs. For each action you choose to take, the calculator displays the
amount of emissions you could avoid and how that amount relates to your total
emissions.
Allow yourself 10–15 minutes to enter the data. Follow these instructions for
using the calculator:
1. To get the most accurate results, gather your recent electric, gas, and/
or oil bills so that you can use real numbers for your household’s energy
consumption.
2. After entering data, use the TAB key to continue moving through the
calculator.
3. The calculator is designed to give you a ballpark estimate of your emis-
sions and the savings you may achieve from taking certain actions.
4. The “What You Can Do” section of the climate change site (http://www.
epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/index.html) identifies many steps that indi-
viduals can take to decrease greenhouse gas emissions such as CO2 to
save money at home, at the office, on the road, and at school. Another
online calculator you can use is the University of California at Berkeley’s
Cool Climate Calculator (http://coolclimate.berkeley.edu/).
VIDEO
Energy Audits: For more information on saving money and helping the environment
through audits, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXsN8cZMRoM&feature=
related (04:16 minutes).
Go Green a 21
FEATURE
What Are the Most Energy-Efficient Countries in the World?
According to a Forbes business report published in 2009, the top energy-efficient
countries in the world, in order, are Japan, Denmark, Switzerland, Hong Kong,
Ireland, the United Kingdom, Israel, Italy, Germany, and Austria. According to the
report, a country with a very high gross domestic product and relatively little en-
ergy consumption was likely to be a very energy-efficient economy and the most
energy-efficient countries were all similar to Japan. In many cases these countries
had turned to energy efficiency to keep down their nonrenewable fuel require-
ments and to control their CO2 emissions.
Legislative Efforts to Reduce

Carbon Footprint
Lawmakers in the U.S. Congress are studying plans to reduce the na-
tion’s greenhouse gas output from three major sources of emissions. These
sources include electric utilities, the transportation sector, and major in-
dustrial companies.
In one legislative plan, the utility power plants would face an overall cap
on emissions that would become more stringent over time. Motor fuels
may be subject to a carbon tax, funds from which might be used to increase
the mass transportation sector. The industrial facilities would be exempted
from a cap on emissions for several years before the plan for them to re-
duce emissions was phased in.
The legislation would also expand domestic oil and gas drilling offshore
and would provide federal assistance for constructing nuclear power plants
and carbon sequestration and storage projects at coal-fired utilities.
SOMETHING TO DO
1. If your family uses two or more vehicles for their normal daily activi-
ties, devise a plan in which one less vehicle is used over a two-week
period. Chart the advantages and disadvantages of the plan for each
family member.
2. Plan a visit to a local car dealership. Develop questions that focus
on the types of models that are most popular and why; how gasoline
mileage is determined; the appeal, safety, and cost-effectiveness of
hybrid vehicles; what the dealer feels will be future energy sources
for automobiles; and how the vehicle support structure will have to
be modified to adjust to the new technology.
3. Help plan a visit to your local power-generating plant. Ask questions
relating to how a turbine works, what its power source is, how the
electricity is distributed, what plans are in place to prevent “brown
outs,” and whether they have plans for using sustainable energy
sources.

Krigger, John, and Chris Dorsi. The Homeowner’s Handbook to Energy
Efficiency. Helena, MT: Saturn Resource Management, 2008.
Schor, Juliet B., and Betsy Taylor. Sustainable Planet: Solutions for the
Twenty-First Century. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2002.
2006.
WEB SITES
nongovernmental organizations in energy program initiatives.
www.eere.energy.gov/topics/buildings.html
The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy funds research and development to help commercial build-
ers, businesses, and home owners reduce energy use through energy
efficiency and renewable energy technology.
www.energizedlearning.lbl.gov
Energized Learning’s Web site is designed for educators, parents and
students to participate in lessons and activities that develop specific
skills and knowledge that can foster a better understanding of energy
and its complex interrelationship with science, economics, and the
social studies.
www.eetd.lbl.gov/eetd
The Environmental Energy Technologies Division of the Berkeley
National Laboratory provides research in the fields of advanced
energy technologies, atmospheric sciences, buildings energy ef-
ficiency, energy analysis, and indoor and outdoor environmental
quality.
Go Green a 23
www.epa.gov.gov/epawaste
The Environmental Protection Agency is challenging all citizens to
conserve our natural resources by committing to reduce, reuse, and
recycle and to learn the fundamentals of reducing waste, reusing ma-
terials, managing hazardous waste, and disposing of solid wastes and
nonhazardous material.
www.business.gov/manage
The Small Business Guide to Energy Efficiency is a guide to help small
businesses become more energy efficient by using energy saving ideas,
improving energy efficient practices for better savings and identify-
ing energy efficient upgrades.
www.allamericanhomes.com/greenoptions
All American Homes suggests energy efficient options to reduce
monthly energy bills through the use of compact fluorescent lighting,
tankless water heaters, Energy Star appliances, and home insulating
materials.
www.seeprograms.com
Schools for Energy Efficiency provides schools with the strategies,
resources, and support necessary to implement an energy manage-
ment program geared toward reducing energy costs and saving
energy.
VIDEOS
version.
A Global Problem—Renewable Energy: India and China are inte-
gral to emission reductions and climate change. But both are “stiff
arming” carbon capping proposals. To hear more about “a weapon of
mass reconstruction,” go to http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2009/07/renewable-energy-a-weapon-of-mass-
reconstruction#podcast/
Be a Go-Green Rock Star: You can recycle like a rock star by going
to the waste management site at https://www.thinkgreenfromhome.
com/ThinkGreenFromHome.cfm.
Energy Audits: For more information on saving money and helping
the environment with energy audits, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GXsN8cZMRoM&feature=related (04:16 minutes).
Bioclimatic Architecture: For more information about utilizing Earth’s
raw materials and the azimuth of the sun to determine the site of a
house, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBoG0Medyfo&fea
ture=related.
Ecological Architecture: To learn more about waste from buildings
and construction and its impact on sustainable development, view
the following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7qocT9wu
YQ&feature=related (07:35 minutes).
Chapter 2
a
Go-Green Schools
In 2009 a beautiful new go-green high school located on the Blackfeet In-
dian Reservation in Browning, Montana, opened its doors to 750 students.
Browning is located at an elevation of 4,375 feet in the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains in northwestern Montana and is the largest community
on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation.
The 125,000-square-foot Browning High School has numerous sus-
tainable design features, including a biomass boiler system for heating.
Local-forest biomass materials fuel this heating system. The biomass in-
cludes small-diameter trees, shrubs, and debris leftover from logging op-
erations and forest fuel reduction projects. If it were not recycled, it would
be gathered and piled up to be burned as waste by the foresters. The boiler
is expected to burn 1,250 tons of locally grown biomass fuel each year. This
heating system can save the district approximately $50,000 annually, ac-
cording to school officials.
The school is impressive to look at according to many who have vis-
ited it. Every school day, students walk through a tepee-style entrance and
learn in classrooms painted in soft earth tones, the colors of the local envi-
ronment. When touring the corridors and rooms of the school, you will see
floor tiles patterned in traditional Native American symbols, and in a few
classrooms there are views of a sacred Blackfeet landmark Chief Moun-
tain, a mountain in Glacier National Park.
VIDEO
To get a view of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, go to http://www.youtube.com/
watch%3Fv%3DcQ3ER0Mmy0I.
For further information about the Blackfeet Nation, contact tribal per-
sonnel at Blackfeet Planning, PO Box 850, Browning, MT 59417 or call
406-338-7406.
Today, many schools, such as the Browning High School in Montana,
are going green. And there is a good reason for schools to go green and
to be more energy efficient. One school official stated that the annual en-
ergy bill to run America’s primary and secondary schools is a staggering
$6 billion—more than is spent on textbooks and computers combined. The
least energy-efficient school uses three times more energy than the typical
green school.
WHAT IS A SUSTAINABLE GREEN

SCHOOL BUILDING?
According to the definition of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC),
a green school is “a school building or facility that creates a healthy envi-
ronment that is conducive to learning while saving energy, resources and
money.” In other words, green schools cost less to operate and create an
atmosphere where students are more comfortable learning with abundant
daylight and clean air. Furthermore, the design of green schools provides
students with numerous hands-on learning opportunities.
THE U.S. GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL

The USGBC, a nonprofit organization that certifies sustainable business,
homes, and schools, has certified nearly 100 public and private schools
nationwide since 2000, and another 800 are seeking certification. The
USGBC is dedicated to expanding green building practices and education
and its LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green
Building Rating System.
The LEED Green Building Rating System is the national benchmark
for the design, construction, and operation of high-performance green
Go-Green Schools a 27
Fourth-grade teacher Natasha Schaefer greets students at the new Tarking-

ton elementary, Chicago’s first “green” school, on the first day of classes,
September 6, 2005. Tarkington is one of about 110 schools in the United States
that have either been certified or are seeking green certification from the U.S.
Green Building Council. (AP Photo/Nam Y. Huh)
buildings and features five tiers (certified, bronze, silver, gold, and plati-
num) of environmentally sustainable construction. The USGBC developed
the rating systems. To motivate school districts to go green, federal funds
are available to implement green building practices for the construction of
new buildings and for retrofitting and repairing older ones.
21ST CENTURY GREEN HIGH-PERFORMING

PUBLIC SCHOOLS FACILITIES ACT
The U.S. House of Representatives passed the 21st Century Green High-
Performing Public Schools Facilities Act on May 14, 2009. The bill autho-
rizes $6.4 billion in grant funding for the renovation and modernization
of school facilities across the country. The bill requires school districts to
spend the majority of funds received on projects compliant with identified
green building standards and, by 2015, 100 percent of funds must be used
on such projects. Because of these requirements, the bill will encourage

energy efficiency and the use of renewable resources in schools.
The benefits of building to LEED standards are becoming apparent to
school districts across the United States. By telling their elected officials
that they want their schools built green, students, parents, and teachers
help spur legislation that makes a difference.
DID YOU KNOW?

Sandia National Laboratories, working on behalf of the U.S. Department of En-
ergy, helps promote sustainable photovoltaic projects on American Indian lands
throughout the United States. For more than 20 years, Sandia has been involved
in helping tribes study the feasibility of implementing solar (and other renewable
energy) resources to meet their energy needs.
INTERVIEW
The author had the opportunity to interview Marie Norman, principal of the West-
wood Elementary School in Zimmerman, Minnesota. The school was the first LEED-
certified school in Minnesota. I asked her to comment on how the school received
the certification.
Green Advocate: Marie Norman, Principal, Westwood Elementary School
Go-Green Project: Westwood Elementary School, first LEED-certified school in
Minnesota
How Did Your School Qualify for LEED Certification?
Westwood Elementary School qualified for LEED certification in August 2004.
There are several components to LEED certification. This school received a total of
28 points in the following categories:
1. Sustainable sites
a. A smaller footprint because of being a two-story building.
b. Stormwater management: There is a natural pond and wetland on
site. Two additional ponds receive all the runoff from snowmelt and
rainwater, away from the building. The environmental site assessment
provided the knowledge needed to develop a plan that minimized
erosion.
c. Reduced light pollution from the building to the neighborhoods sur-
rounding the school.
2. Water efficiency
Westwood received 2 points for 30 percent reduction in water usage;
most faucets are low-flow.
Marie Norman was the acting principal

of the Westwood Elementary School in
Zimmerman, Minnesota, when the school
became the first LEED-certified school in
Minnesota. (Courtesy Marie Norman)
3. Energy and atmosphere

a. Ventilation and heat recovery systems that reduce energy consump-
tion by 35–40 percent.
b. High-efficiency windows.
c. High-efficiency boilers, furnaces, water heaters, and food service
equipment.
d. Desiccant displacement systems: Fresh air comes into each classroom
at seated students’ level. The warmer air rises and goes out of the room.
That is when the heat recovery system kicks in. For example, assume
it is 4 degrees Fahrenheit outside. The incoming air mixes with the re-
covered air from the building to about 55 degrees. The result is that the
55-degree air needs to use only 15 degrees’ worth of additional energy.
e. Automatic lighting sensors.
4. Materials and resources
a. Construction waste was minimized by recycling. For instance, re-
moved trees were ground into wood chips and then used to make an
on-site trail in the woods.
b. Materials for this building were produced locally or regionally. The
rule was that materials could be shipped within no more than a 500-
mile radius.
5. Indoor air quality
a. All rooms are monitored for carbon dioxide. The lead custodian has
received training, including on how to use computer software to moni-
tor CO2, when to change air filters, etc.
b. Effective ventilation is noticeably present in the building. There is a
definite sense of incoming fresh air while a comfortable temperature
level is maintained.
c. Low-emitting carpet choices. The use of carpet is minimal; the media
center, office areas, and music rooms have carpet. All other flooring is
easier to maintain than some other types of flooring.
d. Monitoring system for temperature control in every room.

e. At least 90 percent of the building has natural daylight and views.
6. Innovations and design process
Signage and teaching displays are throughout the building and include names
and explanations for the sustainable features of Westwood. A team of teachers has
been trained to improve understanding of green-building attributes. When interest
in Westwood was high, fifth-grade students learned about the elements present at
Westwood in the science classes. Then they became a team of tour guides when-
ever we had school personnel or architects from other regions.
It is appropriate to teach students about good practices of sustainable building.
This building has been open for six years, and students are living inside a green
building. Their awareness of what that means will be dependent on the importance
that remains with their teachers and societal leaders. In order for our students to
understand green-building elements, it took the talents of teachers to help students
understand the vocabulary. Once they understood, our fifth-grade tour guides could
explain the concepts so that visiting adults could understand them.
Westwood’s sustainable design was made possible because of the commit-
ment of school board members and school district officials to constructing long-
lasting buildings. They studied school buildings in Europe (at their own expense).
The school district’s architectural firm, mechanical and engineering consultants,
landscape consultant, and educators learned and solved problems together. The
result was an energy-efficient building that met the educational requirements and
financial plan of the school district.
Name one feature that makes your school special.
Our school is special because of its big windows. Each classroom has 9-foot by 20-
foot windows. It’s almost like a whole wall of daylight. The fresh air coupled with the
presence of natural light is the feature that everyone notices and appreciates. In years
prior, school buildings were built having small or no windows. Our present energy sav-
ings compared to other district buildings ranges from $45,000 to $50,000 per year.
What renewable or alternative energy sources does your school have?
Our school does not have alternate or renewable energy sources. However, one
teacher has submitted a request to construct a windmill on the property with the
idea that it would provide our school with electricity. The project is still under con-
sideration because we are dependent on a number of other people to give us the
information we need.
How many students in your classes took part in the program?
The number of students who have taken part in increasing their knowledge of the
elements of sustainable buildings ranges from 400 in 2003 to the present yearly
population of 580 students.
How many groups took part in achieving the LEED certification?
School district officials and school board members from 2000 to 2004; KKE Archi-
tects of Minneapolis, Minnesota; Johnson Controls, building management systems;
and Anderson-Johnson Associates, landscape architects.
Are there any plans for other future school buildings to achieve LEED certification?
It is questionable to me whether future buildings in our district will aspire to have
LEED certification. It appears to me that green building has inherited a political sta-
tus. Various viewpoints about the wisdom of maintaining environment have some-
how entered party politics. Because public schools are a political entity, the value
associated with green building is dependent on elected leaders. For Westwood, the
people of the time and interest level in green buildings came together. People were
willing to work hard and solve the problems that had not been encountered before.
In order for this project to succeed, people had to work extra hard and take some
risks into the unknown. For us, the result was well worth the effort. Westwood is a
blend of a lovely, practical (it was built for less than budgeted), and healthy envi-
ronment. Children like to come to school, and employees like working here.
We are not able to use student data to show that a healthy facility will improve
attendance and test results. We have too many other variables. We do have stu-
dents and parents who say that asthmatic students fare better in Westwood.
GO-GREEN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

Pennsylvania
The Council Rock School District is located in southeastern Pennsylvania.
This district has several school buildings attended by 12,000 students. The
school district received the Energy Star recognition in 2009 for its contin-
ued progress in improving energy efficiency. The Environmental Protec-
tion Agency’s Energy Star Program assists decision makers in improv-
ing their school’s energy performance and labels their buildings as Energy
Star–certified.
The Council Rock School District’s plan was to reduce its energy costs
by more than 30 percent. Over roughly a three-year period, the district
reported that it had saved more than $4 million in energy costs.
Texas
Students learn about the environment, energy efficiency, and sustainability
at the Roy Lee Walker Elementary School in McKinney, Texas, which
the American Institute of Architects has deemed one of the 10 “Most
Environmentally Responsible Design Projects” in the United States. The
school collects rainwater from the roof in six stone cisterns, each of which
contains up to 10,000 gallons. A wind-powered filtration system then re-
moves sediment from the rainwater, which is used for irrigation of the
school grounds. Electronic sensors monitor light levels in the classrooms
and supplement natural light with artificial light only when it becomes
necessary. Solar panels provide all the energy needed to heat water for
cafeteria and bathroom use.
Kentucky
The first qualified LEED silver–certified school in Kentucky is the
Twenhofel Middle School, located in Independence. The gymnasium,
the library, and all academic classrooms are naturally day-lit 70 per-
cent of the time. This feature reduces energy costs from using artificial
lighting.
The school’s 204 roof-mounted photovoltaic panels produce 24,000
watts of electrical energy. This is enough energy to power the artificial
lighting when natural light is not sufficient.
Rain barrels located throughout the courtyards collect rainfall from the
entire roof. All of the water is stored in a 115,000-gallon underground
concrete storage tank. The water is used to flush all toilets and to irrigate
the football field and vegetation.
The school also has a geothermal heat pump system. The underground
system is located some 300 feet below the surface of the sports stadium.
The geothermal energy provides 100 percent of the school’s heating and
cooling needs. The use of a geothermal heat pump system allows the school
considerable energy savings.
The school design also provides interactive opportunities for students
to learn about their school’s green design. TV monitors equipped with
touchpads inside the school connect students with a series of “Vital Signs”
screens. By consulting these screens, students can call up a range of sta-
tistics, including dollar savings the school has seen as a result of its green
design or pounds of CO2 emissions avoided.
West Virginia
In 2009 West Virginia’s first green elementary school in northern Berke-
ley County was constructed. The new elementary school, Spring Mills, is
a prototype for environmentally and energy conservation–minded con-
struction for the rest of the state. The new building has water faucets
that turn themselves on and off automatically and a geothermal-based
heating and cooling system to reduce the cost of heating and cooling
requirements.
DID YOU KNOW?

Windows are important in energy savings. School budgets are getting tight, and,
therefore, school districts are looking for cost-effective ways to improve buildings’
energy efficiency. Installing more efficient windows not only saves energy and
money but also enhances the learning environment with natural daylight.
Florida
The Neal Armstrong Elementary School located in Charlotte County,
Florida, is a LEED-certified elementary school. Some of the reasons the
school qualified for LEED certification included use of recyclable ma-
terials; non-noxious paint, carpet, and adhesives. The roof was designed
to reduce the heat-island effect. On a hot, sunny day, roof temperatures
can range between 50 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Another reason for the
LEED certification is that the landscaping of the school conforms to sus-
tainable use in watering the lawn areas.
Ohio
In 2009 the Ohio School Facilities Commission announced that the
Cincinnati School District’s Pleasant Ridge Montessori School had
been certified as achieving “silver” status under the LEED standards. The
75,310-square-foot building makes full use of natural light and also boasts
such features as a white reflective roof and a high-efficiency heating, ven-
tilating, and air conditioning system.
Ohio is a major leader in the green school movement. In 2008 Ohio
was planning to build 250 green schools in two years. According to school
officials, when the green schools are completed, the state expects to save
$1.4 billion in energy costs over the next 40 years thanks to the program.
California
The Athenian School in Danville, California, has announced plans to imple-
ment a new 220-kilowatt photovoltaic system, projected to supply almost
half the school’s annual energy needs. For the project, the school will install
approximately 1,300 ground-mounted Mitsubishi Electric solar panels.
In 2008 the San Domenico School planned to install a 412-kilowatt solar
energy system on its campus of 500 students. The goal is to reduce more
than 70 percent of the school’s electricity costs. Several solar power devel-
opers, including Recurrent Energy, Solaris Solar, and GreenLight Solar, are
handling all construction and installation. When finished, the installation
will be owned and operated by Recurrent Energy, which will sell all power
back to San Domenico through a power purchase agreement. Through such
a program, the school itself does not incur upfront capital costs.
New York
A.A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, has installed a
2-kilowatt photovoltaic system that includes solar panels and an inverter
that converts the direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) to power
a data collection and monitoring system, which uses sensors to measure air
temperature, solar radiation, and other variables. This system offers learn-
ing opportunities to both students and teachers.
The A.A. Kingston Middle School in Potsdam, New York, generates elec-
tricity using a two-kilowatt photovoltaic system on the roof of the school.
The system includes solar panels and an inverter that converts direct cur-
rent (DC) from the solar array to the alternating current (AC) the school
uses. (Courtesy Brad Filiatrault, Technology Educator/A. A. Kingston Middle
School)
Maryland
The Great Seneca Creek Elementary School was the first public school
in Maryland to receive certification as eco-friendly. Eco-friendly schools
offer ways to save energy, improve air quality, and educate students about
the environment.
The school conserves water by using waterless urinals and motion-
activated faucets. All the cabinets in the school are made from wheatboard,
which is recycled wheatgrass, the young grass of the wheat plant. The bath-
room partitions are made of recycled bottles.
Montgomery County Maryland Public Schools announced it would
install solar photovoltaic systems on the roofs of several schools. When
in operation, each solar photovoltaic system will be capable of producing
between 100 and 400 kilowatts of electric power.
The board of education has contracted with SunEdison, North
America’s largest solar energy services provider, to develop the program.
SunEdison has installed similar systems on commercial and institutional
buildings, primarily in California, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
Iowa
As mentioned in a previous chapter, the first school district in the nation to
be powered entirely by wind energy is the Spirit Lake Community School
District in northern Iowa.
The district’s two tall wind turbines provide all the electricity needs
for the district’s middle school, high school, district offices, maintenance
building, football field, and baseball and softball fields. Both turbines have
been paid for.
Excess electricity is fed into the local utility system and has earned the
school $25,000 in the system’s first five years of operation. In fact, the
district counts on the savings and income annually to use to improve ed-
ucation for the children of the Spirit Lake Community School District.
The wind energy program in the Spirit Lake Community School Dis-
trict is just one of many success stories of schools, homes, and other insti-
tutions that are using wind power to produce energy.
New Jersey
Summerfield Elementary School in Neptune, New Jersey, received the
second-highest LEED certification in 2006. The school uses 40 percent
The Spirit Lake Community District in Spirit Lake, Iowa, has wind turbines
that have supplied electricity for the district’s middle school, high school, and
other nearby buildings. Excess electricity is routed to the local utility company.
(Courtesy Iowa Energy Center)
less water and 30 percent less energy than the school it replaced, according
to school officials. Students take care of the plants in the water retention
area and check the rainwater gauge.
HOW TO LOWER YOUR SCHOOL’S UTILITY BILLS

The U.S. Green Building Council has several suggestions for how schools
can reduce their utility bills without spending a lot of money. Some of
those suggestions include the following:
• Control classroom thermostats.
• Turn off outside lighting.
• Establish a plug load system. Unplug certain machines and other
equipment when not in use. Plug loads on copies and comput-
ers can account for as much as 20 percent of the power load in
schools.
FEATURE
American Federation of Teachers and LEED-Certified Schools
In 2009 the executive council of the American Federation of Teachers approved a
resolution calling for the promotion of state policies that fund the building of LEED-
certified and other green schools. The teacher organization states that public
education institutions are experiencing a historic decline in the condition of build-
ings, structures, and equipment, with significant health and safety implications for
faculty, staff, and students. The federation states that the General Accountability
Office has established that 25,000 schools nationally are in need of extensive repair
or replacement and also reports that 67 percent of central city schools report at
least one building feature in need of repair or replacement. The American Fed-
eration of Teachers is one of the nation’s largest teachers’ unions, with more than
1.4 million members.
• Keep doors and windows closed.

• Control exhausts fans. When the building’s ventilation system is off,
exhaust fans can create a negative pressure that allows outside air to
enter through numerous cracks and holes in the building walls. This
brings in unwanted temperatures and humidity levels.
FEATURE
Using More Natural Lighting in Schools
Many studies show that natural lighting improves students’ reading and math
scores. Using strategies such as placing windows on multiple sides of classrooms
and installing Solatubes can bring natural light into interior spaces.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Don Carmichael, High School Science Teacher
Go-Green Project: Constructing the High School’s Green Roof
program.
I teach freshman accelerated biology and Advanced Placement environmental sci-
ence at Adlai E. Stevenson High School. I am also the earth science core leader for
our science department. I am also the girls’ diving coach.
Where is the school located? How many students attend the high school?
The school is located in the Chicago suburbs. It is a public school with an enroll-
ment of 4,500 students.
Why did you get interested in this project?
I got interested in the project because of the curriculum in AP environmental sci-
ence. We have a unit on energy that includes methods of improving efficiency.
A few years ago, I was on the O’Hare airport transportation system and noticed
flats of planters on top of the fire station. Because it is a Chicago public building,
I figured the plants were part of Chicago’s effort to become a green city. After a
little research, I became familiar with the concept of “green roofs” and decided it
would be interesting to see if they actually save money by reducing heating costs
or by providing increased insulation.
British Petroleum provided the funding through an “A+ for Energy Grant” that
I submitted with a team of teachers: Jason Carlson, Deanna Warkins, Jill Lisius,
and Kim Lubeke.
Describe the size of the green roof. What are the dimensions?
The roof is constructed of 180 four-square-foot plastic trays, which cover a total
area of 720 square feet. For the purpose of the study, we wanted the green roof to
nearly cover the roof over one of our science classrooms so that we could compare
Jason Carlson (left) and Don Carmichael (right) stand on the newly installed
green roof of the Adlai E. Stevenson High School. (Courtesy Jeff Green)
temperatures in the experimental classroom and an identical classroom adjacent

to the green roof.
How long has the green roof been on top of the school building?
The roof was installed by our maintenance crew under the direction of Weston
Solutions in May 2008.
What were some of the stages in designing and constructing a green roof?
We applied for the grant in March 2007. When we were awarded the grant, we
began the process of ordering the supplies. We planted test plots and placed them
on display on the visible portion of our roof in October 2007. Before the trays could
be placed, we needed to gain the approval of the building architects and engineers
because of the weight that would be added to the roof. In May 2008, all of the sup-
plies were delivered to the school.
How many students were involved in this project?

It took seven sections of AP environmental science seniors and juniors two days to
fill the trays with plants and growth medium. A crane lifted the trays to the roof at
the end of May. The trays were arranged on the roof in just a few hours.
What was the most challenging part in doing this project?

The greatest challenge was securing the funding. The rest was fun. The students
were excited to be a part of the project, and the school and community were both
supportive and enthusiastic.
When was most of the work done on the project?

Some of the curriculum was completed in class. Dee Abate, the director of the
South Lake Campus of the College of Lake County (CLC), gave students a presen-
tation on green roofs. CLC also has a green roof, not for study purposes, but for
utilitarian purposes. Green roofs increase the life of the roofing membrane, de-
crease water runoff from the campus buildings, and decrease energy costs (we
suspect).
We planted the demonstration trays and the trays that were lifted to the roof
during the regular school day.
Because of safety considerations, students were not allowed to be in the build-
ing while the crane was operating. Students were also not allowed on the roof. The
roof was installed on a Saturday.
What kinds of plants did you select for the green roof?
We planted seven species of sedum. We selected these plants because they are
known to be able to survive the harsh conditions on flat roofs in temperate climates.
Consider that the roof surface without plants may exceed 140 degrees Fahrenheit
on a hot summer day and plunge well below 0 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter.
These are desert species that can survive without additional water for a couple
months. Sedum is also a perennial.
Describe the upkeep of the green roof, if any. Do you need to water and weed the
green roof?
Very little upkeep is necessary. I have weeded three times and have never pulled
more than a handful of weeds. We have watered the roof only once, immediately
after the trays were installed on the roof.
What kinds of data would you like to collect from your observations of the green
roof experiment?
Our hypothesis is that the green roof will reduce heating and cooling costs. The
experimental group, the green roof, is situated over a biology classroom on the third
floor of our building. The control is an identical classroom adjacent to the experi-
mental, but separated by a storeroom.
We are collecting two sets of data for each group. For both rooms we are
tracking the temperature of the air one meter above the roof, the temperature
of the roof surface, and the temperature of the ceiling inside the building im-
mediately under the roof. Besides the temperature data, we are also monitoring
the airflow into each room. Our rooms are heated and cooled by forced air that
is delivered to the classroom by a large trunk line. A valve separates the main
duct from the room. If the temperature in the room is too warm in the sum-
mertime, the valve opens to allow more cool air into the room. Really, we are
tracking the position of the valve and looking for a difference between the two
classrooms.
Did you receive any community help in designing and constructing the green
roof?
The school district provided the necessary labor to install the roof and the access
to the engineers to determine whether the roof could handle the additional weight.
They also provided a crane and computer to track the temperature data. Johnson
Controls is providing the valve-monitoring data, and our IT department is helping
with computer support.
What kinds of costs were involved in designing and constructing the green
roof?
The money from the grant went toward purchasing the “Green Grid” trays from
Weston Solutions. We also purchased temperature probes and monitoring soft-
ware. The school has provided all other expenses.
Do you have any references for our readers if they wanted to consider a green roof
for their school?
I read the book Green Roof Plants by Snodgrass and Snodgrass to get an idea
about the plants. Although I have not read it, there is a book called Green Roof
Construction and Maintenance by Kelly Luckett. Much of what I learned came from
speaking with green roof vendors, in particular Weston Solutions. They were based
in nearby Vernon Hills and came to the school to meet with us. Wikipedia has a nice
overview explanation of green roofs.
SOMETHING TO DO
A sustainable or green building, such as a school, is the result of planning
and design that increases the efficiency of resources and reduces the build-
ing’s impact on human health and the environment.
Research practices and techniques that can reduce or eliminate the
negative impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. In
your research, include efforts to take advantage of renewable resources,
environmentally friendly building materials, harmony of the building with
the surrounding natural features, measures to reduce energy use, on-site
generation of renewable energy, and recycling methods that reduce waste
of energy, water, and building materials.

California Energy Commission, Consumer Energy Center. Energy Tips
for Schools. http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/tips/schools.html.
Pilloton, Emily. “Clinton Library Gets LEED Platinum.” Inhabitat, No-
vember 19, 2007. http://www.inhabitat.com/2007/11/19/clinton-
library-goes-leed-platinum/.
www.usgbc.org.
WEB SITES
www.aashe.org
The Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher
Education is an association of colleges and universities that are work-
ing to create a sustainable future by making sustainable practices the
norm in higher education.
www.usgbc.org/k12toolkit
Green Existing Tool Kit with accompanying training resources will
provide guidance, best practices, policy, and planning models to assist
school officials in seeking LEED certification for existing buildings.
www.greenroofs.org
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities’ mission is an effort to increase the
awareness of the economic, social, and environmental benefits of
green roofs and green walls and other forms of living architecture
through education, advocacy, and professional development.
www.greenschoolbuildings.org
Green School Buildings is an organization focused on what makes
green schools better for students and how communities can learn
about local, state, and federal initiatives to promote and support
green schools.
http://www.princetonreview.com/green-guide-press-release.aspx
The Princeton Review and the U.S. Green Building Council provide
a free guidebook that focuses on institutions of higher education that
have demonstrated an above average commitment in terms of cam-
pus infrastructure, activities, and initiatives.
http://www.fypower.org/inst/edu.html
Most schools spend more money on energy each year than on school
supplies. To read about some energy-saving tips and initiatives, go to
this Flex Your Power article.
http://www.ase.org/section/program/greenschl/aboutgs
The Alliance to Save Energy Green Schools Program empowers stu-
dents to make a difference in the way their schools use energy. Ac-
cording to the program, energy costs are an enormous expense for the
nation’s schools, approximately $6 billion each year, and much of the
energy that is consumed is wasted.
VIDEOS
version.
New York, United States: Twenty percent of New York City’s area is
rooftops. This video on green roof projects in the Bronx discusses the
potential benefits in reducing storm water runoff and lowering the

energy demands of its citizens by cooling the city. For more informa-
tion, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17hRZgsFEXE (9:22
minutes).
General—Rooftop Gardens: This automated PowerPoint presentation
on how to build your own rooftop gardens has it all! For details, go to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daKPo00LIFA&feature=related
(0:55 minutes).
Chapter 3
a
Greener Homes and

Greener Vehicles
In 2007 a massive F5 tornado struck the town of Greensburg, Kansas. This

was the strongest tornado in several years in this location. A F5 tornado
moves at 260–320 miles an hour and can lift framed houses off their foun-
dations and carry them away.
Hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornadoes seem to be making more and
more television, radio, and newspaper news around the globe. In recent
years, these forces have devastated small and large communities alike
throughout the world.
When the Greensburg tornado finally subsided, several people had been
killed and 95 percent of the town’s homes and businesses were wiped out.
Three years later, in 2010, thousands of lives were lost in the horrific earth-
quakes that struck Haiti and Chile. More than a million homes were de-
stroyed in these countries.
FEATURE
Tips for Implementing a School-Wide Energy Efficiency Program
Are you interested in launching a school-wide energy efficiency program at your
school? The Alliance’s Green Schools Program has some excellent ideas on how
to get started. Use their 10-step program to get started: http://www.greenschoolsal
liance.org.
THE HOME OF THE FUTURE?

People are realizing the benefit of building safe, disaster-resistant homes
and shelters. One kind of structure that is generating a lot of interest
among homeowners and builders is the futuristic-looking concrete mono-
lithic, or one-piece, dome home. These round-shaped homes would look a
bit odd in a typical neighborhood setting, but they are strong and highly
resistant to damage by stormy weather, earthquakes, category 5 hurricanes,
and F5 tornadoes. Because the shell of the dome is made of concrete, it is
fireproof too. Another plus is that the lifespan of a concrete dome home
can be hundreds of years, so this type of home does not need to be replaced
during a homeowner’s lifetime.
Concrete Dome Homes Are Green Buildings Too

Monolithic concrete domes are eco-friendly green buildings too. The shape
of the dome means there is less surface area per square foot inside. Less
surface area equals less area to heat or cool. Ecologically, concrete has some
advantages over wood, because concrete absorbs the heat or cold of the
environment and radiates it back into the room. The dome’s concrete walls
maintain a constant room temperature longer.
The monolithic dome is energy efficient. It usually saves 50 percent on
heating and cooling costs relative to a comparable conventional building.
The shape and interior construction of a monolithic dome lend themselves
well to alternative forms of energy. Solar power works especially well for
monolithic homes.
Are We Ready for Concrete Dome Homes?

For more than four decades, dome construction has been predicted as “the
wave of the future.” Presently, concrete domes are becoming an increas-
ingly popular choice for churches, gymnasiums, arenas, storage facilities,
and even airplane hangars because the cost savings increase with the size
of the building. On the other hand, dome homes are still not fashion-
able in many neighborhoods. They can look a bit out-of-place for some
people.
Will concrete dome homes become popular in the future? They may, if
more people realize how safe and energy efficient these buildings are. The
future will tell.
Greener Homes and Greener Vehicles a 47
DID YOU KNOW?

The city of Greensburg, Kansas, is now rebuilding a model green community with
the help of the U.S. Department of Energy and its National Renewable Energy
Laboratory.
A monolithic dome home in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in south central

Colorado. A monolithic dome is a one-piece structure made with concrete and
steel rods. In addition to reducing heating and cooling costs, the design makes
the home resistant to heavy winds and storm damage. Dome homes are built
in many places throughout the world. (Courtesy www.monolithic.com)
SAVING ENERGY: IT STARTS AT HOME

Now that we know that concrete dome-shaped buildings are energy effi-
cient, how energy efficient is the typical conventional square-shaped house
in the neighborhood?
According to the Department of Energy, the typical U.S. family spends
about $1,900 a year on home utility bills. The government states that a
good home energy-efficiency plan is needed to review energy usage such as
electricity, home heating, and household wastes. The first step is to find out
which parts of the house use the most energy. To do this, a home energy
audit will pinpoint those areas and suggest the most effective measures
for cutting energy costs. Anyone, including students and homeowners,
can conduct a simple home energy audit. You can also get assistance by
contacting your local utility or an independent energy auditor for a more
comprehensive examination.
For more information about home energy audits, including free tools
and calculators, visit the U.S. Department of Energy Web sites http://
www.energysavers.gov or www.natresnet.org.
ELECTRICITY
The Energy Information Agency (EIA) estimated in their report that in
2007 about 526 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity were used for
lighting by the residential and commercial sectors. This was equal to about
19 percent of the total electricity consumed by both of those sectors and
14 percent of total U.S. electricity consumption. The EIA also reported
that appliances account for 64.7 percent of electricity consumption in the
average American household. Refrigerators consumed the most electricity
(14%), followed by lighting (9%).
Emissions from electricity generation occur at the power plants that
supply consumers’ electricity. The average household carbon dioxide emis-
sions from electricity are approximately 16,290 pounds.
How to Save on Electricity and Reduce

Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Here are some quick tips from the Department of Energy on how to
save on electricity in your home and in your school. Use this list to audit
VIDEO
David Smith of Smith Family Dome Homes in Beaumont, Texas, describes building
an energy-efficient dome home in this video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
4Udh5L14F9c.
(Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration, Resi-

dential Energy Consumption Survey, 2001, Forms EIA-457 A-C, and H and other
sources)
your home or school’s energy usage and to find ways to reduce its carbon
footprint.
1. Purchase clean electricity. How much clean electricity does your school
use? It is easy to find out. For example, the homes and schools in
Rhode Island use mostly natural gas and nuclear energy for their
electricity needs. However, the electricity utility industry is changing
and is giving more energy options for homes and schools. Presently,
many consumers have the option to purchase their electricity directly
from companies that generate power from renewable energy sources
such as solar or wind. Such power is sometimes referred to as green
power or clean power.
2. Make your own clean electricity. Generate electricity using your own
small renewable energy system. These systems include small solar
electric systems, small wind electric systems, microhydropower sys-
tems, and small hybrid electric systems.
3. Reduce your electricity use. There are many ways you can reduce elec-
tricity use in the home and help reduce energy bills. Following are a
few tips.
• Appliances and electronics. Purchase Energy Star products and oper-

ate them efficiently. Energy Star is a program that classifies products
in more than 60 categories according to their energy consumption.
What is the age of your home or school’s appliances? If they are older
than 10 years, you may want to consider more efficient ones.
• Lighting. Purchase energy-efficient products, operate them efficiently,
and incorporate more daylighting into your home using energy-
efficient windows and skylights.
• Electric space heating and cooling. Purchase energy-efficient electric
systems and operate them efficiently. If you can, incorporate passive
solar design concepts into your home.
HOME HEATING
Typically, 45 percent of a home’s utility bill goes for heating and cooling.
Of this cost, water heating is the third-largest expense in a home. It ac-
counts for about 13 percent of a home’s utility bill. Most oil-fired furnaces
emit close to 14,000 pounds of carbon dioxide in a year. However, the
amount of emissions can vary according to fuel, furnace, or boiler efficiency
and according to the temperature setting in the home.
The bright yellow EnergyGuide label

appears on Energy Star–qualified
appliances and shows the estimated
yearly operating cost of the appli-
ance in dollars per year. The infor-
mation provides consumers with a
context to compare the energy effi-
ciency of different appliance mod-
els. (Federal Trade Commission)
WASTES
Do you know that throwing away trash leads to emissions of greenhouse
gases? According to the Environmental Protection Agency, every pound
of trash emits methane equivalent in effect to approximately 0.94 pounds
of carbon dioxide. The average person in the United States throws away
more than 1,130 pounds of waste per year, meaning the average person’s
garbage releases approximately 1,060 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent
annually. If the average recycling rate in the United States increased by
only 5 percent—from approximately 30 percent to 35 percent—this would
amount to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 67 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per person each year.
HELP PARENTS BECOME MORE HOME

ENERGY EFFICIENT
The U.S. Department of Energy also provides ways that students can help
their parents in making their home more energy efficient. You can go on-
line and contact the U. S. Department of Energy and download a variety of
information for becoming more energy efficient. One site is http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/buildings/building_america/related_links.html.
Drafty Windows
Windows can account for 10–25 percent of the heating bill. During the
summer, the air conditioner must work harder to cool hot air from sunny
windows. Installing Energy Star windows reduces heat loss.
Cold-climate windows keep heat in. Double-pane windows with a lac-
quered coating on the glass reflect heat back into the room during the
winter months.
Warm-climate windows keep heat out. In the summertime, the sun shin-
ing through windows heats up the room. Windows with a lacquered coat-
ing on the glass reflect some of the sunlight, keeping your rooms cooler.
Close curtains on south- and west-facing windows during the day.
Heating and Cooling Tips

Set your thermostat as low as is comfortable in the winter and as high as
is comfortable in the summer. Turning it back a few degrees overnight can
easily save energy.
Cold-climate windows (left) keep heat in. Double-pane windows with low-e
coating on the glass reflect heat back into the room during the winter months.
Warm-climate windows (right) keep heat out. In the summertime, sun shining
through the windows heats up the room. Windows with low-e coatings on the
glass reflect some of the sunlight, keeping the rooms cooler. (Illustrator: Jeff
Dixon)
Insulation
Proper insulation can keep homes warm and cool throughout the year.
Insulation should be installed in attics and walls and around windows and
doorframes. There are government R-value ratings for insulation materi-
als. The R values include numbers that are used to rank the quality of the
insulation. The higher the number, say R-30 (in comparison with R-15),
the more resistant the insulation.
Appliances
Appliances account for about 17–20 percent of a household’s energy con-
sumption. At the top of the consumption list are refrigerators, clothes
washers, and clothes dryers.
One practical suggestion from the Department of Energy to consider
when shopping for a new appliance is to imagine that each appliance
comes with two price tags. The first is the purchase price, but the second
price tag is the cost you will pay to operate the appliance over its lifetime.
That second price tag will be paid every month on your utility bill for an
average of 10–20 years, so an energy-efficient appliance will lead to long-
term savings.
Lighting Systems
The average household spends 11 percent of its energy budget on light-
ing fixtures. Government reports state that new lighting technologies can
reduce lighting energy in a typical home by 50–75 percent. One way of
reducing energy in lighting is to use compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs. In
tests, CFLs burned for 3,000 hours, which is triple the life of incandescent
bulbs. Making improvements to lighting is one of the fastest ways to cut
the energy bills in a home or building.
There are numerous energy-saving products to choose from when se-
lecting outdoor lighting, including low-voltage pathway lighting and light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs last up to 25 times longer than standard
lighting and are even more energy efficient than CFLs. LEDs are also an
excellent choice for outdoor environments because they are durable and
perform well in cold weather.
A compact fluorescent light bulb

(CFL) can save more than $40 in
electricity costs over its lifetime.
According to U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Energy Star, “if
every American home replaced just
one light with a light that’s earned
the ENERGY STAR, we would save
enough energy to light three million
homes for a year, [and] save about
$600 million in annual energy costs.”
(Picstudio/Dreamstime.com)
The Home Entertainment System

Televisions
Americans are spending more time than ever watching television. Would
you believe they spend an average of five hours a day watching the tube?
However, today’s new flat-screen televisions use more electricity than the
older models. The fact is that some of these models use more electricity in a
year than many energy-efficient refrigerators. Therefore, monitoring qual-
ity time for television viewing is a good way to reduce energy consump-
tion. Also, turn off the DVD player when it is not in use. When electronic
devices such as DVD players and video game systems are left in standby
mode, they continue to use electricity.
Phone Chargers
Cell phone chargers are one of the biggest users of electricity when you
think of the number of hours they are not used. Unplug your cell phone
charger even when it is not connected to a device. Most chargers draw
5–20 times more power than is needed to maintain a charge.
Computers
When you step away from the computer and do not plan to use it for two
hours, it is best to shut it off. It uses less energy to start a computer than
to let it stay on for a long period of time, even if it is in a sleep mode. If no
one will be using the computer, shut it off.
Power Strips
Appliances that people typically leave plugged in continuously, such as
computers and televisions, draw electricity throughout the day. By plug-
ging these appliances into a power strip, energy-conscious consumers can
cut off this continual supply of so-called phantom energy by flipping a
single switch.
HOME ENERGY AUDITS

The Department of Energy states that the first step to taking a whole-
house energy-efficiency approach is to find out which parts of your house
use the most energy. A home energy audit shows where the problems are
in the house and suggests the most effective measures for cutting energy
costs. As an example, audits determine the efficiency of a home’s heat-
ing and cooling systems. An audit may also show you ways to conserve
hot water and electricity. For more information about home energy audits,
including free tools and calculators, visit www.energysavers.gov or www.
natresnet.org.
Professional Home Energy Audits

Professional energy audits generally go into great detail as to which sec-
tions of a house use the most energy. Many professional energy audits
will include a blower door test. Blower door tests are used to determine a
home’s air tightness.
The setup for the blower door test includes a frame and a flexible panel
that fits inside a doorway. Once the panel is installed, a special high-
powered speed fan and a pressure gauge are used. These instruments mea-
sure the air pressure differences inside and outside the home. The fan pulls
a large quantity of air out of the house. This action lowers the air pressure
inside. The high outside air pressure then flows into all the cracks and
openings in the house. Sometimes a smoke pencil is used to detect air
leaks. These tests can determine the drafts and air leaks in a building that
need to be fixed.
THE BUILDING TREND FOR SMALLER HOMES

Research suggests that the average size of a home built today is getting
smaller. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2009 the median size
of a new house was 2,438 square feet, down from 2,629 square feet in
2008. This was a drop of 9 percent in about one year’s time. Large houses
generally use a tremendous amount of energy to heat and cool. This en-
ergy usually comes from fossil fuels, depleting these resources and emitting
greenhouse gases and pollutants into the air. A smaller house means less
emissions and a reduction in the carbon footprint as well.
VIDEO
See Energy Star videos on home performance here: http://www.energystar.gov/
index.cfm?c=home_improvement.hm_improvement_hpwes_video.
Homeowners today can use a blower door to check heat loss. A blower door
is a powerful fan that mounts into the frame of an exterior door. The fan pulls
air out of the house, lowering the air pressure inside. The higher outside air
pressure then flows in through all unsealed cracks and openings. The auditors
may use a smoke pencil to detect air leaks. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
HOME ENERGY EFFICIENCY OUTDOORS

The Department of Energy reports that properly positioned trees can save
up to 25 percent on a home’s energy consumption for heating and cooling.
Trees and tall bushes around a house can reduce windy conditions during
the cold seasons and during the warmer seasons can keep the house cooler
and protected from the hot summer sun.
DID YOU KNOW?

The potential energy savings from reducing drafts in a home may range from
5 percent to 30 percent per year.
Proper landscaping is another way homeowners can reduce heating and cool-
ing costs. Using natural shading from trees and adding buffers like porches
and garages on the south and west sides of a house will help with heating and
cooling and yield significant energy savings. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Bhavna Rawal, High School Science Teacher, Northbrook, High
School, Houston, Texas
Go-Green Project: Building and Using Alternative Energy Resources in a Model
Home
program.
I have been teaching chemistry, physics, AP chemistry, and dual-credit chemistry
at Northbrook High School, Spring Branch Independent School District, since 2006.
During my teaching at Northbrook High School, I received the MIT Leadership in
Education Award for 2009 and attended an intense summer program at MIT, Bos-
ton. I also received a Fund for Teachers Award to visit Europe to explore alternative
energy resources and mass transit and received the Jones New York award with
an “Adopt a Classroom” grant for the year 2009.
I grew up in Ahmedabad, a city in India 200 miles north of Mumbai. I attended
Sardar Patel High school in Ahmedabad. I went to a Government Polytechnic and
then L. D. Engineering College in Ahmedabad, where I received a BS in engineer-
ing. After college, I worked at Government Polytechnic as an assistant professor
Bhavna Rawal is a high

school science teacher
at the Northbrook High
School in Houston, Texas.
(Courtesy Bhavna Rawal)
for one year. Then I decided to study further. I came to the United States and earned
a Master’s in chemistry and a Master’s in education.
I had really good teachers in math and science classes when I was in high school.
My favorite activities were learning new things, play sports with my friends and my
sisters, helping mom in a kitchen, helping and teaching other girls in my class. In
fact, I loved teaching. We had a teaching day where a student could be a teacher
and teach the whole class. The student had to dress up like a teacher and act like
that particular teacher. I really enjoyed being a science teacher during that time. I
had always loved science and had wonderful science teachers when I was in the
9th and 10th grades. I still remember some of those labs and the science fair proj-
ects that I worked on. I never lost my love for teaching science subjects.
When I graduated from college, my first career was not in teaching. I worked as a
chemist and research assistant for one year. But I feel that teaching has helped me
merge many of my interests together. During the one year of my work as a chem-
ist, I got to work in the lab even on the weekends. I had to do lots of research and
work on projects more than 10 hours. This made me think about trying to have more
balance in my life, and I wanted to make a positive difference in the world—more
than just working as a research chemist. I decided to get a teaching certification

and become a teacher.
Describe the project or program.
This project is for high school students who are taking physics during their se-
nior year. This project is incorporated into the physics curriculum for energy, work,
power, and alternative energy units. Students on each team study different types
of alternative energy sources (i.e., solar, wind, geothermal, tidal and wave energy,
hydroelectric, hydrogen, fuel cells, biomass, and nuclear energy) to discover how
the technology works and produces electricity.
Each team analyzed an alternative energy source for its advantages, disad-
vantages, locations for most effective use, percentage of the world that uses this
energy, and its use in Texas. Each team uses the Internet and other information
resources to research the latest discoveries and uses of the source of alternative
energy that the team is studying. A total of at least 20 citations (e.g. web sites, pe-
riodicals, books or expert opinions) are required.
The team then works on building an alternative energy model home from the ma-
terials, equipments and kits given. Students then calculated the energy produced
per house and compare with the electricity consumed by a conventional house.
What materials do they need for the project?
Each team had materials such as dollhouse kit, balsa wood sheets, small scale
photovoltaics, wind turbines, green house kits, solar ovens kits, tools and calcula-
tors to build models. Project information was distributed to each team. Each team
leader picked a slip of paper out of the box, which told the team which alternative
energy source the team must investigate. Each team worked on building models
for the project such as solar ovens, windmill, solar cars, hydropower, green house,
biomass, etc. Each team member had access to his or her own computer for six
days during the project to research and prepare the oral presentation and slide
show.
What else do the students do in the project?
My students performed experiments such as determining the ideal angle for pho-
tovoltaics to produce optimum energy, the shape of wind turbine blades needed
for optimizing efficiency etc. The models for each team were put up in the hallway
to promote alternative energy use. The slide show, model/diagram, and brochures
were used during the oral presentation to introduce the members of the class to
the team’s energy source.
Students filled out an evaluation sheet on the other teams and filled out a group/
self-evaluation for their own team. Advertisement for a solar oven, solar panel,
windmill, hydrodynamic model, solar car, greenhouse, window shield, and foam in-
sulation were created to help market these alternative energy ideas to all students
who passed by our classroom. Project participants included diagrams, pictures,
and information that would interest other students and give them background infor-
mation regarding the team’s alternative energy source. Each team used the model
during an oral presentation to demonstrate how the alternative energy source is

utilized and produces electricity.

The idea for the project came from my previous project that involved building model
homes. Through this project, students learned about homes and worked with dif-
ferent types of electrical circuits.
I decided to enhance this project and to incorporate alternative energy re-
sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal, and hydrogen into
the model homes. I decided that using these alternative energy sources could re-
sult in energy savings of approximately 15 percent in the model homes that we are
building. Students can also determine the amount of energy used in each home
and then calculate percentages of energy savings by comparing the original model
with alternative resources model. I came to know about the BP A+ for Energy Grant
and decided to apply. BP awarded me $5,000 for this project.

Global warming is a problem faced by the entire planet and requires global efforts
to resolve. As a physics teacher running an after-school green club for five years,
I investigated our science curriculum and found that there was a need to show-
case examples from countries that have increased their use of alternative energy
resources. I hope to prepare part of our next generation to resolve this global issue
by illustrating it in the classroom.
My students regularly study alternative energy resources and their advantages
and disadvantages. But my passion is to show my students the big picture of how
to increase the use of alternative energy resources, to compare and contrast coun-
tries with small-scale usage of alternative energy resources with other countries
with large-scale usage of alternative energy resources, and to let my students
analyze the resulting impact on the environment and the price they are paying for
consuming this energy. I want to focus on real-life use of alternative energy re-
sources such as solar and wind to awaken students to the possibilities. If oil were
not desperately needed, perhaps the conflicts surrounding it might find a respite.
The central driving force, though, comes from a desire of mine to obtain electric-
ity from a clean, non-polluting, renewable source without consumers paying more
than a small premium or drastically changing their lifestyle.
Our science department, our school, and the school district itself are requiring
students to complete two high school science projects. My after-school green club
also requires students to build and experiment with science projects and to par-
ticipate in science fair competitions. Project-based learning benefits students by
reinforcing their learning for alternative energy usage. Labs recreating and demon-
strating the efficient uses of different types of equipment for solar and wind power
explain the process and the inner working of equipment. This experience ensures
deeper learning. It also helps student’s meta-cognitive learning process of the sub-
ject to apply this knowledge in the long run.
There are many resources online about alternative energy resources and building
a model home. The books Basics of Energy Efficient Living: A Beginner’s Guide to
Alternative Energy and Home Energy Savings by Lonnie Wibberding and Funda-
mentals of Renewable Energy Processes, 2nd edition, by Aldo V. da Rosa were
very helpful. We build and use alternative energy in a model house, the supplier of
which is www.discoverthis.com. Kits for making solar ovens are available at www.
thamesandkosmos.com; Pico turbine windmill–making kits are available at www.
picoturbine.com; and infrared, 175-watt heat lamps and miniature greenhouse kits
are available at www.growersupply.com.
Although this project is very time-consuming, I highly recommend it. You can buy a
dollhouse kit from Hobby Lobby and integrate many alternative resources instead
of cutting out a form foam board, which is very time-consuming. But the community
event is fun for us when we see the students’ model homes as well as their presen-
tation. It would have been difficult to do this project without the grant I received
from BP. That grant allowed me to purchase house kits and buy tools and other
wind turbine kits.
The students spent a whole year after school one day a week in the green club to
get this project done. They did all the work, from researching various alternative
energy kits to doing all the hands-on lab work, assembling the model home, and
finally decorating the home. In the process, students also did some labs such as
comparing the energy content of nuclear plants versus green energy plants.
The students really enjoyed building a model home from cutting the balsa
boards and gluing them together. They also figured out how to solve problems as
they came up and how to use the tools to build the house. For example, we were
planning to use solar panels on the roof of the house, but our school district banned
our going out for testing just as we started our project. The students searched for
the open light area in the school for testing solar panels. Students also found ways
to test solar panel in class by using high-intensity bulbs.
Once we finished the project, the students designed a brochure that would
teach people about the alternative energy and the process of using it in the home
during the community event.

The students spent a whole year after school one day a week in the green club to
get this project done.
Do you have any current plans to improve on or extend this program? If not, what
My next plan in the field of energy is to build an alternative-energy model city using
information collected from city of Freiburg, citizens’ interviews, and pictures taken
by me during my Europe visit. My students will design and build a model city with
proper installations of photovoltaics, solar thermal collectors, solar ovens, solar
water heaters, and wind turbines and sustainable mass transit systems. My stu-
dents will experiment in their model city to increase the usage of alternative energy
resources. There will be a competition among each group; whichever group most
increases the alternative energy usages will receive a prize and a certificate.
This project on an alternative-energy city will awaken students to increase the
usages of alternative energy. Students will also build efficient and faster routes of
rail in their model city using the documentary that I made during my fellowship in
Europe. Students will also make a list of the things in their city such as inexpensive
cost of rail, faster and efficient rail, and toll charges for individual cars in order to
decrease traffic congestion in their city. Within the context of our world as a fragile
place, students will be exposed to a culture that maintains a high standard of liv-
ing without total dependence on fossil fuels and while contributing less to global
warming.
FEATURE
Maine Public Utilities Commission Program
The Maine Public Utilities Commission has a unique way to help people detect
their power consumption from appliances and electronics in their homes and busi-
ness, using a device called the Kill A Watt. The Kill A Watt monitor and tool kit was
scheduled to be on loan in most Maine public libraries starting January 12, 2010, as
part of a statewide community outreach campaign by Efficiency Maine, a program
of the Maine Public Utilities Commission. Mainers can check out the Kill A Watt
monitors, just as they would check out a book, at no charge. These monitors simply
plug into electrical outlets and then allow a consumer to plug in any appliance to
get a readout on how much electricity the appliance uses and then calculate how
much money it is costing. The educational tool kits include a brochure offering tips
for home energy savings. Efficiency Maine’s Residential Lighting Program enlists
the participation of, and works closely with, manufacturers and lighting retailers
to encourage them to produce and sell energy-efficient lighting products to the
residents of Maine.
Are you interested in using a Kill A Watt meter? Here are some suggestions for
using the meter:
• Try using a plug strip or a grounded extension cord for ease of use.
• Read the device before unplugging.
• Test for one hour; press the purple button to read the kilowatt-hours. Mul-
tiply the kilowatt-hour reading by $0.17 or your utility rate to find the cost
to operate for the hour.
• Suggested appliances to test include computers, hair dryers, lamps,
toasters, refrigerators, coffee makers, space heaters, microwave ovens,
air conditioners, and televisions, cable boxes, and DVRs.
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES FOR HOMES

After receiving a home energy audit and purchasing the materials to make
a home more energy efficient, such as applying more insulation, purchas-
ing Energy Star appliances, and installing double-pane windows, the next
step is to consider using renewable energy resources and fuels.
Homeowners are warming up to a variety of renewable energy resources
that include wind turbines, solar energy, and geothermal energy. For more
specific information about these three major renewable resources, refer to vol-
umes 2, 3, and 4 in this series. However, here is a quick description of each.
Wind Turbines for Homes

Most wind turbines in general are installed on top of a tall tower or pole.
Wind turbines collect the wind’s energy and transfer it to electricity that
can directly be used with a house’s existing electrical system. Residential
wind turbines are fairly common, having been installed in most of the
states. It is easy to install a wind turbine, and they can be added to virtually
any home without a change to any electrical wiring system or bringing in
additional appliances.
Geothermal Heat Pumps

A growing number of homeowners are interested in replacing their con-
ventional heating system with a new geothermal system. As mentioned
in volume 4, geothermal energy is stored below Earth’s surface. In some
geothermal units, a series of pipes buried below ground carry a mixture of
alcohol and a water solution in a loop. The loop carries the heated solution
into the home plus hot water. An added benefit is that the geothermal
system uses no fossil fuels and emits no carbon dioxide.
Small Solar Electric Systems

A small photovoltaic system can be a reliable renewable energy resource for
a home. There are plenty of solar resources throughout the United States
appropriate for small solar electric systems, especially in the southwestern

United States, which receives the greatest amount of solar energy.
Solar Water Heaters

Solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, are a
cost-effective way to generate hot water for home use. Those adopting
solar water heating may also opt for a backup system, given that weather
or increased demand may make the system inconsistent.
SOLAR HOUSE DECATHLON HOMES OF 2009

In October 2009, 20 teams of college and university students competed in
the biennial Solar Decathlon at the National Mall in Washington, D.C.,
hosted by the U.S. Department of Energy. Teams compete to design and
build solar-powered homes and are judged in 10 categories: appliances,
architecture, communications, comfort zone, engineering, home entertain-
ment, hot water, lighting design, market viability, and net metering.
Iowa State University student Timothy Lentz and Team Alberta student Leah
Battersdy work on the roofs of their houses during the U.S. Department of
Energy Solar Decathlon 2009 on the National Mall in Washington, DC, Octo-
ber 6, 2009. (Stefano Paltera/U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon)
The competition furthers several different goals, which include objec-

tives to educate students and the public, to help promote solar technolo-
gies, to promote whole building design, and to demonstrate the potential
for net zero energy homes. Plus, the homes are beautiful and exciting.
GREEN ROOFS FOR HOMEOWNERS

In chapter 2, we learned how some school buildings have green roofs. In
this chapter we touch on how homeowners are planning and designing
green roofs.
Green roofs are also called vegetative, living, or eco-roofs, and in some
areas, they are garden roofs. No matter what they are called, green roofs are
The density of vegetation on the green roof of this home will help control major
storm water run-off. A four-inch-thick green roof can hold a gallon of water
per square foot. (iStockphoto)
DID YOU KNOW?

Does a green roof have to be mowed? Most drought-resistant roof plants such as
sedums grow only a few inches tall and are fairly self-weeding.
installed on top of conventional roofs. Properly designed, a green roof can

keep homes cooler in the summer and warmer during the winter. Why?
The dense green plants act like a layer of insulation. A green roof can also
provide a habitat for some birds and insects.
Note, however, that installing a green roof onto an existing house is
not a simple matter. Most roofs are not structurally strong enough to sup-
port a vegetated roof without some reinforcement. For more information
about installing a green roof, go to chapter 4, “Green Buildings and Green
Cities.”
INTERVIEW
Go-Green Advocates: Mr. and Mrs. Gerald McGrath of Massachusetts have used
solar water heaters for 27 years. They were kind enough to give us an interview
regarding their installed solar heater.
Go-Green Project: Solar Water Heater
What kind of preliminary work did you do before selecting a new solar water
heater for your home?
We checked out the costs and the government credits and how solar collectors
would look on our roof. In an emergency, we wanted to make sure that our exist-
ing conventional system would still be available. Looking at plans, we wanted to
check how the solar collectors on the roof were connected to the storage tank in
the cellar.
What kind of solar water heating system is installed in your home?
We purchased the Reynolds Aluminum Solar System in September 1983. In 2009,
we replaced the original storage tank with a Bradford White Tank. The capacity of
this storage tank is 80 gallons. Both solar panels were repaired in the early 1990s
following a severe winter.
What is the approximate cost of installing a solar hot water system?
The cost of the system in 1983 was $5,600. The federal tax credit was 40 percent,
and the state tax credit was $1,000.
Briefly state how your solar water heating systems works.
In the cellar there are two 80-gallon storage tanks connected to each other by
pipes and shutoff valves. One tank is the conventional one, and the other is the
solar tank. Each tank can serve the house separately or together as a solar system
with a backup conventional system.
The solar tank is equipped with a “crown top” heat exchanger. Two low-voltage
AC pumps run simultaneously. One pump carries solar fluid to the roof collectors,
A conventional water
heater (left) sits next
to a solar water heater
(right) in the basement
of Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGrath’s home in Mas-
sachusetts. The heat
exchanger sits on top of
the solar tank. The pip-
ing is arranged to run
the house on solar only,
conventional hot water
only, or a combination of
the two. Solar collectors
are located on top of the
roof, facing south. (Cour-
tesy Mr. and Mrs. Gerald
McGrath)
and the other carries water from the tank to the heat exchanger. A control box
mounted on the exchanger controls the pumps. A daylight/heat sensor turns the
pumps on and off.
How much maintenance, if any, is required to keep the solar water heating system
operating efficiently?
An annual tune-up is recommended, or when the solar fluid pressure per square
inch (PSI) drops below 10. The homeowner can also periodically check to see if
the control box LED lights are blinking during the day, which indicates everything
is working.
How did you determine the size of your solar water heating system for your house-
hold needs? Does it provide enough hot water?
Prior to the solar heating system, the house had an 80-gallon electric hot water
tank, which served us fine. Size is based, however, on usage and the number of
users in the household.
Is there a need for a backup system during a cloudy week or a sunless period?
Yes, definitely. Backup is needed when you have several cloudy days in a row. Also,
the winter months require continuous backup help.
How energy efficient is your solar hot water system compared to the conventional
electric hot water?
It depends on the time of the year. From May to September, it is 100 percent ef-
ficient. In March, April, October, and November, it is 60 percent efficient. From De-
cember to February, it is 40 percent efficient. Overall, our annual utility savings is
about 20 percent.
Did you determine a payback period of investing in this solar hot water system?
Yes, approximately seven years.
What kind of advice would you give homeowners who are interested in installing
a solar hot water system?
A solar hot water system works very nicely and is operationally cost-efficient. Ho-
meowners should take advantage of government and state tax credits. To get the
maximum benefit of a solar hot water system, the bulk of hot water usage should
be during the day.
Are you planning any other renewable energy source for your home, in the
future?
Not at this time.
GREENER VEHICLES FOR TRAVEL

Presently, many automobile companies are offering greener vehicles. Car
buyers can now purchase a variety of “super low-emission vehicles,” known
as SULEVs. SULEV gasoline/electric hybrid vehicles and alternative-fuel
vehicles—those that run on natural gas, propane, ethanol, or methanol—
are being more noticed on the highways.
The cleanest of the clean cars are the electric cars and hydrogen cars,
given that they emit zero pollutants. The next group of greener cars in-
cludes the natural gas and hybrid vehicles, which release next to zero emis-
sions. Following is a brief description of some greener vehicles.
Hybrid Cars
A hybrid car features a small fuel-efficient gas engine combined with an
electric motor that assists the engine when accelerating. The electric motor
is powered by batteries that recharge automatically while you drive.
The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely available until the re-
lease of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight
in 1999 (see Table 3.1).
TABLE 3.1 Present-Day Hybrid Vehicles

Some gas-electric hybrid cars are now available in North America:
Honda Civic Hybrid

Saturn Aura Hybrid
Toyota Prius
Toyota Camry Hybrid
Nissan Altima Hybrid
Honda Insight Hybrid
Ford Fusion Hybrid
Ford Escape Hybrid SUV
Lexus 250h Hybrid
Lexus 450h Hybrid SUV
Toyota Highlander Hybrid SUV
Mercury Mariner Hybrid SUV
Fuel-Cell Vehicles
Hydrogen fuel-cell cars are electric cars that convert the chemical energy of
hydrogen into usable electric energy without combustion. If pure hydrogen
is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit only heat and water, eliminating concerns
about air pollutants or greenhouse gases. Fuel cells are more energy effi-
cient than combustion engines, and the hydrogen used to power them can
come from a variety of sources. Some hydrogen fuel-cell cars operate on a
6-kilowatt fuel cell. Fuel cells can be as expensive as $1,000 per kilowatt.
Although the United States may have cut back a bit on fuel-cell vehicle
technology, not all automobile companies are doing so. Automakers in
Japan, Germany, and South Korea are expanding fuel-cell programs. Toy-
ota plans to sell fuel-cell cars in 2015, and South Korea’s Hyundai Motor
Company is also planning to sell hydrogen vehicles to retail customers
in the immediate future. However, some auto researchers admit that it
may be decades before hydrogen vehicles and the infrastructure to support
them are as commonplace as refineries and gas stations. For now, here are
some other available fuel-cell vehicles.
Riversimple. The 2009 Riversimple is a small fuel-cell vehicle that uses a
6-kilowatt fuel cell from Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. First presented
in the United Kingdom, the Riversimple urban car is a two-seater with a
top speed of around 50 miles per hour.
Mercedes. The 2009 Mercedes BlueZero F-Cell was first introduced at

the 2009 Detroit Auto Show. The BlueZero F-Cell has a B-class body
style and was built with modular design. Acceleration from 0 to 60 miles
per hour is around 11 seconds.
General Motors. GM debuted the Equinox Fuel Cell SUV in 2008.
Under its Project Driveway program, GM will be building100 hydrogen
vehicles, which will be test-driven by consumers in Los Angeles, New
York, and Washington, D.C.
Chrysler. Chrysler’s ecoVoyager, which has a range of 300 miles and a
0–60 mile-per-hour speed of 8 seconds, made its first appearance at the
2008 Detroit Auto Show.
Mazda. The Mazda company has a hybrid, the Premacy Hydrogen RE,
that uses a hydrogen rotary engine to create the electricity that powers the
motor. The system is said to boost the fuel range of the vehicle to around
125 miles.
The Mercedes-Benz Concept BlueZero E-Cell car combines both a battery-

electric drive and a turbo-charged combustion gasoline engine. The vehicle
can travel up to 370 miles, with 60 miles solely under electric power, and can
accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 10.8 seconds. (Breezeart/Dreams
time.com)
Electric Vehicles
During the early 1900s, approximately 50,000 electric cars powered by
batteries were in used in the United States. However, the introduction of
the internal combustion engine, the cheap economy of gasoline and petro-
leum, and the ability of gasoline-powered engines to travel long distances
caused the decline of battery-powered engines. By the 1920s, electric cars
had all but disappeared in the United States. However, in 1996 the Saturn
division of General Motors manufactured and leased electric vehicles for
a short time. The Saturn electric vehicle was highlighted in a documentary
film titled Who Killed the Electric Car?
Now electric vehicles are back; spurred on by government pressure to
reduce harmful vehicle emissions around the world. Major automakers are
now producing electric vehicles. Here is a brief overview of some of them.
In 2010 Nissan Motor Co. announced plans to produce an all-electric
car that will use advanced lithium-ion batteries and should be able to go
100 miles on one charge. The dashboard gives detailed information about
the state of the batteries and the location of charging stations. The battery
pack is flat and sits right under the car seats.
The Mitsubishi iMiEV is an electric vehicle with zero emissions. Using
the onboard charger, the vehicle can be charged with either a 100V or
200V power source in the home. In addition, if quick chargers currently
being developed by power companies are used, it will be possible to charge
the vehicle in a short time.
General Motors is selling its electric vehicle, the 2011 Chevy Volt. The
electric vehicle uses a lithium-ion battery pack system. A small, quiet on-
board gas generator creates electricity that powers the Volt for hundreds of
miles on both battery and gas power.
Tesla Motors has produced high-performance electric cars. Its sports
car can accelerate as fast as many gas-powered cars. In tests, the car can
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2009 two students at Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland, Rhode
Island, and a team of professionals converted a 1998 Saturn sedan into a 100 per-
cent electric plug-in that is registered and licensed in the state of Rhode Island.
See volume 5, chapter 5, for more information.
reach 60 miles per hour in 3.6 seconds. The company is now developing an
electric sedan.
Ford company will be selling a battery electric-powered light commer-
cial vehicle. The electric van will give an expected maximum range of 100
miles on a single charge. In 2011 Ford will introduce their new battery-
powered small car.
The BMW Mini E is an electric vehicle that was introduced during a
field test in June 2009. The Mini E is a lithium-ion battery-powered two-
seater.
Daimler plans to produce and release 400 electric versions of its Smart
commuter vehicle in several pilot programs worldwide.
The Chinese company BYD plans to sell its plug-in hybrid in the United
States soon. The country has invested billions in an infrastructure network
and charging stations to support the new electric vehicles on the road.
Electric Vehicles Need Infrastructure

With major automakers expected to roll out all-electric and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles in the coming years, California and Oregon are starting to
build the electric charging infrastructure.
In California’s Bay Area, the mayors of San Francisco, San Jose, and
Oakland have announced a joint plan aiming to encourage the use of elec-
tric vehicles. All government buildings will have charging outlets, and fur-
ther outlets will be installed throughout each city. The mayors also plan
to establish programs to discount large purchases of electric vehicles for
public and private fleets.
Nissan will be working with county and city governments in Sonoma
County to promote its electric vehicles and develop a charging network
throughout the area.
DID YOU KNOW?

General Motors introduced the 1999 Saturn model EV-1 electric car with GM Ovonic
nickel-metal hydride batteries.
DID YOU KNOW?

An authority on electric cars states that to drive 30 miles in a day, you need 300
watts. That is the equivalent of having your computer turned on all day.
The nozzle for a new electric car charging station is shown at the opening of
North America’s first public-use, quick-charge station for electric vehicles in
Portland, Oregon, August 5, 2010. The Takasago rapid-charging station is spe-
cialized to recharge lithium-ion batteries and requires only 20–30 minutes to
restore up to 80 percent of the battery’s full strength. (AP Photo/Don Ryan)
In Oregon, Portland General Electric has already installed six charging

stations in the Portland and Salem metropolitan areas and plans to install
six more to support electric vehicles.
Electric Vehicle Benefits and Challenges

Although electric vehicles produce zero emissions, generating the electric-
ity to charge them from electric power plants using fossil fuels produces
air-borne pollutants and solid waste at the plants. There are environmental
concerns with the use of batteries for electric and hybrid cars. They contain
toxic chemicals and produce some toxic emissions, which can make bat-
tery production and disposal a waste issue. Other criticisms include the
assertion that today’s batteries are still too expensive, store little energy, are
heavy, and need to be replaced eventually. However, the future for electric-
vehicle battery technology looks promising, given that it represents an-
other option for producing zero- or low-emission vehicles.
FEATURE
How Do You Estimate Miles Per Gallon (mpg) Driving an Electric Vehicle?
It is not easy. Today, all car owners, those that drive gasoline-powered vehicles,
want to know how many miles their cars or trucks can go on a gallon of gasoline.
Will it be 28 miles per gallon? More? Less?
To help car owners and those who are buying a new car, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) publishes a special vehicle report. In the report, the EPA
lists and labels all vehicles that are on the road today with their estimated miles
per gallon. As an example, the label will show a small, two-door, four-cylinder, 2010
car getting 30 miles per gallon in city traffic and 35 miles per gallon traveling on the
highway. Obviously, the report will state that a larger and heavier vehicle with an
eight-cylinder engine will get less mileage per gallon than the smaller car. All new
cars have an EPA sticker on their windows posting the miles per gallon for that
particular car or truck.
But how do you determine the miles per gallon for a 100 percent electric car?
To help answer the question, the EPA has come up with one method of rating miles
per gallon for electric cars. They had to compare the equivalent of gasoline energy
with electrical energy for the new rating system for electric vehicles. They used a
formula in which 33-kilowatt hours of electricity is the equivalent of one gallon of
gasoline. So the rating system label is now renamed as miles per gallon equivalent
(or mpge) for electrics. How does the rating system work for the new electric cars?
In one study, the 2011 Nissan Leaf, an all-electric car, will get the miles per gallon
equivalent of 99 miles per gallon of fuel, according to the EPA fuel economy label.
Not everyone agrees with the miles per gallon equivalent rating. So the EPA
and others are establishing other options for rating clean-fuel vehicles for future
buyers. Note that even though an electric vehicle produces zero emissions, if the
vehicle’s batteries are being charged from fossil fuel power stations, the electric
vehicle is still not 100 percent emission-free. Why? The fossil fuel power company
emits greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, as it generates and transmits
electricity to the electric vehicle charging station.
Other Green Vehicles

Natural Gas Vehicles
Natural gas vehicles use compressed natural gas or liquefied natural gas
for fuel. Although such vehicles have existed since the 1930s, they are
only recently becoming more popular because of rising public concerns
about pollution. Most vehicles that run on gasoline can be converted to
run on natural gas. There are more than 120,000 natural gas vehicles on
U.S. roads today. Worldwide, there were 9.6 million natural gas vehicles
in 2008, led by Pakistan (2.0 million), Argentina (1.7 million), and Brazil
(1.6 million.)
Biodiesel Vehicles
Many consumers are using biodiesel (from 20% to 100% blends with die-
sel) in diesel vehicles or converting diesel vehicles to run on used vegeta-
ble oil. More than 25,000 vehicles in commercial and government fleets
currently run on biodiesel blends in the United States. In Europe, where
diesel vehicles already account for more than 40 percent of the passenger
car market, biodiesel may be an attractive option. In fact, all new die-
sel vehicles can use biodiesel when available. Many vehicles can run on
biodiesel, and the price of these vehicles is not significantly higher than
traditional diesel vehicles. For details on how two teachers and their stu-
dents built a biodiesel pickup truck and a biodiesel car, refer to volumes
1 and 4.
How Do You Find the Greenest Vehicle Possible?

The Environmental Protection Agency has identified the lowest-emitting
and most fuel-efficient vehicles with a “SmartWay” designation. Look up
all SmartWay and SmartWay Elite vehicles with the “Look Up Greenest
Vehicles” search at http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/. Click on the logos
there to learn more about the SmartWay rating system.
DRIVING AND CAR MAINTENANCE

Because transportation accounts for more than half of U.S. oil use, making
some simple changes in your driving habits can have a major impact. Here
are some tips courtesy of the U.S. Department of Energy:
• Idling gets you 0 miles per gallon. The best way to warm up a vehicle
is to drive it. No more than 30 seconds of idling on winter days is
needed. Anything more simply wastes fuel and increases emissions.
• Aggressive driving (speeding, rapid acceleration, and hard braking)
wastes gas. It can lower your highway gas mileage by 33 percent and
city mileage by 5 percent.
• Avoid high speeds. Above 60 miles per hour, gas mileage drops rap-
idly.
• Clear out your car; extra weight decreases gas mileage by 1–2 percent
for every 100 pounds.
• Reduce drag by placing items inside the car or trunk rather than
on roof racks. A roof rack or carrier provides additional cargo space
and may allow you to buy a smaller car, but a loaded roof rack can
decrease your fuel economy by 5 percent or more.
• Check into telecommuting, carpooling, and public transit to cut
mileage and car maintenance costs.
SOMETHING TO DO
The urban “heat island effect” is thought to produce temperatures 7–10
degrees warmer than surrounding suburban and rural areas. Research
in Europe has shown that construction and use of green roof technol-
ogy in cities can have a significant impact on lowering the costs of en-
ergy as well as provide social and environmental benefits for a building’s
inhabitants.
Extensive and intensive green roof designs are two types of green roof
systems. Define and research the advantages and disadvantages of each
type. Based on your research, plan a green roof using one of the designs.
See the Web sites www.greenroofs.org and www.buildinggreen.com.

California Energy Commission. Energy Tips for Schools. http://www.con
sumerenergycenter.org/tips/schools.html.
Flex Your Power. Energy Solutions. http://www.fypower.org/inst/edu.
html.
Pilloton, Emily. “Clinton Library Gets LEED Platinum.” Inhabitat,

November 19, 2007. http://www.inhabitat.com/2007/11/19/clinton-
library-goes-leed-platinum/.
WEB SITES
www.energy.gov/buildings/technologies
Building technology programs work to improve the energy efficiency
of our nation’s building through innovative techniques and better
building practices.
www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/Basic
The Green Vehicle Guide gives information about the environmental
performance of vehicles and provides side-by-side comparison search
capability.
www.avere.org
The European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Elec-
tric Vehicles is committed to the development of battery, hybrid, and
fuel-cell technology to bring about a new age of driving and trans-
portation with cleaner air and less noise.
www.evaa.org
The Electric Vehicle Association of America consolidates informa-
tion and research on sustainable transportation, hybrid vehicles, fuel-
cell cars, battery cars, and fuel-efficient cars and the production of
alternate types of fuels.
www.greencluster.org
Green Cluster is dedicated to providing the general public with basic
information about the world of renewable energy and finding ways
to power our homes and cities without damaging the environment.
www.homesolarpanels.org
Home Solar Panels provides information on the uses of solar energy
and descriptions of retail products directly related to the construction
of photovoltaic energy systems for residential applications.
www.hybridcars.com/cars
Hybrid Cars provides hybrid car shopping information ranging from
major trends in hybrid car technology, new models, cost comparisons,
and current research in the evolving green car production.
VIDEOS
version.
New York, United States: Twenty percent of New York City’s area is
rooftops. This video on green roof projects in the Bronx discusses the
potential benefits in reducing storm water runoff and lowering the
energy demands of its citizens by cooling the city. For more infor-
mation, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17hRZgsFEXE
(09:22 minutes).
Rooftop Gardens: This automated PowerPoint presentation on how
to build your own rooftop garden has it all! For details, go to: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=daKPo00LIFA&feature=related
(0:55 minutes).
Chapter 4
a
Green Buildings and

Green Cities
Chevron’s Northpark building, located just outside of New Orleans, is one

example of the growing green movement in construction. This 300,000-
square-foot office is the first gold-certified LEED building in the state of
Louisiana. To see a video of the green building, visit http://www.willyou
joinus.com/commitment/whatweredoing/wwd3/?autoplay=True.
WHAT IS A GREEN BUILDING?

Simply stated, a green building is a structure that is planned and designed
to use energy, water, natural resources, and materials efficiently and to re-
duce wastes and pollution. The basic principles of green building apply to
all types of new construction and renovation, from remodeling a kitchen
to constructing a gymnasium or a four-story building.
Some of the components of green buildings should include:
• conserving natural resources
• increasing energy and water efficiency
• reducing wastes an toxic materials
• improving indoor air quality
THE IMPACT OF BUILDINGS ON

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Most people think of vehicle exhausts and factory emissions when they
consider the impact of humans on the natural environment. However, ac-
cording to the Environmental Protection Agency, each year buildings are
responsible for
• 65 percent of all energy consumption
• 39 percent of what is classified as greenhouse gas emissions
• 36 percent of all energy consumption
• 30 percent of all raw materials usage
• 12 percent of potable (drinking-quality) water usage
• 30 percent of waste output
Based on these facts, many communities, cities, and municipalities have
drafted green building guidelines.
LEED LEADS THE WAY

A U.S. effort to set standards for design and construction practices is ex-
emplified by the Leadership in Energy and Environment Design (LEED)
program. As per the LEED standards, factors such as sustainable sites,
water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, material, resources, and indoor
environmental quality are given different weighted points. Based on these
weighted points, certification levels are calculated and graded as certified,
silver, gold, and platinum. The highest certification level offered by LEED
is platinum. The U.S. LEED standards are being used by Canada, India,
and Israel for some of their green architecture projects. Other countries use
their own standards for green architecture. Some of these nations include
Australia, France, Germany, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, and
the United Kingdom, to name a few.
CRITERIA FOR RESIDENTIAL

GREEN BUILDING PRODUCTS
According to green builders and architects, there are four key decisions to
be made when choosing and installing sustainable construction materials
into a green building. These include indoor air quality, energy efficiency,
resource efficiency, and water conservation.
Green Buildings and Green Cities a 81
A plaque shows the LEED Platinum

certification earned for the green
design of the Department of Natu-
ral Resources building in Jefferson
City, Missouri, June 28, 2007. (AP
Photo/Kelley McCall)
• Indoor air quality: All air conditioning units and heating units must
be efficient at filtering indoor air pollutants.
• Energy efficiency: Install energy-efficient appliances such as Energy
Star refrigerators, central air conditioners, and other appliances that
will reduce the home’s carbon footprint.
• Resource efficiency: Use recycled building material when possible, such
as paneling, hardwood flooring, doors, and staircase material. Use
locally available material goods and renewable materials.
• Water conservation. Install showerheads and low-flow toilets to con-
serve water. The current standard for toilets in the United States is
1.6 gallons per flush.
GREEN ROOF ARCHITECTURE

Chapters 2 and 3 included discussions of green roofs installed in schools
and in homes. As mentioned before, green roofs are living plants installed
on top of conventional roofs. A green roof can keep buildings cooler,
save energy, extend the useful life of the roof, and add beauty and usable
space.
FEATURE
A Rating System for Go-Green Sustainable Buildings
The organization Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a leader
in sustainable construction. It has developed LEED for Homes, which is a rating
system for dwellings that have been built with a plan toward lower utility bills, mini-
mized greenhouse gas emissions, and reduced indoor toxin levels.
According to LEED, once a home or building has been inspected and is LEED-
certified, the owner will be reassured that the home is not only environmentally
friendly but also more attractive to potential buyers in the future. The LEED check-
list for certification is very detailed and includes such areas as
• project planning
• building site selection (above the floodplain defined by FEMA, no endan-
gered species, etc.)
• proximity to mass transit systems
• landscaping methods (drought tolerance, mulch, reduced irrigation de-
mand, etc.)
• nontoxic pest control
• water reuse
• indoor water use (low-flow toilets and shower heads, etc.)
• Energy Star performance appliances
• HVAC refrigerants
• construction materials
• interior heating methods
• radon protection
VIDEO
New York, United States: America reinvents itself! To learn about the Empire State
Building going green and, in doing so, becoming 40 percent more energy efficient, go
to http://greenlivingideas.com/topics/green-building/empire-state-building-green
(02:22 minutes) or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17i7Q5Dr3PA&NR=1 (05:48
minutes).
VIDEO
For a story on a rooftop farm in New York, go to http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/
2009/10/02/eveningnews/main5361333.shtml?tag=contentBody;featuredPost-PE.
Around the World with Green Roofs

If you traveled to most cities in the world, you would find green-roof
buildings. In Europe, you would see one of the oldest green roofs created.
In 1914 a green roof was installed at the Moos lake water–treatment plant.
The more than 90-year-old plant near Zurich, Switzerland, has a huge
nine-acre roof that looks like a meadow.
Germany is well known for its thousands and thousands of homes with
green roofs. In fact, it has been estimated that 10 percent of the buildings
in this country have green roofs.
The city of Linz in Austria has been installing green roofs since the
1980s. In France, a huge green roof of roughly 86,000 square feet has been
incorporated into the new museum L’Historial de la Vendée that opened
in June 2006 at Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne.
Back home in the United States, the Gap Headquarters in San Bruno,
California, includes a 69,000-square-foot green roof. The new California
Academy of Sciences building in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park has a
Aerial photo of the green roof on L’Historial de Vendée, France. The green roof
is 8,000 square meters in area. L’Historial de la Vendée is a museum recount-
ing the history of the Vendée from prehistory to the present that also houses
a small museum for children about the history of food. (Conseil Général de la
Vendée—Photo Historial de la Vendée—France)
DID YOU KNOW?

Germany has more than one billion square feet of green roofs, which are mainly
built for storm water runoff reduction.
green roof that provides 2.5 acres of native vegetation designed as a habitat
for indigenous species, including the threatened Bay Checkerspot Butter-
fly. Going south to Atlanta, Georgia, the green roof on Atlanta’s city hall
became the first municipal green roof in the Southeast.
Green Roofs Are Effective

The Environmental Protection Agency states that green roofs can be ef-
fectively used to reduce storm water runoff from commercial, industrial,
and residential buildings. In contrast to asphalt or metal roofing, green
roofs absorb and store large quantities of precipitation. Thereby, the green
roofs act as a storm water management system that reduces the volume of
storm water entering waterways and sewer systems. This is important be-
cause during periods of heavy rainfall and snow melt, storm water systems
and sewer systems can become overwhelmed by the volume of water and
can overflow into nearby water bodies. This can cause a large discharge of
millions of gallons of sewage into local waterways. Green roofs offer ad-
ditional benefits, too. The green roof provides more thermal and acoustic
insulation when compared to the insulation found in conventional roofs.
Many residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are suitable for
green roof programs.
What Is a Green Roof Made Of?

Let’s start at the top of a green roof. Here you will find a layer of rows and
rows of plants. These plants have shallow rooting systems, grow low to
DID YOU KNOW?

A waterfront hotel in Tokyo, Japan, has a roof garden that produces vegetables,
fruits, herbs, and even honey, which are worth about $15,000 a year and are used
by the hotel’s restaurant.
the ground, and are drought-tolerant. Plants found on many green roofs
include delosperma, chives, talinum, and the popular sedum. The variety
of coloration of these plants provides a colorful mosaic on any rooftop.
The plants can be grown in a mixture of lightweight soils, crushed shale,
vermiculite, and other material.
The shallow depth of the soil helps in keeping weeds from establish-
ing themselves on the roof. Most gardeners know that most weeds cannot
survive in the arid and shallow soil conditions found on a vegetated green
roof.
Now let’s look at what is underneath the garden roof. Here you find
either a membrane of rubberized asphalt or a layer of synthetic rubber.
These are root-repellant materials that function to stop the moisture of the
growing plant roots from damaging the roof.
Components in a well-designed green roof include thermal insulation, filter

membranes, a drainage layer, growing medium, and vegetation. (Source:
National Research Council, Institute for Research in Construction)
FEATURE
A Green Roof in Dearborn, Michigan
One of the largest green roofs to be found in the United States and in the world
is located at the Ford Motor Company’s River Rouge Plant. The plant in Dearborn,
Michigan, has 450,000 square feet of green roof covered with sedum, a succulent
groundcover, and other plants. The roof reduces storm water runoff by holding an
inch of rainfall. The roof also provides a habitat for some local wildlife.
The River Rouge Plant, also known as Ford Dearborn Truck Assembly Plant, won
the 2004 Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Award of Excellence in the Extensive Indus-
trial Commercial category. William McDonough designed the green roof.
A layer of pebbles or special drain matting that acts as a drainage layer

is placed on the membrane. The drainage layer allows excess water to move
freely and prevents the soil from lifting up and flowing off the roof.
Maintenance
Keeping up with an extensive green roof is not difficult because they are
low-maintenance. The drought-resistant plants used on these green roofs
do not need additional watering after they get established, except in ex-
treme conditions. In many green roofs, weeding tasks for gardeners takes
place only once or twice a year.
Benefits of Green Roofs

As mentioned previously, green roofs have many benefits. Green roofs can
save homeowners on cooling and heating costs. The leafy cover of a green
roof helps cool the air through evaporation, by providing shade, and by
forming a more lightly colored surface than the dark roof underneath. The
insulation provided by the green roof can also help lower heating costs dur-
ing the winter months and keep the home cooler during the hot weather.
A green roof can help to reduce noise level in a home.
What kind of savings does a green roof provide? Savings on heating
and cooling costs depends on the size of the building, the local climate,
and the type of green roof installed. “Using a simulation model, Environ-
ment Canada found that a typical one-story building with a grass roof and
3.9 inches of growing medium would result in a 25% reduction in summer
cooling needs.”
FEATURE
Xeriscape
Xeriscape is a term derived from the Greek xeros, meaning dry. Xeriscape gardens
are composed of drought-tolerant plants similar to the roof garden types that can
survive in very hot and dry conditions year-round. These kinds of gardens conserve
water and are less susceptible to pests. Xeriscape includes creative landscaping
for water and energy efficiency and lower maintenance. The seven xeriscape prin-
ciples are good planning and design; practical lawn areas; efficient irrigation; soil
improvement; use of mulches; low-water-demand plants; and good maintenance.
One study reported that by using the principles of xeriscape, gardeners would
save from 50 to 60 percent of the water that would otherwise be used for growing
other plants. Drought-tolerant plants include Mexican sage, yellow potentilla, Cali-
fornia poppies, African daisies, aloe vera, and century plant.
FEATURE
Controlled Burning on a Green Roof?
The Ducks Unlimited National Headquarters in Winnipeg, Manitoba, has a green
roof, which is planted with native prairie grasses. Every three years or so, the or-
ganization uses a controlled burn program, similar to some forestry practices, to
regrow the prairie plants. This roof has 16 inches of soil that protects the building
from any fire damage. The grass fire helps remove weed species and assists the
young prairie species to grow.
DID YOU KNOW?

According to installers of green roofs, a green roof can range in price from approxi-
mately $5 per square foot to $20 per square foot.
Some Issues with Green Roofs

Before planning and constructing a garden roof, experts agree that the un-
derlying roof system must accommodate increased maintenance traffic and
be designed to meet or exceed expected garden service life. They all agree
that leak detection is difficult and that roof repair and maintenance may be
more complicated than originally planned.
DID YOU KNOW?

In European studies, green roofs can easily double the life span of a conventional
roof and therefore decrease the need for reroofing the building.
DID YOU KNOW?

The largest green wall in North America is on the exterior wall of the headquarters
of the Pittsburgh National Corporation; the corporation has successfully installed
an almost 2,400-square-foot living wall with 600 modular panels. Each 2-foot by
2-foot panel holds roughly 24 plants. Counting up all of the panels, this adds up to
about 14,000 plants growing on the wall of a 30-story building.
UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE COURSES IN GREEN

ARCHITECTURE
The interest in going green and the creation of green jobs has resulted in
the growth of green degree programs at universities near and far.
As one example, the University of Texas, Austin, offers a number of
environmental engineering programs. Another university, Cornell, offers
a range of green programs in biological and environment engineering as
well as design and environmental analysis. There are many other colleges
that offer green degree programs, too. To get a suggested list, including
the top 10 colleges that offer go-green degrees, check the following Web
site: http://www.campuscorner.com/articles/top-ten/top-colleges-green-
degrees.htm.
TECHNICAL SCHOOL COURSES

U.S. technical high schools and community colleges provide hands-on op-
portunities and experience for students in green building programs as well.
In classes and in workshops, students learn how to make buildings less
wasteful and more energy efficient.
Some of the energy-efficient construction courses include everything
from how to seal walls against energy leaks to how to install and insu-
late dry walls for soundproofing. Students in one technical high school in
Rhode Island partnered with a local community organization to build an
energy-efficient home for a low-income family. Establishing an energy-

savvy, highly trained workforce in the construction trades is vital to in-
crease green building projects.
U.S. GREEN CITIES

The Natural Resources Defense Council recently announced on a new
Web site called Smarter Cities its list of the greenest cities in the United
States.
The survey includes all cities in the United States with populations larger
than 50,000. Smarter Cities is considered to be one of the nation’s most
comprehensive databases of U.S. cities working toward sustainability. The
cities are grouped into three size categories to enable comparison between
those with similar environmental challenges and constraints on social and
financial resources.
Out of 67 cities with a population greater than 250,000 that were ranked
in the survey, Seattle is America’s greenest and most sustainable large city.
Seattle is followed by two other western cities, San Francisco and Portland.
Among the 176 medium-sized cities evaluated in the survey, Madison,
Wisconsin, placed first, and Santa Rosa, California, came in second.
The following criteria were used to rank the cities: air quality, energy
production and conservation, environmental standards and participation,
The city of Seattle, Washington,

uses electric street cars. Seattle
was rated America’s greenest city
in 2010 by the National Resources
Defense Council. (iStockphoto)
green building, green space, recycling, transportation, standard of living,

and water quality and conservation.
How Do the Rankings Work?

The data for the rankings came from the U.S. Census Bureau and the Na-
tional Geographic Society’s Green Guide. The data included government
statistics for American cities of over 100,000 people in more than 30 catego-
ries. As noted, the listing includes areas such as air quality, electricity use, and
transportation habits. The data were divided into four broad categories. Each
scored out of either 5 or 10 possible points. The sum of these four scores de-
termined a city’s place in the rankings. The four categories were as follows:
• Electricity (10 points): Cities scored points for drawing their energy
from renewable sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and hydroelec-
tric power, as well as for offering incentives for residents to invest in
their own power sources, such as roof-mounted solar panels.
• Transportation (10 points): High scores went to cities whose com-
muters take public transportation or carpool. Air quality also plays a
role.
• Green living (5 points): Cities earn points for the number of buildings
certified by the U.S. Green Building Council, as well as for devoting
areas to green space, such as public parks and nature preserves.
• Recycling and green perspective (5 points): This evaluates a city’s recy-
cling program and how important its citizens consider environmental
issues. If you are interested in more information and advice, contact
the U.S. Green Building Council’s Green Home Guide at http://
greenhomeguide.com.
A Snapshot of Some Cities Going Green

San Jose, California: The city has a green city plan called the Green Vision
program. The 15-year goal is the creation of 25,000 clean technology jobs
and a reduction in nonrenewable energy use by 50 percent by using a larger
percentage of its electrical power from renewable resources. The city’s pub-
lic transportation vehicles will run on alternative fuels.
Portland, Maine: Portland was among the first communities to sign
the U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection Agreement. The city
plans to take steps to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 7 percent
over five years. All city-owned diesel vehicles run on a mix of 20 percent
vegetable-based biodiesel fuel and 80 percent regular diesel.
Little Rock, Arkansas: The city hosts the headquarters building for Heifer
International, a nonprofit organization dedicated to combating hunger.
The structure was named one of the 10 greenest buildings in the United
States by the American Institute of Architects. The building is designed to
use up to 55 percent less energy than a standard building of its size.
Billings, Montana: In Billings, the Trash into Trees program has di-
verted 3.9 million pounds of newspaper and 68 tons of aluminum cans
from landfills. The program earned enough money to purchase and plant
2,152 trees in Billings.
Austin, Texas: Austin has pledged to meet 30 percent of its energy needs
with renewable sources by 2020. Its plan is to install more efficient wind
generators.
Boulder, Colorado: Boulder imposed the country’s first electricity tax to
pay for greenhouse-gas emission reductions.
Boston, Massachusetts: In Boston there is a special power plant that can
convert 50,000 tons of grass and leaves into power and fertilizer. In the
plant, anaerobic bacteria feeding on the grass can make enough methane
to power several electrical generators. The heat in the machine can break
down leaves, twigs, and grasses into compost.
Heifer International’s headquarters

is located in downtown Little Rock,
Arkansas. Heifer International is a
nonprofit organization, the goal of
which is to help end world hunger
and poverty through self-reliance
and sustainability. In August 2007
the U.S. Green Building Council
gave the charity’s headquarters
a platinum rating, its highest pos-
sible certification. (AP Photo/Danny
Johnston)
TABLE 4.1 Twenty-five Top Green Cities, United States (2008)

1. Corvallis, OR
2. Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton, OR
3. Bellingham, WA
4. Santa Rosa–Petaluma, CA
5. Boulder, CO
6. Eugene–Springfield, OR
7. Santa Cruz–Watsonville, CA
8. Minneapolis–St. Paul–Bloomington, MN
9. Bend, OR
10. Santa Barbara–Santa Maria, CA
11. San Francisco–San Mateo–Redwood City, CA
12. La Crosse, WI
13. Seattle–Bellevue–Everett, WA
14. Fort Collins–Loveland, CO
15. St. Cloud, MN
16. Salem, OR
17. Madison, WI
18. Iowa City, IA
19. Ames, IA
20. San Luis Obispo–Paso Robles, CA
21. Salinas, CA
22. Bremerton–Silverdale, WA
23. Duluth, MN
24. Pittsfield, MA
25. Medford, OR
Table 4.1 lists some of the top green cities or metropolitan areas in the
United States as of 2008.
GREEN CITIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Masdar City, United Arab Emirates
Masdar City in the United Arab Emirates will be the world’s first zero-
carbon and zero-waste city. The new city will be powered entirely by re-
newable energy sources. Masdar City will be built on the outskirts of
the city of Abu Dhabi over seven years. The Masdar headquarters build-
ing will receive much of its power from a large photovoltaic array on its
roof.
The surrounding communities will be linked to Masdar City by a net-
work of existing roads and new railways and public transport routes. The
city will be car-free and pedestrian-friendly. Utility services in the city
will include energy, district cooling, water, wastewater, re-use water, storm
water, and telecommunications and waste management.
Design for the headquarters of the International Renewable Energy Agency

(IRENA) in Masdar City, Abu Dhabi. Scheduled for completion in 2020, Masdar
City will be the world’s first carbon-neutral, zero-waste city powered entirely
by renewable energy. (PRNewsFoto/United Arab Emirates)
In 2008 Masdar developed a CO2 capture network system. The network

is capable of creating a large reduction in Abu Dhabi’s carbon footprint.
The first phase of the network will capture and store around 6.5 million
tons of CO2 from power plants and industrial facilities in Abu Dhabi by
2013. Once the CO2 is captured and stored, it will be transported and in-
jected in oil reservoirs for enhanced oil recovery. Under this type of system,
gas injected into the reservoir expands, pushing additional oil to the pro-
duction site. As it dissolves, the injected gas also lowers the oil’s viscosity,
thus improving the flow rate.
London, England
There are plans in London to establish future green communities in some
of the city’s boroughs. One of the areas is Gallions Park at the Royal Albert
Dock. When completed, the neighborhood will have 200 or more apart-
ments surrounded by greenhouses, as well as roof-mounted solar panels and
some wind turbines. The heat and power plant will use biomass for fuel.
Dongtan, China
In China, the government has started constructing a city on a small island
off the coast of Shanghai. Plans for the city include using renewable re-
sources such as wind and solar and zero-emission vehicles. They also will
be installing green roofs to collect and filter rainwater to be used as irriga-
tion for local farmers. One of the most ambitious plans is to design the city
to consume 40 percent less water than a conventional city. After comple-
tion, the goal is to have 500,000 people living in the green city by 2050.
SOMETHING TO DO
A sustainable or green building is the result of planning techniques that
increase the efficiency of resources and reduce the building’s impact on
human health and the environment.
Research practices and techniques that can reduce or eliminate the nega-
tive impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. In your
research, include efforts to take advantage of renewable resources, envi-
ronmentally friendly building materials, harmony of the building with the
surrounding natural features, measures to reduce energy use, on-site gener-
ation of renewable energy, and recycling methods that reduce waste of en-
ergy, water, and building materials. Consult the following Web sites: www.
epa.gov/greenbuilding, www.energystar.gov, and www.en.wikipedia.org.

Bauer, Seth, ed. Green Guide. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic,
2008.
Casey Trees Endowment Fund and Limno-Tech, Inc. Re-greening Wash-
ington DC: A Green Roof Vision Based on Quantifying Stormwater and
Air Quality Benefits. http://www.caseytrees.org.
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. http://www.greenroofs.org.
“Jerry Yudelson: Top Ten Green Building Trends for 2009.” Island Press
blog, January 28, 2009. http://blog.islandpress.org/296/jerry-yudel
son-top-ten-green-building-trends-for-2009.
Jones, R. C., and C. C. Clark. “Impact of Watershed Urbanization on
Stream Insect Communities.” Water Resources Bulletin 23, no. 6
(1987): 1047–1055.
Osmundson, Theodore. Roof Gardens: History, Design, and Construction.

Scholz-Barth, K., 2001. “Green Roofs, Stormwater Management from the
Top Down.” Environmental Design and Construction. http://www.
edcmag.com.
Van Metre, P. C., and B. J. Mahler. “The Contribution of Particles Washed
from Rooftops to Contaminant Loading to Urban Streams.” Chemo-
sphere 52 (2003): 1727–1741.
WEB SITES
www.epa.gov/greenkit/basicinformation
Green Communities is a Web-based tool kit and planning guide
designed to help communities access tools and information to help
them become more sustainable green communities.
www.asla.org/greenroofeducation
The Roof Is Growing is a classroom program developed by the
American Society of Landscape Architecture to engage and educate
students about green roofs and their environmental benefits.
www.toronto.ca/livegreen
Eco-Roof Incentive Programs are designed to promote the use of
green and cool roofs on Toronto’s commercial, industrial, and insti-
tutional buildings in order to reduce urban heat and manage storm
water runoff.
www.thegbi.org
The Green Building Initiative’s mission is to accelerate the adoption
of building practices that result in energy efficient, healthier, and en-
vironmentally sustainable buildings.
www.greenroofs.com
Greenroofs.com is an Internet news media organization that serves
as a portal for information and a database for the green roof move-
ment worldwide.
www.igra-world.com
The International Green Roof Association is a global network for the
promotion and distribution of information on green roof topics and
green roof technology.
www.horticulture.psu.edu
Penn State Green Roof Research Center demonstrates and promotes
green roof research, education, and technology distribution in the
northeastern United States.
www.roofmeadows.com
Roofscapes, Inc., develops green roof assemblies that work to manage
objectives for storm water runoff, water quality improvement, aes-
thetic appeal, and energy cost reduction.
VIDEOS
version.
California, United States: San Francisco champions an explosion of
green buildings in the Bay area, all graded according to LEED stan-
dards. For more on this comprehensive program and self-acclaimed
world model, go to http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/green-
building-revolution (11:42 minutes).
Florida, United States: To learn about the Miami eco-structure called
the COR Tower, which fuses ecology and architecture with the idea
that “less is more,” go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyDnC4
NQTbc&feature=related.
New York, United States: America reinvents itself! To learn about
the Empire State Building going green and, in doing so, becoming
40 percent more energy-efficient, go to http://greenlivingideas.com/
topics/green-building/empire-state-building-green (02:22 minutes)
or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17i7Q5Dr3PA&NR=1 (05:48
minutes).
General: For examples of green architecture, go to http://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=A2bYPFKlKeo (02:54 minutes).
General: The American Institute of Architects (AIA) and AIA Com-
mittee on the Environment (COTE) published their selections for
the top 10 green projects for 2009. To view the slide show, go to
http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/04/aia-top-buildings.php.
Chapter 5
a
Renewable Energy
Systems for a
Sustainable Future


Human activities are placing more and more pressure on Earth’s ecosys-
tems, its natural resources, and even its nonrenewable energy sources. Each
day there are environmental reports about collapsing fish stocks, massive
wastes of natural resources and energy, soil erosion, deteriorating range-
lands, loss of forests, endangered species, and the increase of air, land, and
water pollution. The degradation of the environment has led to issues of
poverty, malnutrition, disease, and social, economic, and energy inequali-
ties throughout the world.
The challenge in the 21st century will be to reverse the doom-and-gloom
exploitation of Earth’s resources and improve social and economic systems.
The participation and commitment of businesses, government agencies,
nongovernmental organizations, and even individual activism is needed to
meet the challenge of a sustainable future. The major goal will be to create
a long-term energy, environmental, and economic strategy that ensures a

more sustainable society.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Most dictionaries define sustainable as “able to sustain,” “to keep in exis-
tence,” “to maintain,” or “to endure.” A sustainable system would be one
that can be continued indefinitely without depleting any of the resources
and materials on which it depends. Let’s look at one example of a sustain-
able system. An agricultural system is sustainable if, during the production
of food, it incorporates the preservation of natural resources, such as soil
and water, and other supplies for human welfare while generating a profit.
Sustainable agriculture also requires technology that does not degrade or
spoil the potential of the land to produce.
In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development
called for sustainable development to “meet the needs of the present
generation without compromising or forfeiting the ability of future gen-
erations to meet their own needs.” Five years later, the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development proposed the Agenda
21 action plan. The plan called for all governments to adopt a national
strategy for sustainable development that includes balancing the needs of
our society, economy, energy, and environment, while improving the qual-
ity of life for us and for future generations. Since then, sustainable develop-
ment programs, sometimes known as green plans, have been adopted by
many nations throughout the world.
The term sustainable development has met some opposition. Some crit-
ics dislike the use of the word “development” because it is associated with
growth, and growth cannot be sustained in a world whose natural resources
are finite. They would prefer alternative language such as sustainable com-
munities. However, the United Nations and the majority of world gov-
ernments accept the usage of the term sustainable development in their
policies.
The Goals of Sustainable Development

Many experts believe that for too long, social, economic, environmental,
and even energy issues were addressed separately without regard for each
other. In the creation of a sustainable society, there needs to be an in-
tegration of goals related to economic growth, environmental protection,
Renewable Energy Systems for a Sustainable Future a 101
Children sing in front of a huge globe at the welcoming ceremony of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development at Ubuntu village in Johannesburg, South
Africa, on August 25, 2002. The 10-day summit was aimed at developing a firm
plan of action for lifting people out of poverty; providing health care, clean
water, and sustainable energy supplies to those without them; and protecting
the environment. (AP Photo/Karel Prinsloo)
and social equity. Some of these integrated sustainable goals include the
following:
• Improve the quality of human life.
• Conserve Earth’s diversity.
• Minimize the depletion of nonrenewable resources.
• Keep within Earth’s carrying capacity.
• Enable communities to care for their own environments.
• Integrate the environment, economy, energy needs, and human health
into decision making.
• Promote caretakers of Earth.
• Implement energy-efficiency measures and the use of renewable
energy resources.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
In 2009, 90 percent of the world’s energy was derived from the consump-
by 2030 or so, fossil fuels will still be the major source of energy for the
transportation, industrial, and residential sectors. For example, the world’s
demand for petroleum is projected to increase from 85 million barrels per
day in 2006 to 91 million barrels per day in 2015. After that, by 2030,
consumption will reach 107 million barrels per day. Overall, global energy
consumption is projected to grow by 44 percent from 2006 to 2030.
INTERVIEW
Green Advocate: Rande Gray, Design Project Manager, Hannaford Supermarkets,
Maine
Go-Green Project: A LEED Platinum–Certified Supermarket
Describe your current position and your responsibilities at the Hannaford
Supermarkets.
Hannaford Supermarkets originated in Maine and has always been a community-
based company. For many years Hannaford has been researching ways to save
energy and be environmentally friendly. We decided to take the next step to be-
come certified through the USGBC’s LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmen-
tal Design) program. This is an independent, third-party rating system that looks at
all aspects of the site and building to determine how environmentally responsible
a building is. With the gained knowledge of our “living laboratory,” we can extend
this experience and know-how from this store into our other stores.
Describe your current position, background, and responsibilities.
I am currently a design project manager, which means that I manage the design of
the project and lead the team, providing the basis for opportunities for communica-
tion, coordination, and the integrated design process, enabling the team to perform
to their potential. I am also responsible for contracts, payments, and implementing
the schedule. I have a background in architecture and project management, and
I am a LEED-accredited professional so was able to contribute to the individual
components of design as well the documentation of the point requirements. Dur-
ing the construction phase, I gave support to the construction project manager in
completion of the LEED requirements and design aspects of the project.
How did Hannaford qualify as LEED platinum–certified building?
LEED is structured with a point system in each of the following areas: sustainable
sites, water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor
Hanneford Supermarket’s solar array includes a 182-panel, 41-kilowatt

solar photovoltaic system providing more than 50,000 kilowatt hours per
year. (Courtesy Rande Gray)
environmental quality, and innovation and process. The requirement for LEED plati-
num is to fulfill the point requirements for at least 52 of the 70 possible points. Not
all points are attainable in any project. We received 57 points after submission of
the documentation, which qualified us to be platinum.
Describe the “green roof” of your building and how it has helped keep the build-
ing cool during the hot days and ward off the cold during the cold spells.
The green roof serves multiple purposes in our project. It is constructed of two-
by-four-foot trays with cups at the bottom, a membrane, and four inches of soil in
which sedums are grown. These plants were chosen because they do not need
to be mowed, are native to the area, and can hold on to water during times of
drought, so they will not need to be watered. When it rains, the cups under the
plants hold on to the storm water and can then water the plants through evapo-
ration during dry times. We decided to incorporate this feature in our platinum
building because it provides more natural habitat and green space to the site,
decreases the amount of storm water going into our filtration system, and pro-
vides added insulation to help to keep the building cool in the summer and warm
in the winter.
Where are the photovoltaic solar panels located?
The 180 photovoltaic panels are located on top of our daylight pop-up pavilion and
produce electricity from the sun’s rays, even on a cloudy day. Our store uses this
energy first, and then, as it needs more than the panels supply, we use “green”
electricity, purchased in support of a wind farm in Maine, and so we call it “green
power.”
Describe the building’s geothermal wells.
Our site and building have two geothermal wells that are 750 feet deep, that is,
longer than the length of two football fields! The water is pumped up from the wells
at a constant 50 degrees and goes into our mechanical room. A heat exchanger
draws heat from the water if it is winter or puts heat into the water if it is summer.
This helps to provide heating and cooling in our building. The water goes back
down to the well and is cooled or heated by the inside surface of the well and water
that is still there, and the journey starts again.
How do you recycle materials?
In our stores, we recycle in a variety of ways. We have a bottle return for our cus-
tomers and in the back room have bins for cardboard, paper, plastics, metal, glass,
and batteries. These are all safely recycled. There is also a program for compost-
ing our food waste. This goes to a company that turns the waste into compost,
which goes to the farms that then use it to give the soil added nutrients with which
to grow vegetables and fruit.
How does Hannaford store keep track of its carbon footprint?
Calculating the carbon footprint of a building is extremely difficult, and we are
working to clarify this. We use no fossil fuels to heat or cool our store or heat our
water. Our water is heated with reclaimed heat from our refrigeration process, and
our store is heated and cooled with reclaimed heat and our geothermal wells. The
electricity that we use is clean electricity from the photovoltaic panels and a wind
farm in Maine. We also use radiant heat and radiant snow melt, daylighting that
reduces our use of lights, and very efficient refrigerated cases, and we have put
doors, LED lights, and motion sensors on most of our refrigerated and frozen cases.
With these changes, we were able to save over 50 percent of our energy usage in
comparison with a typical supermarket.
Tell us about the program called Guiding Stars.
Guiding Stars is a science-based program that evaluates foods in Hannaford stores
for nutritional value. Foods are credited for positive attributes, such as fiber and a
diversity of vitamins, and foods are assigned zero, one, two, or three stars based
on their nutritional value. This program makes it easy for people, both adults and
children, to evaluate and compare different foods for purchase so that we can eat
healthier.
What is the Interactive Education Center in the store’s lobby used for?
We have created a learning center in the vestibule of the store that has different
pod locations where all ages can learn about healthy people, a healthy planet, and
healthy products. Many of the stations allow people to interact by moving objects
or pressing buttons to view the results of questions and information.
How has the store conserved its water resources?

We have been able to reduce the water usage in our store by 38 percent over a
typical grocery store by using all iceless cases, low-flow faucets, dual-flush toilets,
waterless urinals and by looking at our misting process in our produce department
to finely regulate it to obtain the optimum performance with the minimum water
usage.
How does the store maximize the natural lighting in the building?
We have designed into the store six different types of daylighting. A large portion
of our center store roof pops up with windows around it, with daylight shelves,
letting in daylight throughout the general sales area while stopping any glare from
the sun. We have also installed windows, transoms, and skylights in many spaces,
solar tubes in the prep areas, bathrooms and pharmacy that provide borrowed light
from glazing in doors, and clear ceiling tiles that bring natural light into some inte-
rior spaces.
Does Hannaford have any future plans for new and other stores to become more
energy efficient?
Hannaford, along with our sister banners, Food Lion and Sweetbay, in the Delhaize
America organization, are working on additional new LEED stores that will soon
be submitted for certification, and we are also evaluating our existing stores for
certification.
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions

As energy consumption increases, carbon dioxide emissions increase as
well. Approximately 80 percent of all of the world’s carbon dioxide emis-
sions and other harmful byproducts are derived from the burning of fossil
fuels.
Carbon dioxide emissions are projected to rise from 29 billion metric
tons in 2006 to 33 billion metric tons in 2015. By 2030, 40 billion metric
tons of carbon dioxide emissions are projected.
CHANGING TO SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Kyoto Protocol
For many years, nations have been working on plans to establish regula-
tions to reduce overall emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which man-
dates the curbing of emissions, was signed by 182 nations to meet targets
for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases—climate-warming gases that
include common industrial byproducts such as carbon dioxide. Although
the United States did not sign the Kyoto Protocol, many U.S. state govern-
ments are already moving forward with carbon-cutting plans on their own.
Several states are requiring electricity utility producers and companies to
reduce carbon emissions by 10 percent by 2018. Other states are requiring
that a certain percentage of their electricity be produced from renewable
energy sources such as wind and solar.
Along with the United States, countries such as Germany and China
are replacing some of their fossil fuel plants with renewable resources such
as hydropower, wind power, solar energy, hydrogen, geothermal, and biofu-
els. In fact, Germany is planning to remove all of its coal-producing plants
in the near future. Many countries in Europe and Asia are installing solar-
powered, wind-powered, and geothermal energy systems to reduce their
needs for fossil fuels. If predictions are correct, by the mid-21st century,
renewable energy sources could supply about 60 percent of the world’s
electricity and about 40 of its nonelectrical energy requirements.
Delegates from more than 150 countries at the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change listen to Japanese prime minister Ryutaro
Hashimoto deliver an opening speech at the Kyoto International Convention
Hall in Kyoto, Japan, on December 8, 1997. Representatives from most nations
signed the resulting Kyoto Protocol, which called for immediate measures to
lower the emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
(AP Photo/Katsumi Kasahara)
Energy Efficiency: The First Step in a

Sustainable Energy System
Most energy experts believe that at least by 2030 we are going to still de-
pend much on fossil fuels for transportation and electricity needs. There-
fore, it is necessary to be more efficient using these energy sources. There
are many ideas and plans we can implement to use less energy and use it
more wisely. Two main ways to save energy are energy conservation and
energy efficiency.
Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency

As mentioned in a previous chapter, energy conservation is the practice
of decreasing the quantity of energy used. On the other hand, energy ef-
ficiency is the use of technology that requires less energy to perform the
same function. A compact fluorescent light bulb that uses less energy than
an incandescent bulb to produce the same amount of light is an example
of energy efficiency. However, the decision to replace an incandescent light
bulb with a compact fluorescent is an example of energy conservation.
As mentioned in chapters 2, 3, and 4, energy efficiency starts at home,
in office buildings, and in schools. Buildings contribute approximately
43 percent of our nation’s carbon dioxide emissions. So if we want to cut
down on greenhouse gases, many of our buildings need to be upgraded
for efficiency and equipped with renewable energy sources. Even recycling
saves energy and natural resources through conservation. All of these mea-
sures reduce carbon emissions.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TO POWER

A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
However, together, energy conservation and energy efficiency are not
enough to cut down the growth of emissions. To get deeper reductions,
there is a need to use more clean and renewable energy sources.
DID YOU KNOW?

It is projected that by 2030 China and India will use 25 percent of the world’s energy
budget.
Let’s look at renewable and clean energy resources that will power a
sustainable future.
Hydroelectric Power
“Hydroelectric power accounts for 6 percent of the U.S.’s electricity con-
sumption and nearly 75 percent of renewable power,” according to the
Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the U.S. De-
partment of Energy. Mark Garner, chief executive officer of Voith Hydro,
said hydroelectric power plants generate 98,000 megawatts of electricity
and support about 300,000 jobs in the United States. Voith Hydro is one
of the world’s largest dedicated hydro turbine equipment manufacturing
facilities.
U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu also announced up to $30.6 mil-
lion in Recovery Act funding for the selection of seven hydropower projects,
In September 2008, presidential candidate Senator Barack Obama, left, walks

with Mark Garner, plant president and CEO, during a tour of the Voith Sie-
mens Hydro Power Plant in York, Pennsylvania. Mark Garner said he hoped
the visit by Senator Obama would help raise awareness about the importance
of hydroelectric power in America’s energy future. (AP Photo/Alex Brandon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Making a ton of paper from recycled stock saves up to 17 trees and uses 50 percent
less water.
explaining that “these projects would modernize hydropower infrastructure

by increasing efficiency and reducing environmental impacts at existing
facilities.”
Presently, hydroelectric power plants produce about 24 percent of the
world’s electricity. This is enough electricity to supply more than one bil-
lion people with electrical power for their household needs. The world’s
hydroelectric power plants output a combined total of 675,000 megawatts,
the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil, according to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Although hydroelectric power may not be a major renewable resource,
it will be a part of the energy portfolios of many countries, including Swe-
den, Iceland, and Norway.
Geothermal Energy
ergy in the United States. As of 2010 the United States has about 3,000
megawatts of geothermal electricity connected to the grid. According to
the Department of Energy, energy generated from geothermal sources
accounted for 4 percent of renewable energy–based electricity consump-
tion in the United States. The United States continues to produce more
geothermal electricity than any other country, making up approximately
30 percent of the world’s total.
According to the U.S. Energy Information Agency, geothermal energy
provided the United States with approximately 12,000 megawatts of elec-
tricity in the year 2010 and will produce 49,000 megawatts by 2030. Geo-
thermal energy is an alternative energy and renewable resource that can be
used for the direct heating of buildings or for generating electricity.
According to the Energy Information Administration, since 2007 the
U.S. geothermal heat pump manufacturing activities reported a double-
digit growth each year, fueled in part by the increasing energy prices
for conventional fuels as well as the desire for reliable and clean energy
Geothermal resources in the United States, by application. Geothermal heat

pumps can be used anywhere. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy)
alternatives. In 2008 total shipments of geothermal heat pumps surged

more than 40 percent to 121,243 units, while capacity shipped rose al-
most 43 percent to 416,105 tons. The Energy Information Agency fur-
ther stated that despite costing more initially than traditional heating and
cooling systems, the high efficiency and ongoing cost-saving potential of
geothermal heat pumps have resulted in their becoming the heating and
cooling system of choice for many consumers.
Every year in the United States, thousands of units are installed. These
numbers of units sold makes the United States the largest user in the world
of geothermal heat pumps. However, although most of this growth has oc-
curred in the United States and Europe, other countries such as Japan and
Turkey have shown interest in this application of this renewable energy
source as well.
Will geothermal energy be a major player in the renewable energy field?
Presently, geothermal heat pumps will continue to be popular sources of
energy in several countries.
Nuclear Energy
In 2010 President Barack Obama announced an $8.3 billion federal loan
to build two new reactors in Georgia. “We’ll have to build a new generation
of safe, clean nuclear power plants in America,” said President Obama.

This was big news because there have been no new nuclear units licensed
since the near-meltdown at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
near Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979.
Prior to the president’s announcement, U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven
Chu commented on the prospects of nuclear energy. In 2009 Chu reported
the selection of 71 university research project awards. The awards were part
of the Department of Energy’s investments in nuclear energy research and
development.
According to the Nuclear Energy University Program (NEUP), the
71 projects will receive approximately $44 million over three years, start-
ing in 2009. The NEUP program will help advance new nuclear tech-
nologies in support of the nation’s energy goals and will play a key role
in addressing the global climate crisis and moving the nation toward
greater use of nuclear energy.
“As a zero-carbon energy source, nuclear power must be part of our
energy mix as we work toward energy independence and meeting the
challenge of global warming,” said Secretary Chu. “The next generation of
nuclear power plants—with the highest standards of safety, efficiency and
The U.S. map shows existing, as well as proposed and decommissioned,

nuclear power plants. Observe the states that use nuclear power for elec-
tricity. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration,
Electric Power Annual 2005)
environmental protection—will require the latest advancements in nuclear

science and technology. These research and development university awards
will ensure that the United States continues to lead the world in the nu-
clear field for years to come.”
On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries, including the United
States, had chosen nuclear power to meet part of their energy needs.
Other nuclear-energy countries include China, Russia, France, Bel-
gium, Germany, India, Japan, Poland, and South Korea. According
to the World Nuclear Association, there were 442 nuclear power re-
actors worldwide. These reactors supply approximately 15 percent of
the world’s electrical needs for more than one billion people without
emitting any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases during their
operation.
The United States remains the world’s largest nuclear energy producer,
supplying more than 750 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
Solar Energy
energy as a renewable energy resource for heat and electricity. The three
key technologies include photovoltaic cells (or solar cells), concentrating
solar power systems, and special solar collectors for space heating and hot
water.
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. The cells are
made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon or various thin-film
materials.
Concentrating solar power technologies use reflective materials to con-
centrate the sun’s heat energy. The high-temperature heat is eventually
used to drive a steam generator to produce electricity.
Low-temperature solar collectors, such as active and passive solar energy
systems, absorb the sun’s heat energy. The thermal energy is used directly
for space heating or hot water for homes and businesses.
DID YOU KNOW?

In Norway hydroelectric power generates more than 90 percent of the country’s
electricity needs.
DID YOU KNOW?

In 1996 Watts Bar Unit 1 was the latest completed U.S. reactor.
Concentrated Solar Power Technologies

Solar power towers offer large-scale, distributed solutions to global energy
needs, particularly for peaking power. Like all solar technologies, they are
fueled by sunshine and do not release greenhouse gases. Such towers col-
lect and store solar energy, which can be released into the electrical grid
when needed. One thousand acres of nonproductive land developed with
solar reflectors and a 100-megawatt tower can supply enough electricity
for 50,000 homes. In the United States, the Southwest is a viable location
for such installations.
What is the future for concentrating solar power technologies? Solar
advocates have increased their forecasts for the amount of electricity that
could be supplied by concentrating solar power. They report that concen-
trating solar power may be able to deliver up to 7 percent of the electricity
demand worldwide by 2030.
Photovoltaics
According to economists, the global photovoltaic industry will continue
to grow. The large manufacturers of photovoltaics are reducing costs and
at the same time increasing volume, which will in turn stimulate demand
from customers. The price per watt of solar panels increased starting in
2003 because the supplies of silicon were tight. Silicon, which is derived
from quartz, accounts for as much as 30 percent of the cost of making a
solar panel. In 2003 the price of a kilogram of silicon used for solar cells
was less than $30. By 2007 the price had increased substantially to $400
per kilogram of silicon. As a result, the silicon shortages raised the prices of
photovoltaic solar cells. However, since 2006 the average price per watt has
been dropping a bit. Most economists agree that the prices will continue
to come down. If so, the photovoltaic industry may likely be the major
growth industry for the next several decades. Again, building a new grid
transmission system for using solar energy may still be a challenge to the
growth of solar power in the United States.
Nanotechnology and Solar Cells

What Is Nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is the ability to observe, measure, manipulate, and manu-
facture things at the nanometer scale. A nanometer (nm) is an SI unit of
10-9 meters, or one-billionth of a meter. At this scale, we are talking about
the size of atoms and molecules.
For a visual image of a nanometer, observe the nail on your little finger.
The width of your nail on this finger is about 10 million nanometers across.
To get a sense of some other nano-scaled objects, a strand of human hair
is approximately 75,000–100,000 nanometers in diameter. A head of a pin
is about a million nanometers wide, and it would take about 10 hydrogen
atoms end-to-end to span the length of one nanometer.
Quantum Dots for Solar Cells

Much of the sun’s energy is wasted by today’s photovoltaic cells. When
solar photons strike a solar cell, they release electrons in the semiconductor
University of Minnesota professor Eray Aydil poses with a solar simulator at

the university’s Chemical Engineering and Materials Science laboratory. Aydil
and his team of researchers were using nanotechnology to build a prototype
solar cell that could be used to generate electricity. (AP Photo/Jim Mone)
to produce an electric current. However, when an electron is set free by the

photon, it collides often with a nearby atom, making it less likely to set
another electron free. So even though the sun’s solar photons carry enough
energy to release several electrons, producing more electricity, they are lim-
ited to one electron per solar photon. As a result, conventional solar cells
operate at 15–20 percent efficiency using solar energy.
Scientists have been doing a lot of research and experiments with
quantum dots to make photovoltaic cells more efficient. Quantum dots,
also known as nanocrystals, are a special class of materials known as
semiconductors. Quantum dots are a unique class of semiconductor
because they are so small, ranging from 2 to 10 nm (10–50 atoms) in
diameter.
Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and the Los
Alamos National Laboratory have been experimenting with quantum dots
as a semiconductor in a solar cell. They have discovered that the use of
the quantum dots allows solar energy to release multiple electrons, not
just one. This research has the potential to lead to major improvements
in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells. The two research teams have
calculated that a maximum of a 42 percent efficiency rate is possible from
the conversion of solar energy to electricity. The solar cells could be used to
make hydrogen directly from water for fuel cells. The researchers still need
more time and research to complete their studies.
Wind Energy
In 2008 the United States became one of the fastest-growing wind-
power marketplaces in the world. That year, wind power accounted for
approximately 40 percent of all new U.S. electricity-generating capacity.
The Department of Energy reported that wind power could generate
20 percent of all U.S. electricity needs by 2030. Although wind power
currently produces less than 2 percent of U.S. electrical needs, it is the
fastest-growing renewable energy resource, and the future looks even
more promising.
The development of wind power technology is not unique to the United
States. Many countries are developing this renewable energy resource. For
example, according to the American Wind Energy Association, Denmark
leads the world, producing more than 20 percent of its electricity needs at
home from wind energy.
bines are in Germany, India, Spain, Great Britain, and China. In 2010
China became the number one manufacturer of wind turbines. The World-
watch Institute estimates that wind energy could easily provide 20–30 per-
cent of the electricity needed by many countries.
Wind and Nanotechnology

Tom Ashwill, who leads blade research at the Sandia National Labora-
tories, has said that developing new concepts that reduce the rate of tur-
bine weight growth is the new challenge in wind energy. Many researchers
agree that composites using nanoscale materials may benefit wind energy’s
future by making turbines lighter and more durable.
“Incorporating nanostructures into wind turbine blades as composite
materials can enhance their mechanical strength considerably and allow
these blades to be built with longer spans, increasing the power delivered
from each wind turbine,” said Pradeep Haldar, director of the Energy and
Environmental Technology Applications Center in Albany, New York.
Researchers can use nanotechnology to
• reduce the friction in the rotation of the turbines
• decrease wear-and-tear on the turbine parts throughout its life cycle
• apply de-icing and self-cleaning technologies to prevent ice and dirt
buildup on the turbine blades
• implement nanocomposites to build lighter and stronger blades
Fuel Cells
The fuel cell industry in 2007 reported that there had been substantial
job growth and gains in sales and research, according to the Worldwide
Industry Survey. Participating companies reported a 22 percent gain in
fuel cell–specific employment, to 8,647 employees. Global sales were up
10 percent to $387 million, with research spending about $829 million.
These sales dollars show that the fuel cell industry is growing in the renew-
able energy sector.
According to the Department of Energy, a fuel cell is a device that uses
hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity by an
electrochemical process. Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional
fossil fuel technologies currently used in many power plants and passenger
Margaret Blohm monitors a turbine blade inside a wind tunnel at the Nano-
coatings Subscale Laboratory at General Electric Company’s (GE) Global
Research Center in Niskayuna, New York, in 2010. The laboratory develops
hydrophobic nanocoating technologies, which are used to improve the per-
formance of other industrial products. (Vijay Paruchuru/Bloomberg via Getty
Images)
vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cells produce much smaller quantities of green-

house gases and none of the air pollutants that create smog and cause
health problems. In fact, if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit
only heat and water as byproducts.
There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each
with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. They in-
clude polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, direct methanol
fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, and phosphoric acid fuel cells. Fuel cells can
run on a variety of fuels, both nonrenewable and renewable.
Fuel Cell Applications in Transportation

As mentioned previously, the world’s leading automakers are working
on alternative technologies using fuel cells for cars, buses, and trucks.
Hiroko Mochida of Toshiba Corpo-

ration charges the world’s smallest
direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)
unit with 10 milliliters of methanol in
Tokyo, Japan, September 2005. The
new units have an output power
of 100 milliwatts and 300 milliwatts
and have been applied to a flash-
memory-based digital audio player
and an HDD-based digital audio
player, respectively. Shown in the
photo is the 300-milliwatt unit that
can keep the HDD-based audio
player running for about 60 hours
on a 10-milliliter charge. (AP Photo/
Koji Sasahara)
Presently, about 60 million new cars are sold worldwide each year. Au-
tomotive industry leaders have speculated that fuel-cell vehicles could
account for 20–25 percent of new car sales within the next 20–25
years. This would be a potential market of 12–15 million vehicles each
year.
Fuel Cell Applications in Homes

According to Allied Business Intelligence, Inc., the current $40 million
stationary fuel cell market grew to approximately $10 billion in 2010. Fuel
cells are currently being developed in sizes appropriate for use in homes
and other residential applications.
The stand-alone residential fuel cell systems can be operated to provide
primary or backup power for the home. The fuel cells can run indepen-
dently or in parallel to an existing power grid.
You can place a fuel cell system in the basement or backyard. A fuel cell
takes up about as much space as an ordinary refrigerator. It provides clean,
quiet, and reliable power. Fuel cell systems with “fuel reformers” can extract
hydrogen for the fuel cell from a variety of sources, such as natural gas
pipelines and propane distribution systems. Consumers may also be able
to sell excess power produced by their fuel cell units back to their electric
utility companies.
Toyota plans to sell fuel-cell cars in 2015, and South Korea’s Hyun-
dai Motor Co. and Germany’s Daimler AG automaker also are planning
to sell hydrogen vehicles. However, it may be decades before hydrogen
power is as conventional as the refineries and the local gas stations we
have today.
FEATURE
Improve the Electric Grid System
All of our electricity needs depend on the efficiency of the extensive U.S. electric
power grid system. The electrical power grid refers to the large infrastructure that
covers the vast sections of the United States.
Electric power grids are the overhead, high-voltage transmission lines that
crisscross our nations. Often located along major highways, forests, railroad
tracks, and other land easements, these grids act as a “sky high” highway for the
delivery of electrical power. To transfer electricity into towns and cities, the grid
system includes high-voltage transmission lines, substations, and step-up and
step-down transformers.
Three main power grids serve the country: the Western Interconnection, the
Eastern Interconnection, and the Texas Interconnection. Each of the power grids
contains hundreds and hundreds of local and regional distribution power utility
companies.
The lack of new transmission grids is a major challenge facing the solar and
wind industry, according to the Congressional Research Service. The components
of the transmission system, those tall power lines we see everyday, are aging and
many are overloaded in some regions of the country. Unfortunately, the good sites
for wind energy plants or wind farms are located in isolated regions with limited
available capacity on a transmission network. Many are just too far away from any
existing transmission lines.
Planning and building the infrastructure necessary for the new transmis-
sion lines can take many years, and the wind plant developers in those regions
may have to incur all construction costs or get cash subsidies from local, state,
and government funds. As of 2008, new transmission lines could cost from 1.5 to
2 million dollars per mile. The costs of the materials and labor to build the new
transmission lines will increase over time. If this is a too costly endeavor, some
energy experts believe that one of the best solutions for our future energy needs
is the installation of on-site fuel-cell units that do not need extensive transmission
lines.
VIDEO
How a Fuel Cell Works: To see how a hydrogen fuel cell works, go to the Web site:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esuAlB4NVi0.
Biofuels
In 2009 U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced plans for bio-
fuel research as part of a broader strategy to increase the domestic use
of renewable fuels. Funding in the amount of $786.5 million from the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was set aside for research and
development.
“Developing the next generation of biofuels is key to our effort to
end our dependence on foreign oil and address the climate crisis—while
creating millions of new jobs that can’t be outsourced,” Secretary Chu
said. “With American investment and ingenuity—and resources grown
right here at home—we can lead the way toward a new green energy
economy.”
Global biofuel production tripled between 2000 and 2007 but still ac-
counts for less than 3 percent of the global transportation fuel supply.
However, global demands for biofuels are expected to more than dou-
ble from 2009 to 2015, according to data from Global Biofuels Outlook:
2009–2015.
and 2015 include Indonesia, France, China, India, Thailand, Colombia,
Malaysia, Philippines, and Argentina.
Brazil, a major biofuel-producing country, will grow domestic supplies
by 30 percent and will more than double export volume. Indonesia and
Malaysia will more than double their production of palm-oil biodiesel.
DID YOU KNOW?

The first fuel cell was built in 1839 by Welsh judge and scientist Sir William Grove.
However, the use of fuel cells as a practical generator began in the 1960s, when
the National Space Administration (NASA) chose fuel cells over nuclear power and
solar energy to power the Gemini and Apollo spacecrafts. Today, fuel cells provide
electricity and water on the space shuttles.
FEATURE
The Bloom Energy Fuel Cell
In early 2010 the Bloom Energy Corporation in Sunnyvale, California, announced a
fuel cell called the Bloom Energy Server™. The server is a patented solid oxide fuel
cell (SOFC). According to the company, the SOFC technology provides a cleaner,
more reliable, and more affordable alternative both to today’s electric grid and to
traditional renewable energy sources. The Bloom Energy Server will allow custom-
ers to create their own electricity on-site.
The Bloom’s fuel cell technology is different from the hydrogen fuel cells that
most people are familiar with. According to the company, the Bloom Energy Server
is distinct in four ways:
• It uses lower cost materials.
• It provides unmatched efficiency in converting fuel to electricity.
KR Sridhar, cofounder and CEO of Silicon Valley startup Bloom Energy,

holds up a fuel cell at a news conference at eBay offices in San Jose, Cali-
fornia, in February 2010. The company’s first product is a huge box of fuel
cells that it hopes will allow homes and businesses to generate their own
electricity. (AP Photo/Paul Sakuma)
• It has the ability to run on a wide range of renewable or traditional fuels.

• It is more easily deployed and maintained.
The fuel cell can provide 100 kilowatts of renewable power in roughly the foot-
print of a parking space. Each system generates enough power to meet the needs
of approximately 100 average U.S. homes or a small office building. For more power,
customers simply add on multiple servers side by side. Depending on whether the
customers are using fossil fuel or renewable fuel, fuel cells can achieve a major
reduction in their carbon footprint. Dr. K. R. Sridhar is the principal and cofounder
and CEO of Bloom Energy.
Germany will continue to be the largest producer of biofuels in Europe,

according to the analysis. Overall, biofuels will be a part of the renewable
energy portfolios for many countries.
BATTERIES
To achieve the goal of producing future batteries, manufacturers will
need to design and build new kinds of batteries that are less costly, more
durable, and stronger than today’s batteries. Most of the future research
will be geared toward building a new generation of advanced batteries,
including nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and lithium-ion bat-
tery types.
NiMH Battery
Presently, the battery type most commonly used in hybrids is the NiMH,
or nickel-metal hydride battery. General Motors introduced the 1999
model EV-1 electric car with GM Ovonic nickel-metal hydride batteries.
The batteries in these cars have a range of about 100 miles per charge, and
the life expectancy of this battery is about 100,000 miles.
NiMH rechargeable batteries are used in laptop computers, in some
small appliances, and in electronic devices such as toys and video game
DID YOU KNOW?

In 2008, the United States exported more than 300 million gallons of biodiesel fuel,
mostly to European countries.
FEATURE
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is one of the most innovative tools used in the production of biofuels.
Biotechnology is the involvement of living organisms in such fields as engineering
and technology. Some of the biotechnological techniques can help to
• increase biomass yield per acre
• improve crop quality for higher yields
• reduce crop losses from insects, viruses, and bad weather conditions
• develop efficient microorganisms and enzymes to convert cellulose to
sugars, which can then be fermented into biofuel
controllers. The batteries also power electric razors, toothbrushes, cameras,

camcorders, and mobile phones.
Thin-Film Lithium-Ion Battery

Today, lithium-ion is the fastest-growing and most promising battery
chemistry. A lithium-ion battery (sometimes called a Li-ion battery) is a
type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are common in con-
sumer electronics. Thin-film rechargeable lithium batteries were developed
by Dr. John Bates and his team of scientists and engineers from more
than a decade of research at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Unlike
conventional batteries, thin-film batteries can be deposited directly onto
special chips in any shape or size. The batteries are quite flexible. Wind and
solar power can be stored by using thin-film batteries.
Thin film batteries are manufactured by depositing the components of the bat-
tery as thin layers of film on a substrate. (Illustrator: Jeff Dixon)
DID YOU KNOW?

There are researchers in the United States who are using nanotechnology-based
catalytic filters to clean emissions from coal-fired plants and natural gas–fired
electricity-generating stations.
DID YOU KNOW?

Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal on Earth and a thin layer of it can float on water. It
is a strong alloy used in building aircraft and space vehicles.
THE FUTURE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES AND THE CHALLENGES
In 2009 President Barack Obama stated an interesting hypothesis about
the future of energy: “The country that figures out how to make cheaper
energy that’s also clean, that country is going to win the economic compe-
tition of the future.” President Obama has argued that manufacturers and
customers both need to be encouraged to pursue renewable energy alterna-
tives through tax breaks and loan guarantees and that the U.S. government
must invest in new technologies to drive down costs over the long term.
President Obama has also called for legislation that would require utilities
to gradually increase the percentage of their electricity supply derived from
renewable sources to 20 percent by 2039.
SUMMARY
As you have read through A Student Guide to Energy series, a number of
green advocates have been introduced and interviewed. Many of them are
teachers who, along with their students, have completed a number of rather
impressive renewable energy activities.
As we look into the future, we need to inspire our young people who,
hopefully, will become more involved in being energy efficient, in exploring
hands-on green energy projects, and in investigating and shadowing ca-
reers in go-green vocations in science, math, engineering, and technology.
Of course, global governments, research laboratories, activists, and other
groups will continue their goals to provide a more sustainable, renewable-
FEATURE
States Can Take Advantage of Renewable Energy Technologies
The Renewable Resource Data Center (RReDC) provides access to an extensive
collection of renewable-energy resource data, maps, and tools. Biomass, geother-
mal, solar, and wind resource data for locations throughout the United States can
be found through the RReDC. Almost every area of the country can take advan-
tage of renewable energy technologies, but some technologies are better suited
for particular areas than others. Knowing the resources of a region, state, city, or
neighborhood is therefore critical to renewable-energy planning and siting. RReDC
provides detailed resource information through tools, reports, maps, and data col-
lections. For more information, go to http://www.nrel.gov/rredc.
energy future. However, it is the young people of today who will be needed
to champion the cause in order to reach these goals. The opportunity to
inspire, encourage, and motivate them to accomplish these goals, some of
them uncommon, lies in the hands of their teachers, communities, neigh-
bors, relatives, mentors, peers, religious groups, and, of course, their parents.
What follows is the last feature of another go-green advocate story.
FEATURE
Students Convert a Gas-Powered Vehicle to a Plug-In Electric Car
In 2010 two students, Jarred Lorusso and Patrick Collins, with family help, a
grant, and a team of skilled technicians assisted in converting a 1998 Saturn four-
passenger sedan into a 100 percent electric vehicle. The plans were started in 2009
with the assistance and encouragement from their science teacher, author John
Mongillo. At that time the students were seventh-graders at Mercymount Country
Day School in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The students first got the idea of convert-
ing an automobile to electric power from a book on Mr. Mongillo’s desk. The book
detailed how to convert a gas-powered vehicle into an electric plug-in.* Mr. Mon-
gillo had plans someday to convert one of his vehicles into an electric car, using
this book as a reference.
Once the plans and a budget were approved by their teacher, the students, their
families, and a team of technicians went to work for a few months building the elec-
tric car. The vehicle and the electric components were purchased using start-up
funding from the school’s Macari Family Foundation. The Macari Family Foundation
was established in 2009 to support go-green projects initiated in the middle school
science classes at Mercymount. Additional funding was provided by the students’
parents and others. The vehicle team also received advice and input from the staff
Jarred Lorusso and Patrick Collins, with science teacher and author John
Mongillo, display the 1998 Saturn sedan that the students and a team of
professionals converted into a 100 percent electric plug-in vehicle. The
photo was taken at the Mercymount Country Day School in Cumberland,
Rhode Island. (Courtesy Lisa H. Lydon)
at Electric Vehicles of America (EVA), located in New Hampshire. EVA has many
years of experience in converting gas-powered vehicles into plug-ins.
As the work progressed over three months or so, the 1998 Saturn no longer had
a radiator, gasoline engine, muffler and tailpipe, oil pan, or gas tank. In March 2010
the conversion was finished and during that summer the converted Saturn EV was
registered, licensed, and inspected by the Motor Vehicle Department of Rhode Is-
land. The vehicle, now on the road, can be plugged directly into a 220-volt outlet for
charging the batteries, has a top speed of 60 miles per hour, and a range of 30 miles
before recharging. For more information go to www.mercymount.org.
*The book, From Gasoline to Electric Power: A Conversion Experience, was written by Gary Powers, who
spent 15 months converting a 1986 Chevrolet S-10 pickup truck into an electric vehicle.
SOMETHING TO DO
The U.S. Department of Energy originally determined that Yucca Moun-
tain in Nevada would be a suitable long-term depository for high-level
radioactive waste. Although the project was rejected by the government in

2009, research the following questions:
1. Why was Yucca Mountain chosen?

2. Why do we need a long-term repository?
3. How do we know the repository will be safe?
4. How will the radioactive waste get to Yucca Mountain?
5. What are the concerns about transporting the material cross-
country?
WEB SITES
commercial organizations.
www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/education
The Florida Solar Energy Center provides solar energy units for
grades K–12 and offers lesson plans as well.
www.re-energy.ca
GreenLearning Canada introduces students to both solar energy and
solar electricity with teacher lesson plans and tools for assessing stu-
dent progress.
www.globallearningnj.org/Solar1.htm
Global Learning, Inc., is located in New Jersey and has compiled
many lessons and units for exploring solar energy. Topics range from
schools using solar energy to ideas for science projects.
www.energy.gov
The Department of Energy’s mission is to advance the national, eco-
nomic, and energy security of the United States by promoting and
strengthening energy security, nuclear security, scientific discovery,
and innovation and environmental responsibility through sound
management policies.
www.afdc.energy.gov
Alternate Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center provides a col-
lection of tools, data bases, calculators, and interactive maps concern-
ing research on advanced fuels and vehicles; specifically on fuels and
fuel stations, comparisons of advanced fuel types in light and heavy
duty vehicles, fuel economy calculators, and a publication database
on alternate fuels and advanced vehicles.
www.energy.gov/energyefficiency
leads the government’s research, development, and deployment ef-
forts in energy efficiency. It is committed to reducing America’s de-
pendency on foreign oil and developing energy efficient technologies
for buildings, homes, transportation, and power systems.
www.doe.gov/Study_Guides_and Activities
Fossil Energy Study Guides and Activities provides principal study
guides and activities emphasizing the importance of coal, natural gas,
and petroleum in our daily lives and to make students familiar with
modern scientific and technological efforts to make using fossil fuels
cleaner for the environment.
www.bloomenergy.com
Bloom Energy utilizes an innovative new fuel cell technology de-
veloped from the NASA Mars program to produce from a common
sand-like powder, clean, reliable, and affordable power.
www.understandingnano.com
Nanotechnology and Energy presents information on the applica-
tion of nanotechnology to improve the efficiency of energy gen-
eration and the development of new methods to generate energy
using nanotechnology in fuel cells, batteries, wind, and solar power
production.
www.newplanetenergy.com
New Planet Energy was formed to assist in commercializing
new technologies that utilize waste materials and other sustain-
able resources in the production of renewable energy and related
products.
VIDEOS
version.
Abu Dhabi, Asia—“The Masdar Initiative”: To learn more about this

pioneering construction of the world’s first 100 percent carbon-free
community, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovly1dQGKH4
(5:52 minutes).
Energy Future: To watch the video on Al Gore’s “Generational Chal-
lenge to Repower America” or read the script, go to http://www.
wecansolveit.org/pages/al_gore_a_generational_challenge_to_
repower_america/ (27:18 minutes).
Energy Future: The Obama Administration and Steven Chu announced
major changes to energy conservation. To learn more, watch this
video: http://theenergycollective.com/TheEnergyCollective/44414
(09:29 minutes).
Energy Future—California, United Stats: To hear Green Talk Radio
interview Tom Shay of Minimal Homes in California about “Homes
of the Future,” follow this podcast link: http://greenlivingideas.com/
topics/green-building/homes-future-tom-schey-minimal-productions
(27:33 minutes; interview starts after advertisements, 01:22 minutes
long).
BOOKS AND
a

www.api.org.
Press, 2004.
Plants.
Group, 2003.
Press, 2006.
naturalgas.org.
2003.
2003.
2002.
2008.

2009.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
2001.
lishers, 2003.

2007.

awea.org.
2006.
the Pacific, 2005.
co.uk.
co.uk.
2007.

Rourke, 2009.
haven Press, 2007.
text Press, 2005.
2007.
Media, 2007.
2008.
2007.
2004.

2008.
Society, 2005.
Gibbs Smith, 2007.
2006.
www.usgbc.org.
GOVERNMENT AND
NONGOVERNMENTAL
a

html
org/
ceres.org
hrsint.htm

icair.iac.org.nz
www.iclei.org
html
noaa.gov/
org
org
mabnet.org

org
ENERGY DATA
a
1949–2008
142 a Energy Data

Coal Nuclear
1949 11,980,905 –6,671 5,145,142 11,882,722 29,002,099 0 1,424,722
1950 12,347,109 992 5,968,371 13,315,484 31,631,956 0 1,415,411
1951 12,552,996 –21,452 7,048,518 14,428,043 34,008,105 0 1,423,795
1952 11,306,479 –11,879 7,549,621 14,955,682 33,799,903 0 1,465,812
1953 11,372,684 –9,002 7,906,645 15,555,829 34,826,156 0 1,412,859
1954 9,714,667 –6,746 8,330,202 15,839,176 33,877,300 0 1,359,772
1955 11,167,259 –10,044 8,997,935 17,254,955 37,410,105 0 1,359,844
1956 11,349,723 –13,020 9,613,975 17,937,473 38,888,151 0 1,434,711
1957 10,820,631 –17,459 10,190,753 17,931,667 38,925,592 112 1,515,613
1958 9,533,287 –6,721 10,663,199 18,526,937 38,716,702 1,915 1,591,967
1959 9,518,353 –8,358 11,717,422 19,322,650 40,550,068 2,187 1,548,465
1960 9,837,785 –5,630 12,385,366 19,919,230 42,136,751 6,026 1,607,975
1961 9,623,351 –7,886 12,926,392 20,216,387 42,758,243 19,678 1,656,463
1962 9,906,454 –5,506 13,730,841 21,048,981 44,680,770 26,394 1,816,141
1963 10,412,538 –7,390 14,403,306 21,700,828 46,509,283 38,147 1,771,355
1964 10,964,385 –10,441 15,287,850 22,301,257 48,543,050 39,819 1,886,314
1965 11,580,608 –18,451 15,768,667 23,245,680 50,576,504 43,164 2,059,077
1966 12,143,080 –24,949 16,995,332 24,400,523 53,513,987 64,158 2,061,519
1967 11,913,750 –15,326 17,944,788 25,283,661 55,126,873 88,456 2,346,664
1968 12,330,677 –17,310 19,209,656 26,979,447 58,502,470 141,534 2,348,629
1969 12,381,540 –36,109 20,677,984 28,338,336 61,361,751 153,722 2,647,983
1970 12,264,528 –57,660 21,794,707 29,520,695 63,522,269 239,347 2,633,547
1971 11,598,411 –33,108 22,469,052 30,561,290 64,595,645 412,939 2,824,151
1972 12,076,917 –25,966 22,698,190 32,946,738 67,695,880 583,752 2,863,865
1973 12,971,490 –7,465 22,512,399 34,839,926 70,316,351 910,177 2,861,448
1974 12,662,878 56,098 21,732,488 33,454,627 67,906,091 1,272,083 3,176,580
1975 12,662,786 13,541 19,947,883 32,730,587 65,354,796 1,899,798 3,154,607
1976 13,584,067 –99 20,345,426 35,174,688 69,104,082 2,111,121 2,976,265
1977 13,922,103 14,582 19,930,513 37,122,168 70,989,367 2,701,762 2,333,252
1978 13,765,575 124,719 20,000,400 37,965,295 71,855,989 3,024,126 2,936,983
1979 15,039,586 62,843 20,665,817 37,123,381 72,891,627 2,775,827 2,930,686
1980 15,422,809 –35,018 20,235,459 34,202,356 69,825,607 2,739,169 2,900,144
1981 15,907,526 –15,946 19,747,309 31,931,050 [R] 67,569,939 [R] 3,007,589 2,757,968
1982 15,321,581 –21,650 18,356,222 30,231,608 [R] 63,887,761 [R] 3,131,148 3,265,558
1983 15,894,442 –15,624 17,220,836 30,053,921 [R] 63,153,575 [R] 3,202,549 3,527,260
1984 17,070,622 –11,482 18,393,613 31,051,327 66,504,079 3,552,531 3,385,811
1985 17,478,428 –13,491 17,703,482 30,922,149 [R] 66,090,567 [R] 4,075,563 2,970,192
1986 17,260,405 –16,740 16,591,364 32,196,080 66,031,109 [R] 4,380,109 3,071,179
1987 18,008,451 8,630 17,639,801 32,865,053 [R] 68,521,935 [R] 4,753,933 2,634,508
1988 18,846,312 39,556 18,448,393 34,221,992 [R] 71,556,253 [R] 5,586,968 2,334,265
1989 19,069,762 30,405 19,601,689 34,211,114 72,912,970 [R] 5,602,161 2,837,263
1990 19,172,635 4,786 19,603,168 33,552,534 72,333,123 6,104,350 3,046,391
1991 18,991,670 9,697 20,032,957 32,845,361 71,879,686 [R] 6,422,132 3,015,943
1992 19,122,471 34,621 20,713,632 33,526,585 [R] 73,397,310 [R] 6,479,206 2,617,436
1993 19,835,148 27,106 21,228,902 33,744,490 [R] 74,835,647 [R] 6,410,499 2,891,613
1994 19,909,463 58,330 21,728,065 34,561,665 76,257,523 6,693,877 2,683,457
1995 20,088,727 61,058 22,671,138 34,436,967 [R] 77,257,890 [R] 7,075,436 3,205,307
1996 21,001,914 22,816 23,084,647 35,673,290 [R] 79,782,668 [R] 7,086,674 3,589,656
Energy Data a 143
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
NA NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 5,420 31,981,503
NA NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 6,094 34,615,768
NA NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 7,461 36,974,030
NA NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 7,740 36,747,825
NA NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 6,852 37,664,468
NA NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 7,983 36,639,382
NA NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 13,879 40,207,971
NA NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 15,519 41,754,252
NA NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 12,288 41,787,186
NA NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 11,320 41,645,028
NA NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 12,127 43,465,722
774 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 15,474 45,086,870
2,181 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 7,689 45,739,017
2,331 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,829 47,827,707
3,726 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 334 49,646,160
4,520 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 6,671 51,817,177
4,197 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 –482 54,017,221
4,170 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 3,725 57,016,544
6,886 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 –1,020 58,908,107
9,416 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 –2,152 62,419,392
13,281 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 3,656 65,620,879
11,347 NA NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 6,688 67,844,161
11,862 NA NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 12,046 69,288,965
31,479 NA NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 26,227 72,704,267
42,605 NA NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 48,715 75,708,364
53,158 NA NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 43,311 73,990,880
70,153 NA NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 21,103 71,999,191
78,154 NA NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 29,378 76,012,373
77,418 NA NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 59,422 77,999,554
64,350 NA NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 67,318 79,986,371
83,788 NA NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 69,381 80,903,214
109,776 NA NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 71,399 78,121,594
123,043 NA NA 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 113,406 76,168,488 [R]
104,746 NA NA 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 100,026 73,153,394 [R]
129,339 NA 28 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 120,547 73,039,001 [R]
164,896 55 68 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 135,323 76,715,459 [R]
198,282 111 60 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 139,655 76,492,565 [R]
219,178 147 44 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 122,481 76,758,526 [R]
229,119 109 37 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 158,101 79,175,130 [R]
217,290 94 9 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 108,399 82,821,858 [R]
317,163 55,291 22,033 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 37,450 84,946,248 [R]
335,801 59,718 29,007 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 7,888 84,653,651 [R]
346,247 62,688 30,796 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 66,965 84,608,869 [R]
349,309 63,886 29,863 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 86,733 85,958,380 [R]
363,716 66,458 30,987 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R] 94,910 87,605,453 [R]
338,108 68,548 35,560 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 152,937 89,261,391 [R]
293,893 69,857 32,630 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R] 133,856 91,174,089 [R]
315,529 70,833 33,440 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R] 137,144 94,175,664 [R]
144 a Energy Data
Coal Nuclear
1997 21,445,411 46,450 23,222,718 36,159,835 [R] 80,874,414 [R] 6,596,992 3,640,458
1998 21,655,744 67,084 22,830,226 36,816,619 81,369,672 7,067,809 3,297,054
1999 21,622,544 57,685 22,909,227 37,838,081 [R] 82,427,536 [R] 7,610,256 3,267,575
2000 22,579,528 65,348 23,823,978 38,264,303 [R] 84,733,157 [R] 7,862,349 2,811,116
2001 21,914,268 29,264 22,772,558 38,186,476 [R] 82,902,566 [R] 8,032,697 2,241,858
2002 21,903,989 60,760 23,558,419 38,226,666 [R] 83,749,834 [R] 8,143,089 2,689,017
2003 22,320,928 50,518 22,897,268 38,809,183 [R] 84,077,896 [R] 7,958,858 2,824,533
2004 22,466,195 137,739 22,931,481 40,294,351 85,829,766 8,221,985 2,690,078
2005 22,796,543 44,194 22,583,385 40,393,325 85,817,446 8,160,028 2,702,942
2006 22,447,160 60,810 22,223,903 [R] 39,958,151 [R] 84,690,024 [R] 8,213,839 2,869,035
2007 22,749,466 [R] 25,197 23,627,629 [R] 39,773,213 [R] 86,175,506 [R] 8,457,783 [R] 2,446,389 [R]
2008 P 22,420,827 40,771 23,837,695 37,136,675 83,435,968 8,455,236 2,452,073
a
b
c
d
e
Energy Data a 145
Renewable Energya
Electricity
Net
324,959 70,237 33,581 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R] 116,203 94,765,811 [R]
328,303 69,787 30,853 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R] 88,224 95,183,293 [R]
330,919 68,793 45,894 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R] 98,924 96,817,452 [R]
316,796 66,388 57,057 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R] 115,199 98,975,100 [R]
311,264 65,454 69,617 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R] 75,156 96,326,089 [R]
328,308 64,391 105,334 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R] 71,595 97,858,314 [R]
330,554 63,620 114,571 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R] 21,905 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
341,082 64,500 141,749 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R] 38,597 100,350,624 [R]
342,576 66,130 178,088 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R] 84,401 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
342,876 72,222 263,738 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R] 62,849 99,875,196 [R]
348,730 [R] 80,943 [R] 340,503 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R] 106,632 101,553,855 [R]
358,497 91,003 514,224 3,884,252 7,300,048 112,381 99,303,634
146 a Energy Data

1949 NA 1,549,262 2,973,984 1,424,722 NA NA
1950 NA 1,562,307 2,977,718 1,415,411 NA NA
1951 NA 1,534,669 2,958,464 1,423,795 NA NA
1952 NA 1,474,369 2,940,181 1,465,812 NA NA
1953 NA 1,418,601 2,831,460 1,412,859 NA NA
1954 NA 1,394,327 2,754,099 1,359,772 NA NA
1955 NA 1,424,143 2,783,987 1,359,844 NA NA
1956 NA 1,415,871 2,850,582 1,434,711 NA NA
1957 NA 1,333,581 2,849,194 1,515,613 NA NA
1958 NA 1,323,123 2,915,090 1,591,967 NA NA
1959 NA 1,352,874 2,901,339 1,548,465 NA NA
1960 NA 1,319,870 2,928,619 1,607,975 774 NA
1961 NA 1,294,762 2,953,406 1,656,463 2,181 NA
1962 NA 1,300,242 3,118,714 1,816,141 2,331 NA
1963 NA 1,323,316 3,098,396 1,771,355 3,726 NA
1964 NA 1,336,802 3,227,637 1,886,314 4,520 NA
1965 NA 1,334,761 3,398,036 2,059,077 4,197 NA
1966 NA 1,368,985 3,434,674 2,061,519 4,170 NA
1967 NA 1,340,249 3,693,799 2,346,664 6,886 NA
1968 NA 1,419,495 3,777,541 2,348,629 9,416 NA
1969 NA 1,440,487 4,101,751 2,647,983 13,281 NA
1970 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857 2,633,547 11,347 NA
1971 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335 2,824,151 11,862 NA
1972 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409 2,863,865 31,479 NA
1973 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121 2,861,448 42,605 NA
1974 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395 3,176,580 53,158 NA
1975 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494 3,154,607 70,153 NA
1976 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792 2,976,265 78,154 NA
1977 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002 2,333,252 77,418 NA
1978 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938 2,936,983 64,350 NA
1979 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379 2,930,686 83,788 NA
1980 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420 2,900,144 109,776 NA
1981 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R] 2,757,968 123,043 NA
1982 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R] 3,265,558 104,746 NA
1983 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R] 3,527,260 129,339 NA
1984 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R] 3,385,811 164,896 55
1985 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R] 2,970,192 198,282 111
1986 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R] 3,071,179 219,178 147
1987 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R] 2,634,508 229,119 109
1988 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R] 2,334,265 217,290 94
1989 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R] 2,837,263 317,163 55,291
1990 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R] 3,046,391 335,801 59,718
1991 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R] 3,015,943 346,247 62,688
1992 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R] 2,617,436 349,309 63,886
1993 172,792 [R] 2,911,902 [R] 6,264,676 [R] 2,891,613 363,716 66,458
1994 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R] 2,683,457 338,108 68,548
1995 201,773 [R] 3,103,118 [R] 6,704,805 [R] 3,205,307 293,893 69,857
1996 144,167 [R] 3,158,184 [R] 7,167,643 [R] 3,589,656 315,529 70,833
Energy Data a 147
Consumption
NA 1,549,262 NA NA 1,549,262 2,973,984
NA 1,562,307 NA NA 1,562,307 2,977,718
NA 1,534,669 NA NA 1,534,669 2,958,464
NA 1,474,369 NA NA 1,474,369 2,940,181
NA 1,418,601 NA NA 1,418,601 2,831,460
NA 1,394,327 NA NA 1,394,327 2,754,099
NA 1,424,143 NA NA 1,424,143 2,783,987
NA 1,415,871 NA NA 1,415,871 2,850,582
NA 1,333,581 NA NA 1,333,581 2,849,194
NA 1,323,123 NA NA 1,323,123 2,915,090
NA 1,352,874 NA NA 1,352,874 2,901,339
NA 1,319,870 NA NA 1,319,870 2,928,619
NA 1,294,762 NA NA 1,294,762 2,953,406
NA 1,300,242 NA NA 1,300,242 3,118,714
NA 1,323,316 NA NA 1,323,316 3,098,396
NA 1,336,802 NA NA 1,336,802 3,227,637
NA 1,334,761 NA NA 1,334,761 3,398,036
NA 1,368,985 NA NA 1,368,985 3,434,674
NA 1,340,249 NA NA 1,340,249 3,693,799
NA 1,419,495 NA NA 1,419,495 3,777,541
NA 1,440,487 NA NA 1,440,487 4,101,751
NA 1,428,649 2,313 NA 1,430,962 4,075,857
NA 1,430,229 2,094 NA 1,432,323 4,268,335
NA 1,500,992 2,073 NA 1,503,065 4,398,409
NA 1,527,012 2,056 NA 1,529,068 4,433,121
NA 1,537,755 1,902 NA 1,539,657 4,769,395
NA 1,496,928 1,806 NA 1,498,734 4,723,494
NA 1,711,484 1,889 NA 1,713,373 4,767,792
NA 1,836,524 1,808 NA 1,838,332 4,249,002
NA 2,036,150 1,455 NA 2,037,605 5,038,938
NA 2,149,854 2,052 NA 2,151,906 5,166,379
NA 2,473,861 1,639 NA 2,475,500 5,485,420
NA 2,495,563 88,000 12,979 [R] 2,596,542 [R] 5,477,554 [R]
NA 2,510,048 119,000 35,106 [R] 2,664,154 [R] 6,034,459 [R]
28 2,684,271 157,000 64,432 [R] 2,905,703 [R] 6,562,330 [R]
68 2,685,817 208,000 78,880 [R] 2,972,697 [R] 6,523,526 [R]
60 2,686,765 236,317 95,052 [R] 3,018,134 [R] 6,186,780 [R]
44 2,562,134 262,861 109,285 [R] 2,934,280 [R] 6,224,827 [R]
37 2,463,159 289,000 125,229 [R] 2,877,388 [R] 5,741,161 [R]
9 2,576,663 315,328 126,589 [R] 3,018,580 [R] 5,570,238 [R]
22,033 2,679,623 354,357 127,936 [R] 3,161,916 [R] 6,393,667 [R]
29,007 2,216,165 408,078 113,129 [R] 2,737,372 [R] 6,208,290 [R]
30,796 2,214,083 439,715 130,612 [R] 2,784,410 [R] 6,240,085 [R]
29,863 2,313,471 473,201 147,965 [R] 2,934,637 [R] 5,995,131 [R]
30,987 2,259,774 479,336 [R] 172,512 [R] 2,911,622 [R] 6,264,397 [R]
35,560 2,323,820 515,324 192,236 [R] 3,031,380 [R] 6,157,054 [R]
32,630 2,369,869 531,476 [R] 203,875 [R] 3,105,220 [R] 6,706,907 [R]
33,440 2,437,027 576,990 145,703 [R] 3,159,720 [R] 7,169,179 [R]
148 a Energy Data
1997 190,117 [R] 3,111,710 [R] 7,180,944 [R] 3,640,458 324,959 70,237
1998 206,606 [R] 2,933,061 [R] 6,659,058 [R] 3,297,054 328,303 69,787
1999 215,111 [R] 2,969,434 [R] 6,682,616 [R] 3,267,575 330,919 68,793
2000 237,904 3,010,419 [R] 6,261,775 [R] 2,811,116 316,796 66,388
2001 259,624 [R] 2,629,331 [R] 5,317,524 [R] 2,241,858 311,264 65,454
2002 314,379 [R] 2,711,668 [R] 5,898,718 [R] 2,689,017 328,308 64,391
2003 411,484 [R] 2,814,871 [R] 6,148,149 [R] 2,824,533 330,554 63,620
2004 500,262 [R] 3,010,557 [R] 6,247,966 [R] 2,690,078 341,082 64,500
2005 580,572 [R] 3,120,142 [R] 6,409,879 [R] 2,702,942 342,576 66,130
2006 743,069 [R] 3,309,026 [R] 6,856,897 [R] 2,869,035 342,876 72,222
2007 1,010,932 [R] 3,583,444 [R] 6,800,009 [R] 2,446,389 [R] 348,730 [R] 80,943 [R]
2008P 1,428,745 3,899,915 7,315,711 2,452,073 358,497 91,003
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
fuels).
k
Energy Data a 149
Consumption
33,581 2,370,991 550,602 [R] 187,375 [R] 3,108,968 [R] 7,178,202 [R]
30,853 2,184,160 542,295 205,137 [R] 2,931,592 [R] 6,657,589 [R]
45,894 2,214,167 540,156 213,232 [R] 2,967,555 [R] 6,680,737 [R]
57,057 2,261,715 510,800 [R] 240,523 3,013,038 [R] 6,264,394 [R]
69,617 2,005,833 363,874 257,769 [R] 2,627,476 [R] 5,315,670 [R]
105,334 1,995,283 402,006 309,456 [R] 2,706,745 [R] 5,893,795 [R]
114,571 2,002,040 401,347 413,217 [R] 2,816,604 [R] 6,149,881 [R]
141,749 2,121,251 [R] 389,044 [R] 512,571 [R] 3,022,866 [R] 6,260,276 [R]
178,088 2,136,351 [R] 403,219 [R] 593,576 [R] 3,133,146 [R] 6,422,883 [R]
263,738 2,151,731 [R] 414,226 [R] 794,656 [R] 3,360,613 [R] 6,908,484 [R]
340,503 [R] 2,142,417 [R] 430,095 [R] 1,024,858 [R] 3,597,370 [R] 6,813,935 [R]
514,224 2,040,616 430,554 1,413,082 3,884,252 7,300,048
150 a Energy Data

End-use Sectors
1949 4,475,121 5,613,938 2,660,963 3,660,910 12,626,532
1950 4,847,590 6,006,806 2,824,267 3,883,472 13,881,079
1951 5,124,031 6,399,747 2,727,158 3,862,700 15,118,070
1952 5,178,644 6,580,694 2,661,902 3,862,377 14,661,778
1953 5,074,890 6,581,124 2,500,330 3,758,937 15,328,413
1954 5,286,016 6,869,767 2,444,814 3,720,157 14,305,657
1955 5,633,095 7,303,271 2,547,641 3,881,530 16,090,702
1956 5,866,467 7,689,809 2,592,274 4,008,279 16,562,350
1957 5,771,579 7,739,679 2,434,391 3,945,887 16,512,867
1958 6,155,096 8,230,400 2,541,202 4,103,153 15,797,985
1959 6,223,822 8,447,378 2,630,274 4,353,069 16,518,951
1960 6,688,963 9,077,668 2,702,042 4,588,973 16,977,066
1961 6,814,611 9,325,376 2,743,974 4,706,925 16,993,115
1962 7,122,112 9,825,201 2,901,109 5,013,919 17,589,807
1963 7,135,126 10,034,384 2,896,921 5,226,862 18,365,964
1964 7,161,257 10,290,804 2,949,284 5,438,649 19,426,503
1965 7,328,128 10,688,770 3,150,462 5,819,530 20,123,911
1966 7,549,262 11,218,183 3,383,741 6,299,383 21,029,715
1967 7,740,902 11,669,926 3,738,448 6,870,845 21,012,628
1968 7,963,327 12,368,421 3,866,000 7,296,778 21,872,069
1969 8,276,760 13,205,347 4,045,666 7,795,301 22,653,721
1970 8,352,750 13,798,057 4,196,051 8,307,155 22,974,833
1971 8,456,799 14,277,629 4,282,718 8,681,492 22,732,356
1972 8,655,327 14,890,531 4,369,078 9,144,775 23,532,489
1973 8,250,226 [R] 14,929,771 [R] 4,381,061 9,506,982 24,740,862 [R]
1974 7,927,553 [R] 14,683,314 [R] 4,221,192 9,362,537 23,816,329 [R]
1975 8,005,740 14,841,755 [R] 4,022,853 [R] 9,465,906 [R] 21,454,213 [R]
1976 8,408,252 [R] 15,440,661 [R] 4,332,587 [R] 10,035,225 [R] 22,685,371
1977 8,207,376 [R] 15,688,729 [R] 4,217,258 [R] 10,177,267 [R] 23,192,694 [R]
1978 8,272,389 [R] 16,155,929 [R] 4,268,843 [R] 10,480,604 [R] 23,276,491 [R]
1979 7,933,806 [R] 15,841,970 [R] 4,333,251 10,626,851 24,211,500 [R]
1980 7,453,254 [R] 15,786,781 [R] 4,074,270 10,562,769 [R] 22,610,288 [R]
1981 7,057,589 [R] 15,295,246 [R] 3,805,343 10,601,863 [R] 21,338,216 [R]
1982 7,154,067 [R] 15,557,340 [R] 3,835,241 [R] 10,847,354 [R] 19,075,786 [R]
1983 6,840,628 [R] 15,456,669 [R] 3,806,026 [R] 10,922,977 [R] 18,578,019 [R]
1984 7,220,681 [R] 15,998,041 [R] 3,968,567 [R] 11,436,092 [R] 20,197,515 [R]
1985 7,160,776 [R] 16,088,348 [R] 3,694,740 [R] 11,443,724 [R] 19,467,805 [R]
1986 6,921,722 [R] 16,029,197 [R] 3,656,730 [R] 11,603,742 [R] 19,098,662 [R]
1987 6,940,917 16,321,196 3,736,106 [R] 11,943,383 [R] 19,977,070 [R]
1988 7,372,024 [R] 17,186,278 [R] 3,957,548 [R] 12,575,483 [R] 20,884,381 [R]
1989 7,586,093 [R] 17,858,128 [R] 4,004,442 [R] 13,202,580 20,897,403 [R]
1990 6,570,463 [R] 17,014,681 [R] 3,858,007 13,332,926 21,208,225 [R]
1991 6,758,442 [R] 17,490,321 3,905,836 [R] 13,512,501 [R] 20,854,317 [R]
1992 6,963,482 [R] 17,426,920 [R] 3,951,199 13,453,951 21,786,666 [R]
1993 7,155,529 [R] 18,288,984 3,933,859 [R] 13,835,823 [R] 21,784,999 [R]
1994 6,990,569 18,181,216 3,978,979 [R] 14,111,283 [R] 22,422,272 [R]
1995 6,946,268 18,577,978 [R] 4,063,119 [R] 14,697,525 [R] 22,747,660 [R]
1996 7,471,455 [R] 19,562,439 [R] 4,234,533 [R] 15,181,207 [R] 23,443,770 [R]
Energy Data a 151

14,716,733 7,879,581 7,990,087 4,339,470 –165 31,981,503
16,232,875 8,383,528 8,492,594 4,679,283 21 34,615,768
17,669,234 8,933,753 9,042,162 5,070,830 188 36,974,030
17,301,575 8,907,235 9,003,096 5,338,183 82 36,747,825
18,200,961 9,030,518 9,123,484 5,730,355 –39 37,664,468
17,146,242 8,823,059 8,903,125 5,779,745 91 36,639,382
19,472,329 9,475,032 9,550,811 6,461,471 30 40,207,971
20,196,256 9,791,039 9,860,083 6,942,296 –174 41,754,252
20,204,730 9,837,442 9,897,017 7,231,035 –128 41,787,186
19,306,571 9,952,797 10,004,893 7,197,936 11 41,645,028
20,315,979 10,298,441 10,349,357 7,794,295 –61 43,465,722
20,823,424 10,560,452 10,596,801 8,158,344 3 45,086,870
20,936,742 10,734,679 10,770,077 8,452,741 –103 45,739,017
21,768,109 11,185,922 11,220,519 9,028,798 –42 47,827,707
22,729,891 11,621,165 11,654,898 9,626,860 124 49,646,160
24,089,579 11,964,508 11,998,284 10,315,765 –140 51,817,177
25,074,894 12,400,149 12,433,906 11,014,449 121 54,017,221
26,397,297 13,069,166 13,101,884 11,984,863 –203 57,016,544
26,615,564 13,718,214 13,752,106 12,698,249 –333 58,908,107
27,888,371 14,831,020 14,865,583 13,886,738 238 62,419,392
29,114,339 15,470,880 15,506,152 15,174,112 –260 65,620,879
29,641,226 16,061,232 16,097,603 16,259,175 119 67,844,161
29,600,938 16,693,481 16,729,212 17,123,917 –307 69,288,965
30,952,764 17,681,086 17,716,273 18,466,362 –75 72,704,267
32,652,616 [R] 18,576,065 18,611,660 19,752,816 7,334 [R] 75,708,364
31,818,721 [R] 18,085,915 [R] 18,119,206 [R] 19,932,789 7,102 [R] 73,990,880
29,447,184 [R] 18,209,133 [R] 18,243,706 [R] 20,306,611 640 [R] 71,999,191
31,429,542 19,065,144 [R] 19,099,331 [R] 21,513,405 7,613 [R] 76,012,373
32,306,559 [R] 19,784,143 [R] 19,819,581 [R] 22,590,665 7,418 [R] 77,999,554
32,733,452 [R] 20,580,415 [R] 20,614,766 [R] 23,586,613 1,619 [R] 79,986,371
33,962,118 [R] 20,436,369 [R] 20,470,711 [R] 23,986,723 1,564 80,903,214
32,077,090 [R] 19,658,353 [R] 19,696,034 [R] 24,326,509 –1,080 [R] 78,121,594
30,756,076 [R] 19,476,200 [R] 19,512,537 [R] 24,488,373 2,766 [R] 76,168,488 [R]
27,656,788 [R] 19,050,580 [R] 19,087,723 [R] 24,033,531 4,189 [R] 73,153,394 [R]
27,481,484 [R] 19,132,451 [R] 19,175,075 [R] 24,679,081 2,796 [R] 73,039,001 [R]
29,624,598 [R] 19,606,799 [R] 19,653,933 [R] 25,719,102 2,794 [R] 76,715,459 [R]
28,877,080 [R] 20,040,687 [R] 20,087,315 [R] 26,132,459 –3,903 [R] 76,492,565 [R]
28,333,363 [R] 20,739,703 [R] 20,788,771 [R] 26,338,257 3,452 76,758,526 [R]
29,443,635 [R] 21,419,125 [R] 21,469,449 [R] 27,104,445 –2,533 [R] 79,175,130 [R]
30,738,557 [R] 22,266,855 [R] 22,318,176 [R] 28,337,687 3,364 [R] 82,821,858 [R]
31,397,833 [R] 22,424,597 [R] 22,478,708 [R] 30,024,713 [4] 8,999 [R] 84,946,248 [R]
31,895,492 [R] 22,366,185 [R] 22,419,888 [R] 30,660,106 –9,335 [R] 84,653,651 [R]
31,486,967 [R] 22,065,034 [R] 22,118,484 [R] 31,024,645 595 [R] 84,608,869 [R]
32,661,236 [R] 22,363,309 [R] 22,415,918 [R] 30,893,368 355 [R] 85,958,380 [R]
32,721,292 [R] 22,716,447 22,769,843 [R] 32,025,108 –10,490 [R] 87,605,453 [R]
33,607,366 [R] 23,311,806 [R] 23,367,224 [R] 32,563,463 –5,698 89,261,391 [R]
34,046,786 [R] 23,793,148 [R] 23,848,651 [R] 33,620,747 3,148 [R] 91,174,089 [R]
34,988,791 [R] 24,383,906 [R] 24,438,890 [R] 34,637,665 4,336 [R] 94,175,664 [R]
152 a Energy Data
End-use Sectors
e e
1997 7,039,505 [R] 19,025,680 [R] 4,256,507 [R] 15,693,953 [R] 23,721,864 [R]
1998 6,423,825 [R] 19,020,712 [R] 3,963,729 [R] 15,979,296 [R] 23,210,838 [R]
1999 6,783,779 [R] 19,620,860 [R] 4,007,378 [R] 16,383,617 [R] 22,990,578 [R]
2000 7,168,979 [R] 20,487,621 [R] 4,227,143 [R] 17,176,087 [R] 22,870,804 [R]
2001 6,878,917 [R] 20,106,132 [R] 4,036,108 [R] 17,141,259 [R] 21,835,587 [R]
2002 6,938,187 [R] 20,873,763 [R] 4,099,189 [R] 17,366,740 21,857,313 [R]
2003 7,251,896 21,208,021 [R] 4,238,672 [R] 17,351,447 [R] 21,575,582 [R]
2004 7,019,274 [R] 21,177,889 [R] 4,180,422 [R] 17,664,445 [R] 22,454,620 [R]
2005 6,920,879 [R] 21,697,240 [R] 4,013,701 [R] 17,875,276 [R] 21,465,855 [R]
2006 6,190,514 [R] 20,769,777 [R] 3,703,258 [R] 17,723,994 [R] 21,632,057 [R]
2007 6,625,793 [R] 21,619,373 [R] 3,895,928 [R] 18,287,222 [R] 21,454,002 [R]
2008 P 6,778,379 21,636,900 3,972,150 18,541,387 20,630,137
a
b
c
d
power producers.
e
f
g

Energy Data a 153

35,288,218 [R] 24,697,145 [R] 24,751,817 [R] 35,044,648 6,142 [R] 94,765,811 [R]
34,928,190 [R] 25,203,168 [R] 25,258,473 [R] 36,385,110 –3,378 [R] 95,183,293 [R]
34,855,491 [R] 25,893,727 [R] 25,951,203 [R] 37,135,709 6,281 [R] 96,817,452 [R]
34,757,478 [R] 26,491,500 [R] 26,551,610 [R] 38,214,371 2,304 [R] 98,975,100 [R]
32,806,204 [R] 26,215,564 [R] 26,278,577 [R] 37,365,995 –6,084 [R] 96,326,089 [R]
32,764,483 [R] 26,787,738 [R] 26,848,508 [R] 38,171,067 4,820 [R] 97,858,314 [R]
32,649,843 [R] 26,927,646 [R] 27,002,137 [R] 38,217,654 [R] –2,908 [R] 98,208,541 [R]
33,609,067 [R] 27,820,116 [R] 27,899,279 [R] 38,876,247 [R] –55 [R] 100,350,624 [R]
32,545,253 [R] 28,279,693 [R] 28,361,295 [R] 39,798,935 [R] 5,694 [R] 100,484,758 [R]
32,541,235 [R] 28,761,209 [R] 28,840,577 [R] 39,588,544 [R] –385 [R] 99,875,196 [R]
32,523,120 [R] 29,046,175 [R] 29,134,189 [R] 40,542,007 [R] –10,049 [R] 101,553,855 [R]
31,210,299 27,842,133 27,924,560 40,090,347 –9,512 99,303,634
154 a Energy Data
Year
Appliance 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1987
Natural Gas 55 55 55 56 57 55 55
Electricitya 16 17 18 17 16 17 20
Wood 2 4 6 6 7 7 6
Central Systemc 23 24 27 27 28 30 34
None 44 45 43 42 42 40 36
Natural Gas 55 55 54 55 56 54 54
Electricitya 33 33 32 33 32 33 35
One 86 NA 86 87 86 88 86
Two or more 14 NA 14 13 13 12 14
Natural gas 14 NA 14 16 15 16 15
Electric 45 NA 47 45 45 46 51
Dishwasher 35 NA 37 37 36 38 43
Natural gas 48 NA 46 46 47 46 43
Electric 53 NA 57 56 56 57 60
One or two NA NA 85 84 83 80 75
a
Retail electricity.
b
c
d
Energy Data a 155
Year Change
1990 1993 1997 2001 2005 1980 to 2005
94 97 101 107 111 29
55 53 52 [R] 55 52 –3
23 26 29 29 30 12
5 5 5 5 5 0
11 11 9 7 [R] 7 –8
4 3 2 2 3 –3
2 2 2 2 [R] 3 [R] 1 [R]
39 44 47 55 59 32
29 25 25 23 25 –5
32 32 28 23 16 –27
53 53 52 54 53 –1
37 38 39 38 39 7
3 3 3 3 4 0
5 5 5 4 4 –5
1 1 1 0 0 –1
100 100 100 100 100 0

84 85 85 83 78 –8
15 15 15 17 22 8
34 35 33 32 32 –6
76 77 77 79 83 9
69 70 71 74 79 18
16 14 [R] 15 [R] 16 [R] 17 [R] 3 [R]
53 57 55 57 61 14
45 45 50 53 58 21
100 100 99 100 99 0
42 33 35 35 35 –11
59 63 62 62 62 5
79 84 83 86 88 74
99 99 99 [R] 99 [R] 99 [R] 1 [R]
71 70 69 63 56 –29
28 28 29 36 43 29
NA [R] NA [R] 35 56 68 NA
NA NA 29 42 45 NA
NA NA 6 15 23 NA
156 a Energy Data

North America 113.13 113.53 115.82 118.26

Canada 12.67 [R] 12.37 [R] 12.96 [R] 12.95 [R]
Mexico 5.68 5.96 6.04 6.32
United States 94.77 95.18 96.82 98.98
Other .02 .02 .02 .02
Argentina 2.47 2.58 2.61 2.67
Brazil 7.86 8.12 [R] 8.27 [R] 8.55 [R]
Venezuela 2.66 2.85 2.73 2.77
Other 6.46 6.57 6.67 6.85
Europe a 79.87 [R] 80.44 [R] 80.51 [R] 81.53 [R]
Belgium 2.65 [R] 2.70 [R] 2.66 [R] 2.73 [R]
France 10.36 10.58 10.71 10.85
Germany 14.36 14.34 14.13 14.26
Italy 7.22 7.43 7.56 7.63
Netherlands 3.70 3.70 3.69 3.79
Poland 4.09 [R] 3.85 3.98 3.62
Spain 4.76 4.99 5.26 5.62
Sweden 2.32 [R] 2.40 [R] 2.37 [R] 2.27 [R]
Turkey 2.93 3.00 2.91 3.16
Other 17.74 17.72 17.47 [R] 17.87
Eurasia b 39.02 [R] 38.73 [R] 39.83 [R] 40.61 [R]
Russia 25.81 [R] 25.93 [R] 27.01 [R] 27.47 [R]
Ukraine 6.07 5.85 5.76 5.75
Uzbekistan 1.88 1.84 1.86 1.94
Other 5.26 5.11 5.19 5.45 [R]
Middle East 15.61 16.28 [R] 16.62 17.32
Iran 4.43 4.58 4.83 5.01
Saudi Arabia 4.37 4.54 4.60 4.85
Other 6.81 7.15 7.18 7.46
Africa 11.40 11.30 [R] 11.62 [R] 12.03 [R]
Egypt 1.79 1.85 1.92 2.00
South Africa 4.56 4.35 4.46 4.59
Other 5.05 5.10 [R] 5.23 5.44 [R]
Australia 4.56 4.59 4.82 4.85
China 37.91 37.32 37.23 37.18 [R]
India 11.64 12.17 12.99 13.46
Indonesia 3.66 3.56 3.91 4.06
Japan 21.91 [R] 21.52 [R] 21.97 [R] 22.43 [R]
Malaysia 1.67 1.69 1.74 1.87
Energy Data a 157
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P
115.36 117.25 118.20 120.74 121.62 121.18

12.76 [R] 13.13 [R] 13.56 [R] 13.84 [R] 14.23 [R] 13.95
6.26 6.25 [R] 6.42 [R] 6.53 6.86 [R] 7.36
96.33 97.86 98.21 100.35 100.51 [R] 99.86
.02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
21.16 21.12 21.61 22.44 23.40 24.18
2.61 2.48 [R] 2.67 2.78 2.95 [R] 3.15
8.47 [R] 8.58 [R] 8.69 [R] 9.02 [R] 9.37 [R] 9.64
3.03 2.93 2.72 2.93 3.12 [R] 3.19
7.05 7.13 7.54 7.71 7.96 8.20
82.77 [R] 82.50 [R] 84.24 [R] 85.70 [R] 86.18 [R] 86.42
2.70 [R] 2.68 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.81 [R] 2.78 [R] 2.75
11.08 11.00 11.11 [R] 11.39 11.36 [R] 11.44
14.62 14.33 14.59 [R] 14.74 [R] 14.50 [R] 14.63
7.67 [R] 7.70 7.99 [R] 8.08 [R] 8.14 [R] 8.07
3.93 3.94 4.00 4.11 4.23 [R] 4.14
3.45 3.44 3.60 3.70 3.68 [R] 3.86
5.87 5.95 6.26 6.39 [R] 6.51 [R] 6.51
2.40 [R] 2.27 [R] 2.17 [R] 2.30 [R] 2.33 [R] 2.22
2.89 3.15 3.32 3.51 3.73 [R] 3.91
9.86 [R] 9.72 [R] 9.86 [R] 9.88 [R] 9.92 [R] 9.80
18.28 [R] 18.33 [R] 18.56 [R] 18.77 [R] 19.01 [R] 19.10
40.94 [R] 41.59 [R] 43.37 [R] 44.69 [R] 45.79 [R] 45.88
27.72 [R] 27.93 [R] 28.77 [R] 29.60 [R] 30.06 [R] 30.39
5.64 5.82 6.28 6.26 6.32 [R] 5.87
2.03 2.08 2.10 2.22 2.13 [R] 2.21
5.55 [R] 5.75 [R] 6.22 [R] 6.62 [R] 7.27 [R] 7.41
17.95 18.98 19.76 20.89 22.75 [R] 23.81
5.39 5.89 6.18 6.39 7.22 [R] 7.69
5.14 5.38 5.76 6.21 6.59 [R] 6.89
7.42 7.71 7.82 8.29 8.93 [R] 9.23
12.63 [R] 12.72 13.36 [R] 13.97 [R] 14.54 [R] 14.50
2.23 [R] 2.26 [R] 2.44 [R] 2.59 2.73 [R] 2.54
4.66 4.54 4.88 5.21 5.12 [R] 5.18
5.74 [R] 5.91 [R] 6.04 [R] 6.18 [R] 6.69 [R] 6.77
111.34 [R] 116.41 [R] 125.48 [R] 138.71 [R] 147.78 [R] 156.31
5.02 5.13 5.14 [R] 5.26 [R] 5.57 [R] 5.61
39.44 [R] 43.30 [R] 50.62 [R] 59.99 [R] 66.80 [R] 73.81
13.94 13.84 14.29 15.54 [R] 16.34 [R] 17.68
4.46 4.64 4.56 [R] 4.88 [R] 4.91 [R] 4.15
22.24 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.15 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.74 [R] 22.79
2.11 2.18 2.42 2.66 2.58 [R] 2.56
158 a Energy Data
South Korea 7.41 6.83 7.55 7.89
Taiwan 3.21 3.40 3.55 3.77
Thailand 2.60 2.44 2.50 2.58
Other 8.34 [R] 8.47 [R] 9.01 [R] 9.23 [R]
World 381.35 [R] 382.38 [R] 389.95 [R] 397.93 [R]
a
b
Energy Data a 159
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

8.10 8.39 [R] 8.64 [R] 8.91 [R] 9.23 [R] 9.45
3.86 4.02 4.21 4.36 4.43 [R] 4.57
2.70 2.94 3.22 3.45 [R] 3.67 [R] 3.74
9.47 [R] 9.80 [R] 10.23 [R] 10.92 [R] 11.52 [R] 11.97
402.15 [R] 410.56 [R] 426.02 [R] 447.15 [R] 462.06 [R] 472.27
160 a Energy Data
Oil & Gas
North America 211.6 57.5 309.8 314.1
Canada 178.6a 25.2b 58.2 58.3
Mexico 11.7 11.1 13.9 18.1
United States 21.3 21.3 237.7 237.7

Argentina 2.6 2.7 15.8 16.5
Bolivia .5 .5 26.5 28.0
Brazil 12.2 12.5 12.3 12.9
Chile .2 .0 3.5 1.0
Colombia 1.5 1.5 4.3 6.7
Cuba .1 .7 2.5 .8
Peru .4 .4 11.9 12.0
Venezuela 87.0 81.0 166.3 152.0
Europed 14.3 13.8 172.0 169.0

Austria .1 .1 .6 1.1
Croatia .1 .1 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.2 1.1 2.5 2.6
Germany .4 .2 9.0 5.2
Italy .4 .4 3.3 3.0
Norway 6.9 6.7 79.1 81.7
Poland .1 .2 5.8 4.7
Romania .6 .5 2.2 4.2
Serbia .1 NR 1.7 NR
Otherc .8 .7 1.9 2.1
Eurasiae 98.9 126.0 2,014.8 2,104.0

Russia 60.0 76.0 1,680.0 1,654.0
Otherc .3 50.0 .8 450.0
Energy Data a 161

Oil & Gas Oil & Gas
Middle East 748.3 727.3 2,548.9 2,570.2
Iran 138.4 137.0 948.2 985.0
Iraq 115.0 126.0 111.9 91.0
Kuwaitf 104.0 99.4 56.0 66.3
Oman 5.5 5.7 30.0 32.0
Qatar 15.2 20.0 905.3 903.2
Saudi Arabiaf 266.8 264.8 253.1 254.0
Syria 2.5 2.9 8.5 12.1
Yemen 3.0 2.7 16.9 16.8
Otherc (s) .7 1.3 13.6
Africa 114.8 114.7 489.6 504.2

Algeria 12.2 11.9 159.0 160.0
Angola 9.0 9.5 9.5 5.7
Egypt 3.7 3.7 58.5 68.5
Gabon 2.0 3.2 1.0 2.5
Libya 41.5 36.5 50.1 52.8
Nigeria 36.2 37.2 184.0 184.5
Sudan 5.0 6.7 3.0 4.0
Tunisia .4 .6 2.3 3.5
Otherc 1.9 1.8 7.6 15.4

Australia 1.5 4.2 30.0 151.9
Brunei 1.1 1.1 13.8 11.0
Burma .1 .2 10.0 15.0
China 16.0 18.1 80.0 61.8
India 5.6 4.0 38.0 31.8
Indonesia 4.4 4.5 93.9 92.0
Japan (s) NR .7 NR
Malaysia 4.0 5.5 83.0 88.0
Pakistan .3 .3 28.0 29.8
Thailand .5 .4 11.7 11.2
Vietnam .6 1.3 6.8 8.2
Otherc .2 .2 5.5 10.2
World 1,332.0 1,184.2 6,212.3 6,436.0

162 a Energy Data
a
oil sands.
b
c
d
e
f
Arabia.

Canada 3,826 3,425 7,251
Greenland 0 202 202
Mexico 948 387 1,335
Brazil 0 7,791 7,791
Chile 34 1,268 1,302
Colombia 7,251 420 7,671
Peru 154 0 154
Other 529 494 1,023
Europeb 9,296 41,485 50,781
Bulgaria 6 2,195 2,200
Germany 168 7,227 7,394
Greece 0 4,299 4,299
Hungary 219 3,420 3,640
Poland 6,627 1,642 8,270
Romania 13 452 465
Turkey 0 2,000 2,000
Other 241 1,834 2,076
Energy Data a 163
Eurasiac 103,186 145,931 249,117
Kazakhstan 31,052 3,450 34,502
Russia 54,110 118,964 173,074
Ukraine 16,922 20,417 37,339
Uzbekistan 1,102 2,205 3,307
Other 0 895 895
Iran 1,528 0 1,528
Africa 54,488 192 54,680
Botswana 44 0 44
South Africa 52,911 0 52,911
Zimbabwe 553 0 553
Other 980 192 1,172
Australia 40,896 43,541 84,437
China 68,564 57,651 126,215
India 57,585 4,694 62,278
Indonesia 1,897 2,874 4,771
Pakistan 1 2,184 2,185
Thailand 0 1,493 1,493
Other 721 1,046 1,767
World 472,731 [R] 456,599 [R] 929,331 [R]
a
b
c
R = Revised.
164 a Energy Data

Canada 549 [R] 554 [R] 568 [R] 565 [R]
Mexico 350 [R] 372 [R] 364 [R] 383 [R]
Other 1 1 1 1
Argentina 130 136 [R] 140 [R] 138 [R]
Brazil 326 [R] 325 [R] 336 [R] 345 [R]
Venezuela 135 [R] 142 133 134
Other 359 [R] 372 [R] 374 [R] 375
Europeb 4,503 [R] 4,487 [R] 4,436 [R] 4,500 [R]
Belgium 146 [R] 151 [R] 143 [R] 149 [R]
France 385 [R] 410 [R] 404 [R] 402 [R]
Germany 889 [R] 872 [R] 841 [R] 857 [R]
Italy 425 [R] 441 [R] 441 [R] 448 [R]
Poland 339 [R] 316 [R] 329 [R] 295 [R]
Romania 120 [R] 101 [R] 91 93
Spain 272 [R] 282 [R] 309 [R] 327 [R]
Turkey 182 [R] 184 [R] 182 [R] 202 [R]
Other 935 [R] 924 [R] 898 [R] 913 [R]
Eurasiac 2,244 [R] 2,235 [R] 2,320 [R] 2,356 [R]
Kazakhstan 120 [R] 116 [R] 133 [R] 143 [R]
Russia 1,483 [R] 1,482 [R] 1,560 [R] 1,582 [R]
Ukraine 344 [R] 333 [R] 328 [R] 327 [R]
Uzbekistan 103 102 [R] 103 106
Other 194 [R] 201 [R] 195 [R] 197 [R]
Middle East 989 [R] 1,019 [R] 1,057 [R] 1,094 [R]
Iran 291 [R] 295 [R] 317 [R] 321 [R]
Other 443 [R] 467 [R] 475 [R] 483 [R]
Africa 872 [R] 861 [R] 877 [R] 892 [R]
Egypt 112 [R] 115 [R] 117 [R] 119
Other 371 [R] 376 [R] 378 [R] 381 [R]
Australia 334 [R] 340 [R] 359 [R] 360 [R]
China 3,133 [R] 3,029 [R] 2,992 [R] 2,967 [R]
India 878 [R] 914 [R] 971 [R] 1,012 [R]
Indonesia 247 [R] 241 [R] 266 [R] 274 [R]
Japan 1,161 [R] 1,116 [R] 1,158 [R] 1,204 [R]
Energy Data a 165
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

6,697 [R] 6,782 [R] 6,870 [R] 6,970 [R] 7,034 [R] 6,954
554 [R] 573 [R] 602 [R] 615 [R] 632 [R] 614
380 [R] 384 389 385 [R] 407 [R] 436
5,762 [R] 5,824 [R] 5,878 [R] 5,969 [R] 5,994 [R] 5,903
1 1 1 1 1 1
1,016 [R] 1,005 [R] 1,023 [R] 1,066 [R] 1,111 [R] 1,138
128 [R] 121 [R] 134 [R] 141 [R] 152 [R] 162
349 [R] 347 [R] 346 [R] 356 [R] 371 [R] 377
149 [R] 147 [R] 134 [R] 143 [R] 150 [R] 152
389 390 [R] 408 [R] 426 [R] 438 447
4,559 [R] 4,532 [R] 4,679 [R] 4,713 [R] 4,717 [R] 4,721
146 [R] 143 [R] 151 [R] 154 [R] 151 [R] 148
406 [R] 402 [R] 409 [R] 416 [R] 414 [R] 418
878 [R] 857 [R] 874 [R] 872 [R] 853 [R] 858
445 [R] 453 [R] 475 [R] 470 [R] 473 [R] 468
278 [R] 259 [R] 261 [R] 271 [R] 273 [R] 260
279 [R] 276 [R] 289 [R] 295 [R] 290 [R] 303
102 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 100 [R] 98 [R] 99
332 [R] 349 [R] 357 [R] 371 [R] 384 [R] 373
184 [R] 195 [R] 207 [R] 211 [R] 231 [R] 236
575 [R] 564 [R] 575 [R] 582 [R] 585 [R] 586
934 [R] 934 [R] 980 [R] 972 [R] 966 [R] 973
2,332 [R] 2,354 [R] 2,471 [R] 2,529 [R] 2,600 [R] 2,601
148 [R] 154 [R] 166 [R] 185 [R] 203 [R] 213
1,571 [R] 1,572 [R] 1,627 1,663 [R] 1,699 [R] 1,704
319 [R] 327 [R] 357 [R] 347 [R] 350 [R] 329
111 114 [R] 115 [R] 122 [R] 117 [R] 121
184 [R] 188 206 [R] 212 [R] 231 [R] 233
1,119 [R] 1,175 [R] 1,240 [R] 1,330 [R] 1,444 [R] 1,505
334 [R] 365 [R] 387 [R] 407 [R] 446 [R] 471
301 [R] 312 [R] 347 [R] 389 [R] 406 [R] 424
483 [R] 499 [R] 506 [R] 535 [R] 593 [R] 610
923 [R] 924 [R] 975 [R] 1,025 [R] 1,062 [R] 1,057
130 [R] 134 [R] 144 [R] 153 [R] 161 [R] 152
399 [R] 385 [R] 418 [R] 448 [R] 438 [R] 444
394 [R] 405 [R] 413 [R] 424 [R] 463 [R] 461
7,608 [R] 8,050 [R] 8,806 [R] 9,821 [R] 10,517 [R] 11,220
374 [R] 383 [R] 381 [R] 391 [R] 417 [R] 417
3,108 [R] 3,441 [R] 4,062 [R] 4,847 [R] 5,429 [R] 6,018
1,035 [R] 1,034 [R] 1,048 [R] 1,151 [R] 1,194 [R] 1,293
300 [R] 315 [R] 305 [R] 323 [R] 324 [R] 280
1,197 [R] 1,203 [R] 1,253 [R] 1,258 [R] 1,250 [R] 1,247
166 a Energy Data
Malaysia 102 103 [R] 107 [R] 112 [R]
South Korea 435 [R] 375 [R] 433 [R] 446 [R]
Taiwan 210 [R] 225 [R] 224 [R] 252 [R]
Thailand 177 [R] 162 [R] 171 [R] 162 [R]
Other 520 [R] 530 [R] 567 [R] 578 [R]
World 23,247 [R] 23,160 [R] 23,535 [R] 24,011 [R]
a
b
c
international.
Energy Data a 167
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 P

125 [R] 134 [R] 150 [R] 166 [R] 160 [R] 164
452 [R] 468 [R] 478 [R] 489 [R] 497 [R] 515
249 [R] 274 [R] 290 [R] 287 [R] 290 [R] 300
172 [R] 187 [R] 206 [R] 226 [R] 243 [R] 245
594 [R] 612 [R] 633 [R] 683 [R] 714 [R] 741
24,253 [R] 24,823 [R] 26,064 [R] 27,453 [R] 28,485 [R] 29,195
ENERGY TIME LINE:
3000 B.C. TO A.D. 2009
a

various localities.
habitants warm.

trains.
confirmed.
and transmission.
transportation.

gas and air.
purposes.
eration.
peanut oil.
in Italy.
bigger.
large numbers.
War II.
source.
pacity at the time.

standard.
PROFILES
a
ADAMS, WILLIAM
BACON, FRANCIS T.
BECQUEREL, A. E.
BRUSH, CHARLES F.
batteries.
176 a Profiles
CLAUDE, GEORGE
CONDOOR, SRIDHAR
CONLOGUE, FRED
ing standards.
CONRAD, WILLIAM

DRAKE, EDWIN
heaters.
EINSTEIN, ALBERT
Profiles a 177
ERICSSON, JOHN
troughs.
ERREN, RUDOLF
FARADAY, MICHAEL
FERMI, ENRICO
FRITTS, CHARLES
FULLER, BUCKMINSTER
dome.
FULLER, CALVIN
178 a Profiles
GERDEMAN, FREDERICK
GRANT, JOHN D.
went to the moon.
HALLIDAY, DANIEL
damage.
KAZIMI, MUJID
MOUCHOUT, AUGUSTE
MUSK, ELON
Profiles a 179
NAUEN, ANDREAS
energy.
PAUL, STEPHEN
SALTER, STEVEN
SELSAM, DOUGLAS
uses.
THACKERAY, MICHAEL
CAREERS
a


and recruiters.


positions.


businesses.


economy.
GREEN DREAM JOBS—



WWW.GREENJOBS.NET
and services.


WWW.DOE.GOV




WWW.KAHKE.COM
AND MANUFACTURERS
a



altarockenergy.com



FARMINGTON, CT


SAN FRANCISCO, CA

BREVARD, NC
dupont.com


FEIBURG, GERMANY

IBM, SAN JOSE, CA



www.acciona-na.com





energysiemens.com


suncor.com


DEARBORN, MI
xtremepowerinc.com
NATIONAL SCIENCE
CONTENT STANDARDS
a

Form and function


Structure of atoms
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces

The cell

Geochemical cycles


Grades 9–12
Population growth
Natural resources

History of science
INDEX
a


5:34, 5:34f 5:38f
2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185 Aeroturbine, 3:14
4:173, 5:170, 5:175 1:55f; pipeline, 1:54
192 a Index

Cells 2:127
Hydropower 5:91
2:92 – 94 4:135, 4:179, 5:137, 5:181
2:117, 5:118 3:133, 4:135, 5:137
3:33f Anode, 2:88
1:198, 2:168, 3:166, 4:168, 5:170 5:88 – 89; for green roof, 5:81 – 82
Index a 193
Society of, 5:122 – 23; NiMH, 5:122 – 23;
4:183 – 84, 5:185 – 86 Biliran, 4:33
Aydil, Eray, 5:114f 4:22, 4:40f
194 a Index

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; renewed
Index a 195

3:182, 4:184, 5:186 3:168, 4:170, 5:172
2:184, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186 2:115 – 16
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 (CYES), 1:30
2:173, 3:167, 3:171, 4:169, 4:173, Calpine, 4:6, 4:20
196 a Index

3:160 – 63, 4:162 – 65, 5:5, 5:105, 3:182, 4:184, 5:186
Index a 197

by, 1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, (CDM), 4:51
of, 1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, (CUTE), 2:112
4:102 pump (GCHP), 4:68
2:17 – 21 1:109 – 11, 1:128 – 29; exporters of,
3:118, 3:172, 4:174, 5:176 1:106, 1:107f; as fossil fuel, 1:106;
1:122, 1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, and, 1:115 – 16, 5:106; history of,
4:115 – 16 Revolution and, 1:10, 1:115;
1:122 of, 1:190t – 191t, 2:160t – 161t,
198 a Index

(CFL), 5:7, 5:53f
Index a 199

natural gas, 1:83 – 84 3:116 – 18
2:4 Service
200 a Index

(DMFCs), 2:89, 2:120f, 5:118f
5:105 DiscoverThis, 2:127, 5:61
3:56 – 58, 3:58f, 5:115 cells
1:166, 2:136, 3:134, 4:136, 5:138; Dongtan, China, 5:94
4:182, 5:184; net metering 3:172, 4:174, 5:176
Deposits, coal, 1:106 4:8 – 9, 4:8f
2:169, 3:167, 4:112, 4:113, 4:169, 2:12f
5:171
Index a 201

ECR Industries, 4:75 3:16, 3:21 – 22
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 4:168, 5:170
3:166, 4:168, 5:170 3:110
Egypt, 1:91, 1:93f America, 1:165, 2:135, 3:133,
202 a Index

El Salvador, 4:42 – 43 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
5:73 – 74, 5:94. See also Carbon 1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31,
Index a 203

4:171, 5:173 2:168, 2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168,
2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173 Erren, Rudolf, 1:205, 2:175, 3:173,
Energy Star, 4:73, 5:31, 5:50, 5:53f, 4:175, 5:177
4:48f Ethane, 1:74 – 75
204 a Index

Fat to Fuel, 4:126
Ethylene, 1:53 4:175, 5:172, 5:177
(EREC), 3:98 1:151 – 52
4:185, 5:187 Ford, Henry, 1:199, 2:169, 3:167,
4:169, 5:171
2:175, 3:166, 3:173, 4:168, 4:175, Ford Motor Co., 1:200, 1:216, 2:170,
5:170, 5:177 2:186, 3:168, 3:184, 4:170, 4:186,
Index a 205

2:129 – 30, 3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, ing of, 2:88, 2:88f; growth of,
5:131 – 32 2:106 – 7; history notes of, 5:120;
Frazer, Susan, 4:98 – 102 2:104
5:170, 5:177 2:107 – 9
1:178t – 179t, 2:148t – 149t, Fuelwood, 1:14, 2:71 – 72, 4:102
206 a Index

3:173, 4:175, 5:177 Geo-Heat Center, 4:76
5:125 – 26 4:23, 4:50; harnessing, 4:7; in
3:183, 4:185, 5:187 in Italy, 4:35 – 37; in Japan, 4:35,
Index a 207
1:35, 4:27 – 28 4:36f; in New Zealand, 4:44f;
208 a Index

1:25 – 33, 1:94, 2:viii, 3:viii, 4:viii,
Geysers, 4:4 – 5, 4:52 Gore, Al, 5:129
Gill, Dena, 3:65 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39;
1:184 – 87t, 2:154 – 57t, 3:152 – 55t, 4:176, 5:178
and, 3:56 Gray, Rande, 5:102 – 5
5:5, 5:105, 5:164 – 67 School, 5:35
3:156t – 157t, 4:158t – 159t, 5:26 – 27
Index a 209
2:77f, 5:4 3:42f
Green roofs, 1:26f, 5:42 – 43, 5:82; ar- 4:176, 5:178
210 a Index

5:56 – 57; energy saving, 5:47 – 48;
Harris, Matt, 2:8 3:146t – 147t, 4:148t – 149t,
wastes 2:127, 5:69
Index a 211

1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; 2:100 – 101; in Germany, 2:117;
212 a Index
IBM, 1:215, 2:185, 3:183, 4:185, steel, 1:20 – 21; US coal, 1:113 – 15,
combined cycle 3:134, 4:136, 5:138
Index a 213

and Dams, 3:99
2:124 Kansas, 3:34, 5:47
2:33, 2:83 Kemp, Clarence, 2:59
Ions, 2:88 in, 5:32
4:71 Kerosene, 1:53
214 a Index

Cells 5:102 – 5
4:33
energy, 5:56 – 57 1:85
5:26, 5:31, 5:32, 5:80, 5:82. See also 5:138
Index a 215

Luckett, Kelly, 5:40 2:126, 4:110 – 11
cells
Malaysia, 4:87 5:71
1:xiv, 1:201, 2:xiv, 2:24, 2:171, ing, 1:98
2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, 4:183 – 86, 1:96 – 97
216 a Index
Motion, 1:6
Cells 4:176, 5:170, 5:178
Hydropower 4:108
Murphy, John, 2:98
1:138 – 40
Missouri, 3:29, 3:36 5:114f, 5:116
Mojave Desert, 2:36 – 38, 2:51, 3:32, 2:90, 5:120
Moller, Kris, 4:109, 4:127 4:117, 4:127
(MCFC), 2:119 4:73
Index a 217

4:187 – 88, 5:189 – 90 safety of, 1:92
Authority, 3:119 4:177, 5:179
218 a Index

Cells 1:209 – 12, 2:179 – 82, 3:177 – 80,
New York, 2:17, 2:114 – 15, 5:34, 5:82 3:117 – 18
3:110 – 11 NRG Energy, Inc, 2:22
(NiMH), 5:122 – 23 1:137 – 38; fuel rods in, 1:140 – 41,
Index a 219
source, 1:131 – 32 (ORPC), 3:124
1:201, 2:171, 3:169, 4:171, 5:173; Octane rating, 1:47
ers of, 1:145; types of, 1:142 – 44; in 4:185, 5:187
1:62; industry, 3:16; peak, 1:56,
5:124, 5:129 1:45; US fields of, 1:46; US im-
220 a Index

Hydropower 3:133 – 35, 4:135 – 37, 5:137 – 39
5:173; world, 1:190, 2:160, 3:158, 3:115
3:158, 4:160, 5:162 3:183, 4:185, 5:187
Index a 221
3:167, 4:169, 5:171 uses for, 2:6
1: 151 5:113
1:197, 2:167, 3:165, 4:167, 5:169; Poland, 1:116
2:119 3:81; double-flash, 4:11; flash-
222 a Index
1:81 – 82; Poland’s coal, 1:116;

Cells 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
Pressures, 4:3
1:144 Quantum dots, 5:114 – 15
1:213 – 16, 2:183 – 86, 3:181 – 84, Radiant energy, 1:5
4:183 – 86, 5:185 – 88 Radiation, 2:61, 2:68
Index a 223

2:132, 3:130, 4:132, 5:134; on Reid, Harry, 1:148, 2:3f
1:162 – 63, 2:132 – 33, 3:130 – 31, 4:179 – 82, 5:181 – 84; China
1:160 – 61, 2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 3:148t – 151t, 4:150t – 153t,
3:127 – 28, 4:129 – 30, 5:131 – 32; on 2:150t – 153t, 3:148t – 151t,
2:131, 3:129, 4:131, 5:133; on wind sion of, 2:28 – 29
1:190 – 91t, 2:160t – 161t, Renovation, 5:27 – 28
3:152t – 155t, 4:154t – 157t, 2:98
224 a Index

2:186, 3:9, 3:184, 4:29, 4:186, 5:28,
4:40, 4:44 San Francisco, 3:111, 4:5 – 6
1:29, 1:31 2:111
2:110f, 5:69 San Juan Basin, 1:80
Index a 225
in, 4:66 4:11
Science, 1:218, 2:188, 3:186, 4:188, ficiency, 5:23
3:185, 4:187, 5:189 plants, 3:89 – 90
5:146t – 149t 2:13; SunPower, 2:18f
226 a Index
2:130 – 31, 3:128 – 29, 4:130 – 31,

5:132 – 33; schools using, 2:16 – 17;
2:3 – 4; US projects of, 2:21 – 23; US
5:64 – 65, 5:64f Solar heaters, 2:79f
2:55, 2:183, 3:181, 4:183, 5:185; Solar ovens, 2:71
2:4; cost of, 2:30 – 31; econom- 3:64f
Index a 227
Solatubes, 5:37 4:98 – 102, 4:99f
5:121 4:169, 5:171
4:186, 5:188 Rotor
4:69 1:60f
4:188, 5:190 (SEAT), 1:28
228 a Index

3:116 – 17
Cells 3:9
5:35 – 36
Index a 229
Thailand, 4:39 – 40, 4:87 Tiwi, 4:41
230 a Index

5:173 of, 4:59, 4:70 – 73; geothermal
energy in, 1:132 – 33, 1:137, 5:112;
Index a 231
of, 3:17 – 18, 5:115; wind energy 1:85 – 86, 1:89 – 92, 5:75;
4:137, 5:139 plant, 3:59
1:144 3:14 – 15
1:216, 2:186, 3:184, 4:186, 5:188 Vidaca, Jasmine, 1:50
Utah, 1:109, 4:19 – 20 3:180, 4:182, 5:184
2:28 5:108f
4:123
232 a Index

1:145
4:168, 5:170 3:24, 3:71; economics of, 3:16 – 18;
3:116f rials on, 1:161, 2:131, 3:129, 4:131,
Index a 233
3:46, 3:46f Wisconsin, 3:78, 4:17, 4:66 – 67
234 a Index
Xeriscape, 5:87
Cells 5:188
4:9, 4:52
2:137, 3:135, 4:137, 5:139 2:33
opment, 5:101f ment, 3:67 – 68
Wyoming, 1:114, 1:115f, 4:4 5:94
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A Student Guide to Energy

Volume 1: Oil, Natural Gas,

Chapter 1 Energy and Energy Sources 1

Chapter 3 Natural Gas 71

Chapter 4 Coal 103

Chapter 5 Nuclear Energy 131

Books and Other Reading Materials 159

Opportunities in Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Careers 209

Mary E. Spruill, Executive Director of the National Energy Education

We cannot simply think of our survival; each new generation is re-

—Great Law of Peace of the Haudenosaunee

Presently, energy drives the global economy by producing much of the

World governments, nongovernmental organizations, international

THE STUDENT GUIDE TO ENERGY SET

Additional topics, including carbon and ecological footprints and

Special Features of the Five-Volume Set

• National Science Education Standards. The content in A Student

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PRESENT

Venezuela, 0.803 million barrels per day

Renewable Energy Resources

countries, and the development of wind power technology is not unique

Tidal Power Energy

Although much of the electricity produced in France is from nuclear

Biomass and Biofuels

The Northeast Blackout of 1965 was a signiﬁcant disruption in the supply

ENERGY’S ROLE IN OUR WORLD

magazines, newspapers, periodicals, newsletters, radio, and television and

ENERGY POLICIES NEED TO BE ADDRESSED

• By 2030 the world’s population will have increased to more than

There is no question that energy resources and technology will play a

HISTORY OF ENERGY IN THE

Nonrenewable energy sources like petroleum will continue to play a major

DID YOU KNOW?

Electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy consists of waves

ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED

The Law of Conservation of Energy

DID YOU KNOW?

Multiple Conversions of Energy

Energy Loss in Conversions

Cars and trucks jam a crowded free-

TODAY’S SOURCES OF ENERGY

Nonrenewable Energy Sources

After residential use, industry is the next-largest consumer, and electric-

DID YOU KNOW?

On the global scene, as of 2009, 31 countries included nuclear power as

According to the World Nuclear Association, mainland China has 12 nuclear

Renewable Energy Resources

electricity. Some of the largest hydroelectric power producers are Canada,

Geothermal Energy and Heat Pumps

Fuelwood. As noted previously, fuelwood is the most widely used bio-

DID YOU KNOW?

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses hydrogen

What Sources of Energy Are Used

View of the massive Hoover Dam

How Is Electricity Transmitted

DID YOU KNOW?

HOW IS ENERGY MEASURED?

WORLDWIDE CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY

U.S. energy consumption by quad. A quadrillion is equal to 1 trillion megawatts

in comparison with 2005 consumption. Through 2030, fossil fuels such as

WORLDWIDE USES OF ENERGY