1.

INTRODUCTION

 An autonomous car also known as a driverless car, self-driving car, robotic car, and unmanned
ground vehicle or a vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and navigating
without human input.
 Autonomous cars use a variety of techniques to detect their surroundings, as radar, laser
light, GPS, odometry and interpret sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths,
as well as obstacles and relevant sign age.
 Autonomous cars must have control systems that are capable of analyzing sensory data to
distinguish between different cars on the road.
 The potential benefits of autonomous cars include reduced mobility and infrastructure costs,
increased safety, increased mobility, increased customer satisfaction and reduced crime.
 Specifically a significant reduction in traffic collisions, the resulting injuries and related costs,
including less need for insurance.
 Autonomous cars are predicted to increase traffic flow, provided enhanced mobility for children,
the elderly, disabled and the poor, relieve travelers from driving and navigation chores, lower fuel
consumption, significantly reduce needs for parking space, reduce crime, and facilitate business
models for transportation as a service, especially via the sharing economy.
 On the downside, a frequently cited paper by Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey found that
autonomous cars would render many jobs redundant.
 Among the main obstacles to widespread adoption are technological challenges, disputes
concerning liability the time period needed to replace the existing stock of vehicles; resistance by
individuals to forfeit control consumer safety concerns.
 Implementation of a workable legal framework and establishment of government regulations; risk
of loss of privacy and security concerns, such as hackers or terrorism; concerns about the
resulting loss of driving-related jobs in the road transport industry.
 Risk of increased suburbanization as travel becomes less costly and time-consuming. Many of
these issues are due to the fact that autonomous objects.the first time, allow computers to roam
freely, with many related safety and security concerns.
 Since at least the 1920’s experiments have been conducted on automating driving.First
autonomous prototype cars appeared in the 1980s, with Carnegie Mellon University's Navlab and
ALV projects in 1984 and Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich's EUREKA
Prometheus Project in 1987.
 Numerous companies and research organizations have developed prototypes.
 In 2015, the US states of Nevada, Florida, California, Virginia, and Michigan, together
with Washington, D.C. allowed the testing of autonomous cars on public roads.

1
 In 2017 Audi stated that its latest A8 would be autonomous at up to speeds of 60 km/h using its
"Audi AI".
 The driver would not have to do safety checks such as frequently gripping the steering wheel. The
Audi A8 was claimed to be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving. Audi
would be the first manufacturer to use laser scanners in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors
are for their system
 On the 7th November 2017, Waymo announced that it had begun testing driverless cars without a
safety driver at the driver position, however there is still an employee in the car.
 the first time, allow computers to roam freely, with many related safety and security concerns.

Fig : 1.1

2
 2. METHODOLOGY

In the simplest of senses, an autonomous driving system may be thought of as a cognitive driving
intelligence layered on top of a basic ”vehicle platform”. The cognitive intelligence is responsible for
perceiving the environment, generating a feasible motion trajectory through the environment, and
manipulating the vehicle platform in order to achieve the desired motion.

1. What should be the principal components of the AV (Autonomous Vehicle ) of an autonomous driving
system

2. What are the various ways of distributing or allocating the AV components across different layers of
the architecture

Clear description of functionalities, safety, separation of concerns, and decoupling of components. The
latter two facilitate change and reuse of the components, which make for flexible and evolvable
architectures.

2.1 FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS

We have opted to split the principal AV components of the motion control part of the autonomous driving
system into three main categories, as shown in

 Navigation and guidance (where you are, where you want to be, how to get there)

 Driving and safety (directing the vehicle, making sure it vehicle acts properly under all
circumstances, and follows the rules of the road) and

 Performance (managing the car's basic internal systems).

2.1.1 Know Where You are Going

For the autonomous vehicle, the navigation and guidance subsystem must always be active and checking
how the vehicle is doing versus the goal. For example, if the originally "optimum" route has any
unexpected diversions, the path must be re-computed in real time to avoid going in a wrong direction.
Since the vehicle is obviously constrained to the roadways, this takes much more computational effort
than simply drawing a straight line between A and B.
The primary subsystem used for navigation and guidance is based on a GPS (Global Positioning System)
receiver, which computes present position based on complex analysis of signals received from at least
four of the constellation of over 60 low-orbit satellites. GPS system can provide location accuracy on the
order of one meter (the actual number depends on many subtle issues), which is a good start for the
vehicle. Note that for a driver, who hopes to hop in the car and get going, a GPS receiver takes between
30 and 60 seconds to establish initial position, so the autonomous vehicle must delay its departure until
this first fix is computed.

3
GPS subsystems are now available as sophisticated system on a chip (SoC) IC or multi-chip chipsets
which require only power and antenna, and include an embedded, application-specific compute engine to
perform the intensive calculations. Although many of these ICs have an internal RF preamp for the 1.5-
GHz GPS signal, many of the vehicles opt to put the antenna on the roof with a co-located low-noise
amplifier (LNA) RF preamplifier, and locate the GPS circuitry in a more convenient location within the
vehicle. The antenna must have right-hand circular polarization characteristics (RHCP) to match the
polarization of the GPS signals, and can be a ceramic-chip unit, a small wound stub design, or other
configuration.

Fig :2.1.1
2.1.2 See Where You are Going

The autonomous car must be able to see and interpret what's in front when going forward (and behind
when in reverse, of course). It is also necessary to see what is on either side; in other words, it needs a
360⁰ view. An array of video cameras is the obvious choice, with a camera to determine where the lane is
and sense objects or markers on the road.
But using cameras alone presents problems. First, there are mechanical issues of setting up multiple
cameras correctly and keeping them clean; second, heavy graphic processing is needed to make sense of
images; third, there is a need for depth perception as well as basic imaging; and finally, conditions of
lighting, shadows, and other factors make it very challenging to accurately decide what the camera is
seeing.
Instead, the primary "vision" unit on the autonomous vehicle is a LIDAR system, short for Light
Detection and Ranging (or a mash-up of Light and Radar, depending on the source you check). To enable
the split-second decision-making needed for self-driving cars, the LIDAR system provides accurate 3D
information on the surrounding environment. Using this data, the processor implements object
identification, motion vector determination, collision prediction, and avoidance strategies. The LIDAR
unit is well-suited to "big picture" imaging, and provides the needed 360⁰ view by using a rotating,
scanning mirror assembly on the top of the car.

4
 Fig : 2.1.2

LIDAR provides raw information using high-speed, high-power pulses of laser-light that are timed with
the response of a detector to calculate the distance to an object from the reflected light. An array of
detectors, or a timed camera, can be used to increase the resolution of the 3D information. The pulse is
very short to enhance depth resolution, and the resulting light reflections are used to create a 3D point-like
"cloud" that is analyzed to transform the data into volume identification and vector information. The
transformed result is then used to calculate the vehicles' position, speed, and direction relative to these
external objects, to determine the probability of collision, and instruct appropriate action, if needed.
2.1.3 Get Where You are Going

While components and subsystems used for navigation and guidance or for image-capture and sensing get
the most attention due to their glamour aspects, a large portion of the design of an autonomous vehicle
involves mundane issues such as power management. Several application-specific, unique circuit boards
and subsystems are added to a conventional vehicle to provide the functions needed for autonomous
operation. Much of the system-level operation involves measuring and managing the power requirements
to control power, overall consumption, and thermal dissipation.
Monitoring the current and voltage at the batteries often requires isolated sensing, for safety and
functionally, but isolation is not needed on low-voltage circuit boards. Instead, the most common
technique used to determine current at a source or load is with a high-side, current-sense, million resistor
(called a shunt) in conjunction with a differential amplifier which measures the voltage drop across it.
Although the amplifier is used with a discrete sense resistor, there is now an alternative that saves space,
minimizes errors in readings which are primarily due to thermal drift of the sense resistor as it self-heats,
and simplifies the bill of materials (BOM) by reducing the number of parts. The INA250 from Texas
Instruments puts a sense resistor and differential amplifier in a single package, resulting in a far-smaller
board-layout footprint, fewer circuit-layout problems, and lower system cost due to simplified schematic.

5
 Fig : 2.1.3

The autonomous car has attracted a great deal of interest (and skepticism) as well as considerable R&D
investment. How practical or affordable it will actually be, or when we'll see it as a mainstream vehicle, is
unknown and the subject of much speculation. There has been significant progress, demonstrated by
millions of test miles on public roads to refine its design and operation. We do know that such a vehicle
demands a complex integration of sophisticated algorithms running on powerful processors, making
critical decisions based on large streams of real-time data coming from a diverse and complex array of
sensors.

6
 3. DETAILS

 There are several systems that work in conjunction with each other to control a driverless car.
Radar sensors dotted around the car monitor the position of vehicles nearby. Lidar sensors help to
detect the edges of roads and identify lane markings by bouncing pulses of light off the car's
surroundings.

 Self-driving vehicles are cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control
to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or “driverless” cars, they combine
sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle.
 Currently, there are no legally operating, fully-autonomous vehicles in the United States. There
are, however, partially-autonomous vehicles—cars and trucks with varying amounts of self-
automation, from conventional cars with brake and lane assistance to highly-independent, self-
driving prototypes.
 Though still in its infancy, self-driving technology is becoming increasingly common and could
radically transform our transportation system (and by extension, our economy and society). Based
on automaker and technology company estimates, level 4 self-driving cars could be for sale in the
next several years.
 Various self-driving technologies have been developed by Google, Uber, Tesla, Nissan, and other
major automakers, researchers, and technology companies.
 While design details vary, most self-driving systems create and maintain an internal map of their
surroundings, based on a wide array of sensors, like radar. Uber’s self-driving prototypes use
sixty-four laser beams, along with other sensors, to construct their internal
map; Google’s prototypes have, at various stages, used lasers, radar, high-powered cameras, and
sonar.
 Software then processes those inputs, plots a path, and sends instructions to the vehicle’s
“actuators,” which control acceleration, braking, and steering. Hard-coded rules, obstacle
avoidance algorithms, predictive modeling, and “smart” object discrimination (ie, knowing the
difference between a bicycle and a motorcycle) help the software follow traffic rules and navigate
obstacles.
 Partially-autonomous vehicles may require a human driver to intervene if the system encounters
uncertainty; fully-autonomous vehicles may not even offer a steering wheel.
 Self-driving cars can be further distinguished as being “connected” or not, indicating whether
they can communicate with other vehicles and/or infrastructure, such as next generation traffic
lights. Most prototypes do not currently have this capability.

3.1 Impacts
 The costs and benefits of self-driving cars are still largely hypothetical. More information is
needed to fully assess how they’ll impact drivers, the economy, equity, and environmental and
public health.
 Safety is an overarching concern. Many thousands of people die in motor vehicle crashes every
year in the United States (more than 30,000 in 2015); self-driving vehicles could, hypothetically,
reduce that number software could be prove to be less error-prone than humans but cyber security
is still a chief concern.
 Equity is another major consideration. Self-driving technology could help mobilize individuals
who are unable to drive themselves, such as the elderly or disabled. But the widespread adoption

7
 of autonomous vehicles could also displace millions of Americans employed as drivers,
negatively impact public transportation funding, and perpetuate the current transportation
system’s injustices.
 Environmental impacts are a serious concern, and a major uncertainty. Accessible, affordable,
and convenient self-driving cars could increase the total number of miles driven each year. If
those vehicles are powered by gasoline, then transportation-related climate emissions could
skyrocket. If, however, the vehicles are electrified—and paired with a clean electricity grid—then
transportation emissions could drop, perhaps significantly.

Fig : 3.1.2

 To the extent that electrified self-driving cars enable more shared rides (for example, through
services such as Lyft or Uber), emissions could drop even further.
 The Union of Concerned Scientists has worked on transportation-related policy issues for
decades, and advocates for equitable, low-pollution vehicles, fuels, and infrastructure.
 In February 2017 we released a policy brief that outlines the challenges and benefits of self-
driving technology

Fig : 3.1.3

 That includes seven principles for policy makers, companies, and other stakeholders to use as
guides. Learn more about our work here.
 Testing vehicles with varying degrees of autonomy can be done physically, in closed
environments, on public roads (where permitted, typically with a license or permit or adhering
to a specific set of operating principles]) or virtually, i.e. in computer simulations.
 When driven on public roads, autonomous vehicles require a person to monitor their proper
operation and "take over" when needed.

8
3.2 Usability
 Traffic collisions and resulting deaths and injuries and costs, caused by human errors,
Consulting firm McKinsey & Company estimated that widespread use of autonomous
vehicles could "eliminate 90% of all auto accidents in the United States, prevent up
to US$190 billion in damages and health-costs annually and save thousands of lives.
 Additional advantages could include higher speed limits, smoother rides and increased
roadway capacity; and minimized traffic congestion, due to decreased need for safety gaps
and higher speeds.
 Maximum controlled-access highway throughput or capacity according to the U.S. Highway
Capacity Manual is about 2,200 passenger vehicles per hour per lane, with about 5% of the
available road space is taken up by cars. One study estimated that autonomous cars could
increase capacity by 273% .
 The ability for authorities to manage traffic flow would increase, given the extra data and
driving behavior predictability.[8]combined with less need for traffic police and even road
signage.

Fig : 3.2

9
 4. Application

Driverless cars are ubiquitous in imagined future scenarios. Autonomous vehicles technology is a multi-
disciplinary technology where different engineering areas, such as Navigation, are required. GNSS
systems where revolutionary in the area of Navigation by providing positioning and navigation
capabilities to the autonomous vehicles. With precise positioning, GNSS can be used for lane or track
determination (for road and rail vehicles) and attitude determination by using multiple antennas.
Autonomous vehicle technology is still at its infancy but currently the first laboratory prototypes are
being tested and demonstrated. GNSS has been one of the key drivers for the recent developments in this
area.
4.1 Autonomous Driving
The main drivers for achieving autonomous driving is the reduction of traffic accidents by eliminating
human error, increasing road capacity and traffic flow by reducing distance between cars and making use
of traffic management information, relieving the car occupants from driving and navigation activities and
allowing them to engage in other activities or rest.
A driverless car requires the combination of several techniques among which GNSS. These techniques
will enable to guide autonomously a land vehicle from one point to another using public roads. In
autonomous driving, GNSS can be used for navigation by determining the vehicle location and speed.
With this information the vehicle route can be decided using digital maps. Lane and attitude
determination could also benefit from GNSS if the accuracy is good enough. If the location information is
shared among cars, GNSS could be a part of a short-range situation awareness system (awareness of other
vehicles in the road and collision avoidance) although it is not expected that GNSS is the sole means of
information for short-range situation awareness.

Fig : 4.1

10
4.2 Character
Autonomous Driving is still a research area and there aren't yet vehicles approved to be driven without
human supervision. The existing vehicles are research prototypes that still cannot run autonomously
100% of the time.
A restricted form of Autonomous driving is Advanced Driving Assistance Systems (ADAS). ADAS
combines vehicle capabilities to improve mobility and active safety. GNSS will provide important
additional data to ADAS on the vehicle’s environment. ADAS then warns the driver of imminent danger
or takes full or partial control over the vehicle. For instance, the speed could be reduced by ADAS under
bad visibility conditions if the car approaches a tight turn too fast. This function would be possible with
accurate position data of guaranteed integrity and accurate mapping information.

4.2.1 Examples of autonomous vehicle projects

 Google driverless car - Project by Google that involves developing technology for driverless cars.
 EUREKA Prometheus Project – The program for a European Traffic of Highest Efficiency and
Unprecedented Safety was the largest R&D project ever in the field of driverless cars and was funded
by the European Commission.
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) represent a major innovation for the automotive industry, but their potential impact
with respect to timing, uptake, and penetration remains hazy. While high levels of uncertainty currently
surround the issue, the ultimate role that AVs could play regarding the economy, mobility, and society as a
whole could be profound. In an effort to look beyond today’s rapidly changing predictions on AV penetration,
we interviewed more than 30 experts across Europe, the United States, and Asia and combined these findings
with our insights to arrive at ten thought-provoking potential implications of self-driving cars. The widespread
use of AVs could profoundly affect a variety of industry sectors. To explore these implications in depth, we
focused on three time horizons of AV diffusion: before such vehicles are commercially available to individual
buyers, when they are in the early stage of adoption, and when they become the primary means of transport

Fig : 4.2.1

11
Most of the self-driving hard and software in the box has been engineered by Waymo Google: Not just
the software, also a novel 360 degree spinning Lidar (with better performance than the Velodyne Lidar,
costs reduced by almost an order of magnitude); radar sensors (with better short range detection of
stationary objects); the computing platform (developed from scratch in collaboration with Intel); cameras,
microphones. Ideally, this box, Waymo’s “better driver”, could be integrated easily into other car models.
However, this will always require more work than just adding the box because some sensors will still
need to be mounted on the car; more importantly, the car must be ready for self-driving (e.g. redundant
safety components) and must be able to communicate with the box by reporting its physical conditions to
the box and accepting driving instructions

There will be fights over access to the data, over controlling the interface with the user. And it will be
hard for the universal self-driving module provider to beat all of those demands back because the OEMs
have experience and market knowledge and their car models have special use cases in various segments
that the self-driving module provider is not familiar with, does not own and therefore can not easily
implement independently. If the provider of the SDC technology platform can not impose lasting, full
control over the whole extent of the self-driving platform (prohibiting partial sourcing of components,
keeping all modifications to the platform under their own control.

Fig : 4.2.2

12
 5. CONCLUSION

 Formats and visions of social interaction are already imbued in driverless technologies but current
social research in this area seems to assume that CAV’s are still ‘a-social’.

 Further research needs to be conducted on how assumptions about social interaction, impact and
acceptance are embedded in these technologies, and how this plays out in testing scenarios.

Fig : 5.1

 Much social research on driverless focuses on interaction between cars and road users in the
immediate environment.

 Improper working of sensors which leads to accidents

Fig : 5.2

 Doesn’t this mean that we need to approach social interaction as situated in a networked
environment

13
 To what extend do self-driving cars present a fundamental social shift.

 Is the sharing economy capable of displacing the individualistic, driver-centered model implicit in
today’s car culture.

 Safer driving was expected to reduce the costs of vehicle insurance.

 But a key aspect of driverless cars is connectivity and scalability.

 Reduced traffic congestion and the improvements in traffic flow due to widespread use of
autonomous cars will also translate into better fuel efficiency

 Autonomous cars may require very high-quality specialized map to operate properly. Where these
maps may be out of date, they would need to be able to fall back to reasonable behaviors.

Fig : 5.3

 Cost (purchase, maintenance, repair and insurance) of autonomous vehicle as well as total cost of
infrastructure spending to enable autonomous vehicles and the cost sharing model.

 Self-driving vehicles are not yet legal on most roads.

 They require to be socialized in some way or the other.

14
 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

 BRANDON, JOHN. "The New Cruise Control." Inc

 PULTAROVA, TEREZA. "Self-Driving Self-charging Electric Cars

 https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ autonomous_car

 https:// www.azosensors.com/article.aspx

 "The Road To Self-Driving Cars." Consumer Reports Academic Search Complete. Web

 http://www.fool.com/investing/general/10/26/self-driving-cars-what-will-it-take-to-make-
automa.aspx

 http://www.autoinsurancecenter.com/top-20-pros-and-cons-associated-with-self-driving-cars.htm

 http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/the-road-to-self-driving-cars/index.htm

15