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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
SI Prefix Multipliers
Tera P 1012
Giga T 109
Mega G 106
Kilo M 103
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
pico p 10-12
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
The number of electrons in a stable cation or anion = #electron in nearest noble gases
Topic 7: Avogadro’s number
Avogadro’s number: 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles
Ex: 1 mol carbon-12 = 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon-12
Particles could mean atoms, molecules, ions, etc.
Moles to number of atoms
to convert from moles of an atom to number of atoms, multiply the moles by Avogadro’s
number
to convert from number of atoms to moles, divide the number of atoms by Avogadro’s
number
Mass to moles using molar mass
molar mass describes the mass of a substance in one mole of that substance
calculated using Avogadro’s number
to convert from mass to moles, divide the mass by the molar mass
Mass to numbers of atoms
mass to number of atoms: divide mass by molar mass to get moles, then multiply by
Avogadro’s number
number of atoms to mass, divide number of atoms by Avogadro’s number and then
multiply by molar mass
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
To get the chemical formula from the empirical formula, you need the molar mass of
the compound
Divide the molar mass of the compound by the mass of the empirical formula
Then, multiply the resulting number with the empirical formula to get the the
chemical formula
Topic 8: Balancing Chemical Equations
use states (s) (l) (g) (aq)
total number of atoms n in reactants = total number of atoms in products
Combustion
Burning in O2(g)
Other reactant is hydrocarbon, which contains C and H
Start by balancing C
Then balance H
Balance O last
Equations containing ionic compounds and polyatomic ions
Treat polyatomic ions as 1 unit
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Reasons
Impurities
Product may get washed away when purified
Side reactions can occur
If percent yield is above 100%, the product is wet or contains impurities
Percent yield = [actual (experimental) yield/theoretical yield] * 100%
Topic 3: Solutions
Substances are called AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Amount of SOLUTE (measured in moles) is less than amount of SOLVENT(measured in
Liters)
MOLARITY = concentration of solutions
Molarity =(moles of solute)/(Liters of solution)
Volume of solvent does not equal volume of solution
Units =mol/L or M
Ex: “the concentration of the solution is 2 M”
Concentrated solutions contain more solute than dilute solutions
Concentrate solutions = those whose molarity is greater than 1 M
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
CHAPTER 5: GASES
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
• Ptot= P1 + P2 + P3 +…
To calculate partial pressure:
• Need mole fraction, X
• X = moles of gas A/ total moles of gas mixture
• Ex: XA = nA/(nA + nB)
• Partial pressure of gas A, PA = XA * Ptot
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
3) collision of one particle with another or with the walls is completely elastic
elastic = no overall loss energy
particles have no attraction forces between each other
Relation to the gas laws
1) Boyle’s Law
if V decreases, number of collisions increase
if number of collisions increase, pressure increases
2) Charles’ Law
If T increases, KE increases, no of collisions increases
If P is constant, gas will have to expand and V will have to increase
3) Avogadro’s Law
If n increases, number of collisions increases
P is constant, therefore V must increase
Temperature and Molecular Velocity
o KE = 1/2 * mv2
o Lighter particles travel faster than heavier particles
o For velocity, use ROOT MEAN SQUARE VELOCITY (urms)
urms = √U2
We use this formula because of the wide range of velocities in a sample of
gas as it gives a more accurate average
urms = √(3RT)/(MM)
Use molar mass in kg/mol !
R = ideal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol K
1 J = 1 kg m^2/s^2
o As T increase, root mean square velocity increases and as T decreases, root mean
square velocity decreases
o At constant temperature, as MM increases, root mean square velocity decreases and
as MM decreases, root mean square velocity increases
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
CHAPTER 6: THERMODYNAMICS
themo=heat
Heat is a from of energy
Most chemical reactions involve heat
Heat can be absorbed - this type of reaction would be called ENDOTHERMIC or
heat can be released - this type of reaction would be EXOTHERMIC
Thermochemistry - the study of the relationships between chemistry and energy
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Topic 4: Measuring ΔE
Measuring ΔE at constant volume
o ΔE = q + w, but at constant V, w = 0, therefore at constant V, ΔE = qv (subscript v
denotes at constant volume)
o Method: bomb calorimeter
At constant volume
Sample(usually food) is combusted -> heat water -> cause ΔT
qcal = Ccal ΔT
Ccal = heat capacity of calorimeter (J/ ℃ or kJ/ ℃)
Heat lost by food combusting = heat gained by a calorimeter
qrxn = -qcal
qrxn = -Ccal ΔT
Measuring ΔE at constant pressure
o Most chemical reactions are carried out at constant P rather than constant volume
o ENTHALPY = ΔE at constant pressure, denoted by H
o H = E + PV
o Changes in enthalpy, ΔH = ΔE + ΔPV
At constant P, ΔH = ΔE + P ΔV
ΔH = qp (subscript p denotes at constant pressure)
o Enthalpy is the heat absorbed or released in a chemical reaction at constant P
Endothermic - when ΔH is positive and heat is absorbed
Exothermic - when ΔH is negative and heat is released
o Method: coffee cup calorimeter
ΔT = ΔHrxn
Heat lost or gained by a solution, qsol’n
qsol’n = mass sol’n * Cs sol’n * ΔTsol’n
Heat lost by rxn = heat gained by surroundings (sol’n)
+qrxn = -qsurr
Difference between qrxn and qsurr is that qrxn doesn’t account for spectator
ions and water
Calc qrxn in J -> kJ -> kJ/mol -> ΔHrxn
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
1) Standard state
For a gas, standard state is the pure gas at 1 atm
For a liquid or solid, standard state is the pure substance in its most stable form
at 1 atm and temperature of interest (25 degrees Celsius usually)
For a substance in solution, the standard state is concentration of 1 M
2) Standard Enthalpy Change (∆H0)
The standard enthalpy change is the change in enthalpy for a process when all
reactants and products are in their standard state
∆H0rxn = ∆H0products - ∆H0reactants
3) Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆H0f)
Every compound and element has its own ∆H0f – these are given in table 6.2 of
Tro
For a pure compound, the standard enthalpy of formation is the change in
enthalpy when 1 mole of the compound forms from its constituent elements in
their standard states
For a pure element in its standard state: ∆H0f = 0
For an element not in its most stable form, ∆H0f ≠ 0
o Eg: carbon in diamond form
Calculating Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction
o Consider these principles:
Formation of a compound from its constituent elements in their standard states
= standard heat of formation (∆H0f)
Decomposition of a compound into its constituent elements = negative of the
standard heat of formation (∆H0f)
o Now:
1) Decompose the reactants into their constituent elements in their standard
states
Reactants -> Elements ∆H1 = - ∑∆H0f (reactants)
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Overall, to calculate ∆H0rxn , subtract the heats of formation of the reactants multiplied by their
stoichiometric coefficients from the heats of formation of the products multiplied by the
stoichiometric coefficients
∆H0rxn = ∑np∆H0 f (products)- ∑np∆H0 f (reactants)
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Hψ= Eψ;
H is the Hamiltonian operator – represents the total energy of the electron in the
atom
E is the actual energy of the atom
Ψ is the wave function, a mathematical function that describes the wavelike nature
of electrons
Ψ2 represents an orbital, a position probability distribution of the electron
Quantum Numbers
o Electrons can be present in different orbitals
o Several types of orbitals, different energies – they depend of
QUANTUM NUMBERS
o Quantum numbers are what specify each orbital
1) The Principle Quantum Number, n
Always an integer
determines the overall size and energy of an orbital
Possible values: n=1,2,3….
For a H atom, the energy of an electron in an orbital with quantum number n
is
The energy of the electron when it is very far away from the atom is taken to
be zero
Therefore, the energy is negative because the energy of the electron in the
atom is less than the energy of the electron when it is very far from the atom
The more negative the energy, the more stable the electron is
As n increases, the spacing between energy levels decreases
2) The Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
Always an integer
Determines the shape of the orbital
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Depending on the energy level it falls to, the electron emits either UV, visible light or
IR
Formula:
∆E = Efinal – Einitial
∆Eatom = - ∆Ephoton
The transitions between orbitals that are farther apart in energy produce light that
is higher in energy than transitions between orbitals that are closer together
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
f-orbital (l = 3)
o ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
o more lobes and more nodes than d-orbital
But for He and all other elements, there is energy level splitting
Na [Ne] 3s1
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Hund’s rule – when filling orbitals of the same energy electrons fill them
singly at first, with parallel spin
I.e., electrons prefer to be unpaired if possible
D-block exceptions
Copper, Chromium
F-block
Really hard to predict
For expected configuration, just count across
Even though the true configuration differs from these most of the time
Elements can gain e-‘s and lose e-‘s and will tend to have the same number
of electrons as the nearest noble gas
Octet rule – having a full eight valence electrons is considered most stable
Ionic radii
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Ionization energy, IE
Ionization involves removing an electron completely from a gaseous atom
All ionization energies are endothermic
As atomic radii increases, ionization energy decreases because it is easier to
remove the outer electrons from larger atoms
Down a group, IE decreases
Across a period, IE increases but there are exceptions
i.e., hard to remove electrons from a stable, half-filled orbital
trend in successive IE’s
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4
Electron affinity, En
Involves an atom gaining an electron
No regular trend in periodic table
Group 17 (halogens) have the greatest (most negative) values of electron
affinity
Metallic characters
Across a period, metallic character decreases
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
1) Ionic
Electrostatic attraction between metals and nonmetals
Metal and nonmetal react to form a cation (metal loses e-) and anion
(nonmetal gains e-)
Electrons transferred from metal (cation) to nonmetal (anion)
When bonds forms, the ions are attracted to one another, lowering their overall
potential energy
For ionic compound, PE is directly proportional to q+ and q-
2) Covalent
Forms between nonmetals
Electrons shared between atoms
When the bond forms, shared electrons interact with the nuclei of both of the
bonding atoms, lowering their potential energy
The molecule is stable when the repulsive forces are balanced by the attractive
forces
3) Metallic
Occurs in metals
Sea of electrons surrounds cations
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Lewis dot structures are a way to visualize the number of valence electrons
Cannot draw Lewis dot structures of d-block or f-block elements
Example: -
+
Na
Cl Na
Cl
Lattice Energy
o Energy associated with the formation of a crystalline lattice of alternating
cations and anions from the gaseous ions
o Lattice Energy is always negative because formation of the lattice is exothermic
o The more negative the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond
Trends in Lattice Energy
o Ion Size – As radius decreases, the lattice energy becomes more negative
because the potential energy of oppositely charged ions becomes more negative
as the distance between ions decreases.
o Ion Charge – As the product of the charges increases, the potential energy
increases. Therefore, lattice energy increases
Effect of lattice energy on other properties
o Melting points – As lattice energy increases (becomes more negative), melting
point increases.
o Solubility – As lattice energy increases (becomes more negative), solubility
decreases.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Octet rule – When the atom has 8 valence electrons, it is fully stable.
Duet rule – Exceptions for several atoms like hydrogen and helium; when they have
2 valence electrons, they are stable.
Bonding pair – A pair of electrons shared between two atoms.
Lone pair – A pair that is associated with only one atom.
Bonding pair are represented by dashes.
Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
o Two atoms may share more than one electron pair to get octets.
o Double bond – two electron pairs are shared between two atoms.
o Triple bond – Three electron pairs are shared between two atoms.
When electrons are shared equally, the polarity has to be represented in the L
Lewis structure
Either an arrow with a positive sign on the tail
Or delta plus and delta minus sign
The delta minus sign is put on the element that attracts the electron.
δ- δ+
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Electronegativity – the ability of atoms to attract electrons onto itself when part of
a molecule
All electronegativity values are relative to that of fluorine
Fluorine’s electronegativity value is 4.0
Trends in electronegativity
Decreases down a group
Increases across a period
Polarity
Difference in electronegativity determines if a bond between 2 atoms is non-
polar, polar, or ionic
– 0.4 difference = nonpolar covalent
0.4-2.0 difference = polar covalent
2.0 – 3.3 difference = ionic
when the difference is 2.0, you have to know the compound properties
Steps
Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule. Remember, that hydrogen
atoms are always terminal atoms (not central). Also, place the more electronegative
elements in terminal positions and the less electronegative in terminal positions.
Calculate the total number of electrons for the Lewis structure by summing the
valence electrons of each atom in the molecule. Remember, for polyatomic ions,
consider the charge of the ion when calculating the number of electrons.
Distribute the electrons among the atoms, giving octets to as many atoms as
possible.
If any atoms lack an octet, form double and triple bonds as necessary to give them
octets.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Resonance
For some molecules, we can write more than one valid Lewis structure
The structures are called resonance structures
The actual structure of the molecule is intermediate (an average) between the two
resonance structures, not a mixture of 50% of one and 50% the others. This structure
is called the resonance hybrid
Formal Charge
The charge of an atom if all bonding electrons were shared equally between the
bonded atoms
Not a real charge
FC = # valence electrons – (# lone pair electrons + ½ # bonding electrons)
Sum of formal charges of all the atoms = overall charge of molecule
Small or zero formal charges on individual atoms are better (more stable)
When formal charge cannot be avoided, the negative formal charge should be on the
most electronegative atom
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Use of bond energies – individual bond energies can be used to estimate enthalpy
changes in reaction (∆H0rxn) when standard enthalpies of formation for all the reactants
and products of a reaction are not available
∆H0rxn = ∑(∆H’s bonds broken) + ∑(∆H’s bonds formed)
Forming bonds is exothermic, i.e. releases energy
Breaking bonds is endothermic, i.e. requires energy
The reaction is exothermic when weak bonds break and strong bonds form (when
∆H0rxn is negative)
The reaction is endothermic when strong bonds break and weak bonds form (when
∆H0rxn is positive)
Bond energy definition – The bond energy of a chemical bond is the energy required to
break 1 mole of the bond in the gas phase.
Bond energies are always positive because it always takes energy to break a bond.
The higher the bond energy, the stronger the bond.
Compounds with stronger bond energies tend to be more chemically stable than
compounds with weaker bond energies.
Average bond energy – an average of the bond energies for that bond in a large number
of compounds
Factors which affect bond energy
Type of atoms
Single vs multiple bonds
Bond energy of triple bonds > bond energy of double bonds > bond energy of single
bonds for a particular pair of atoms
Bond lengths
Bond length is the average length of a bond between two particular atoms in a large
number of compounds.
Factors that affect bond length
Type of atoms
Type of bond – single, double, or triple
Bond length of triple bonds < bond length of double bonds < bond length of
single bonds for a particular pair of atoms
Bond length and bond energies – bond energy generally decreases as bond length
increases, but it is not a smooth trend
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
AX2E2
two bonding pairs; two lone pairs
Tetrahedral electron geometry (b/c of 4 electron groups)
Two LP, BP repulsion pushes atom even closer than in trigonal pyramidal
molecule, which has one LP, BP repulsion
Therefore, actual angle = 104.5°
Molecular geometry = bent
Ex: H2O
AX4E
four bonding pairs; one lone pair
Trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry (b/c of 5 electron groups)
Two LP, BP repulsions exist 90° apart
Molecular geometry = seesaw
Ex: SF4
AX3E2
Three bonding pairs; two lone pairs
Trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry (b/c of 5 electron groups)
LP’s always go on equatorial positions b/c this position minimizes repulsion
Molecular geometry = t-shaped
AX2E3
Two bonding pairs, three lone pairs
Trigonal bipyramidal electron geometry (b/c of 5 electron groups)
LP’s always go on equatorial positions b/c this position minimizes repulsion
Actual angle = 180°
Molecular geometry = linear
AX5E
Five bonding pairs, one lone pair
Octahedral electron geometry (b/c of 6 electron groups)
LP position does not matter because octahedral geometry is symmetrical
Molecular geometry = square pyramidal
AX4E2
Four bonding pairs, two lone pairs
Octahedral electron geometry (b/c of 6 electron groups)
LP’s are as far away from each as can be (opposite positons)
Molecular geometry = square planar
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
o ex: N
sp3d hybridization
o trigonal bipyramidal geometry
o ex: PF5
sp3d2 hybridization
o octahedral geometry
o ex: SF6
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY I FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE
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