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CONTENTS
Chapter Pages
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(xiv)
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(u,
15.3. Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 695
15.3.1. Continuity Equation 695
15.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation 695
Solved Problems 15.1- 15.3 697
15.3.3. Momentum Equations 702
15.4. Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in II Fluid 702
15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound
Wave in II Fluid 702
15.4.2. Veloeity of Sound in Terms of
Bulk Modulus 704
15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothe rmal Process 705
15.4.4. Vdoci ty of Sound fo r Adiabatic Process 705
15.5. Mach Number 705
Solved Problems 15.4-15.7 706
15.6 . Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances)
in II Compressible Fluid 708
15.6.1. Mach Angle 709
15.6.2. Zone of Action 710
15.6.3. Zone or Silence 710
Solved Problems 15.8- 15.10 710
15.7. Stagnation Properties 711
15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p.) 711
15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p, ) 715
15.7.3. Expression for Stagnati.m Temperature ( T ,) 715
Solved Problems 15.11- 15.12 716
15.8. Area Velocity Relation ship for Compressible Flow 718
15.9. Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and
Noz~les Fitted to a Large Tank 719
15.9.1. Value of II or !!l. for Maximum Value
p,
of Mass Rate of Flow 721
15.9.2. Value of V 2 for Maximum Rate of Flow
of Fluid 721
15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fl uid Through
No~zle 722
15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible
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to 1. 1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is that branch of sc ience which deals with the behav iour o f the fluids (liquids or
gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of scienl'C deals WiTh the stat ic. kinematics and
dy namic aspecTs of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in
Illotion. where pressure forces are not considered. is c all ed tluid kinematics and if the pressure forees
are also considered for the flu ids in motion. that branch of science is callt>d fluid dynamics.
p=
1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Dens ity. Specific weig ht or weight density of a fluid is the
ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called
weight density and it is denoted by the symbo l w.
Mass of fluid )
=p><g =p
Volu me o f flu id
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12 Fluid MC(;hanics
The va lue of specific weight or weig h! density (w) for water is 9.81 x WOO Newlon/II]"' in Sl units.
1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volu ille of a fluid is defi ned as the volume of a fluid occupied
by a unit mass or volum e per unit mass of a fluid is callcd specific vo lu11Ie. Mathemat ically. il i~
expressed as
Vo lume of fl uid
Specific volume =
M ass of fl uid ~M,!","",,,o"r~n~""d;r; '" p
Volume of flu id
Thus specific vol um e is the rec iprocal of mass density. It is c.'pressed as m' fk g. It is commonly
applied 10 gases.
1.2.4 Specific C;uvity. Specific gravity is defined as the rali o of th e weight densit y (or de nsity)
of a fluid to the weight de nsit y (o r den sity) uf a standard fluid. For liquids. the standard fluid is Taken
water and for gases, th e standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is nlso called relntivc dens it y. h is
dimension less quantit y and is de noted by tlie symbol S.
Problem 1.1 Co/m/ill" tl/<' sfH'ciflc weigili. delisiTy om/ spnific gral'ily of 0111' lifr" of (/ liquid
... IIid, II'pigll,' 7 N.
Solution. Given:
I , . I ;
Volume = I litre = - - m IIlTe = 1000 m or I li tre
llJOO
Weight = 7 N
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Properties of Fluids 31
Problem 1.2 Ca/culale tile dellsity. specific weigh! and weight of one lilre of Pe/rot of sped/it
gra..!ty '" 0.7
.. 1,3 VISCOSITY
Vis<:osi ly is d efi ned as the property of a fluid whi<:h offers rcsiswnce tu the movement of o ne layer
of fluid over imolhcr adj ace nt layer of ihe fluid. When twO laye rs of a fluid. a dislanl'C 'dy' aparL move
one over the other at different velocities, say u a nd u + du as show n in Fig. 1.1. Ihe viSC(}~ity togclher
wi th relative velocity cause~ a shear stre~s acting between Ihe nuid laye rs.
Th e lOp layer eauses a shear Slress on the
adjace nt lower layer while the lowe r layer causes
a shear stress on th~ adjacent top layer. This shear
stress is propo rtional to the rate of c han ge of ve-
locit y with respec t to y. It is denoted by symbol "
VELOC ITY PROFILE
t (Tau).
d,
Mathe maticall y. ,~ -
dy
Fig. 1.1 Velocity variation near a mlid boundary.
t~)J
dy "
- ... (1.2)
where )J (calk'd mu) is the (.unstant of proportionality and is known as the (.u-cfficient of dynamic viS«)sity
d,
oronl y viM-usity. - represents the rate of she<lr sirain or f:ltc of sheardcfomtatioo or velocity gradient.
dy
If)"
Th us viscosity is a lso defin ed as th e she ar stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
1.3.1 Unit$ of Vi$co$ity. Th e uni ts of viscosity is obtained by putt ing the dimcnsions o f the
quantities in cq uation (1.3)
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14 Fluid MC(;hanics
The nume rical conversion oflhc unit ofviscosi l y from MKS unit to eGS unit is given beluw:
9.8 1 N-sec
I': I kgf=9.8 1 New ton)
• 98 . 1 dyne-sec
, = 98. 1 poisc ,d"y,"",~,:c'=-c = 1.: POiSC)
c m' em ' 1
Th us for solving numerical prob lems. if viscosity is given in poise. it must be divided by 9&.1 10 get
ils equivalent numerical value in MKS.
8m
ml
=+,"
one kg f -scc • 9.8 1 Ns
Ill "
= 98.1 poise
one Ns 9&.1 1 N,
• - - poise = 10 poisc One poise =
~ 9.81 10 ml
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Properties of Fluids 51
. dyncxs ( l gm X I Cm ) ,
Alt rrnllil' Mdhod . One po lS<: '" l '" l X- -
,
em s el11
[ em
But dyn e gill X - ,-
"
I k
O ne poise
I gm lOiXIg
'" ;;::;; '" I
' -- m
100
I
= IOpoisc.
1000 "'
1"'otr . (i) In $[ un;l< second i. represented by's" and nOl by 'sec',
(iil If \'iscosity i. gi,'cn in poi,." it mus, be divided by 10 to gel its equivalent numerical ..alue in SJ unil",
Somclimcs a unit of v;"''OSily as centipoise is used where
. , I , 1
I ccntlpo,,,, '" - POIse or ICP. - P rtf' '" Centipoise. P '" Poise 1
100 100
The visco,ily of water at 20~C is D.OJ poise or 1.0 centipoise.
1.3 .2 I(in e m~ti c Viscos ity . h is deFined as the ratio between Ihe dynamic viscosity and density
of fluid. 11 is de uoted by lhe Greek symbol (v) c a lled 'no . Thus, ma thematica ll y.
Vi scos ily jJ
\I '" '" - ...( 1.4)
De nsi ty p
The units of kinematic viscosity is oblai llcd as
,. URilS of P
UnitsufjJ Force x Time
--'=~~ =
Force x T ime
M ass
(Le ngth) ' x Mass J
(Length ) Length
r
Length
Mass x , x T ime Force"" M ass x Ace. )
(Time)"
= --7-':';"'--;--
M,,,
( Length 1 .
= M ass )(
Leng th
Time
l
(Le ngth )!
= S="-
Tim e
In MKS and SI. the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre'!scc or m'/sec while in CGS unilS it is
written as (;111'/s. In CGS units. killcm~lic viscosity is also known as stoke.
1
Cen tistoke means = sloke.
100
1.3 . 3 Newton ' s Law of Visco s ity. It SImes that1h" she ar sIres.-; (l) on a fluid clemcnt layer is
dircClly proportional to the ral c of shear strain. The 1:01151:1111 of proportionality is called the co-
cfficielll of viscosi ty. Mathematically, ;1 is c~prcssed as givell by equation (1.2) or as
till
t = !-I - .
(/ )'
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16 Fluid MC(;hanics
Fluids which obey the above relation arc known as NewtonL'l1i fluids and the fluids which do not
obey tlie above relation arc callcd No n-Newto nia n fluids.
1. 3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature . Temperature affects the viscosity. The
viscosity of liquids dcneasc s with Ihe increase of tcmpcrmurc while Ihe viscosity of gases inncascs
with the increase of tempermure. This is duc to reason that Ihe viscous forces in a fluid arc duc to
cohesive forces and molecular momentum lransfcr. In liquids. the cOhesive forces predominates
the Illolccular 1110111cn lurn lraJlskr, duc 10 closely packed Illolcculcs and with Ih e increase in
temperature. Ihe cohesive forces decreases wilh the resuh o f decreasing viscosity. Bul in case of
gas.cs the cohesive forces arc small and molecular momentum transfer predominaks. With the
increase in tempera ture, molecular fllom<"nturn transfer increases and h<"nce vis.cosily increases. The
relation between viscosity and temperatu re for liquid.~ and g ases are:
y " 0 alld y = 0./5 111. Take dYllamic I'iscosify offtllid (IS 8.63 poises.
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Properties of Fluids 71
2 , till ,
Solution. Giwn : II= -Y-Y '" ..:. - 2y
3 dy 3
("")
-
,/ Y - ",,_0."
"' ("") d Y ,_ 0' 5
2
= - -2x.15=.667-.30=0.367
3
t o = I-l (~)
(Iy y. Q
'" 0.863 x 0.667 '" 0.5756 N/m~. Am.
(l:)y . O_l~ '" Il (;;1y') '" 0.863 x 0.367 '" 03 167 N/m l, AilS.
y_ O l ~
Problem 1.4 A plm/' 0.025 """ (/i.<I"''' from 1I fi-.nl philP, /IIm'n {I/ (,() ("111/,' tII,,1 rl'ff"ir.... " fora "f
2 N pprllll;1 (lrra i.r., 2 Nlm z 10 ",(lima;" 'iii.• sJ'l'rd. f)"'('nl1i,,,, /1", flllid viuos;r), brl»,"'-" 111(' plalt'3.
Solution. Given:
f
Distance bel ween pl ates. dy = .025 nlln
= .025 x 10-] m
Velocity of upper pl:u~. 1/ = 60 em/s = 0.6 m/s T "'i"''''''''''''
N FIXED PLATE
('orce on upper plate. F= 2.0 2 ,
m Fig. 1.3
This is lhe value of shear Slr~ss i.t', ••
lei the fiuid vi.'>Cosily between the plales is~.
2.0==~ -;:;~0~.6~0
c '" 2.0 x .025 X lO-l == 8.33 x 10 .s Ns
.025 x 10 0.60 111 2
5
'" 8.33 x 10- X 10 poise '" tl..~ .~ x 1O -~ IlOi~(' . Ans.
Problem 1.5 A jlal pimp of <ifNI 1.5 x J(/' 111m2 is p"l/n! wilb a sllt'rtf of 0.4 mls ",Ialil'p 10
wJOllwr pl<llrloHllrd (1/ 1I dis/(//ICI' of 0.15 111m from il. Fillillile fora mill po ....'" rf</lIirrd 10 IIwill/aill
Illis spud, if Ilw jlllitl srpllrmillg ' '('11/
is /wl'illg l'iscosiIYa5 J poise.
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Is Fluid MC(;hanics
Solution. Given:
Area uf the plate.
Speed of plate relative 10 anOlhcr plale. "" '" 0.4 tn/s
Distance ~Iwccn [he plales.liy = 0.15 mill = 0.15 x 10- J III
I N,
Viscosity )..1= I poise: - - ,.
10 Ill '
x -:~~O~
.4='
d" I
Using eq uation (1.2) we have '!: " )..l ) = _66.66 2N
dy 10 .l5xlO III
where (III '" change of ve locity betwee n s haft and bearing'" II - 0 '" II
I 0.785 .. !
==-x J =.2 ..BNfm. AIIs.
10 l.5 xlO
Problem 1 .7 ,a/rllia/(' II", (Iy"m"ic I·iscmily of w, oil ....hid, is uSNI for lubricatioll bNW"CII a
J'IU"rt' 1,Iatp of sic,' O.S III x O.S III amI (III i"diflNI philiP wilh allgl/' of ifldi""titm .woflJ sho",,, ill
Fig. lA. The w..ighl of the S'lllfl'.. plat .. is 300 N (Illd il slilln (IOwlIl{,r illclill~d plmlf Wilh" IIl1iform
I'elocil), ofO.J /Ills. 'fI", thicJ.:III'ss of oil fillll is J.5 111111.
Solution. Given:
Area of plate, A = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 111 2
Angle of plane. e = 30"
Weight of plme. IV= 300 N
Velocity of p late. II == 0.3 111/s
Fig. 1.4
* Power=l'x"Nmls=FxulV ( '.· NmJs=Wal1 j
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Properties of Fluids 91
Thick.ness of oil film. I" lly" 1.5 111 III " 1.5 x 10 3 III
leI the ViSl:os ity of nuid between plate and inclined plane i s~.
Component of weight IV, along the plane" IV cos 60~ '" 300 oos 60° '" 150 N
Thus the she ar force. F • on the bunum su rface of the plate'" 150 N
3
150 15 10-
"= "''''';';'::-;;c;--
x
0.64 x 0.3
x
'" 1.17 N 2
s/m '" 1.17 x 10 " 11.7 Jlois('. Ans.
Problem 1.8 Two IlOri~ollllll l'/mf'S (Iff' plll("'f(1 1.25 em (l1'MI. I/W 51'11("(' bnwulI IIII'm bf'illg jillnf
wi,II oil ('I \'i5,.OS;'Y
/ 4 l>oi5"5. CII/ru/ml' 110(' S/WlI' 5/ rl'55 ill oil if UPP'" phil" ; .5 mm'~d wilh fI \-<'10";1)'
0[2.5 ",Is.
Solullon. Giv<,)11 :
Dista nce between plates. dy = 1.25 em = 0.0 125 III
Solution. Given:
Eac h s id e of a square pla te ,,60 elll '" 0.60 1ll
:. Area. A " 0.6 x 0.6 " 0.36 m
1
Th ic kn ess of oil film. d y " 12.5 mm '" [2.5 x 10- 3 1ll
Ve loc ity of upper plate. 11" 2.5 mIse"
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rn '
'" 1.3635 N~ Cln~lS '" to poise )
'" 1.3(35)( 10", I.t6.\5 puist'o Ans.
( ii) Sp. gr. of oil. S '" 0.95
leI v'" kine m 3lic viscosity o f o il
Usi ng equation ( 1.IA).
Mass de ns it y of oi l. p'" S x 1000 '" 0.95 x 1000 '" 950 kg/Ill}
1.3635 ( N~l
Using the relatio rl . v = 1:. we ge l v = III - =.00 1435 m 2/sec = .()() 1435 x 104 C111 2/S
P 950
= 14 ..'5 s lok~s. Ans. (": cm 2/s '" sIDke)
j
Problem 1.10 Filll/,11l' killfl/Uuir visrosily of 1111 oil/w\'illg (/l'1!5ily 98/ kgllll , TIll' S/W(If 5Iri'.' S (1/
"PO;/ll in oil j" 0.2452 NI",l ' Illd ",,'/oril), grad;f'JIl lU I/U" p"ill/ is 0.2 pn .w("(md.
Solutio n. Gi ven:
Ma ss densit y. p" 98 1 kg/lll '
Shear stress. 1: = 0.245 2 N/m!
Solution. Givcn :
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I.l _4 0.05 I
Usi ng thc relation v:: - .wcgclO.035xIO = -- x -
P 10 p
0.05
X ~~'--C4" = 14 28.5 kg/m3
10 0.0]5 x [0
Density of liquid 14285
Sp. gL of liljuid :: :: - - :: 1.4285 ::: 1.4.\. AilS.
Density of wate r 1000
Problem 1.12 /Jell'rmilll' IIIl' I'iscosily of (/ hlfllid havillg til/i'lI/lUil' \-;Seosil)' 6 s/okn 1111<1 specific
gm.-it)' 1.9.
Solution. Given:
Kinematic viscosi ty v:: 6 stokes = 6 cl11'/s:: 6 X 1O- 4 11//S
Sp. gL of liquid :: 1.9
LeI the v iscosity of liq uid .p
D<:nsity of lh ~ liquid
Now sp. gr. of a liquid
Density of water
1.9 :: c"'
='c"="c'Yso~rcn,q=':::
;d
1000
kg
Ik nsi ly of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 - ,
m
Problem 1.13 Tilt' l'e/oeiIY distriblliiou for jlow OI'e r " JIM p/lIlr is gil'l'lI by " = -1- )' -l ill which
II ;5 IIII' \'e/oeil)' ;111111'1'1' IN" secQlul (1/ a (/;5/(IIICI' y 1111'1'" abore IIII' 11/(1/1'. DrlulII;nr IIII' silell' SI'I'SS
aJ)' = 0. 15 Ill . Takl' (/),II(11l1ic \'is("o,lily ofjluid ( 1.1 8.6 poiSl'.
Solution. G iven: 11= ~ 1' _ 1,2
4 ' .
(I u 3
- = - - 2)'
If)' 4
(Iu 3
At .1'=0. 15. - = - - 2xO. 15=0.75 - 0.30=0.45
If .I' 4
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till 85 N N
Using eq uatio n ( 1.2). r = '" - ~ - x 0.45 - : = 0.,\1'1 25 - : . AilS.
If )' 10 In m
Problem 1.14 11/1' (/pwlllic viscosity of WI oil. lISt'll for II/brim/ioll bnwrl'u (I SIUlfi 01111 5/1'1'1'(' is
61"';u, TI", .,'mp i., of di"'"N(,T 0.4 III "",I roW/P.' 1lI 190 T.p.m. Cuk ulmr 1111' I}{)""P T /0.'/ ill IIii' brllrill8
fo r ti slnl'(' /""8,11 oJ90m",. TIIr lilickllrH of/lie oil film is 1.5 "''''.
Solution. Gi ve n : 1.5 mm
Viscos ity j.I=6poi se
~
6 Ns
10 m l
= 0.6 - ,
Ns
m-
d y o_~ m
Dia. o f sha ft.
Speed o f shaft.
f) = 0.4
N= 190r.p. m
III
,C': ';::J lKAFT
SLEEVE
Sleeve k ng1h. L = 90 mm = 90 x 10- ) III
Thic kn ess of oil fi lm, I'" 1.5 111m '" 15 x 10- .1 m Fig. 1.5
'(tDN IT x 0.4 x 190
Tangc llti al vel oc ity of shaft . /I = ~= 60 = 3.98 IIl!S
tlu
Using the re lation t=l-I -
dy
where '/11 = Change of veloc ity = II - 0 = /I '" 3.98 m!s
Ify = Change of d istance = I = 1.5)( 10- 3 1ll
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Vrlodty Gradient
"' Y (""]
= O. Veloc ity grad ient. -
(/ y 1*°
= - 0.6 )( 0 + 12 = Ills. Ans.
at y '" 10c m.
(""]
-
(f y
1 - 10
= - 0.6)( 10+1 2= - 6+ 12: 6/s. AD S.
at y : 20 c m.
( ~".]) y _ 20
= - 0.6 )( 20 +1 2: - 12+12= 0. Ans.
Shear Str('sses
till
Shear stress is g iven by. t : fl
(/ )'
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Problem 1 .16 A New/ollillll Jill;" is fill ..,} ill IIII' c/CII'<IIICf' bl'lw/>/'/1 {( shaft IIml" collCl'IIlrir sIN'I'e.
Till' s/,,{'\,I' IIIll1illS {/ sP('('(/ of 50 ollis, W/1l'1I II lorn" of 40 N is IIPIJ/inf 10 the S/I'I'I'I' parallel 10 IIII' slmfl.
/){'/('flllillf IIIl' SpUI/ if {/ jora of 200 N is (If'l'lin/.
rorce F
where t = Shear stress'" - - •
Are a A
<ill '" Change of ve loc ity = /I - 0="
Ily'" Clearance'" )'
-F =1.1 -"
A Y
A jJ u
F=--." I. A. j.l JIlO yare constanT}
Y
F f~
...l= ....:.
",
200
Substituting val ues. we gel 40 ==
50
50x 200
'" 50 x 5 == 250 cml.~. Ans.
40
Problem 1.17 A 15 nil diol/w/f r "erlirol c)'lil/der rotales COI/C<'III rical/)' illsitit' ((lIatller cylilllirr oJ
!lilli/WIer 15.10 nil. 80111 cylindt'rs ort' 25 rill lIigli. Til<' SP((C<' bnw<'<'n III<' c)'lilUlers is jillnl willi 0
liquid whost' I'ismsil), is unknowll. If " torqut' of J2.0 Nm is r..quired 10 rOUlt .. II, .. illll'" cylillll'" lit
100 r,p.III .• dr/erll/illt' Iht' viscosity of lilt' fluid.
Solution. Given:
Diameler of cyli nder == 15cm==O.15m
Dia. o f oUler cylinder == 15.10 cm == 0. 151 111
Lenglh of cy li nders, L == 25 cm == 0.25 111
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dy = -"0.,,
15,,',,--,,0,,-
.' "'
eo: III = .0005 m
2
I-l x .1854
.0005
).1x .7854
Sheaf force. F = Shear stress x Area = x . 11 78
.0005
lJ
Torque. T= Fx -
2
12.0",
I-l x .7854
X. 11 78 x
.15
.0005 2
12.0 x .0005 x 2
= 0.864 N shn!
.7854x .11 78 )(.l 5
'" 0.864 x 10 = 1i.64]loisc. An s.
Problem 1 . 18 Two Illrgt' phll/P sIIr/tln's (I'f' 2.4 rill apart. Thl' Spllcr b(,/I<'I'I'II ,h" slIr/act's is filln!
willi giY("f'rilll'. II'lul/ fora 13 rrq"irnllo drag /I 1't"Y Ihill plllll' of sur/act' (If('ll 0.5 squarr /lleI,."
b"I»'''''''I",. /\1'd largl' plm,,' sII ,fa,.. s til II sprn/ of O. 6 m/s, if:
(i ) lill' 1i1ill [,/alr is ill lh" middll' oflhl' 11>'0 p!t11l1' surfllCl's. mul
fii) IIII' Illill 1'1(1/(' is at rl disliIllCl' of 0.81'111 frO/II 011(' of Ille plllll<' sIOrfll(,('3 ? Take IIII' dYliamic
"ism sil), ofgl),urill(, '" 8.10 x uri N .!1m?
Solution. Given:
Distan ce Iwtw", ... n two large ~urfac es '" 2.4 em
Ar~a of th in plate. A = 0.5 [11 ! 1.2 em
Velocity of thin plate.
Viscosity of g lyce rine.
/I = 0.6 mf.~
!-! = 8.10 X 10- 1 N shn l
2.4 em .,
1.2 em
C:tw I. Wh en the thin plate is in the middle of the tw o plane
surfaces 1Re fer to Fig. 1.7 (n)1
FI '" Shear force on the upper s id e o f the th in plate Fig . 1.7 (a)
""2 = S h~ar forc~ On th~ low~ r s id~ o rth e th in pl~te
"" = Total force required to drag Ih~ plate
Then F",F1+F1
The , hear S1r~ss (t l ) on th e upper side o f the thin plate is give n by equation,
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tl '" ~C~:~),
where 1111 '" Relative ve locit y between thin p late and upper large plane surface
'" 0.6 mlsec
d y '" Distance between thin plale and upper large plane surface
'" [.2 em '" 0.012 III (p late is a thin one and he nce thickness of plate is neglected)
0·')=40.5Nllll1
11=8.IOx 10 x(.012 I
12 =1.1 (~)
dy !
= 8.IOx 10 I x (~)
0.012
=40.5 N/ml
"" - [(Iy"") I
xll:S.IOxIO ,x (0.'
- -) xO.5:15. ISN
0.016
The shear force 011 the lowe r s ide of the thill plme.
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(2.2 - 0.2)
= =lcm= _Olm.
2
Now the shear force On the left side of tlie nw tallic plale.
FI '" Shear stress x Area
=" (:!:!.],
(f )' (O."J
xArca=2.0x - - xl.2xL.2N
.01
(.; Area = 1.2x 1.2m 2)
= 43.2 N.
Similarly, Ihe shear force on Ihe Tight side of the metallic plale,
• (0."]
F, = Shear stress x Area = 2.0 x - - x 1.2 x 1.2 = 43.2 N
.01
Total sheaf force = FI + F z = 43.2 + 43.2 = 86.4 N.
In this case lh~ weight o f plate (wh ich is acting verti cally dOwnward) and upward thrust is also to be
taken into account.
The upward thrust = Weight o f nuid displaced
= (Weigh t density of nuid) x Volume of nuid displaced
=9.81 x900x .00288 N
( .: Volume of nuid displaced = Volume of plat~ = .(0288)
= 25.43 N.
The net forc~ acting in the downward di rection duc to weight of the plate and upward thrust
= Weight ofplatc - Upw ard thrust = 40 - 25.43 = 14.57 N
Tot al force required to lift the plate up
= Total s hear force + 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57'" 100.97 N. Ans.
Fluids consist of liquids or gas.:s. Bul gas.:s are compressible fluids and hence thermody namic
prope r1i es play an important role. With the cha ng e of pressure and I~mpcrature. the gases undergo
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large var iati on in de nsit y. T he rel ati onship be twee n press ure (absolut e), s pecific vo lum e and
temperatu re (absolute) of a g as is give n by the equatio n of state as
R= ~
pT
kgf/ m 2 kgf -m
( 0 In MKS units R= ii5C'--
(~} K kgoK
(ii) In 5 1 un its, p is ex pressed in Ncw ton/m ' or N/m!,
R = N/ m' Nm louie
-- = -- lJ oule = Nm I
kg kg -K kg-K
~X K
J
=
kg- K
1.4.2 botherm~1 Procen. If Ihe c hange in de nsity occu rs a1 co nstanl temp erature. the n the
process is called iMlthe nnal and relatio nship be twee n pre.'i.~ ure (p ) and densit y ( p) is give n by
1.4 . 3 Adiabatic Process. If the c hange in d~ n s ity occ urs with no heat exc han ge to and fro m the
gas. the process is c all ed adiabatic. And if no h<":at is ge nerated within th e gas due to fri ct ion. the
relatio nship be twttn press ure and densi ty is give n by
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J! == Absolute pressure
T= Absolute temperatu re
Then. we have /IV == mRT .. .( 1.8)
where R == Gas eonM:mL
Equation (1.8) can be made universal. i.I' .. applicable 10 all gases if it is expressed in moll'·bas is.
If == Number of moles in volul11e of a ga s
'T/ == Vo lume o f th e gas
M == "c'c"o'coof,;,,'ho'C""c'co"'oOol'«"'olc'c'
M ass of a hydrogc ll atom
1/1" Mas;; of a gas in kg
Then. we have II x M == III.
Substituting the val ue o f 1/1 in equation ( 1.8), we get
1''V=nxMxRT ...( \.'))
The produl'! M x R is called universal gas <:OIlStanl and is equal to 848 -=- _.k" ',"' ' '" cc in MKS units
kg -mo le o K
and 8314 l/kg -rnolc K in 51 units.
One kilogram mole is defined as the product of One kilogrlllll mass oflhe gas and its molecular weight.
Problem 1.20 A gns wl'iglis /6 NI",J lU 25°C Wid fII WI IIbsolu/f prl'SslIrt' of 0.25 NIl/III':. Dnfr-
111;111' Ille glls ("OIIS/(/1/I (l1II! dflls;ry of IIII' gas.
Solution. Given:
Weight den s ity. '" '" 16 N/m~
Temperature. I " 250C
T ", 273 + I"" 273 + 25 '" 2RROK
P" 0.25 Nlmm~ (a bs.) '" 0.25 x 106 N/m 1 '" 25 x 104 Nlm 1
(i) Using relation", "" pg. density is obtained as
w 16 ,
P = - '" - - '" J.(i .~ kg/m· . "ns.
g 9.8 1
Problem 1.21 A ("y/ind", of 0.6 mJ ill "01111111' ("01l/a;1IS air a/50°C allil 0 J Nlmm! lIbsollllr
"rI'HI"I'. '1111' lIir is ("omprnsed 10 0.3 IIr'. Find (i) prl'.,wrl' in~· idl' till' ("yli"dl'r ".'.IlImi"8 i.IlII/lI'rlt!(1I
pro'·I'.'.' (11"/ ( ii) prnsllrp ",,,lll'Inpnfllllrf' ('.,3,,,,,in8 ",li"ba/i' ·I,,"'·n.<. T"k" k = 104.
Solution. Give n
Initial vo lum~.
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Temperatu re I,:SO°C
1', '" 213 + 50 '" 323°K
Pressure P, == 0.3 N/rnm 2 '" 0.3 x 106 Nlm 2 '" 30 x 104 N/m 2
Final voluille 'If 2 == 0.3 m}
k= 1.4
(i) Isolhe r lllJj[ Ilroccss :
1','<1, "'1'/</:
1','rI j 30 X 10" x 0.6
1': = - - = '" 0.6 X 106 Nlm l '" 0.6 N/mml. AilS.
'\f 2 0.3
(ii) Adiabatic Ilroccs_~ :
NT NT
P '" -;;;- and -;;- x '<t* '" Constant
RTv. I '" Constant
r '\fl ~ 1 '" Constant (. R is also tonstanll
T 'It i _ I _ T '\tk- I
I I -
1 2 2
T2=T,(;:r-
I: '" 426.2 - 273 '" IS.l.rc. AilS.
Problem 1 .22 (',,!cu/wi' tile pr('ssllfI' (,Xf'rI~d by 5 I.:g ofllilrogell gas 11/ (l1l'IIIPl'''III''l' of 100e if
Ihe \'0111111(, i5 0.4 III "'. Molnll/(lr "·e iglll of uilrogl'u is 28. A ssuml'. irinll 8"5 III\\'5 (lrl' "I'P/ iC(lblt'.
Solu t ion. Given:
Mass of nitrogen '" Skg
Temperature_ 1= lQoe
T=273+ 10=2S3°K
Volume of ni trogen. 'V = 0.4 m l
Molecular weighl = 28
Using equat ion (1.9). we have p'V '" tJ X M x RT
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Relationship between Bulk Modu lus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas
The relationship betwee n bulk modulus of elastici ty (K) and pressu re for a gas for two different
processes of compression arc as:
(,) For Iso thermal Proces!l. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (1') and density
(M of a gas as
J!.. = Constant
p
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1''1", Const:lII\
Diffcrc",i~ti n g this equation. we gel (I' and '1/ both arc vari~blcs)
-li-
p
'" Constant or f' 'I;Il '" Constant
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';J .0 125
,
= 8.75 x 10- N/cm '' . Ans .
Surface tension is defmed as the te nsile force acting on the su rface of a liquid in contact with a gas
or on the surfal:c between twO immis.:iblc liquids such that the contact surfa"c behaves like a
membrane unde r tension. The I1wgnitudc of this force per uni t icngth of Ih.: free surface will have the
same val ue as the surface energy per unil area. It is denoted by Greek Idlef 0 (calkd sigma). In M KS
units. it is cxprcs~d as kgflm while in SI uniLs as N/m.
The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by
Fig. 1.10. CO rl sider three mol~cules A, ll. C of a liquid in a
mass of liquid. The molec u le A is allmcled in all directions
~'{jually by the surrounding molecules of Ihe liquid. Th us the
resultant force actirlg on the molecule A is zero. But the
molecule IJ. which is situat~d ncar the free surface. is acted
upon by upward and downward forces which arc unbalanced.
Thus a net result.1r1t fo rce on molec u le II is acting in the
downward direction. The molecule C. situated on the free
-- - -- - ----------
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
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(ii) pressure force on Ihe area ~ll ! = l' x ~ ti! as shown ir>
4 4
Fig. Lli (e). Thc~ two forces will be equal and opposite
under equilibrium co nditions. I.P ..
(9) DROPLET (b) SURFACE TENSION
f'X ~ ,r=aXT(,!
4
(J x Ttll 40
...(1.14)
" (e) PRESSURE FORCES
Fig. 1.11 Foret's on dropln.
1.6 .2 Surface Te nsion on <II Hollow Bubble . A llOliow bubble like a soap bubble in air has 1WO
surfaces in co ntact wilh air . one illsidc and other outside. Thus two surfaces arc subjected to surface
lensioll. III suc h cao.c. we have
"x.::. rr=2x(crxrrd)
4
2 and Scr
p= - - - = - ... ( 1. 15)
.::. d! d
4
1.6.3 Surface Tension on <II Li quid Jet. COil sider a liquid jet of diameter "tf and lenglh 'L' as
shown in Fig. 1.12.
Lell' '" Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet aho ve the outside pressure
(J = Surface tension of the liquid. •
.I •
•
••
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet. we have •
•
••
Force due 10 pressure = p x :Irea of semi jcl •• •
==pxLxd , • •
•
•••
••
Force due 10 surface tension == a x 2L. •
• ••
Equating the forces. we have •
•• ••
pxLxd==ax2L •• •
• •
f' ==
a x2 L
Lx"
... (1 . 16) •
I" I"
Fig. 1.12 Forcts 011 liquid jn
Pro blem 1 .25 1111' sHrfll("(' IntsiOIl of ""iliff ill ("011/(1("1 will! lIir (1/ 20°C is O . 0725 NIl/!. Till' prl'Ssllr<'
ilrshlr II drop/("/ of ""fila is /Q h" 0.02 Nkm 1 grNiI"r (//(III IIII' ouuid" pre Hllr". Ca/ru/(I/(" IIII' I/imll("/(" r
of IIII' l lw/,In of "·Il/ff.
Solut ion. Given:
Su rface tensioll. (J = 0.0725 Nlm
Pressure intensity. I' in exc ess of outside pressure is
, • N
p = 0.02 Nlcm '" 0.02 x 10 - ,
m-
1/ = dia. of the droplet
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The pressure inside the droplet. in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (I 14)
4 x 0.0725
4(1 ,
P" -
: J ,,7250Nlm-= 7250 N = 0.725 Nkml
,I .04 x 10 10' cm ~
Pressure inside the droplet = p + I'ressure outside the droplet
= 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/em !. A il S.
1.6 .4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a
small!U~ relative to the adjacent gcnerallevcl of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
The rise of liquid surface is known as capi lla ry rise while the fall o f the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression. [t is ex presscd in Te rms of (;m or mm of liquid. Its
val ue depends upon the specific weight of the liquid. diameter of Ihe
" .. 9 1" ,
tube and surface tension o f til.: liquid.
E)(IJress ion fur Cljllillary Risc. Consider a glass lube of small
diameter 'd' opened at ooth ends and is inserted in a liquid . .~y water.
The liquid wi ll rise in the tube aoove the level of the liquid.
L<:t II" heig ht of the liquid in the lUbe. Under a state ofeq uilihrium.
: LIQUID
the weigh t of liquid of height II is balanced by the force at the surface of
The liquid in the tube. But the force at (he surface of the liquid in Ihe
tube is due to surface Tensioll . F ig. 1.13 Capjflary rilc.
Let (J = Surface tension of liquid
9" Ang le of contact betwee n liquid and glass tu be.
The we ight of liquid of heighT II in the tube" (Area of tube x III x p x g
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126 Fluid Mechanics
=~,PxlJxpxg .(1.1 7)
4
where p '" Density of liquid
Vertil:al \:ump<)llcm of the surf~cc tensile fuTl'C
'" (0 x Circumference) x cos 0
=crx/tdxcosO •..( 1. 1H)
For equi librium. equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get
It ,Pxllxpxg=axlf.I/xcosO
4
crXltl{XCOSi} 4 crL'OsO
II '" ";-"'''--'-'=-O .. (1. 19)
Il , pxgxd
4 d - xpxg
The value of 0 betwee n water and clean g lass tube is approximately equa l to zero and hence cos e is
equal to unity. Tlicn ri se of water is given by
40
II = ---''''--c ... ( 1.20)
pxgX('
EXll rcss ion for f:a llili llry Fall . Iflhe g lass lube is dipped in mercury. the level of mercury in Ihe lube
wi ll be lower than the general level of the olllsidc liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14.
U:i II '" Height of depression in tube.
Theil in equilibrium. twO forces arc a<:ling un the mercury inside the tuhc. First one is due to surf~ce
lension ~cting in Ihe downward direction ,md is eqn~1 to (I x 1((/ x cos a.
SCl"Ond force is due to hydrostatic fo rce acting upward and is equal 10 inlensity of pressure al a
deplh '11' x Area
1( , 1( ,
'" P X - IF '" pg )( h )( - d" 1 .. P '" pgll)
4 4
Equal ing the IWO. we gel
O"X1(dxcos9=pghx
• ,"
¥ ,"\'
Value of 9 for mercury and
II = -'4cO':"eOc'~'
gl 3 s~
pgd
lube is 128".
... ( 1.21)
"' \
MERCURY
Fig. 1.1 4
Problem 1 .26 C{I/m/III,. Ihl' copillllry riS/' ill (I glass /UbI' of 2.5111111 dimlll'lrr ",hell illllll,.rsed
\'f'rlicoll y itl (II) wllil'rlmd (b) mff("w, '. Take surfllce lellsiollS 0'" 0.0725 Nlm for II"O/,.r IIl1d 0 =- 0.52 Nlm
for ml'rmry ill ("011/(/("1 lI"illl lIir. Ti,e 51'''(" iji(" g "wiry for mnmry is gil"<'l1 1/5 13.6 mill IIl1g/e of ("011/1/("1
= 130".
Solution. Given:
Dia. of tu be. ,/ '" 2.5 mill '" 2.5)( 10- 3 111
Surface lension. 0" for water = 0.0725 N/Ill
0"fo r mercury = 0.52 N/m
Sp. gr. of me rcury =- 13.6
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Prope rties of Fluids 271
Density '" 13.6 x 1000 kglln ·1.
«(I) Capillary ris(' ror water (9 '" O ~)
4a cos6 4 x0.52xcosI30"
Usmg equation ( I 2 1), we gel Ii '" = ,,-;-~",,"''''Ci-C':-';'''';-;;0
pxgxd 13.6xlOOOx9.Rlx2.Sx lO
= -.004 III = - 0.4 em. Ail S.
The negalive sign ind icmcs the capill:lry dcpn:ssion.
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128 Fluid Mechanics
(/= -;:",c
. 4"X,::°C·O~7~2C5c::",J ,,0.1 48111 == 14.S em. Ans.
IOOOx 9.8 1x.2 xl O
Th u ~ minimum diameter o f the lube shou ld be 14.8 em .
Problem 1.31 Filld U!/f II", minimu", S;:;I' of glllH /UbI' I/UII "'/II hi' U$nllO IIINuur" II'mn Il'wl if
IIlI' l:" l'illary riu iu 1/'" IIIlu' is W he rPslril'tt'd 10 2 111m, COl!sitll'y .lllr/ucr 11'11S;"" "iw{l/p r in ,'O/lUwl
wilh nir a~ O.U7J575 NIl/!.
Solution. Given:
Capi Ilary risco II = 2.0 lllm = 2.0 x 10-) 111
Surface tension. a = 0 .073575 Nfm
Lei dia. of tube =d
The angle e for wa ter == au
The densi ty for wakr, p = 1000 kg/m l
Using cqualioll ( 1.20), we get
40 4 x 0.073575
,,= .,-,,"'--;-
px g x d
or 2.0 x 10- 1 =
lOOO x 9.8 1 x d
4 x 0.073575
if= -;-~""':",'="-''c~ = 0.015 III = 1.5 em. AilS.
lOOOx 9.8 l x2xlO J
Thus minimum diameter of the l u~ shou ld ~ 1.5 ern.
Problem 1.32 All oil of l'is ("Osil), 5 l",i3l' is l.s<'(1 for IIIU,i",lioll Ul'lln'l'lI II slw/l wltl £1,,<'1'1'. Tilt'
diwlI"I'" of III<' $1111/1 i:l" 0.5 m lIml il 'Ol/lles m 2()() '.p.m. ClI/cH/mp IIII' po,,"'" losl ill oil for (/ sll'el'e
Ip1IgIII of I()() """. Tile IIIirk1l1'S.1 of oil jil'" is 1.0 "''''.
Solution. Given:
Vi~osi ty. ~ = 5 poise
= 2.
= 0.5 N s/rnl
10
Dia. of shan. D=O.5 rn
Speed o f shan. N = 200 r,p.m.
S I ~e\'c lengt h. /. = I{)() rnm: I{)() X IO- J III : 0.1 III
Thick ness of oil film . I : 1.0mrn: I X IO- J m
II x 05 x200
Tangc mi a l veloc ity of shan. I I : 11: DN : = 5.235 Ill/S
60 60
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Properties of Fluids 29 1
wltcrc . ClilIngc of velocity = 11 - 0 = Il = 5.235 tnls
dll '"
'" """""i~
05 5.235
x
x
1 10
= J
26175 N/m"
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130 Fluid Mechanics
HIGHLIGHTS
I . The weight density Or sp<.>eific weight of a fluid is equal [0 weight per unit volume. It is also cqualto,
w"'pxg.
2. Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density.
8. For isolhcmlal process, J!.. '" Constant whereas for adiabatic process, .. constanl.
p
- lip
9. modulus of elasticity is given as K
(":r
Bul~ ~
""
The value of a for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128°.
EXERCISE
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Properties of Fluids 311
4 . Explain the len". : (i) Dynamic vi>cosily. and (ii) Kinema!ic viscosity. Give their dimensions.
5. State the Newton's law of viscosity and Kjve examples of its application.
6 . Enunciale Newton's law of ,·;""osi1y. Explain the importance of viscosity in n uid motion. W hat ;s the
effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air?
7. Define Newl<mian and Non-Newtonian nuids
8. Whal do you understand by tenns : (I) lsothennal process, (ii) Adiabalic process. and (iii) Universal-gas
constant
-
,
9. Define compressibility. I'ro,'c that compressibility for a perfect !las undergoing isothcnnal compression is
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132 Fluid Mechanics
7. In a stream of glycerine in 1I101ion. at a certain point the "ciocily gradient is 0.25 metre pcr sec pcr melre.
The mas~ density of fluid is 1268.4 kg pcr cubic melre UTl d kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10 • square metre
pcr St-><:ond, Calculate lhe shear StreSS al1he poin!. [An •• 0.2 NIm' 1
8 . Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/m' "hen al a certain point in Ihc oil. Ihe shear
distance of y m above the plaTe. [kterminc the shear stress at y., 0, 0.1 and 0.2 m. Take ).l = 6 poise.
IAn s.. 0,4 .. 0.028 and 0, 159 N/ml j
14. In 'luestion 13.. find Ihe dislance in melres above Ihe plate .. al which Ihe shear stress is zero.
IAns .. 0.333 ml
15 .. The ,'elocily profile of a viscous fluid m'er a plate is parabolic wilh venex 20 cm from Ihe plate. where Ihe
velocity is 120 cm/s. Calculale the "clocity gradic111 and shear stress at distances of O. 5 and 15 cm from the
plate. given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise. IArrs. I2Is. 7.18 N/m': 9/s. 5.385 N/m ' : 3/., 1,7<)5 Nfm' j
16. The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 N/m l at 30°C and at an absolule pre>sure of 29.43 Niem', \)elcr-
. J. 8k S 539.55N ml
mine Ihe gas constant and also Ihe density of the gas, [ A ns' --;;;-r-' kgo K
17 . A cylinder of 0.9 Ill} in volume conlains air at O°C and 39,24 NI~rn l absolule pressure. The air is
cornpres.""d 10 0045 ml . Find (i) Ihe pressure inside the cylinder a~suming isothemwl process.
(ii) pre,sure and lempem ture assumins mJiabalic proce<s. Take k ~ I A for air.
(Ans. (i) 78.48 N/em ' • (ii) 103.5 Ntm!. 140~CI
18 . Calculate the pre>.~ure exe" ed by 4 kg lna>< of nitrogen gas at a lemperature of IYC if Ihe volume is 0.35 ml .
Molccular weight of nitrogen is 28. [Ans. 97.8 Nlem' j
19 . The pressure of a liquid is increa«ed from 60 Nlem' 10 100 Nlcm' and volume decreases hy 0.2 per cenL
Detennine the bulk modulus ofelasticily. IAns. 2 X 10" Nleml l
20. DCle"nine Ihe bulk modulus of elaslicity of a fluid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of
0.009 ml at 70 Nlcm l pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m l at 270 Nlcm l pre .. ure . [An s. 3.6 X 10' N/cm l l
2 1. The surface lension of watcr in contact with air at 20"C is gh'cn as 0.0716 N/m. The pressure inside a
droplet of waler is 10 be 0.0147 N/em l grealer than the outside pressure. calculate Ihe diameter of the
<lroplelof waler , IAns. ) ,94 mml
22 . Find Ihe surface Icnsion in a SD.1p bubble of 30 mm diameter wheTI the inside pressure is 1.962 N/n/ above
almosphere, IAns. 0.00735 N/ml
23. The surface tension of Waler in eont.1C1 with air is given as 0.0725 Ntm. The pressure oUlside the droplel of
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Prope rties of Fluids 33 1
24 . Calculate the capillary risc in:l glass tube of 3 .0 nlln diameter when hnll1cr>ed vcnically in (,,) waler. and
(1)) mercury. Take surface len.ions for mercury and water as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 Nirn respectively in
contact with air. Spcdfic gravity for mercury is given as 13.6. IAn •. 0.966 em. 0.3275 eml
25. The ~apillary risc in the glass lube used for mc"suring waler level is not (0 exceed 0.5 min. Dctennin" ils
minimum size. given thaI surface lension for water in conlae! wilh air,. 0,07112 Nlm. [Ans. 5.8 em]
26 . (SI LTnits). One lilre of crude oil weighs 9 .6 N. Calculmc its specifIc weight. density and specific gravity.
[Ans. %00 Nlm'; 979.6 kg/ln ' : 0.971\61
27. (SI "nits). A piston 796 mill diameter and 200 nun IonS works in a cylinder of 800 mill diameter. If the
annular space i. filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 cp (c.·nti -poi,.,), cakulate the speed of de>cem
of the piston in vertical po~jtion. The weight of the piston and 3 .• iaII03d are 9.1\1 N. [,\ns. 7.84 m/s[
2!1, (SI lTnit~). Find the capillary risc of water in a wtlc 0.03 em diameter. The surface tension of water is
0.0735 Nlm. [A tls. 9.99 eml
2', Calculate the specific weight. density and specific gravity of two litres of a liquid which weight 15 N.
[AilS, 7500 N/m l . 764 .5 kg/mI. 0.764 1
30. A I SO mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter lSI mm.
Both the cylinders are of 250 mm height. The space between the cyl inders is filled with ~ liquid of viscos·
ity 10 poise. Detennine the torque required to rotate thc inner cylinder at 100 T.p.m. IAns. 13.S7 Nml
.~ 1 . A Shaft of diameter 120 nlln is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 122 mm at a speed of 360 r.p.m.
The ']XIce between the Shaft and the bearins is f,lIed with a lubricating oil of viscusity 6 poise. Find the
power absorbed in oil if the length of bearing is 100 mm. [Ans. 115.73 WI
.\2. A shaft of diameter 100 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of J60
r,p ,m. The space between the shafl and bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 poisc. The
length of the t1c:.ring is 200 mm. Find the power absortlcd in the lubricating oil. [Ans. 111.58 W[
.\,\ . Assumi ng that the bu lk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.07 x 106 kN/m l at standard atmospheric
conditions. detcnnine the increase of pressure necessary to produce I % reduction in volume at the same
tcmperature.
• , -dV 1
[l1int . K ~ 2.07 x 10 kNlm ;~ 0 - .0.01.
100
Increase in pressure (dl')" Kx ( - ~V) ~ 2.07 X10" x 0.01 = 2.07 x 10' kNhn 1.]
.\.4. A square plate of size 1 m x 1m and weighing 350 N slides down an inelined plall e with a unifonn velocily
of 1.5 mls. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 venicalto 12 horizonlnl and has an oil film of 1 mm
thickness. Caiculutc the d)l11amic viscosity of oil . [J.tV. T.V., lIy,lembm/. S 2002[
'
[ Ihnl. 5 =Be
A= I x I ~ 1m l . W_3SON.u", 1.5m/s. tan 0 .. - - c
12 AB
Component o f weight along the plane = W x sin (I
where sin (I .,
3C _ _' [, .. AC"'JAB1+BC~
r.c:o-:,
1 A "
12 8
AC 13 .. JI2~+52 . 13 W E
350N
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.. 2 . 1 fLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT
Consider a sma ll area liA in large mass of fluid. If tile fluid is stationary. tllen tile force exerted by
the surrounding fluid on tile area IiA will always be P'Crpcndicular to the su rface (LA. Let ,IF is tile force
<IF
acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Tllen the ratio of - is known as the intensity of
dA
pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is reprcsented by p. Hence math~lllatically th~ pressure at a
point in a fl uid at rest is
p =
dA
If the forl"C (1-1 is uniformly distributed ove r the area (A). then pressure at any point is given by
F Force
p = -A =""'''-
Area
Force or pressure force. F = I' x A.
The unils of pressure ar~: (i) kgffm" and kgffclll 2 in MK5 units, (i,) N~wtonfrl1 lOr Nfm l and
Nfnl1n 2 in 51 units. Nfm 2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other common ly used units of
pressure arc :
kilo pascal = 1000 Nfm ~
, '
100 kPa '" 10 Nflll-.
35
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f\. and fI: arc the pressufCs or inlcilsity o f pressure acting on Ihe face AB. AC and Be respectively. Let
LABe", a. 1'lIcll th e fo rces acting Oil the clc ln elll arc:
L Pressure forces nonnallo the surfaces. and
2. Weight of c lemen t in Ihe vcnical direction.
The forces 011 the faces arc:
Force on the face All '" fI, x Area offacc AlJ
""p" xdyX I
Simi larly force on Ihe face AC '" p,. x d.f X I
Force on the face UC '" fI , x ds x 1
Weighl of clement '" (M ass of element) x g
------------
-- -- ---- J ---
:::::::::::::~
-- ---
' ~:(::::_
-_-_-_-_-_- A -
ri::::-
B .,--_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
Consider a small fl uid cleme n! as shown in Fig. 2.2
------- -----
_"_-_-_-_-_-_ ·tJZ ----
_-_-_-_-_-_-_
Let M= Cross-sectional area of element ------ ---------
~Z'" Height of fluid c lement :-:-:-:-:-:'
-----
? -ilp-£t:-:-
:-:-:-:-:-:
------ -
P '" rres~ure on face AS ----------.{ p+ tJZ)M.---------
-_-_-_-.-_" -:k ___-_-.-_-_-
Z", Distance of fluid elemellt from free surface.
Fig. 2.2 Forces on a fluid e!emeT/l.
The forces acting on tile fluid clement are:
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2. Pressure force on CD =(1' + ~~ llZ) x dA. actin g perpendicular 10 face CD. w rti cally upward
direction.
3 . Weight of fluid c lement = Density x g )( Vo lume = p)( g x (All. x AZ).
4. Pressure forces on surfaces IJC and AD arc equa l and opposite. For equilibriu m o f nuid
c le men!. we have
-~~~+PXgX.MllZ=O
ap = p x II [cancelling MAZ on both
0' :~IlZ6A = p Xg xMIlZ or Jz
sid~sl
"I'
aZ =PXg=w (':pXg=w) ... (2 ...1 )
Are a of plunger.
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= 0.2.\54 ~. AilS.
,m
(c) For mercury. sp. gr. '" 13 .6
Fro m equa tion (l. IA) we know that tile den s ity of J fluid is eq ua l to specific g ravi ty of fluid
multiplied by densit y o f water
Densi1y of mercury. p. = Spcl:ific grav it y of mercury x Density of water
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m l
P=P.xgxZ
N
'" 13600 x 9.81 x 0. ] " 40025 ~ ,
111 -
40025 N
~ - - , - " 4.002 --!' Ans.
10 em
Problem 2.4 Till'" prnSlln illlnlsily (1/ (I poim ill (lfluid is gil"nl 3.924 Nlnl/. Find Iltf ("orrnpolll/-
illg Iti'ighl offluid ...hi'llilti' fluid i~ ; ( II) W(I(Fr. lind (b) oil OfS!" gr. 0.9.
Solullon. Given:
N , N
Pressure imensity. 1''' ].924 - - , "].924 x 10 ~,.
cm - m-
The cU lTcsponding heigh1. Z. of 1hc fluid is givcn by eq ua1i u ll (2 .6) as
z== - " -
I'X ,
(u ) For watcr. p " 1000 kghn·l
3.924 x 104
z== ~" - 4 III uf wa ter. An s.
I'X, lOOOx 9 .81
(b) For uil. s p. gr. " 0.9
l
:. Density of oil Po" 0.9 x 1000 " 900 kg/m·
__ _ ,_, _ __ 3o~ 92~4~X~'~O~'
Z -:; == 4.44 11\ uf uil. Ans.
Po xg 900 x9.81
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Problem 2.5 All oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is ("OIlWillt'd ill (I "<'asd. AI <I poim 11Il' heig/II of oil is 40 tIl. Find
Ihe corrt'Sl'olUlillg ileighl ofwO/n at lil" porlll.
Solution. Given:
Sp. gr. of oil, So = 0.9
Hciglll of oil. Zo=40m
Density of oi l. Po = Sp. gL of oil x Dt:nsily of walcr = 0.9 )( 1000 = 900 kglm 3
N
lntcnsi ly of press ure. p = Po x g x 7-0 = 900 x 9.81 x 40 - ,
of 'h" "IIlk.
Solution. Given:
Hciglll of water. ZI",2m
Height of oil. Z2'" 1m
Sp. gr. of oi l. So'" 0.9
Density of water. PI '" lOOO kg/m '
Density of oi l. Pl'" Sp. gr. of oil x Dens ity of water
'" 0.9 x 1000== 900 kg/m'
Pressure intensity at ~ny poim is given by
p =pxgxz' Fig. 2.4
(i) At interface. i.l' .. at A
P"'P2 x g X1 .O
",900x9.81 x 1.0
N 8829 •
'" 8829 - , ~ - ,- = 0.8829 Nfcm -. Ans.
III lO
(ii) At Ihe bottom. i." .• at B
l' '" P2 X gZ2 + PI X 8 X ZI = 900 x 9.81 )( 1.0 + [000 x 9.81 x 2.0
1 28449 , •
= 8829 + 19620 = 28449 N/1I1 = ~ Nkm' = 2.8449 Nfcm -. Ans.
Problem 2.7 TI", dilllllt'/prs of (I sm(ll/ pi.<lOII Imd II /flrgp piMO" of (I hydraulic j(lck {lfP 3 C/ll lII"l
10 cm rp,!ppclil'dy. AftJrf'P (Jf 80 N is flpplil'l{ "" II", SIII,,/l piSI"", Filll{ Ih .. 1(J(I(llijtl'l1 by II", [flrg"
pis",,, ".hpII :
( a ) Ilw piSIOllS afF ,,/ Ih .. SIIIII" In'pl .
( b) SI1I<1I1 piS/Oil is 40 elll IIbo\'(' Iltl' large l,is/OII.
The (1I'usil), of lit" liquid iu /lle jack is g;"1'1I 1M 1000 kglllr'.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of small pislOn. (1=3cm
1'1',2 11 , 1
Area of small pi~IOn, II'" - (, = - x (3)' = 7.068 e lll
4 4
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~W~~~;i'G'
~.-.-.-.-.-.-.
Prcs~urc in[cllsity on small piston s~,
P ISTON PISTON
F 80
II 7.068 ------.
.------
__ . _-.
-----_
This is Iransmincd equ all y on thc large piston. -. -. -. -. -. -.-
Pr".'\Sure intensity on Ih" large piston f i g. 2.5
= --
7.068
Force on the large piston '" Pressure )( Area
80
= - - )( 78.54 N '" 8tlX.'J6 N. AilS.
7.068
(b) Whl'n the small Ilision is 40 em abo ve th(' tar~(' I)iston
Pressure intens ity on Ihc small piston
F 80 ,
(I 7J168 I
Pressurc ill1cnsity at sectio n A-A
F
'" - + Pr~ssurc i ntensity due [0 height o f 40 ern of liquid.
"
But pressure intensity due to 40 cnl of liquid w
=pxgxh= IOClOx 9.8 1 xOANlm 2 ------"--_._---
1000 x9.8 1 x.40 --------
-------
-----------.---
10'
Nlt:m! = 0.1924 Nlcm! --------
-------
--------
Pressure int~nsity at sect ion A -A Fig. 2.6
80
= - - + 0.3924
7068
= 1l.J2 + 0.3924 == 11.71 Nlcm 1
Pressure intensity transmitted to the large pislOn = 11.71 Nkm 2
Force on the large pislOn = Pressure x Area of the large piston
=11.71 x A == 11.71 x 78.54 = 9 19.7 N .
The pressure on a fluid is measured in twu different syste ms. In one system. it is measured above
the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absulute pressure and in other sys tem.
pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure :md it is called gauge pressure. Thus:
I. AI.soluh' 1H"t'sS UH' is defined as the pressure which is measured with refe rence to absolute
va;:uu1t1 pressure.
2 . C,lIU/tC l.rCSSUrl' is defined as th e pressure whid is measured with the help uf a pressure mea-
suring instrument. in which the atmospheric pressure is wken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on
the s<:a le is marked as zero.
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Fig. 2.7.
Mathe mati call y: ~r VACUUM PRESSURE
(i) Ahso lute pressure
1
ASSOlUTE
PRESSURE ..... ,
== Atmosph eric pressure + Gauge press orI'
II., = P.. ," + p~",V'
"' (ii) Vac uum pressure ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE
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T
1
(al For ga uge pressure (b) For vacuum p<8SSUf8
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As th e pressure is th e same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above th e horizontal datum
line A -A in the Ieli co luilln and in the right co lumn of U-Iube manometer shou ld be same.
Pressure above A-A in tile left co lumn " P + PI X g X hi
Pressure above A-A in the right column " Pl x g x II,
Hence equating th e two prc!iSUrCS p + Pig/II'" p,-g l,!
P" (pUS/I, - P I X g x III)' .. .(2 .1 )
(b) ~-or V"cuum P ....SS UI'f'. For rn ~ asuri n g vacuum pressure. the k vc l of th e heavy liquid in the
mallomC lc r wi ll be as shown ill Fi g. 2.9 (b). T hen
Pressure above A-A in the left co lumn "P!8"2 + Plgh l + f!
Pressure h"ad in Ihe ri ght column arovc A-A " 0
P181!2 + Pig/II + II" 0
fI" - (P;oKiJ 1 + Plg" I)' ...(2.8)
Problem 2.9 Tile right limb of a ,~imple U-/Ilbe mOI/Olllet'" CQllfaillitlg mercury is ope,1 to Ille
almO.fpllere while Ihe left limb iI connected 10 a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 i.f flowing. Tile
cenlre of IIII' pipe is J1 cm below IIII' lere! of mercury in IIII' riglll limb. Find IIII' pre.l.wre of fluid in
III<' pipe if IIII' difference of mercury lel'e! in Ihe two limbs is 10 cm.
Solution. G ivcn :
Sp. gr. of fluid, 5, = 0.9
Densi!y of fluid. p , =5, x 1000=0.9x 1000 = 900 kglm 3 r
Sr. gr. of me rcury, 5~ = 13.6
Densi ty of mercury. p~ = l3.6 x 1000 kgfmJ
"
j
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--
"/I). + 98 1 N/m
2 ...( i) 1
'T
Pressure at C", Pressure at D + I'reSl;ure due 10 10 em o f merc ury LEFT lIMB_
"'O+PoxgX/lo
where Po for mercury '" 13.6 x 1000 kg/Ill}
, C
N
= 12360.6 -2 . An s.
lin d Pa rt '"
Gi ve n. 1'.. = 9 8 10 N/m 1
Find ncw di ffe re nce of merc ury level. The arrangemcnt is shown in Fig. 2. 11 (b) . In this case the
pressure at A i5981 0 Nlm '"w hie h is Jess lhanlh e 12360.6 N/ml. He nce merc ury in Je fllimb will ri se.
The ri se o f merc ury i n Jeft lim b will be equ a l 10 l he fall o f mercury in righl lim b as lhe tOlal vo lu me of
merc ury re mai ns sam e.
Lel .1 '" Ri se of merc ury in left linlb in (;m
Then fall of mcr(;ury in rig ht limb ", x cm
Th e poi nts S , C and D show lhe initial cond itions wlwre as poi nts 8 *. C* and D* show lhe
fin al conditi ons.
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,= --
2 6()
262
'" 0.992 em
Fig. 2.11 (b)
New diffcfCIlCC of mercury '" 10 - 2 l em =10 - 2 x 0.992
'" IWI6 em. Ans.
Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 .\110;"$ "colliC(IIl'l'Sse/ /I(I\'illg iu 011//1'1 til A /0 wllirh fI U-t""" mlUlOllli'll'r
i.1 rOlllll'("/I'l/. H", rNII/ill8 oflhl' /II"HomNer g;,'''" ill IIIl' figllre S/Wlt'" wlwllll", ""$.W'I is ('/"1'1)'. Filld 1/'"
rl'{I{lillg "1'/'" ""IIl"III('/l'r Wlt,," Ih" w ssd i. (""",[,Indy filled ,..ith .m/('T.
Solu tion. Vcssd is elllll' )'. Given:
Difference of mercury level
Le t ill "" He igh t of water abo ve X·X
Sr . gL of mercury, Sl = 13,6 ,M
Sr . gr. of watu. SI = 1.0 , I
Density of nU'rcury. P2 '" 13.6 x lOoo 1
Dcnsity o f wmc r. PI '" 1000
I "
Eq uatin g the pressure above datum line X-X. we have
P2 xgxil 2 ""Plxgxil l
1
or 13 .6x IOOOx9.8 1 x 0.2"" lOoox9.8 1 xiii
III "" 2.72 111 of water.
V~ssel is full uf wa te r. When ves.w l is full of water. the Fi g . 2. 12
pressure in the right limb will increase and mercury leve l in the rig ht limb will gu down. Let the
distance throu gh which mercury goes down in the right limb be . ), cm as shown in Fig. 2. 13. The
mercury wi ll rise in the left hy a d ist an ce of)' Clll. Now the datum line is Z-z. Equat ing the pressure
aoove th e datum line Z·z.
Pressure in left lim b"" Pressure in righ t limb
13.6 x WOO x 9.81 x (0.2 + 2)"1100)
'" lOOOx9.8 1 x(3+II I +yI I 00)
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LEVEL
SEPARATION - , 1:1--- - LEVEL
Fa ll in surface lel'.:1 of C
= Fa ll in separalion kl"eJ x a
Fig . 2.14
A
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T
r
_,r!;~'::'~_:'1R~Yo~:_=~"'Qj
/I" = Pressure at A. w hich is \0 bll measured
A = Cross-section!11 area of the reservoir ",
(I '" Cross-sc(;t;onal area of Ihe right limb 1 y y
S, = Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe
T
$1 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
'"
PI = Density of liquid in pipe Fig. 2.15 V"lical si'lgie coll/mn
malwmeur.
Pl = Density of liqu id in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in rc!,crvoir will c ause a rise of heavy liquid kvcl in lh", right limb.
A X ~, = (/ X hl
.. .(2 .9)
As the area A is very large as compared 10 fl. hence ratio!!... becomes very s mall and can be
A
neglecled.
Thcnp,,="lP!8 - ",P,g ... ( 2. 10)
From equation (2. 10), it is c lear lhal as ", is known
and hence by knowing /'1 or rise of heavy liq uid in the
right limb. lhe pressure at A call be ca lcu laled .
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer
Fig. 2.16 shows the incli l1ed sin gle (o lumn mal101l\-
e\Cr. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to in(lina-
tion th r dis\ance moved by the heavy liquid in the rig ht Fig. 2.16 Inclined single coll/mn
limb will be more. manometer.
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"
PA = -A IhlpzR
- - PIS! + hop,S
• - - "IPIS
1
: - X 0.4[13.6 x 1000 )( 9.81 - 900 x 9.81 J + 0.4 x [3.6 x 1000 )( 9.8 1 - 0.2 x 900 x 9.81
100
== 0.4 [1 3341 6 _ 8829 ) + 53366.4 _ 1765.8
100
= 533.664 + 53366,4 - 1765.8 Nlmz = 52 [34 Nlmz = 5.21 Niem I. A ilS •
.. 2 . 7 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Diff.:rcmial manomcters arc th e d.:viees used for mcasuring th e differencc of pressures betwee n
two poims in a pipe or in two differelll pipes. A differential manometer l'Ons iSls of a U· lUbe. coma in·
in g a heavy liqu id. whose two ends are con nected to lhe poinls. whose difference of pressure is 10 be
measured . Most commonly types of differential manometers arc:
!. U·tube differential lIlano lll eter and
2. In ve n ed U·tu bc diffe rent ia l manometer.
2 . 7 . 1 U - tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shuws the differential manumeters of
U·tubc type.
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T
,
, T
t
1 t '1-- '
, -- J" ,
(a)Two rHpes at differenllevels (b) A aJ'ld B ale at the sa me Ieve1
Fig. 2.18 U-wbe difftr..nlial manomtll"l'$.
In Fig. 2.18 (ll). the tWO points A and 8 are at different level and also contai ns liquid s of different
sr. g r. These point~ are C{lonecled 10 the U -luhe differential manometer. Le t th e pressure al A "fld B
arc I'A and PB"
Le\ ,,= Difference of mercury level in the U -tune.
Y'" Distance o f th e cCl1m: o f B, from the mercury level in the right limh.
x'" Distall(;c of the l-emrc o f A. from thc mercury level in the right limb.
PI = Density of liquid at A.
P 2 = Density of liquid al B.
p & = Density of he avy liquid or m<:rcury.
Taking dmum lin e m X-X.
Pressure abo ve X-X in Ihe left limb '" Plg(1J + x) + 1',\
wherc p,\ '" pressure at A.
Pressure above X-X in the rigllt limb '" P~ x g X II + P~ X g X Y + 1'8
wllere 1'8 '" Pressure 3t 8.
Equ ating tile two pressure. we Ilave
Plg(1! + x) + I'll '" PJ X g x I! + P28Y + P/I
P.t - pB '" P, x g X II + P!G)' - Plg(1I + x)
'" It x g(P J - PI) + P2g), - Plgx ... (2. 12)
Difference of pressure at A and 8 '" I! x g(PJ - PI) + Pig)' - Plg.t·
In Fig. 2. 18 (b), the two points A and lJ are at the same le ve l and contains tile s.ame liquid of den sity
PI' Tlien
Pressure aboveX·Xin rigllt limb '" p.xg xl, + PI xg xX +PB
Pressure above X -X in le ft limb '" PI x g x (II + xl + p ...
Equati ng the two press ure
P, x g X II + Plgx + 1'/1 '" PI X g x (II + xl + JIll
I'" - JIB'" p. X g x I! + p ,gx - p,g(1I + x)
'" g x lI(p~ - PI)' ... ( 2 . 13)
Problem 2.15 A pip .. COIII{lillS (11/ oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A diff"'''l!Iia/ 1I/1II1<I1II .. I..r mllllfC/e(1 <1/ /11 .. IWO
poillls A (I//(I Jj SIIOWI <I diff~ '<'II("" ill lIIe ,nltJ' 1"1"1'/ {U 15 CIII. Filllllh .. diff~ '<'II("" of Jlr..ssl"" III lit .. /11'0
poims.
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Solution. Given:
Sp. gr. of oil. 3
Density. PI "" 0.9 x I()(K)" 900 kg/rn
Difference in rncn:ury level. I,: lSClll=O.ISm
Sp. gr. of rncffury. Ss = 13.6 Density, p~ = 13.6 x [000 kglm J
The diffcl\)ncc of pressure is given by equation (2. 13)
f',t - PB" g X h{P, - PI)
'" 9.8! x 0. 15 (13600 - 9(0) '" 186K!1 N/m!. Ans .
Problem 2.16 A difJrTl'1IIiai m"""",,,'l''' i .• (',,""N"/I'll (l/ flIP Iwo Iminl s A ",,,18 "f I ... " l'ipl's {I$
SilO,.." ill Fig. 2./9. Til .. p'iN' A . 'omaills a Ii'll/itf of 31" gr. = 1.5 ... /,i/" [}ip" lJ collwillS 1I liquid "I
w- gr. = 0.9, Til" prnmrn a/ II mnlH (If" I kgflrm ! IIlIff /,80 kgJ7m/ rl'.!prrlil"r/y. Fi"d I/U'
dijJrrf'IICf ill mereu,)' /","/'I ill Ih" (Iiffrrnllitd """!(Jllli'lrr. Sp . gr." ' .5
PA =1 kg/1mi'
SolutIon. Given:
Sp.gr.ofliquidatA, SI = I.S
Sp. gr. of liquid at /J. 52 "" 0.9
.. PI"" 1500
Pl"" 900 [ Sp, gr.=0.9
~
Pressure at A. PA = I kgflcm 1 = 1 x 10· I.:gffm 2
= 10"x9 ,81 Nfm!('; 1 I.: gf=9.81 N)
2.0m Pe = 1.8 kgflan'
1'8'" 1.8 ~gflcm 2
Pressure al 8,
= 1.8 x 104 kgffrn l
,
~
lknsity of mercury
=1.8xlD"x9.81 Nfm2 (": Ikgf = 9.81N) x
= 13.6 x 1000 kgfm J
r
Taking X-X as datum line.
Fig. 2.19
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
= 13.6 x lO00x9.8 1 xh+ 1500x9.8 1 x(2+3)+/J,\
'" 13.(; x 1000 x 9.8 1 x II + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.8 1 x 104
Pressure above X-X in the right limb '" 900 x 9.81 x (11 + 2) + Pfl
=900x9.8 1 x(h+ 2)+ 1.8 x 10"x9.81
Equ at ing the two pres.<;ure. we get
13.6 x 1000 x 9.81// + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10·
'" 900 x 9.81 x (II + 2) + 1.8 x 10" x 9.81
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81. we gel
13.6/1 + 7.5 + 10 = (h + 2.0) x.9 + 18
13,6/1+ 17.5=0.911+ 1.8 + 18=0.9h+ 19.8
{l3.6 - 0.9)11 '" 19.8 - 17.5 or 12.711 '" 2.3
"' 23
,,= --
12.7
=0.181 III = 18.1 em . AIlS .
Problem 2 .17 A dijJfrl'mi(l/lIwlwllwli'r i~ ("",,,w("li'd (If IIU' 1"'0 Imims A (/Jut H (IS sho"'" ill
Fig. 2.20. AlII "ir prnsurl' ;,' 9.8/ NiemI ((11M). find Ihl' "b,<oll1/l' prl'S$llrf lI/ A.
Solution. Given:
Ai r pressure al II '" 9.8 1 N/cm l
1'8=9.81 x lO"N/m l
"'
I I Ii
~ I IL
I I Ii
~I IL
'" 19620 - 1000 x 9.81 x 0.3 '" 16677 N/m!. 6''''>o, OIL of
Sp. gr. 0.8
Pressure below x-x in the ri~hl limb -,
=PB - 1000x9.81 xO.I - 800x9.81 xO. 12
=PR - 98 1 - 941.76=PR - 1922.76
Equati ng Ih e t wO pressure. we gel
16677 =PR-1922.76
or I'll '" 16677 + 1922.76 ", 18599.76 Nfrnl WATER
Problem 2.19 III Fig. 2.23. (III im'fr/n/ (flffarmio/liumOIlJl'lfr i~ romlfclnJ IQ ''''0 pi"t'S A /IIullJ
",/lid, COIIW)' "'tUa. TIll' jlI,id ill IHmWlllflFr is oil ofsp_ gr. 0.8. Ff" 1/,(, IIWIWl/lnU rl'(IIIill85 showll ill
,II .. fig"'''. jiml IIU' l'rf $S/lrf difJrrl'lu'f' hp/wi'('11 It (111(/ B. OIL of
Solution. Given: Sp. g'. 0.8
,- -x
Sr. gr. of oit
Difference of oil in Ihe two li mbs
= 0.8
I:
Taking datum lin e 31 X-X
=(30+ 20) - 30 = 20cI11
H
Pressure in th e left limb tJ..,]ow X-X 11
=PIl - IOOOx9.81 xO Fig. 2.2.3
'" p" - 2943
Pressure in the ri ght limb be low X-X
"'p,, - IOOO x9.8 1 xO.J - 800x9.8 1 xO.2
"'I',, - 2943 - 1569.6"'p" - 45[2.6
Equating the twO pressure 1',,- - 2943 '" 1'" - 4512.6
p" - p,, '" 4512.6 - 2943 '" 1569.6 N/m ~. A"-~ .
Problem 2 .20 Fimf 011/ Ilw dijJl'rfllli(ll rnulillg 'iI' of 1111 im'erletl U-Iube 1I1lI1I01II<'11'r collwillillg oil of
sl",cijic grm-ity 0.7 <IS III<' m(l/lOmelric j/I,ili Wilfll COIIII<'clnl <lrrOS5 pipes A 111111 JJ (IS 5i1owII ill Fig. 2.24
below. cO/wfyillg liqllids ojW('("ijic grlll-itin 1.2 will 1.0 111111 immiscible wilh 1IU1/lOlIwlric j/llill. Pil><'5 A
IIIIIILJ lire lorflled III Ihe 5WI/<' lerel lIIul a55W"" Ihe 1'11'551111'5 (/I A (IIu/ B 10 be eqlla/.
Solution. Given: &"""' j'.".~.'
Fig. 2.24 shows th e arrangement. Taking X-X as datum [Inc.
II Ii
~ I IL
SolutJon. Given :
S..,.,cific gravity of measuring liq uid "" 0.8 . gr. =O.B
I I Ii
~ I IL
For compress ible fiu ids . densit y (p) changes wilh tlie c han ge of pressure and te mperature . Such
pro blems arc e nco un te red in aeronautic s. ocean og raph y and meteoro logy where we arc con ce rn ed
with atm os ph eric * air where dens it y. press ure and temperature changes with e le vati o n. Thu s for fluid s
wilh varia bl e densi ty. equatio n (2.4) canno t be integ rated. unless th e relatio nship betwee n p and p is
kn ow n. Fo r g ~ scs th e equatio n of state is
I
p
til' '" _jZL(fz= _L JZd:
P. f' 1" RT RT Z.
I' -g
log - ~ - IZ - 2;. 1
Po
NT
whcrepo is th e pressure where he ight is Zo. Ir the d atum lin e is Hlke n at Zo. th en Zo = 0 and 1'0 bo:co mcs
th", pressure at d:llulil linc.
log L = ::.!. z
Po NT
L = ('- ..11FT
p,
or pressure at a hciglit Z is give n by I' = PrI'- S7/KT' • • •( 2.18)
• The standard atmospheric pressure. temperawre and dcnsily referred 10 STP at {he sea-level are :
Pressure .. 101.325 k.N/m l; Temperature", 15°C and ();:,nsily = 1.225 I;:glm J.
I I Ii
~ I IL
". . .. ( i i)
(~l pc
Inlcgrating. we gel ) " em I' III: ill' = j Z_glfZ
" '"
[ -""'
p
-~
]'
'"
, ,.
p
p 1
- - +1
lZ - Z-o J
= - g-
or
[ p~l'• = - g[Z - ZoJor [-'~ !C1P
l
P •
!
/.:-1 P
~
= - g[2 - 201
~I I~
~ I IL
0. i!.. xPn
P Po
=[1+/::- 1gZfu]
Po
k
... (iii)
-
Po
p
[ )-'" [
, -
l'o
P ] /:: - 1
,, 1- - - gZ.....2..
k
P
Po
2. B. 3 Temper<lture at any Point in Compressible Fluid. For the adiab at ic process. the
lemperature al any height ill air is \' alc ulm cd as :
Equ ati o n of stale at gro und leve l and al:t heig ht Z from grou nd levd is wri llc n as
Po -- Ri'0
- 3n dJ!... -
- Ri'
Po P
Dividing thcse cqualio ll s. we get
I I Ii
~ I IL
L £..2.. in cqu<ltion
·
Substituting the values of :md (I). we get
Po P
,
~ =[1_ /.: - 1gZ ]t-i X[1_ k-1 /lZ ]-t:1
1'0 k RIo
k
/lZ ]
K/0
I I Ii
~ I IL
Problem 2 .22 (SI Units) if rhe a/1II()Jpilere pres,~ure (1/ .~ea /el'e/ is 10. 143 Nkm ! , derami/Ie Ihe
pressure m a ''''igM of 2500 III aS$lwling Ille pressure mriarirm follows (i) Hydros/a1ie lim', and
J
(ii) isolhermal law. The density of oir is gil'en as 1.208 1r.g1m •
Solution. Given :
Press ure at se a-level. Po = 10.1 4 3 N/c1111 = 10. 14 3 x I O~ N/rn l
Height. 2 =2500 111
1
!knsi ty of air. Po = 1.208 kg/nr
(I) Press u re by hyd rostatic h, w. For hyd ro static law. p is assumed constallt and hence p is g ive n
. dp
by equalloll - = - pg
dZ
-~
= 10. 143 x 1 0~ e r.
-~
= 10. 143 X 10 4 e I'l>
= 10 . 143 x I 0 4 e (_ lloOO . ) ,1(IB x 9,8) JllO.)43. )If'
'" 1J.6 x 1000 ~glmJ. Hence prcssure (p ) will Dc cqual to p x g X Z i.f .. 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x : : NI1111.
~ I I~
~ I IL
"p
,'Z = - pg
f Pdp = - f ZpgdZ or I' - ['0 = - pg[Z - lol
'0 4
1'''l'o-pgZ [.: lo"datumline"O)
= 10.143)( 104 - 1.285)( 9.81 )( 7500
= 101430 - 94543 = 6887 N/rn l " O.6~~~ , Ans,
em "
(ii) f'nsslITl' l"(lrimioH follows iSOlIiI'rIll(lI/ow:
Using equation (2.18), we have /, = PrI' Jl/II.T
'I
Using equation (2. 19), we have , where Po = 1.285 kg/m
l
I I Ii
~ I IL
,.
p = I 0 1430 1- (1.4 - 1.0) x9.81)( -,( 7"5"00,,X 5) J' .
.:,',.,2:::8," _1.0
[ 1.4 101430
'" 10 1430 II - .2662 1' ''''· == 10 1430 X (.7337) 3.5
, N
'" .\4.'10 Nfm - or .'.431 - -, . AIl~ .
,m'
Problem 2.25 Ca/ndllll' lilt' prnsllre (//1(/ dn/sit)' Of air (1/ II Iwight of 4000 III from 5I'1I-/PI'l'lwl!frt'
prf ss,,,/' (I/UI {('III/N' ralllrf' of /111' (lir (/rl' 10. 143 Nkm- (jill! J5°(.' rnpaliw/),. TIll' Il'lIIpff(llllrl' 1111'S('
raIl' is g;1'I'1I as OJXJ65°CIIII. Take <I""5il), of oir <1/ Ull-/(,I'ei (''1IIl1/IO 1.285 kglllri.
Solution. Given :
~lc ig h l. Z=4000 m
, , N
Pressure 31 sea-level. 1'0= 10. 143 Nlcm-= 10. 143x 10 = 10 1430 - ,
m
Tc mpc rmu rc at sea-leve l. 10= 15°C
To'" 273 + IS == 288° K
tiT
Te mperat ure lapse- rate. L= - = - O.0065° Kfm
dZ
Po::: 1.285 kg/ml
k- '
P"'l'o I - - - ,Z - o
[
pJ," ,w herck= 1.222 and Po'" 1.285
k 1'0
un
'" 10 1430 [ , _ ( 1.222 - 1.0 ) x 9.&1 x 4000 x 1.285 ]1.222 - [.0
P 1.222 101430
'" 1 0 1 430 [I - O.0915.~ ", I0 1430x.595
, N
'" 60350 Nfm '" (j.O.~5 - - • . Ans.
cm -
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
.e = RT
where f' == Pressure at 4000 111 heigh t
P == Density al 4000 III height
T", Te mperatu re at 4000 III lic igh t
Now T is calc ulated from temperatu re la pse-ralc as
<IT
lat4000m = 10 +x 4000 = 15-,(1065 x 4000 = 15-26=-II °C
-
<12
T=273+1=273 - 11 = 262QK
P 60350 3 3
Densi ty is given by P == RT = 274 .09 x 262 kglll1 '" O.K4 k glm . AilS.
Problem 2.26 All II1'rUpillllt' is flyillg III WI {,I/;Im'" of 5000 III. C,lIn,/ale IIlI' prf'SSIIrf' tlrol/llI/liI"
Ql'rop/mw, g;\'1'1I liIl' IlIpSI'-rll/(' ill IIIl' atlllosphrrl' liS OlXJ65° Kim. N('gll'c/ "'tria/ioll of g wilh III/iIUdl'.
TakF puss/lfe 11m! umprr(l/ilre (1/ grol/lld lewl (IS 10.143 Nlclll~ (///(I 15°C (llid dellsity of air (IS
1.285 kg/ow'.
Solution. Given:
Height. Z=5000m
,rr
Lapse-rate. 1. == - = - .0065 KJm Q
dZ
Pressure at ground leve l. 1'0 = 10.143 x IO~ N/ml
'0= 15°C
To = 273 + 15 = 288" K
Density. Po = 1.285 kglm)
or _.0065 =_ 9!I ( k ~ l )
_ .0065=_~(k-l)
274.09 k
k", 1.222
The pressure is giv~n by equation (2.19) as
I I Ii
~I IL
l,ll2
HIGHLIGHTS
I . The press ure at any point in a fluid is defined as the force per unit area ,
2. The Pascal's law ,tates that intensity ()f prc.. ure for a fluid .11 rest is equal in all direction •.
~ . l>ressure variation at a point in a fluid at reSt is given by the hydrostatic law which siate, thai the rate of
incre:''''' of pres,ure in the vertically downward direction is equal 10 the specific weight of the fluid.
tip _w*pxg.
dl
4. The pressure at any point in a incompressible fluid (liquid) is equal to the produ(,! of density of fluid at
Ihm point. :lcccleralion duc to grnvity and verlical heigh! from free surface of nuid.
p .. pXgxZ.
S. Absolute pressure is the pressure in which absolute vacuum pressure is taken as datum while gauge
pl'C'ssure is the pressure in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
p_ = p _ + 1'_1<
6. Manomeler is a device used for measuring pressure at a point in a nuid.
7. Manomelers arc classified as (n) Simple manometers and (b) Differentia l manometers.
8. Simple manometers all' used for measuring PIl'SSUIl' al a point while differentialmanomelers all' used for
measuring the difference of pressures belween the IWO poims in a pipe. or two different pipes.
9. A ~ingle column manomeler (or micromeler ) is used for measuring small pressures, where accuracy is
required.
10. The pressure al" poim in SIalic compressible fluid is oblained by combining Iwo equ~lions. i.e .. equal ion
of Slale for a gas and equ~lion given by hydroslalic law .
I L The pressure at a height Z in a stalic compressible fluid (gas) under going isolhennal compression
p " Po c rZlRT
where I'~ " Absolute pressure at sea-Iewl or al ground le\'el
Z .. Height from sea or ground le"el
R .. Gas conSlam
T ~ Absolute lemperalure.
12. The pressure and lempcmlurc al a heighl Z in a SIalic compressible fluid (gas) undergoing adiabalic
compression (plpi = consl. )
, ,
[ k-I . P"j" [k-I gZ ]I,'i
I'=Po l - - , - gZ 1'0 = /'oI- - '-RT
o
II Ii
~ I IL
-'R ('-')
L .- --
,
if (i) k E I. temperature is Zero.
(ii) k > 1. lcmpemturc decreases with the increase of height.
EXERCISE
J. A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 em diameter and a plunger of 5 em di:unet,·r.l'ind the weightlificd by
the h)·draulic press when the force applied althe plunger is 400 N. [Ans. 14.4 kNI
2. /I hydraulic press has a r~m of 20 em diameter and a plunger of 4 em di~lI1eter. It is used for lifting ~
weight of 20 kN. find the foree required al the plunger. [Ans. SOONI
I I Ii
~ I IL
.\ . Cakul~tc th~ pressure due to a col umn of 0.4 In of (u) wuter. (b) an oil of >1>. gr. 0.9, and (coJ mercul)' of!>p. gr.
"
13.6. Ta~e density 0( .....:l1cr. p _ 1000- 3 ,
m
jAns. (a) 0.3924 Nlcm', (b) 0.353 NiemI, (el 5.33 Nlemll
,
-" The pressure imensily at a point in a fluid i.< g;,-en 4,<) Nlcm', Find the corresponding height of fluid when il
is ,(n) water. and (I,) an oil o f sp. gr. OX I AI~~. (n):; m o f waler. (b) 6 .25 In of oill
S. An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is contained in a vess.cl. At a point the height of oil is 20 m. Find the correspondi,,)!
height of ....:!tcr at that point. jAilS. 16 ml
6. An open I,mk contains waler UplO a depth of 1.5 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 for a depth o f 2 m. FioJ
the pressure intensity: (il at the interface of the two li'luids. and (ii) al Ihc bonum of the (a"k.
IAn_,. (il 1.57 Niem I. (ii) 3.04 Nleml j
7. The diameter> of a ...mal l pislon and a largc pi'ton of a hydraulic jacl are 2 em and 10 cm respectively. A
fo("(;e of60 N is applied On the small piston . Find the lo.1d lifted by the large piston. when: (tI) the pistons me
at Ihc salHe level. and (I,) slllal] pislon is 20 Cllt above Ihe large pislon. The density of Ihe liquid in the jack is
.
is 7.848 Nkml (abs .j. fi nd the absol ute pressure at A. IAns. 6.91 Nlcm1 j
, -'"
,';-1 OIL Sp . '
OIL Sp. gr. ~O.8
""
T
"'= T ~i-
,~
i
,,~
1
-M ERCURY
"''' =
~
I
~=
1.
WATER
~ ~Ei
Sp. g'.En.6
Fi g . 2.25 Fig . 2.26
I I Ii
~ I IL
~ I I~
~ I IL
I I Ii
... 3. 1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter de~ls with the fluids (i.e .. liqu ids ~nd gases) <l1 rest. This mea ns thm there will be no
relative motion between ndjilcent or ne ighbou rin g fluid Inyers. The velocity gudient. which is eq ual to
Ih e change of velocity between two adjacent fluid layers div ided by the di~tnnce between the layers.
will be zero Of dll '" O. The shearstrcss which is equal to IJ all wil l also be Zero. Then the forces actin g
d)" a)"
on the flu id particles wi ll be :
I. due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface.
2. due to gravity (or sclf~weigh t of fluid particles) .
I I Ii
~ I IL
(a) Tot a l P ress u ~ (1') . The total pressure 011 tlie surface FREE SURFACE OF lIaUID
may be determined by dividing the emire surface into II numbe r
"'T""'" ,-,',',',','"'"''1''1' '
b _
of small parallel strips. The force 011 small strip is then calcu-
lated and the tOlal pressure force on the whole area is calculated , A
I I Ii
~ I IL
pgAl1 X h* = pg fa
I O= IG + Ax h 2
where I e "M omc rll of ln cnia of ar(! 3 about an axis pass ing through the C G . of Ihe are a and parallel
\0 th e fre e s urface of liquid.
Substitutin g 10 in equat ion (3.4), we get
h* =
•'o +~A~I<_' ~ + -II
,',-,: ,_ ... ( 3 .5 )
AI< AI<
In equat ion (3.5), h is the di stan ce o f c.G. o f the area o f Ih e ve nica l surface from fre e surface of
Ih e liqu id. He nce frolll equati on (3.5), it is c lear that :
(i) Cent re of pressure (i.e .• 11*) lies be low the centre of gra vit y of th e ve rti cal surface.
(il) The di stance of ce ntre of pressure from free s urface of liquid is independe nt of th e de ns it y of Ihe
liquid .
Tab le 3 .1 The m o ments o r in.orlia a nd olile r g~'tIm etric propcrliC5 or so m e im port an t p la ne surfaC<.'!l
I Rectangle
I
T
--- -, I
r >d' >d'
G d
i 1
x ~ - bd -- --
2
" J
1--' ----0<
,. Triangle
,/1\i . ~
x~ •
-
3
-bh , bh'
--
36
bh'
-
"
COllld ..
I I Ii
~ I IL
3 Circle
)/
, Gj 1
~
.1'=-
d
2
.w'
--
4
.w'
--
64
-
j"
4. Trapezium
fzL~IG~ x_(2l1+b)~
IHb 3
(u +b )
---d
2
1 1
(u +4ab +b )Xh1
36(o+b)
-
I " If
Pro blem 3 .1 A ,ec/(lIIg/liar plane .mrface is 2 III wide ami 3 In deep. II lie.! in I'errical plane in
W<lIer. Dererln;/I!' rile 100al pre.!.lure and position of celllre of pressure 0/1 II,e plane surface lI'ile/l its
upper edge is horizollIal and (a) coillcides ",ill, waler surface. (b) 2.5 m below II,e f ree water surface.
Solution. Given :
Width of plane surface. b=2 01
[)cplll of plane surface. d=) 111
(a) Uppu edg e coincides with water s urfa ce (Fig. 3.2). Tot:,1 pressure is ~ i\'c n by equati on (3.1 )
f" = pgAI.
J FREE WATE R SURFACE
wh ere P == 1000 kg/m , 11 == 9. 81 I11 /S1
,-
A ", 3 x 2 = 6 111 •h "' "2I (3) '" 15 m.
F = lOOOx9.81 x 6 x 1.5
'" 88290 N. A ns .
Depth of l'C rme of pressure is give n by eq uati on (3. 5) as
I"
11· =~ + ll
-
AI<
where 'G= 1'.1 .0.1. about e.G. o f the area of surface Fig. 3.2
J J
bd 2x3 4
" - " --=4.5m
12 12
I I Ii
~ I IL
~O'--:-i J
Ah
whe re IG == 4.5. A == 6.0, Ii == 4.0
f--2 m------l
--;;4~.5';-;, +4.0
11·= -;- Fig. 3.3
6.0x 4.0
----
---------
Area.
It = 3.0 III
Total pressure is give n by eq uati on (3. J).
.- 3.0 m
F = pgAh
GO- + <-
= 1000 x 9.81 x 1.767 x 3.0 N L\r - - o ,
= 52002.11 1 N. Ans .
Position of centre of pressure (11·) is g iven by equation (3.5).
1----1.5 m --..j
h·=~ + h
I" - Fig. 3.4
Ah
4 4
rtd It X 1.5
whe re IG =--
64
= 64
= 0.2485 Ul~
0.2485
+ 3.0 = 0.0468 + 3.0
1. 767 x ].0
'" 3.04611 m . ADS.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Problem 3.3 A reC/lwgl/lar .fluice gme is silUllleil QII lite I'u/ieal \\'01/ of a lock. Til<' I'errical side
oJfhe sluice is 'd ' metres ill lellglh ami deplh ofcel1lroid of tile area is 'p' III below Iile W<lIer surface.
11
t--- b P h'
Solution. Gi ve n :
i Ll=
~ r ij
[kplli of vc n kal gale = lI m
lei (h e w idth of gate ",b m
Are a. A=b x d m 2
Fig . 3.5
[krill of e.G. fro m free surface
h =p lll .
Le i 11* is the depth o f ce ntre of pressure from free surface. whic h is give n by equati on n.5) as
I _ bd l
I,· '" ~ + h . where I e '" - '2
AI>
Are a.
4
"
A = - x3 = 7.0685 m-'
Depth. of e.G.. 1I = 4m
(i) ['orce on (he di sc is given by eq uation (J .I) as
.!!.- d"
I"
h·= ~ + ll = -;;
- c<64",
· __
+ 4.0
All : d l )(4.0
d' J~
: ~'--o,,+ 4.0= ~'--o" + 4.0 = 0.14+ 4.0 = 4. 14 m
16x4,0 16 )(4.0
I I Ii
~ I IL
----------'1- TT
----------
----------
------ - --
-------
-0_::-- 'm
-
10 , U
B
".-
3m -' - ,
,- 1..
fig. 3.6
The for(;c F is ad;"g at a distance of 4. 14 m from free surface. Momcll1 uf this fOKe about
horizontal diam eter X-X
'" F x (h ·-ii) " 277368 (4. 14 - 4.0) '" 3HIBI Nm. A IlS.
Hence a torque of )883 1 Nm mu st be applied o n the di sc in Ihe c loc kwise di rect ion.
Problem 3 .5 A pipe line II'lIic/1 is <I m in diameter conraillJ a gille roll'c. The pressure at rhe celllre
of 'he pipe is 19.6 Nkm!, If rhe pipe is filled wilh oil of sp. gr. 0.S7. find I/Ie force exerted by the oil
"PO" rhe gme alld POSilioli of c.'lIlre of pressurt!.
Solullon. Given:
Dia. of pipe. "=4 rn
19.6
Fig . 3.7
OJ
Area, A=~x 42 =4 1ln1 2
4
Sr . gr. of oil. S = 0.87
Density o f oiL Po = 0.87 x 1000 = 870 kg/m "'
Weight dcnsily of oil. "'o"Po xg,,870x9.8 1 Nfm 3
Pressure at Ih~ ct;! ntre of pipe. P " 19.6 Nfcm 2 " 19.6 x 104 Nfm2
p 19.6 x I0·
Pressure head al Ih e cenlr~ =-: '" 22.988 m
11'0 870 x 9.8 1
The heig ht of equiva lent free oi l surface from the ce ntre of pipe" 22.988 Ill.
The depth o f e.G. of Ih e gate va lve from free oi l surface II = 22.988 nl.
(i) Now Ihe force exef(",d by Ihe oil on Ih e gate is given by
F = pgAh
where p = densily of oil = 870 kg/m 3
F = 870 x 9.8 1 X 4n x 22.988 = 2465500 N " 2.465 r.I N. Ails.
(ii) Posi li on of !;enlre of pressure (".) is given by (3.5) as
I I Ii
~ I IL
II+= 'G..+h
AI<
where fc = M.0.1. of triangular section about its e.G.
bI/ 4 x4 l
= - - = - - - =7. 11 m4
36 36
II. = 7.1 1 + 1.33 = 0.6667 + 1.33 = 1.99 m . AilS.
8.0 X 1.33
Problem 3 .7 A "ulical sluice gale is used IQ CQ l'er an opl'liilig in a dam. The opnlillg is 1 m wide
and 1.1 m /Iigll. 011 111l' IIp_lIream ofl/l e gale. I/Ie liquid of sp. gr. 1.45. 1il'.1 "1110 {/ Iwig/II of 1.5 m
abO"e I/Ie lOp of I/Ie gate. "'/Ierea.lon I/Ie dO"'II_lIream .fide Ihe waler is ami/able IIplO {/ heiglll 101lch·
illg Ihe lap of Ihe gate. Filld Ihe resulumr force acring on Ille gate alld pQ.lirioll of celi lre of pressure.
Find also Ihe force aCling horizolltally at rhe fOp of Ihe gale .... hich is capable af opening ir. Assume
Ilwl rile gille is hinged all/U' bOl/om.
Solullon. Given:
Width of gale. b = 2 III
[kplll of gate. d=1.2 m
Area. A =b xd= 2 x 1.2= 2.4m 1
Sr . gr. of liquid = 1.45
I I Ii
~ I IL
:: 1.5 + 21. 2 :: 2. 1 m.
FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID
UQUIOOF
Sp . gr.=1.45 FREE SURFACE
F OF WATER
UPSTREAM
DOWN STREAM
HINGE
Fig. 3.9
F,= 1450 x9.8 1 )(2.4 x2. 1 =7 169 1 N
Similarly. F2 :: p~ . A;;l
l
where p! '" 1.000 kglm
/,!:: Depth oren . of gmc fro m free surface uf watcr
",.!.xl.2=O.6 m
2
F 1 :: 1000 x 9.81 x 2.4 x 0.6:: 141 26 N
( i) Rl."sultanl fo r ce un th e gule '" F, - F2 = 7 169 1 - 14 126 = 57565 N. A ns.
(ii) Pos ition of ce ntre of pl't'ssure of ...,s uUan! fo rce. Th e fo rce PI will be acting al a de plh of
11, * from free surface of liqu id. g iven by the rel ati o n
I, -
hl* = ~ +h ,
Alii
where
I I Ii
~ I IL
4 - 2
where IG = 0.288 rn , /'1 = 0.6 JIl. A = 2.4 10 •
0,288
II!- '" + 0.6 = 0.2 + 0.6 = 0.8 III
2.4 xO.6
Distance of F1 from hinge '" 1.2 - 0.8 = 0.4 III
The r~sul ta nt force 57565 N will be acting at a distance given by
= ,7,1069clcXc.o54~2,9~-ci-l4cl,206cXcO",.4
57565
3392 1- 5650.4
= m above hi nge
57565
= 0.578 m abo ....~ the hin ge. An s.
(iii) Force at th e 1011 of gale ",hich is capa ble of o pe nin g the ga le. Let F is tile force required
on Ihe lOp of the gmc to open ;1 as shown in Fig. 3.9. Taking the moments of F. 1', and F1 about Ihe
hin ge. we get
Fx [. 2 + 1'2)(0.4 =F, )(.5429
f; x .5429 - ,.~ x 0.4
or F= -
12
7169 1 x .5429 - 141 26 x 0.4 38921 - 5650.4
=
1.2 1.2
= 27725.5 N. Ail S.
Problem 3.8 A caisson [or closing tile elllrance 10 Ii dry dock iJ' oflrapezoidalform 16 III wide a/ Ille
rop wId 10 III wide a/ lire bOl/om and 6 III deep. Filltlille lotal pre~'SlIre allli celltre of pres.~I1'" Otl Ille
caissoli if IIII' water 011 IIII' o"lsidf' is j"~'1 /ne/ ...ill> IIII' lop and tlock is emply.
Solution. Given:
Width al top
Width al bottom
= 16 m
WATER SURFACE
,..._ _ _ t 6m
=:\
' 1
=lO m
Depth. tI=6 m
A , '0
Are a of tr apezoidal ALJCD.
A = ,I~
B C,-;;+~A~D") x If
2
Fig. 3.10
180 + 36
" 78 = 2.769 m from water surface.
I I Ii
~ I IL
bd J IOx6
J
~
Then 'r;, '" [2= 12 = 180 In
1<;, is the M. O.1. of the recltmgle about the axis passing through G,.
M.O. I. o f the rectangk atJ.oul the axis passing th rough the e.G. oflh.e trape zoida l 1(;, + Area of
I1'c[ang le x .f,l
where .r , is distance between the CG. of rectang le and e.G. of trapezoidal
'" (3.0 - 2.769) '" 0.231 III
M .0.1. of FIJCE passing through CG . of trapezoi dal
'" 180 + 10)(6)«0.231 )2 ", 180+3.20= 183.20m4
bd'
Now IG, = M.O.1. of MBD in Fig. 3. 11 about G~ = J6
(16 - 10) X6 3 ~
= =36 m
3b
The distance between the e.G. of triangle and e.G. of trapeZOidal
'" (2.769 - 2.0)" 0.769
M.O. I. of the two ~~ about an axi s passing through C.G. of trape zoi dal
== la, + Area of triangles x (.769)2 A F. E 0
= 36.0 + - - x (.769)
6 x6 I ;---T----;~
2
=
+ M.O.1. of triang les about the e.G. of the trapezoidal
183.20 + 46.64 = 229.84 m
4
j
6m
I , - "C
II" == -4. + II
Ah Fig. 3.11
where A == 78. Ii == 2.769
I I Ii
~ I IL
(2(1 + /1) II
x= x-
(a + b) 3
(2xlO + !6) 6
= )( - (.: a= IO,/>= 16andlr=6)
(10 +1 6) 3
'" 36 x2=2.769In
26
This is also equal ro th e di stance of III" CG. o f the trapezoidal from rn:" surface of water.
Ii '" 2.769 m
Total pressu re. F = pgAiI (": A = 7S)
'" 1{lOO x 9.81 x 78 x 2.769 N '" 211H783 N. AilS.
I I Ii
~ I IL
F == pgA h
= IOOOx9.81 x3.0 x 0.44444 = 13079.9N. Ans.
(ii) Cenl ..., of Pressure ( h*). M.O .I. of rectangle FB eE aboul its CG.,
bd J 2x] J I
fo = -- = -- = - Ill~
I 12 12 6
M .0 .1. of FBeE abou t an axis passi ng through the e.G. of trapezoidal
'c,· 'c,
== + AI x [DiSlancc he tween CG. of rec tangl e and CG.
of lra p.:zoidalf
I ,
'" - + 2 x 10.5 - .4444 1- " .1666 + .006 182" 0. 1727
6
1'.1.0.1. orl he twO triang les ABF am.! ECD about th eir C.G .•
11* '" "'- + Ii '" 0.24059 + .4444 '" 0.18()4{, + .4444 '" 0.6248
Air 3x.4444
'" 0.625 m. AilS.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Altt'rnate M eth od
The diswncc oflhe C.G. oflhe trapezoidal channel frum su rfa ce AD is given by (refer to Tab le 3.1
on page 7 1).
(2a + b) II (2)<2+ 4) I
x= x -= x- ( .; a=2,b=4andh= I )
«(I +b) 3 (2+4) 3
== 0.444 m
h =X= 0.444 III
Total pressure. F=pgAh= 1000><9.81 >< 3.0 x.444 (": A = 3.0)
= 13079 N. Ans .
0.2 407
+ .444 '" 0.625 m. Am .
3.0 x.444
Problem 3.10 A sqlwre oper7llre in the rerrical side of a ((III/.: Iws Dill' diagonal I'errical and is
camp/cleiy col'ered by a p/alle plate Ilil/ged a/ollg olle of Ihe upper sides ollhe aperlllre. The diagonals
of Ihe oper/ure (Iff! 2 III /ollg and II,e Ilmk COll10illS Ii liquid of specific gral'ily 1./5. Th e cerllre of
aperture is /.5 /II heloK' r/,,,, f ree surface. Co!c,,/rlle the thrusl exerled Oil Ille p/ale by 1111: liql/it! (lnt!
posililm of ib aI/Ire of pressu re.
Solution. G ive n : Diagonals of aperture. AC", lJD", 2 m
Area of square aperture. A = Area of ~ClJ + Area o f 6ACD
ACxlJO ACxOD
2 + 2
Sp. gr. of liqu id = 1.15
Density of liqu id. p: 1.15x 1000= 1150kgfm 3
Depth of centre of aperture from free surface.
Ii '" 1.5 Ill.
Fig. l.U
I I Ii
~ I IL
=
ACxOB l
="",,'-+
12 ="""'-
ACxOOJ
12
(.: M.a .l.of a tria ngle aooulits base '" b/;J)
2 X 13 2 x] J I 1 I ~
= --+--=- + - = - III
12 12 6 6 3
Fig. 3.14
Intensity of pressure 00 hasc (or no.po '" PlgiJ l + P2E x 0.5
'" 7848 + 1000 x 9 .8 1 x 0.5", 7848 + 4905 '" 12753 N/m 2
Now force F t '" Area of MDE x Width of tank
I I
'" - x AD x DE x 2.0 = - x 1 x 7848 x 2.0 '" 7848 N
2 2
I I Ii
~ I IL
'" "2I )( EF x Fe)( 2.0 '" "2I x 0.5 x 4905 x 2.0 '" 24525 N
:. Total pressure. F = F, + F, + F}
'" 7848 + 7848 + 2452.5 '" 18148.5 N. AilS.
(ii) Cen tre of Pressu re (h. ). Ta kin g the Illoments of all force abou t A, we get
OIL OF SP. GR . ~O . 9
-- . ,
- - - -..
, --- - ---- - ~- .
,
I' I:
,_
7946.1 IF 5686
1383i .t
I
:,
Fig. 3.15
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
This for<:e will be acting at the CG. of tile triangle ADE. i.e .. al a di>!ancc of ~ xO.9 = 0.6 m below A
Consider a plane hori7.ontal surface immersed in a stalic nuid. As every point of the surface is at the
same depth from the free s urface o f the liquid. the pressure intensity will he equal on the e ntire s urface
and equal 10. {J '" pgll, where II is depth of surface.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in sucli a way that the plane of the
su rface mak es an angle 9 witli the free surface of the liq uid as sliown in Fig. 3.1 &.
FREE LIQU ID SURFACE
I I Ii
~ I IL
B" jFM=AY
whae)' = Distance orCG. fro m axi s 0 -0
F = pgsin9 yxA
= pgA l1 (.; h= y sin 9) . .0 .6)
Cenl .... of Press ure (h·)
Pressure force o n lhe strip.dF = pglldA
= pgy sin dA e III = y sin e]
Moment of the force. IIF. ahout axis 0·0
= IIF x Y = pgy si n e dA x y = pg sin e lilA
Sum of mom e nts of all such forces about 0-0
J
= pg ~i n e yl dA = pg sin eJi dA
= 'P~'c'c;'~'cBc ,.
f
y* ...(3.9)
F
Now
sin 9
".
y. = - - . F= pgAI!-
I I Ii
~ I IL
I< I,
B", ==si n9
y
or y= - -
si n e
I,· '" ""'o[
~
AI<
IG + Ax - .-h',-
Sm e1
• Ic si n ' S -
II = + 11 ... (3 . 10)
"' AI<
If e '" 90 °, equatio n (3.10) hecomes same as eq uation (3.5) which. is app licab le to vert ic all y plane
submerged surfaces.
In equation (3.10), Ie '" M.O.1. of inc lined surfaces about an ax is passing th rough G ami parallel to 0 -0 .
Problem 3.14 (a) A fec/ung,,{ar pit", .. J"ur!"ce 1 m wide and 3 m d"ep!ies in ,mler iii J'uc/! tI w"Y
tiull il$ plmle makes ' m (lIIgle of 3~ " Will, tile free SlIr/llce of waler. Determine Ihe total preSSlue and
1'0,\';1;011 of [enlre of pre.ISllfe when lile Ilflper edge is /.5 III below IIIl' free water surface.
Solu t ion. G iven: FREE WATER SURFACE
o
Width of plJne su rface. b = 2 m
Depth. 11= 3m
Angle, e
= 30"
".
Di~tance of upper edge from free wa la surface = 1.5 m
(,) Total pre._~ ure fo rce is gil'en by equa li o n (3.6) as
F= pgAIi
where p = 1000 kglm 3
z
A=bxd=3x2=6m
Ii = Depth of c.G. fmm free wate r surface
'" 1.5+ 1.5 sin 30° Fig. 3.19
I I Ii
~ I IL
F= pgAh
J V_ """""I
where p = 1000 kglm , to plate
A :bxd = 3x 4 = [2 m 2
I I Ii
~ I IL
F", pgA/'
'" 1000 x 9.81 x 7.0685 x 2.749 '" 190621 N. Am.
(ii) Ct' litre of press urt' (h *)
It /( 4 4
where l G '" 64 (t '" 64 0) '" 3.976 III
Area of ho le
/'",CD+GCsine
= 1.5+ 1.5sin e
F: pgA h
'" 1000 x 9.8 1 x 5.3014 x 2.75
'" 143018 N '" 143.018 kN. An s.
I I Ii
~ I IL
A- ' [d'
- - - d'
0 ' [3'
[ -- - - 15'[
. !l1 ,
4 4
sin a ", 2~5 and h = 2.75
+ 2.75
I I Ii
~ I IL
Fluid Mechanics
It tt It j
where IG '" 64
4
'" 64 OJ . A", '4It d-,, -
II '" 1.5 III
.
and Sill e '" _
, d , x (')'
-
64
-
1 d~
, , 3 + ! 5= -16x -9xl.5
- - + 1.5
-4 "" x 1.5
3'
= ~--"~~+ 1.5 ", J1416 + 1.5", 1.5416 m. Ails .
16x 9x l 5
Problem 3.17 A rec/alls"lar 8m .. 5 In xl m is /I;nged at its bll$e "IIlI indi/led ar 60" 10 IIIe horizon -
(a/lIS shown i" Fig. 3.22. To keep Ihe 8<1(e in "Mable position. a coulller II'ciglll of 5000 kgfis a ((ached
aT Il,e upper elld of II,,.
8a /e as sholt'/I il/jigll re. Find Ille depll! ofwa rer {I/ which Ihe gllle begins 10 fall.
Neglect Ihe weight of the gtlle and /ricliOIl at rhe Ilinge and /mlley.
Solution. Given:
Lenglh o f g ~le
Widlh of gale
= 511\
=2 m """. , ,
9", 60 0 --~~ - "
Weight. IV", 5000 kgf ,-
'" 5000 x 9.81 N
= 49050 (': I kgf = 9.8 1 N)
N
" A_
-
C
60
As the pulle y is fric ti on less. Ihe force actin g at H= 49050 N. First
HINGE
find th e 100ai force F actin g o n Ihe g ate All for a give n de plh o f
wate r. Fig. 3.2.2.
AE II 5 211
From figure,
AD", sine '" sin 60o"'""J3i2=T3
211 411 2
Area of gate imme rsed in water. A = AD)( Widt h x ""7:' x 2 == ""7:' m
..;3 ..;3
=
bx(AD'J
12
2 (2" y
12)( .J3)
I I Ii
~ I IL
0'
.245250 = 39240 Itl
3x3
Problem 3 .18 A" inclilled re"/{1II8,,/ar J/uice gme All, 1.2 111 by 5 III size as sho wn in f"ig. 3.23 is
iustal/ed 10 cOlll'Olllle di.{Clwrge o/wmer. The end A is/lillged. Determitll' Ille force norma/to lite gMf!
" f'piied ul 8 Iv open il.
Solution. Gi ve n :
A = Area o f ga le = 1.2 x 5.0 '" 6.0 111 2
Dt:plli of e.G . of the gale from free surface of the wate r = h
= DC '" 8C _ BE FREE WATER SURFACE 0 C 0
= 5.0 _ BG si n 45 0
I
== 5.0 - 0.6 x Ji == 4.576 m
I I Ii
~ I IL
211 - II
Area. A=ACxl=~xl:II= -
"1/3 2
2/, )3 Fig.3.24
Ix ( "0/;'
"3 gil ' 211 ,
12 "'12x3xlf,"'9xJJ
I I Ii
~ I IL
2h 2/,
11 - 3= - or 11 - =3 or ~3 '" .3
3 3
h=3x3=9m
Height of water for tipping the gate = 9 m . An s.
Problem 3 .20 A reCllmglflar sluice gale An. 1 In wide Wid 3 m 10llg is hinged at A as ,~lIo\\'n ill
"-ig. 3.25. II is kepI closed by a weiglllfl.I"<,J 10 Ille gare. 11w IOwl weighl ofrlw gale {/tulwl'igll1jixed 10
Ihe gmt' is 3-13350 N. Find Ihe height of tile water 'II' wlliell .... ill jlw eOfue 1111" gale to open. Ti,e anlre
olgral'il}, ofrhe ...eight and gale is a/ G.
Solution. Given:
Width of g,nc. b '" 2 m: Length or gate L= 3 III
1
Area. A=2)(3=6m
Weight of gate ami W.:: 343350 N
Angle of j"clination. e '"
45°
Let /, is the required height of wale r.
C'
I, ' = ~4 ' cX":::"'c'c4",'o + (II -
C 1.521) = --; cO,.3c7'o'~ + (II - <0 I) m
1..,_
6x(1t 1.52 1) (h 1.521)
I I Ii
~ I IL
--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.--
•
1,
~
'". - " t--
e '" 45"
, "
-_ -_ -. K-. --
:: F~ - e
(b) (a)
Fig. J .ZS
Now laking rn om,," \s about hin ge A. We gel
343350xEG",FxAH
AK
343350 X 0.6 '" F x - -
sin 450
[
rro m AAKH. Fig. 3.25 (b) AK '" AU sin ij ", AH sin 45~ ,', AH '" ~l
sin 450
AK: -:-~J"-7,,,
5 C" +(h - 1.52 1) - (1I - 2.12 1)
11-1.521
375 375
= -:-'7CC:
Ii 1.521
+ 2. 11 1 - 152 J '" -:-'7CC:
II 1.521
+ 0.6 .. ,(i ii)
I I Ii
~ I IL
=2.5+
1
x3xT
fi {-: AG '" ±Of hdg ht of triangle }
3
'" 2.5 + .866 m = 3.366 m
(i) T o ta l p ress ure for~ (1-')
F = pgA/' '" 1000 x 9.8 1 x 3 x 3.366 '" 9906 1.38 N. Am.
(ii) Ce nt re o r p ress ure (h "'). Dept h of ce ntre of pres.wrc from free surface of water is gil·en hy
1,· = Icsin
, -
All
le -
+ II
bill 2x 3J 3 4
where Ic = - = - - = - = 1.5m
36 36 2
l
n f:iJ'
I,· " 1.53 xX si3.366 + 3.366" 0.111 + 3.366" 3 .477 m . AIlS.
Consider a curved surface AB, sub-merged in a s tatic nuid as shown in Fig. 3.27. Let dA is the area
of a small strip at a depth of II from water surface.
Thcn pressure intensity on the area dA is "pgil
and pressure forcc. Iff"" P X Area" pgll X dA ... (3 . 11)
This force dF acts nomlalto the surface.
Hcnce IOlal pressure force on the cu rved surface should be
I I Ii
~ I IL
WATER
SURFACE C
,
E4~
--------- .....-----
- --::::=::~:: dF,::-
--:.,::-- -,
dA cos {I
AREAdA
(')
(.)
FIg . 3.27
Bul here as Ihe direction of Ihe forces on tbe small areas arc 110t in the same direction. but varies
from point 10 ()Oint. Hence in1egralion of equation (3.1 1) for curved surface is irnpos~ible. The problem
can. however. be solved by rc!\Olving the force dF in two components dF, and <IF,. in the x and )'
directions respectively. The total force in the .r and y direct ions. i.e., F$ and F" arc obtained hy
inlcgraling dF, and lIF,. T hen 100al force on tile curved surface is
2
F=JF, +F' , · .. 0 ·13)
F
;md inclin~tiol1 of rcsuitanl wilh horizonwl is tan 4' == -2:. ... (3.14 )
F,
Resolving the force dF given by equation (3.1 1) in x and)' directions:
dF, = rlF sin e = pgildA sin €I I': dF=pghdAI
and <iF" '" dF cos 8:: pglldA cos 8
TotJI forces in 'he of Jnd }' dirediun ~re :
F , :: J dFA '" J p.!:luiA sin 8 '" pg J II/fA sin 0 ... (3. 15)
and F, = J dF, '" J pgllllA cos 8 "" pg J IIlJA cos 8 ...(3. 16)
Fig. 3.27 (b) shows the cnlarged area dA. From this figure. i. e .• n.EFG.
EF=dA
FG::dAsin8
EG=dAcos9
Thus in equation (3.15). dA sin 8= FG = Vcrtical projec ti on of the ~rea dA and h~nce the expression
pg JIldA sin e repr~scnts the total pressure force 011 the projected area of the curved surface on Ihe
vertical plane. Thus
Fx :: Tutal pressure force on the projected area of the curvcd surface on vertical plane. . .. (3. 17)
e
Also dA l'OS = EG = hurilOntal projecliun of dA and hence /IdA cos is the voluUle o f the liquid e
contained in the elementary arca dA UplO free surface of the liquid. Thus J /ldA cos e is Ihe total
volume contained between the curved surface e~tended upto free surface.
Hence pg J I1dA cos e is the 10lal weighl suppo l1ed by the curved surface. Thus
F. "'pg JhdAcosO
'" weight uf liquid su pported by the curved surface UplO free surface of liquid. . .. (3. 1&)
I I Ii
~ I IL
== pgAh
I I Ii
~ I IL
F = JCFo,:-+-::F,'-'
= .j19620+30819 .j384944400 + 949810761
= 36534.4 N. Ans.
The ang le made by the resultant with horizontal is give n by
Fy 30819
Ian 9= - = - - " 1.5708
F. 19620
e " Ian 1.5708 = 57' 3 1'. Ans.
Problem 3 .24 Find tile magnitude and direclion of II,e re.illitwlI force due 10 water acting on (I
roller gale of cylindrical form of 4.0 m diameter. wl,ell the gate is placed all tile dam ill such a way that
,,·Clter is just goillg to spill. Toke Ihe lenglh of the gClte os 8 III.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of gale =4 (11
Rad ius. R =2 rn
Len gth of gal~. 1= 8 rn
I I Ii
~ I IL
e = 3 1" 8', An s.
Problem 3.25 F illd the /wriZOlilul and I'f!r/ica/ campanelli of W(ller pressu re (lc/i' ,g all lite face of II
rainIer ga/eo/90° ~'eClorofrlldi"s 4 m (l~' si,o ,,,,, in Fig. 3.32. Take widlll ofgllte ullily.
SolutIon. Given:
Radius of g~te, R",4rn
Horizontal cornponenl of force acting on the gale is
Fx'" Porce on area of gate
projected o n I'enica l plane
'" Force on area ADlJ
= pgA l1
whe re A", A8 x Width of gate
",2xADxl (": AlJ =: 2AD) Fi g . 3.32
=: 2 x 4 x sin 45° =: 8 )( .707 =: 5.656 rn ! [':AD=4sin4·n
-h _
_ _An __ 5,656 _ 2 828 m
~~ _ .
2 2
F, = 1000x9.81 x 5.656 x 2.828 N = 156',)11 N. Ans.
Vertica l co mpone n'
I I Ii
~ I IL
r(lilller gale of radius 8 II! (IS shown ill Fig. 3.33. Take ,..idlh of gale "IIily.
Solution. Th e hori7.0nlal compone nt of water pressure is gil-e n by
F , '" pgA /, '" Fo rce on th e area proj ected on ve ni ca l plane
"" Force on the vertical area o f BD WATER SURFACE c
whe re A", IJD x W idth o f gate", 4 .0 x I '" 4.0 III
- I
'.Lm
h=-x4=2m
2
F, = lOOOx9.8 1 x 4 .0x2 .0= 78480N. An s. Fig . l,lJ
Vertical rompone nl of Ih e wale r pressu re is give n by
F, '" Weight of Wale r su prmncd or enclosed (imagi nary) by c urved
surface en
'" Weight of water in the portion eBDC
'" pg x [Area of portion CBD C ] x Wid t h of gale
'" pg x (Area of sector eBO - Area of the trian g le BODI x 1
= 9810 X [ -.!... 7t x 8l ~ ~
4.~
O ~X~8~.8~OO='=3~O_O]
12 2
1': DO" 80 cos 30° = 8 x cos 30° 1
'" 9810 x 116.755 ~ 13.856] = 28439 N. An s.
Problem 3.27 A cylindriClIl gllle of 4 m diameler 2 m long has ...lIIer on ils bolll sides as sllo ...n in
Fig. 3.3 4. Delermine Ihe magnilllde. 10culioll wId direClion of Ihe resuillml force e.wrted b)' Ihe ...lIler
on Ihe gille. Fillli aiso Ihe /easl "'eiglll of Ille cylinder so Ihlll il may 1101 be lifted 11 ... (1)' f rom Ihe floor.
Solution. Given: WATER SURFACE A
Dia. of g ale =4m
Radius ,,2 In WATER
(i) The forces acting on th e left Sidc of the cy linder aTe _ _ _ _ ~Q ___ _ D SURFACE
The ho ri zontal co mpone nt. F. ,
where f"", "
F 4m
B
x,__~_ ~--
Force of wate r on area projected on ve rtlcal -=-_:_::::::~=~ ~~ _:__ FY, : Fy,
i :t -:_
c::~~~::::::
'm
p l an e ._:_:_:_:._:_-=-_ :._:._-=-_:._. 'C Fx
= Force o n ,uea AOC
Fig. 3.34
" pgA h where A"ACxW idth ,, 4 x2
1
" looox9.8 1 x8x2 "" 8 m
" 156960 N
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=pgX[~ R l] xWidlhof ga te
= 1000 x9.8 1 x ~ x2 1 x2 = 6 1638 N
4
Resulta nt force in tile direction o f x.
Fx = F" - F" = 156960 - 39240 = 11 7720 N
Resultant force in the direction o f y.
F ., =F,• I +F,, = 123276+6 1638= 1S49 14 N
(i) Res ulhmt fore", F is give n 3S
rorcc. F" acts OIl a distance of 2; 4 = 2.67 m from the tOp su rface of water o n left side. while F.,
ac ts at a distance of t x 2 = 1.:\3 III from free surfa<:e on the right side o f the <:y linder. The rcsu lWnt
force F, in the d irection of.r wi ll act at a distance of y fro m the bonom as
F, x)' == F" [4 - 2.67 1- F" [2 - 1.33[
117720 x)' = 156960 x 1.33 - 39240 x .67 == 208756.8 - 26290.8 == 182466
182466
Y= = 1.55 m from the bonom.
117720
Force F a<:ts at a disl<Ince 4R fro m AGe Of at a distance 4 x 2.0 == 0.8488 m from AGe IOwanls
JI 31t 31t
left of AOe.
Also F), aets at a distance 4R == 0.8488 m from AGe towards the right of AGe. The resu ltant force
, 3,
FJ will act at a distance x from AGe which is give ll by
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:::::::::;f~'"
(i) lIurl lo ntnl C umpunent uf Fure..
:0T
= 1.5 x 2.0 = 3.0 1l1 ~
F, =pgA/'
where A == Area projected on vc.rtical plane ~~~IM~~~~~~
, ' , ' , ' , ' , ' f--G ,- _ ,
: 2.5 m
'\
-
"=2+
15
=2.75 ::::::::-:t-:a ~ _Ol..; __
2 _:_:_:_:1~5 ~ .: H ,0
F~ = l000x9.81 x3.0x2.75 :::::}:r:::~
= 80932.5 N. An s . ,:,:,:,:,:,:,:,:,:,:,:::~
(ii) Vt'rtical CO llll)Ollent of Forcc -------------
-------------
F, '" Weigh! of water enclosed or supported
------------
a(;lually or imaginary by (;urvcd surface ABC
== Weight of water in the portion CODE ABC
= Weight of water ill COOFflC - Weight of water in A£FB
But weight of water in CODFBC
== Weight of wata in [COB + ODFBO[
== 64458.5 N
Weight of water in AEFB '" pg [Area of AEFB[ x 2.0
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Problem 3 .30 A dam has" p"rabolic shapl! y '" Yo (c<..)2 a~' shown ill Fig. 3.38 below IUn'illg xQ '" 6 m
.',
{lnd Yo '" 9 m. The fluid is water with density '" /000 kg/m.!, Compule the "ori2Omal. !'Imical alld Ihe
resu/Ullil thrust exerted by ",mer per melre lellglh of the dam.
Solullon. Given:
Equalion of Ihe curve OA is
P)'o
2
(;:r =9(~r =9 x ;: '" x:
1
.t '" 4)'
"'
of '" .J4Y '"
2ylr.'
Width of dam. b: lnl.
(i) lIorizontnllhrus t t'xerled by w:ller
F, '" Force c"cned by wate r on venica l surface
OB, i.e.. the surfa(;c obtained by projc(;ling
the curved s urface 011 vertical plane
Fig . 3.38
"' pgA;;
'" 1000x9.81 x(9x I) Xl9 == 397305 N. Ans.
=19620 x [(~:i~ ) =I ,
19620 x ~ [9.\12 1
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--~-~ ~- ~-~-~-~-~-=
_~_~_~ _~_~_~_:_:
--- ----
~
C
:,
'0
L
Weight of cy linder. IV= 196.2 k.N = 196200N 3m F. 0" --- + ~ --A
HoriwnwJ fOT..,c exerted by water l tFy
F , = Force on vcnical area SOC ,
: pgAh f ig. 3.39
, ~ I
whe re A =BOCx/= 3x4= 12m-.iI = - x3= 1.5m
2
F,= l000 x9 _81 x 12x L5= 176580N
The ve ni cal force e~ened by water
F, = Weight of wate r enclosed in BDC08
Lock gates arc the devices 1I',ed for changing the water level in a cana l or a rive r for na viga ti on.
Fig. 3.40 shows plan and elev ati on of a pair o f lock gates. Let All and IlC he the two lock ga tes. Each
gate is supponed Orl twO hinges Ii~ed on their top arid ool1om at the ends A and C. In the c losed
position. th e gat~s meet at 8.
Let F = Resulta nt force due to water on the gate All or IlC acting arc right angles to the gate
R = Reaction at the lower and upper hin ge
P = Reaction at the oommon oontact surface of the two gates and acti ng perpendic ular to the
con tact surface.
Let the force P and F meet at O. Then the reactio n R must pass through 0 as the gate All is in the
equilib rium under the adion of three forces. Let e is the inclination o f the lock gate with the normal to
the side of the lock.
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ELEVATION
DOWNSTREAM
SIDE
'CAN
Fig. 3.40
F = F\ _ F _ pgIH\' _ pglHi
Resu ltant force 2- 2 2
Substituting the val ue o f ij and F in equation (3.20). the value of P and R e~n be c~kulated.
Reaction s .. t th e tol' li nd bott om hin ges
Let R, '" Reaction o f the top hi nge
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a distance of ~
3
from bollOOl while F, acts at a di stance o f
-
H~3 from bonoill.
R
.
X Sln
Fi HI F, H ,
&x H = - x - - - - x -- .• ,(1)
I 2 3 2 3
where H = DiMallcc between twO hinges
Resol ving force s horiZOntally
. . fj F,
R,sme + Rb slne= - - .....:... ...(ii)
2 2
From equations (0 and (ii). we can find R, and Rho
Problem 3.32 Each gare of a lock i,y 6 In high Wilt is supported by two hillges placcd ()II IIIe lap
alld bOl/om of lile gille. W/lell Iile gale.! (lfe c/o.!ei/. 111e)' make GIl angle of 110°. The widlll of lack is
5 m. Ifrlie ",/rer (e"e!s lIr,' -I m lind 2 III Oil 1101' upsrream and dOll'lIsrr.-am sides reSl'eC(iI'ely. derermine
rlie Imlg,lirl,,!e of rile forces 011 rlie liillges dill' ro lI'arer pressllre.
Solution. Given:
Heig tu of loc k:
Width of lock
:: 6m
:: 5m
r -:-;:;?;-:-
HINGE
1'm -
Width of each lock gate =A B
~
"' 10
AD
cos 30°
0
2.5
cos 30°
't I ,~~'
'''' '"
ELEVATIQ INGE R R
:: 2.887 m C
''''.oT- L
Angle belwee ll gales :: 120°
180·- 120' ~~~ ~
eo
Height of wa ter on upslream side
2
"'fm DOWN$TRE
HI = 4m PLAN A 30"
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'" 56643 N
,-~-~-~-~--- L- HINGES
,
'm
, •
(3) PlAN (b) ELEVATION
Fig.J.42
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0'
.r = c'c."X"'."67c-,c-F'LX
" ,,
1.3,,,
3 lS I2. 26x2.67 - 453.065x 1.33
F 1359.195
4838.734 - 602.576 3 3
'" '" .1I6= . . lI m
1359.195
Hence R is a lso aC iillg ai a d istance 3, 11 m from bol1om.
Tak ing mo ment s o f Rr and R aboll1 the bo no ll1 hinge
RTx 16.0 - 1.01= R x (x - 1.0)
RX(I' - I.O) 1359.195x2.11
RT = = 573.58 N
5.0 5.0
Rs"' R - RT'" 1359.195-573.58
'" 785.6\5 kN. A ilS .
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In c hapl ers 2 and 3 . the containers which co ntains liquids. arc assumed to be at resl. Hence the
liquids are also at res!. They arc in st:uic cquilibri ulll wilh respecI to con lainas. Bul if Ih e container
containing a liq uid is mad e (0 move Wilh a COn S[an l acceleration. the liquid panicles initi all y will mOVe
relmive 10 each o lh er and after some tim e. there will nO! be an y relative motion between the liquid
part icles and bound ari es o f Ihe conta in er . The liquid w ill tak.e up a new position under th e effect of
acceleration imparted to ils con tainer. T he liqu id will come \0 rest in this neW position rda tive 10 \ll<)
container. Th e en li re nu id ma ss moves as a si ng le unit. Since the liqu id aFter anainin g a new position
is in sta tic condi tion relative to the cOlllainer. the laws o f hydrostatic can be applied to determine the
liquid pressure. As there is no re lat ive motion between the liquid panicles. hence the shear stresses and
shear forces be tween liquid panicles will be zero. T he pressure will be normal to th e surface in co ntact
with the liqu id.
The following are the important c ases under consideration:
(i) Liquid (.'Ontainers subject to constant horizontal accele ration.
(i,) Liquid cont ain ers subjl'ct to ronstant vertical acceleration.
) .8. I Liquid Containers Subject to Constant Horizonta l Acceleration. Fig. 3.43 (<<)
shows a tank conta inin g a liqui d upto a certain depth. The ta nk is s tationary and free surface of liqu id
is horizontal. Let this tank is moving with a ronstant accelerat ion 'n' in the horizo nta l direction towards
right as shown in Fig. 3.43 (b). The initia l free su rface of liqu id which was horizontal, now takes the
"hape as shown in Fig. 3.43 (b). Now AB represcn ts the new free surface of th e liquid. Thus the free
surface of liqu id due to horizo ntal acceleration wi ll become a downward slopi ng inclined plan". with
the liquid ri sing at the back end. the liqu id fallin g at the front end . The equation for the free liqu id
surface c an be derived by considering the equilibrium of a fluid elcmelll C lying on the free su rface.
The forces acting o n the clement Care:
Free surface of
l;quOd
, Originat liquid
sorlsCfl
Moving horizontat
c Tank
- - - -- e C mX8
""Rear
or
,",
end
•
lW) • • • (0'
(., (0'
Fig. 3.43
(i) the pressure force P exerted by the s urround ing fluid on the cle melll C. This force is normal to
the free surface.
(it) the weig ht of the fluid cle melll i.e .. m x g acting vertically downward.
(iii) accelerating force i.e .. Nt x n aC ling in horizontal direc tion.
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, ,
/'JI:=:;,. LInes 01 constant
pressure
"
' ~M::l:
f -pgh,
Fi g, 3.44
Consider the equilibrium of the eleme nta ry prism DE.
The forces acting on this pri~m DE in the ve nil:al direl:tion arc:
(i) the atmospheric pressure force (Po x riA) althe top end of the prism ac ting downwards,
(ii) tile weigh t of th e clemen t (p x g x" x dA) at the e.G. o f Ihe c le ment acting in Ih e downward
d irection. and
(iii) tile pressure force (p x <fA) althc bottom end of thc prism acting upwards.
Sincc there is no venka l acccleration givcn to the tanl.:. he nce net force acting verticall y should be
zero.
P x <fA - Po x riA - pgll riA =0
p - Po- pgll=O or P=Po +pgll
"'
or P - Po =pg/r
or gauge pressure at point D is given by
P = pglr
or pressure head at point D. - I' =/1.
PS
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F I = Total pressure force exerted by liq uid 011 the rear sid e of th e tank
F z = T ot al pressu re force exert ed by liq uid o n th e fronl s id ~ of th ~ lank .
th" n FI = (A rea of tri ang le AM L) x W idth
I I ~. b.h ~
= ( -rxLM X AM Xb)=-rxpglllxIlIXb= 2
T-.--------------- 1
T he valu es o f FI and F2 can al so he o btained as
[R efer to F ig. 3 .44 (a )l
------
------
Itl
=-2I "I",
", ;[[[g{;~[,,-
md
=P Xg x(hl x b) x
~pXgx(",xb) x ......:..
-
_
2
I"~
2
A,
pg. b.
= h,
-
xh and h,
I"~
=-=-
- 2 1 t
-..... .
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
- ,~~~::~~~:::~:
F.-·:·:~'..
••••••••- •• -:. --.-.---••--•••
~ h
I , Fig. 3.44(a)
= "2 pg.bxI12-·
It ca n also he prove d that th e diffe re nce of th ese two forces (i.e .. FI - FJJ is eq ual to the force
r~ qui redto acce lerate the lIla~s o f the liq uid co ntained in th e ta nk i.e ..
f'1 - F 2= M xa
whe re M = T o ta l m ass o f the liqu id con tained in the tank
II = Horizon tal co nstant acceleratio n .
Note : (I) If a tank completely filled with liquid and open at the top is subjected to a COIIstam horirontal
acceleration . then some of the liquid will spill out from the tank snd new free surf""e wit h il< slope given by
equation tan 9 = _!!. will be de'·eloped.
g
(ii ) If a tanK par1ly filled with liquid and open at the top is subjected to a constant horizontal acce leration.
spilling of the liquid may taKe plae<.: depending upon the magn itude of the acceleration.
(iii) If a lan k complelely filled wilh liquid and closed althe top is subjecled 10 a con,tam horizontal accelera -
tion.lhen the liquid wo uld not spill oul from the tan k all d also there wil l be no adjustment in Ihe surface cle"alion
oflhe liquid. Bullhc eq uation tan e = - - "g i< applicable for Ihi' case also.
(i" ) The example for a tan~ with liquid .<ubjected 10 a constam horizontal acceleration. i, a fuel tank on an
ail1'l~n" during t~ke off.
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, "
-----------------------
----------------------
-----------------------
the cont rol volume in the horizontal di recti on must be equal 10
the pl'<)duct of ma.% of the liquid in CQntml vol um" and accel - ,
eration of the liquid. ~I.-------"m ------~'
(F, - f',) 5!>1 XlI F ig. 3.46
= (p X volumc of cont rol vol umc) x II
5
[lOOO x ( AC"D)
2 . 1x2.4
xA8xwldth
= 36000 N
(": AC = h, " 1.7338 Ill. SO = h, = 0.2662 tll. and tlB = 6 Ill. width," 2.5 m)
Th e abovc force is "early the same as thc difference of the forces acting on thc two ends of the tank. (i.e,.
35992,88 :< 36000)
Problem 3.35 Tile reClang"lar lallk of lite abOl'" probl"m contaill S ...aler 10 a deplll of 1.5 III. Fin d
Ille I,orizon/{,l acceleralion wllicll m"y be im(!llfled 10 lite IlI/lk ilt lite direCliOIl of ilJ' lengllt J"O Ilwl
(i) Ihe spillillg of ..."ter f rom Ihe 1'lIIk is jllst 011 Ihe !"erge of latill g pl(!ce.
(il) Ihe f r0l11 bo/lom co mer of Ihe ,,,"k iJ' j ll S! e_.posed.
(iii) lite bOl/om of I/Il' /(IIIk is eXpOJ'ed upla ils mid·poinl.
AI,w c,dClllate Ihe tolal force.! exerted by II,e ...mer on each end of lite lank ilt eaclt caJ'e. A 1$0 pro!"e
Illat IIII' di/fer('/tce belweelt Ilte,le forces is elflw l to lite fo rce "eCeJsa ,)" 10 accelerale lite mass of ...ater
wllk.
Solution. Given:
Dimensions of the tank from pre vio us problem.
L '" 6 Ill. width (b ) '" 2.5 m and depth '" 2 III
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JUII 0/111/1'
"
,age oftak./Ilg place
d' I
..xl a '" reqUiTe ..omo nla aeee cral10n
I T__ -, -,,-. ". 8
":. 3.. ::._ "-:.::"j,":
:_:::_:::':::':::_:':~_:::_: _. _: ._:
When the sp lllm g of water from thc lank IS JUS1 o n th e 15m . ~::: :_:'~. ~:.~: ~:_~~~:- ~:::_
\ ergc of lakmg pi ace. tlie water wou Id rise u PIO the rear ' .' : -,::, .:_ . _ . _.: _' - .:_.:::.:__
tOp corne r of the tank as sliown 111 FIg. 3.47 (a) E,"- - - - .-,-•. , .-, •. , - ,-,-- - - ,. F
I · ---' m --~
~ ' I
Ian 9= AC '" (2- 1.5) '" 0.5 =0. 1667
AO 3 3 Fig. 3.47 (J) Spilling of 'IlNlur is just on
tht tJerge of taking place.
But frolll equation (3.20) Ian a = -"g (Numerica ll y)
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(22+1 ) x6x2.5=22.5m.,
aHer ~e<.1ioo sunace
=
(Ii) (iI) Horizontal acceieral;on ... I,en tile frolll
bOl/om cortler of Ihe Iallk i,~ just e.rpoud
Refe r 10 Fig. 3.47 (b). In this c ase the free su r-
face of water in the tank will be along CD. •
leI 1I '" required hori zontal acceleration.
CE 2 I
In th is <:ase, 1309 = - = - = -
ED 6 3 , ,
BUI from equatioll (J.l7), I .---- 'm ------~
" .I
Fig. 3.47 (b)
tan e = ~ (Numerically)
g
(b) Tolal jorces exerted by waler 011 eaell end of Ihe l(llik
The force exerted by water on the end CE of the tank is
F, "'pg xA , x h'
whe re A,=CExw idth= 2x2.S",'; m"
CE 2
h, = - : - = lm = 1{lOOx9.81 x5x 1
2 2
= 49050 N. Ans.
The force exerted by Waler on the end BD of the tank is zero as there is no water against the face BD
Fl =0
Difference of forces = 49050 - 0 = 49050 N
(e) Difference offorces is eqlw/IO rhe force neeeHary 10 accelerate rhe lIIass ofwarer ill rhe /(llik.
= 2;6 x2.5= 15 m3
Force necessary to accele rate the mass of water in th e tank
= Mass of water in tank x Ac(;e lcratiun
= (1000 x Volume of water) x 3.27
= 1000 x 15 x3.27 =4,)050 N
Difference of two forces is also = 490S0 N
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i ....... 7. '
of the ta n~ is eq ual \0 the force necessary to accelerate
the mass of wate r in th e tank.
(iii) (a) Horizon/al (lac/era/ioll wllell the bOl/om of
till' lallk is eXJlosed lip/a its mid-poiru
Refer 10 Fig. 3.47 (e). hi thi s casc the free surface of •
r
W31cr in the tank w ill be a lo ng CD'. where D * is the
mid -po int of ED. :-:-:-:-:':':':-:-.
Let (/ '" required horizontal acce lerat io n from
Fig. 3.47 (e), it is clear that
C£ 2
lane= -- ~
ED' 3
But from cquiltion (3.20 ) numerically
1ane=~
, , ,
a=gxlan 6=9.81 x - =6.54 mls. Ail S.
3
(b) Tolal forces exerted by ,m/er on cod, end of Ihe lank
The force cxcrwd by water on the end C£ of the tant is
F I=pxgxAlx/IJ
where A 1 =CExWidlh=2x2.S=Sm!
CE 2
1,,= - = - : lm
, 2
"lOOOx9.81 x5x 1
'" 49050 N. AilS.
The force exen cd by waler on lhe end 8D is zero as lh ere is no waler againsllhe face BD.
Fl '" 0
Differe nce o f lhe forces'" FI - Fl = 49050 - 0 = 49050 N
(c) Difference of rhe 1»"0 force.! is equtl/ fa rile force neces.lary fa aealerare rile Intls.f of lI"aler
reI/wining ill Ihe Iallk
Volume o f waler in lhe lank:: Area CED* x Widlh o f tank
C£xED* 2x3
2 X2.5" - , - X2.5=7.5 m)
Force necessary 10 accele rate th e mass of water in the tank
" Mass of water x Acce leration
= p x Volume of water x 6.54
= 1000 x 7.5 x 6.54
=49050 N
This is th e same force JS the difference of the lWO forces on the lWO ends of the wnk.
Problem 3.36 A reclallgular wnk of lellglll 6 m. widlll 2.5 m (md lleighl 2 In is completely filled lI"ilh
K·(ller when al resl. The tUIlk. 6· opell 01 Ihe lop. The 1(JIlk is subjected 10 0 hor;zoll/o/ COlis/mi l {illear
accelemlioll of 2..1 mli ill Ihe directiOl1 of ils /ellglh. Find Ihe ,·olume of ,,"ala spilled from 1111;0 lallk.
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So lution. Given:
L "" 6 Ill . b " 2.5 111 and height, H", 2 m
Horizontal acceleration. 1I '" 2.4 rnls ,
2
The slope of Ihe free surface of water after the lank is subjected to linear comaa,,1 acceleration is
given by equation (3 .20) as
tan6= -
8e
AB
BC=ABxtan8
=6)(0.2446 I' 8m '1
(": AB '" Length = 6 III ; Ian e = 0.2446) Fig . 3.48
= 1.4676 III
Volume of water spilled = Area of ABC x Width of tank
=(+XABxBC) x 2.5 (': Width = 2.5 10)
=+)(6)(1.4676)(2.5 (,: IJC= 1.4676111)
'" i 1.007 nrl, Ail S.
3.8.2 Liquid Container Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration . Fig. 3.49 sliows
a tank containi ng a liquid and the tank is moving vertically upward wilh a constant 3(;ccicrmion. The
liquid in the tank will be su bjected to the same ve nic al accckration. To obtain Ihe expression for the
pressure at any point in the liqu id Illass subjec ted to venical upward accele ration. consider a vertical
elementary prism of liquid CDFE.
Free surface
I 1
1--01- ""-1
f- pgh(1 · t ) - 1
Fig. 3.49
LeI dA '" Cross-sectional area of prism
I,,,, Hdghl of prism
/10 " Atmospheric pre5.';u re acting on Ihe face CE
p " Pn:ssure at a depth II acting on the fat"'! DF
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But (p - Po) is the g~uge pressure. l'len<:(; gauge pressure OIl any point in the liquid m~ ss subjec ted to
,1 constam vertical upward ~lcceleration , is given by
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b= 2m
To find the force exerted by wate r 011 the side
of the tank when moving vertically upward. Ie! us
"
I
first tlnd the pressure al the honom o f th e tank.
The gauge pressure at the bonolll (i.e .. at point B)
for this case is give R by equation as
Fig. 1.51
==(txA8X8C) Xb
== 3678.75 Nfn/
This pressure is represented by line Be.
Now th" force on the side AB == Area of triangle ABC x Width
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=(t XA B xBD)X b
= (i-xO.5x 4905)x2 (': ED :: 4905)
= 2452.5 N. AilS.
For this case. the force on An can also be obtained as
"AIl= pgA.;;
wllerc A:: AB x Widlll = 0.5 x 2 = 1 m 2
- AS 0 .5
It:: - : - =0.25111 = 1000 x9.81 x 1 xO.25
2 2
= 2452.5 N. AilS.
Problem 3.38 A umk coll/oins »'a/er "plo (j depth of 1.5 m, The leng/II amI wid/I, of /lIe lank (lrl!
-I m (lIld :z m respec/indy. Th e wnk is mo\'ing lip "" jllc/ined p/(Jlle with (I cons/,w/ (lccderu/iol! of
-I ",Ii. The inc/inaliOll of Ihe p/mw will, the /u)riZOJ1la/ is 30° as 11110 ...11 in Fig. 3.53. Find.
(i) Ihe ''''gle made hy Ihefree J'u rf"ce ofll'lIler will! Ihe horiWII{(,/.
(ii) Ihe pressure III Ihe hOI/om of I/le lallt (1/ Ihe fro n/ ami rear ellds.
Solution. Given:
'm
Dcptli of water. 11 == 1.5 10 : Lengt li. L == 4 III and
Width. b == 2 Ul
Constant acceleration along th e inclined plane.
1
II '" 4 Ill /5
Inclination of plaoe. 0: == 3D"
a
Let == Angle mad~ by the free surfac", of w~ter
after tlie acceleration is imparted to the tank
p~ == Pressure ,lithe bo1l0111 of the tank :It the from ",nd
and Pv == Pressure at the bottom of the taJlk at the reaT
end. Fig. 3.53
This proble m can be donr by resolving the give n acceleration along thc horizontal direction and
vertical d irection. The n eac h of these c ases Ill ay be separately anal ysed according to the sct procedure.
Horizontal and vertical eomponcnts of the acceleration arc:
a" '" II cos Cl " 4 cos 30° '" 3.464 lll/s
2
,
{/ == a sin Cl == 4 sin 30° == 2 m/s 2
When th~ tnnk is station~ry on the inclined plane, free s urfac", o f liquid will be along EF ~s shown
in Fig, 3.53, But when til", tank is moving upward alo ng the indi Jled plane th e fr"'e surface of liquid
will be along ne. When the tank containing a liquid is moving up an inclined plane with a constant
accderation. thc angl e madc by the frce surface of thc liquid with thc horizontal is g iven by
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S. The centre of pressure for a plane ,'crtical surface III's al a depth of two-third the height of the
immersed surface.
where f~ ", Hnriwntal force on cun"cd surface and is equal to total pressure force on the projected area
of Ihe curved surface on the ,-"nieal plane.
K pgAh
and F, '" Vertical force on sub-merged curvcd surface and is equal 10 Ihc weight of liquid actually
or imaginary supported by the curved surface.
F
7. The inclinalion of Ihc result,ml force on curved surface with horizontal. tan e = .2....
F,
8. The resultant for • .:: on a sluice gate. F = FI - Fl
where F, = Pressure force On (he upstream side o f (he sluice !laIc and
F : '" Pressure force on the downstream side of the sluice gate.
9. Po. a lock gate. the reaction ""'tween the two gates i. equal to the r~action at the hing~" R" I'.
EXERCISE
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u. Derive an expression for the reaction between the gates as I' '" _ __
,.
11. Prove 1ha1 the reaction between the gates of a lock is equal to the reaction at the hinge.
2 sin e
where"" Resultant water pressure on lock gale, (I '" inclination of the gate with nonnal to the side oflhe lock.
1-1 . When will centfe of pressure and centre of gmvity of an immersed plane surface coincide?
IS. Find an expression for the force cxened and ccnlre of pressure for a complclely SUb-merged inclined pi:me
surf~ce. Can Ihe same melhod be applied for finding Ihe resull~nl for.:e On a curved surface innners..'<l in
Ihe liljuid ? If nOI. why?
16. Whal do yo u undersland by Ihe hydroslalic equal ion ? Wilh Ihe help oflhis equalion derive Ihe expressions
for lhe IOlal Ihrusl on a sub·merged plane area and Ihe buoyam force aCling on a sub·merged body.
I . DClcnninc Ihe 10lal press ure and dcplh of cenlre of pressure on a plane re<:I:,ngulur surface of 1 111 wide
and 3 111 deep when ils upper edge is horizonlal and (al coincides wilh Waler surface (b) 2 111 below Ihe
free waler surface. [Ans. (a) 44 145 N. 2.0m. (b) 103005 N. 3.71 4 ml
2. Dctennine the IOlal pressure on a cir.:ular plale of diamcler 1.5 m which is placed verlkally in walcr in
such a way Ihal ceTllrc of plale is 2 m below Ihe free surface of waler Find Ihe posilion of cenlre of
pressure also. IAn< . 34668.54N.2.07rnl
3. A re<;langular sluice gale is situaled on the ,·crlkal wall of a lock. The verlkal side of the sluice is 6 m
in lenglh and depth of centroid of area is 8 m below the Water surface. Prove Ihat Ihe depth of cemre of
pressure is given by 8.475 m.
4. A circular opening. 3 m diamelcr. in a vertkal side of a tank is closro by a disc of 3 m diameter Which can
rotate about a horizontal diameter. Calculate (i) the force on the disc. and (iI) the torque required 10
maintain the di", in equilibrium in the .. ertical position when the head of water abo,·e the hori,ontal
diameter is 6 m. IAns. (i)416.05 kN . ( ii) 39005 Nml
5. The pressure at the centre of a pipe of diatneter 3 m is 29.43 Nkml. The pire contains oi l of sp. gr. 0.87
and is filled wilh a gate valve . Find thc force cxene<:l by the oi! on the gate and posilion of centre of
pressure. IAns.l.OIl MN ..016 m below cenlre of pipe]
6. Determine the tota l pre.<>ure and ccntre of prc<Sute on an isosceles triangular piate of ba,e 5 m and
allilude 5 m when Ihc plale is immersed verlically in an oil of sp. gL 0.11. The base of the plale is I m
below the free surface of waleL [An •• 261927 N. 3.19 ml
7. The opening in a dam is 3 m wide and 2 III high. A ycnical sluice gale is used to cover the opening. On
the up,lream of Ihe gale. the liquid of sp. gr. 1.5. lie, uplo a heighl of 2.0 m above the lop of Ihe gale.
whereas on the downSlrcalll ,ide. Ihe waler is available uplO a height of the top of Ihe g~le. Find the
rcsuUanl force aCling on Ihe gale and posilion of centre of pr~ss~re. Assume Ihal Ihe gale is higher al
Ihe bononl. [Ans. 206010 N. 0 .964 '" above Ihe hingel
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Fig..H4 Fig.3.SS
15 . An inclined rcct:lngular gale of width 5 m and depth .5 m is installed to comrol the discharge of waler as
shown in Fig. 3.55. The end A is hinged. Dcle""inc Ihe force nonnal to Ihe gale applied al H to open it.
{An s. 97435.8NI
16. A gale supporting wa(er is shown in Fig. 3.56. F;nd lhe heigh(
'h' of (he wa1er so tha( lhe ga(c begins to (ip aooul 1he hinge.
Take the widlh of lhe gale as unilY. IAns. 3)(./3 "'I
17. Find the tOlal pres,u re and depth of cen1re of pressure on a
Iriangular plate of base 3 m and heighl 3 III which is immersed in
waler in such a way lhal plane of lhe pla1e makes an angle of 60" Fig. 3.56
wilh the free surface. The ba<e of Ihe plale is parallel 10 waler surface and at a deplh of 2 III from water
surface. [Ans. 126.52 IN. 2.996ml
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WATER SURFACE
-------------
,
Fig. 3.S7 Fig. 3.58
19 . fig. 3.58 shows a gale having a quadrant shape of radius of 3 Ill. rind Ihe resultant force due to waler pcr
metre length of the gale. rind also the angle at which the total force wil l acl. [Ans. 82.201 kN, 0 = 57° 31 ' I
20 . A roller gate is shown in I:ig . ).59. It is cylindrical fonn of 6.0 In diameter. It is placed on lhe dam. I'ind
lhe magnitude and direction of lhe reSUllan! force d ue 10 waler aCling On the gale when the waler is just
going 10 spilL The I 1 of [he gal" is gi"en 10m. ( Ans. 2.245 M N.e~3l!" g·1
according to Ihe relalion y '" - ", as shown in I' ig. 3.61. The
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the plate shown in Fig. 3.62 immersed in a liquid of specific gravity 0.9.
IAn • . 62. 4 kN. 3.04 ml
,
27 . Octennine the total force and kx:ation of .'entre of pressure on one face of FREE SURFACE OF L1aU ID
-
F=pgAh '" l000x9.81 X "4 x3 " (' ,] X 1.75", 121.J5kN.
h' • + 1.75 .. 0.08 + 1.75 .. 1.83 m.1
Fig. 3.63
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CHAPTER
.. 4. 1 INTRODUCTION
In th i~ c hapte r. the equ ilibrium Ml he Oo alin g and sub-me rged bodies will be co nsidered . Thu s Ihe
c hapter will inc lude: I. Buoya ncy. 2. Ce ntre of buoy ancy. 3. Mclace ntre. 4. Metace ntri c hf.> ight.
5. Ana lytica l method fo r deta minin g mdacentric heig ht. 6. Condition s of equilibrium o f a fl oatin g
and sub -merged bod y. and 7. Expe rim ental met hod fo r metacc ntri c he ight.
.. 4.2 BUOYANCY
Whe n a bod y is imm ersed in a fluid_ an up ward force is exe n cd by the fluid o n the bod y. Th i~
upw ard forec is e qual to the we ight o f the fluid displaced by the body and is c al k d th e force of
buoy an cy or s impl y bu oy ancy .
It is de fin ed as the poi nt. th rough whi ch th e force of buoy ancy is supposed to ac t. As tlw force of
buoyancy is a ve rtica l force and is equal to th e we ight of th e Ou id d isplaced by th e body. the centre of
b uoy ancy wi ll be thc ce ntre o f grav it y of th e fluid di splaced.
Proble m 4.1 Fittd lite I'Olume of Ille lI'aler displaced alld pwiliOlt of cenlre of buoyancy for a
lI'oodell block of wid III 2.5 m and of depth 1.5 m. whell il floals horizollwl/y in Waler. The densilY of
woodell block i.f 650 kg/III ) {Illd ils lenglli 6.0 m.
Solution . Gi vc n :
Width " 2.5 10
Ikplh " 1.5 111
Le ngth " 6.0 111
G
jw
Vol ume of Ihe bl oc k = 2.5 x 1.5 x 6.0 = 22.50 ln 3
Iknsi ty of wood. p = 650 kgfm}
Wf.> ig ht of bloc k = px g x Volum c 2.5 m
= 650 x 9 .81 x 22.50N= 14347 1 N Fig. 4.1
131
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Problem 4.2 A ...oodell fog 0/0.6 m diameter and 5 m lenglll is j7<w(illg ill ,;,"er waler. Pind Ille
depth of Ille ,,"OOdl'l! log ill \\'(l/er when lile !Ip. gf",-;Iy of flU! log i,y O. 7.
Solution . Given:
,
Dia. of log
Length.
=O.6m
L:5m
, ::
o
Sp. gr .. S '" 0.7
Dens ity of log'" 0.7 x 1000", 700 kgfm}
We igh! dcnsi!y of log . w = px g o
Fig. 4.2
=700x9.81 Nfm 3
Find depth of immersion ur II
W~igtl! of wooden log '" Weigh! densily x Volum e of log
,
=7 00x9.8 1 X 4 (DrXL
,
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:: It? [3(j(360"
)·-"l + "21 r (;Os e x 2r si n e
:: It? [l - ~l
IS(r + , 2 OOS. 9 .sin 9
, - -.09 , .,
- - cos S10 :: - - -
.0848
.00157 .00 157
e - 57.32 cos e sin e:: 54.01.
or e - 57.32 ("(IS e si n e - 54.01 = 0
For 0:: 6(}0, 60 - 57.32 x 0.5 x .S()6 - 54.01'" 60 - 24.81 - 54.01:: - llUn
For e:: 70°, 70 - 57.32 x .342 x 0.9396 - 54.01 '" 70 - 18.4 - 54.01 :: - 2.41
For e:: 72°, 72 - 57.32 x.309 x .951 - 54.01 = 72 - 16.&4 - 54.01 = + 1.14
For e:: 7 1°, 7 1 - 57.32 x .325 x .9455 - 54.01 :: 7 1 - 17.61 - 54.01:: - 0.376
e:: 71.5", 7 1.5- 57.32x .3 173 x .948- 54.0 1 :: 7 1.5- 17.24-54.0 1 = + .248
T hen /,= r + rl'Os7 15 °
= 0.3 + 0.3 x 0.3173 = 0.395 m . Am.
Problem 4 .3 A slOlIe weighs 392.4 N ill air and 196.2 N in .mler. Compule Ihe )"olume of slon e
and ils specific grm·ily.
Solution . Given:
Weigtlt of SlO ne in air = 392.4 N
Wdglll of Slone in water == 196.2 N
ror equilibrium.
Weigtll in air - Weight of sto ne in water = Weigh t of w~H er displa<:ed
or 392.4 - 196.2 == 196.2 = 1000 x 9.81 x Volume o f wata displaced
Volume o f wa ler displaced
196.2 t t
= ~~~~== _ rn 3 == - x 1 0~ c rn 3 == 2 x 10' em l . Ans.
looox9.8 1 50 50
= Volume of Slo ne
Volume o f Slo ne == 2 x 10· cm 3. An s.
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""
~_ )( V",0.6 Vm 3
I()()
For the equilihrium of the bod y
Fig . 4. 3
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Problem 4 .6 A flolli WIll'" regulates I/le flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8 illio "ciSlem, The JpileriClil float
iJ' 15 em ill diameter. AOlJ is {/ weighlleS!>' link carrying lile floal al anI' <'11</. Will {/ m/"e at Ihe OIlier
end wllich closes Ille pipe Iltmugll wllich oil flows illla IIII' cis/cm . The /i,,1: i.1 mounled in (I friClionle.H
liillge m 0 alld llie (llIgle AOB i.f 135°. Tlit' lellglh ofOA is 20 em, (l1II! Ille disrtillee belweell Ille eelllrt'
of Ihe flom mId II,e hillge is 50 em. WIIt'll Ihe flow i.l slOpped AO will be I·ulieal. The \"G/re is 10 be
pressed all 10 II,e se(ll WillI a force of 9.81 N 10 co mplerel)' slop Ihe flow of oil inlo Ille cistern. It W(lS
obserl'ed IIwl the flow of oil i')' slopped whell Ihe free SlI rfrlCe of ai/ ill Ille cislem is 35 em bela,,· Ille
hillge. Delermil1f: Ihe weiglll of Ihe floo/.
Solution . Gi ve n : 0" SUPPLY
Sp. gr. of oil '" 0.8
Densit y of oil. Po = 0.8 x 1000
0: 800 kglm'
Dia. of flo at. D o: I5cm
LAOB = 135 Q
OA=20cm
Force . P=9.8 1 N
O B = 50 cm
Find tile weig llt of [h e float. Le t it is eq ual [ 0 W.
Wile n til e flow of o il is stopped. the ce ntre of float is s how n in Fig. 4.4
Tlic leve l of o il is al50 sllown. Til e ce ntre of fl oat is be low th e Icve l of o il. by a de pth '/r' .
From tJB OD, sin 450 0: 00 " OC + CD 35 + II
OB OB 50
50xsin45° ,,35 + h
I
II = 50 x J'i - 35 '" 35.355 - 35 " 0.355 Ctn " .00355 tn.
Th e weig lu of floa t is ac ting th ro ugh 8, but Ih" upward buoya nt force is acti ng throug h th" CCl)tre
o f weight o f o il displa(;ed .
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1"=7.4
T
16 - 20x9.8
35.355 1 = 7 .4 16 - 5.55= U!66 N. Ans .
It is defined as Ihe (Xlint about wllich a body Slarts oscillatin g when Ih e body is tilled by a small
an gle. The 11lc1a-ccntre may also be de fi ned as the point at which Ihe li ne of act io n of th e force of
b uoya ncy will meet th e nonnal axi s of th e body whe n th e body is give n a s mal! angulardisplaccmcnt.
Consider a body fi oating in a liq uid as s hown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium and G is
th e ce ntre of grav it y and B the ce ntre o f buoyancy. Fo r equilibrium. both the points li e on the norma l
axis. whic h is ve n ic al.
•. . . :.. t...
I ,, ,
- "'-!-". !; ~ -~
I"
-;;'~?';-'
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NORMAL AXIS
(a) (b)
Le t th e body is given a small angular displa~"t!ment in the clockwise di recti on as Show n in Fig. 4.5 (b).
The I:entre of buoya ncy. wllich is Ille I:entre of gravity of Ill e di spl al:ed liquid or cenlre uf grav ily uf the
ponion of Ihe body sub-11Ie rJ(cd in liquid. will now be Shifted towa rds righl from Ihe nurm al axi s. Lei
iI is al B[ as show n in Fig. 4.5 (b ). The line o f action of lhe force of buoyancy in Ih is new posi tion. will
in tc["Sectlhe [lOTinal a~is of th e hody at SOllie point say M. This point /If is called Met,,· IT n lre .
The d islanc e MG. i.e .. Ih e disl anl:e belween th e mcl a-ce ntre of a n oal in g body and Ille cemre of
grav it y o f the body is called IllCla-centric heig ht.
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Fig. 4.6 (0) shows the position of a noming body in equilibrium. The location of centre of gravity
and centre of buoyallcy in Ihis position is al G and 8. The floming body is given a small angu lar
displacement in the clocl;wisc direction. Tliis is shown in Fig. 4.6 (b). The new centre of buoyancy is
al 8 1" The vcnica l linc through 8 1 cuts Ihe normal ax is at M. Hence M is the meta-centre and GM is
mew-centric height.
----. ANGULAR
M ISPLACEMENT
A S
"'.
S'
Go
S
Gi--(+~I:--"C
, 101
'. C
T (
~.E-".
Fig. 4.6 Mela-Cf'nlre height of f/Qdfillg body.
The angular displacement of the body in Ihe cloc kwise direction causcs the wedge-shaped prism
B08' un Ihe rigtu of the axis 10 go inside the water while tile idemical wedge-shaped prism reprcscmed
by AOA' emerges OuI of tile water un tile len uf tile axis. These wedges represent a gain in buuyam
force on the right side and a corresponding loss of buoyant force on the len side. The gain is
r~pr~scnted by a vertical force dFJj acti ng th rough the c.G. of the prism BOB' while th e loss is
represcnt~d by an equal and op]Xlsite force dFo ac ting Vertically downward through the centroid of
AOA'. The coup le due to these buoyant forces <IF/! tends to rotate the ship in the counte rclockwise
direction. Also the moment caused hy the displacement of the centre of huoyancy from B to Bl is also
in the coullterclocl; wisc direction. Thus these two coup les must he equal.
Co uille I) ue to Wed ges. Co nsider towards the right of the axis a sma ll strip of thicl;ness <Ix at a
distance x from 0 as Shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The height of strip x x LBOB': x x e.
! ... L B08'" LAOA'" 8MB,'" 6)
Area of strip := Height x Thickness", .r x 6 x <Ix
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Moment of ttJis couple '" Weight of each stri p x Distance between Ihes<: two weigh ts
=pgx fJLdxlx+_t]
= pgx aL dx x 2x = 2pgxl 9L dx
Moment of the couple for the whole wedge
"J 2pg_~ aL dx .. ,(4 . 1)
MomcnI of coup!c duc 10 shirting of cemrc of buoyancy from B 10 HI
:FyxBBI
= FHXBMxfJ ('0" BB I " BMx fJif9is "cry ~m alll
8M = pgl
IV
IV" Weight of the body
""' = Weight of the fluid d isp laced by the body
= pg x Volume of the fiuid displaced by th e body
= pg x Volume of the body sub-merged in water
= pgx V
I
•
Meta-ccntric height = GM = - -8G. ... (4 .4 )
Problem 4.7
•
A rec/(Ingu/ar prwlOafl is 5 /II 101lg. J m ...ide and 1.20 m lIigll. The deplll of
immerJ'iOll of Ihe pOllloOll is 0.80 m ill se(l waler. If /lle cell/re of grtll"ily is 0.6 '" abo\'e Ihe bollom of
(h e pOll/OOll. delermill e lite meia -celllric heighl. The dellJ'ily for Sell waler = 1025 kg/", J.
Solution. Given:
Dimension of pontoon =5mx3mx l. 20m
!kpth of imm ersion = 0.8 m
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• -BG
of th'" plan of the poll1oon about Y-Y allis
T
S.Om
'"
12
~ x 5)( 31 m~ '"
45 m~
4
'<i = Volume of the body sub-mugcd in water
=3)(0.8)(5.0= 12.0ml
,
PLAN AT WATER SURFACE
1
BG = AG - Ali = 0.6 - 0.4 '" 0.2 111 Fig . 4.7
45 I 45
GM = - x - - - 0.2 '" - - 0.2 '" 0.9375 - 0.2 = 0.7375 m. Ans.
4 12.0 48
Problem 4 .8 A wllform hody of size 3 m long X 2 m wide x I 111 deep jlOlllS in ImIN. IV/WI is the
weighl of I/le botly if depth of immersion is 0.8 //I ? De/ermine the mew-centric fleig/II (I/$().
Solution. (jiven :
Dimcnsioll o f body = 3x2xl
Deptli of imm ersion = 0.8
Find (i)Wcigh t of lxKly. IV
III
-t--. --+-
(ii) Meta-centric lIeiglit. GM
(i) Wt:ight of Bod~' , W j.- 3.0m ~.J
-~c4'C!tft--~-
== Wcigllt of water displaced
== pg x Volume of water displaced
== lOOO x 9.81 X Volume o f lxKly in water
== H)OOx9.8 1 x J x 2 xO.8 N
A
== 47088 N. AilS. ELEVATION
Fig. 4.8
(iI) Ml."h,-cl."ntrk !lelght . GM
Using equation (4.4). we get
I
GM== - - BG
whe re f
•
= M.O.I about y. y axis of the plan of the body
! 3 ]x2 J ~
= - x]x2 = - - =2.0 m
12 12
V == Volume of body in wmer
=3x2xO.8=4.8 m3
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1 \ 1 4
•
where /: - x2x1.0· : - m
12 6
'I;f: Volume of wood in wate r
:2x 1 xll",2x I x.56: 112m l
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GM: - X - - 0.12 '" 0.1 488 - 0.12 '" 0.0288 tn. Ans.
6 1.1 2
Problem 4.10 A solid cylillder of diollleler -1.0 III has (I heighl of 3 melres. Filld Ille melli-centric
/!eiglll of Ihe cylillder whell il is floil/illg ill Wil/er wilh ils axis I"eflical. Ti, e sp. gr. of Ihe cylillder
'" 0.6.
Solution. Given:
Dia. o f cylindcr. D", 4.0 m
Height of cylinder, II '" 3.0 III
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1.8 09
AB"'T'" . III
3 'CAN I
AG=2'" 1.5m
T
~l, 'r
~
~
~
BG: AG - All
= 1.5-0,9=0.6111
Fig. 4.10
Now the meta-centric he ight GM is given by equation (4.4)
/
GM= - -nG
"0'
"
J = M.O.!. about Y-Y ax is of the plan of Ih.-: bod y
= ~ 0 4 : ~ X (4.0)4
64 64
md 'V '" Volume of cylinder in wata
GM= . ~x ( 4.0)·
64
,
- x (4.0 )" x 1.8
4
_ 0.6
I 4.0' , I
= - x - - - 0.(, = - - 0.6 = 0.55 - 0.6 = - 0.05 m. AilS.
16 1.8 1.8
- vc sig n 1I\eans 1ha1 IllcI3 -cemrc. (M) is below the c.;,olre of gravity (G).
Problem 4.11 A hotly /W.I lilt! cylintlricalllpper ponion of 3 m diameter alld I.S //I deep. nle lower
POrllOlI is a cun'cd one....hich displaces a )'oilllne of 0.6 /IIJ of wa/er. The cenrre of blw)'oncy of ,he
cun'ell pOrlion is at a diswnce of 1.95 m below the lop of the cylinder. Th e celilre of gwriry of Ihe
whole body is 1.20 m below the lOp of the cylinder. The lolal displacement ofwatl'( is 3.9 1011llt'S. Find
Ihe mela--cenlric heiglll of the body.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of body " J.O III
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IT 3'
GM'" - x - - .423 " 1.0 19 - .423 '" 0.596 m. Ans.
64 3.9
II. sub- Ill crj;cd o r a floating body is said 10 be stable if it w ill es back to its original position afl cr a
slig ht disturbance. T he relative position of the ce lllfC of grav ity (G) and cemfC of buoyancy (Ill) of a
body de termines the stability of a sub-ilwrgcd hody.
4 . 7 . 1 Stilbility of iI Sub- merged Body. The position of ce lltre of grav ity and centre of buoy -
ancy in case of a complete ly su b-merged hody arc fixed. Consider a balloon. which is complete ly su b-
merged in air. LeI the lower portion of the balloon comai ns heavie r IHalerial, so thaI ils eemfe of
gravity is luwe r thnn its wntre of buoyancy ~s shown in Fig. 4.12 «(I). Let the weight uf the balloon is
W. The weight W is acting through O. verticall y in the downward direction. while the buoyant force FB
is acting vertica ll y up. Ihrough n. For the equilibrium of the balloon IV= Fl!' If Ihe balloon is given an
angular di splacement in the clocl.:wisc di r~ction as shown in Fig. 4.1 2 (a) . then IV and FIJ const itute a
couple act in g in the ant i-c lockwise direction and brings the balloon in the orig inal pos ition. T hu s the
balloon in the position. show n by Fig. 4.12 (a) is in stab le equ ilibrium.
(,) (b)
G
, w
o «)
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM UNST ABLE EQUILIBRIUM NEUTRAL EQU ILIBR IUM
(a) Sta hl e Equillhrium. When IV = Fe and poin l n is above G. the body is said 10 be in stahk
equilibrium.
(b) Unstahle Equilibri um . If IV = F o' bUI Ihe ce ntre o f buoyancy (8) is h~low ee nlre of gravity (a),
Ihe body is in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4. 12 (b). A ~light disp lacement 10 Ihe body. in Ihe
clockwise direc tion. gives the co upl e due to W and I'IJ also in [he c lock wise dirt."ction. Th us Ih e body
docs nOI relurn 10 its origi nal po~ilion and hence Ih e body is in unslable equi lihrium.
(c) Ne utml Equi lib rium . If F/I= Wand IJ and G arc at [he same point. as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c). the
body is said to be in neutral equili brium.
4 .7.2 Stability of Floilting Body. The sWbility of a nual in g body is determined from [he posi-
tiun of Meta-ce ntre (M). In C3SC of fi(Hlting body. the weig ht o f the bod y is equ al to dIe weight of liquid
displaced.
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DISTURB ING
----.. COUPLE
,
tal Slablc equilibrium /If is above G (b) UnSlablt equilibrium /If i< below G.
(b) Unstab le Equilibrium. If the point hi is below G. the floating body will be in unstable equilib·
rium as shown in Pig. 4.13 (b). The disturbing co upl e is acting in tht clod:wis.: direction. The coup lt
due to buoyaru force F/:I and IV is also aCling ill the cloc kwis.: dirc.::tion 311d thus oven urnin g the
floating body.
(c) Ncutr:ll Equilibrium. Jfthe poim M is at Iliecel1treofgravily oflhc body. 1he floa1ing body will
be in neu1ral equilibri um .
Problem 4.12 A solid cy/inda of diameler -1. 0 '" ha~· a lreiglll of -1.0 m. Find Ihe meta-cenlric heigill
of Ille cylinder if rile specific gflll"ily of Illl' material of cylinde r'" 0.6 ami ir is floaling in l..arer lI"illl ils
a.{is I·urical. Slale II"herher IIIe eqw·librillm is ~·I,jbll' or unswble.
SolutIon. Given: D=4m 1 4·~ 1
Heigh!. 11=4m
Sp. gr.
!kptll of cylinder in water
'" 0.6
=Sp.gr.xh
+- .
'" 0.6 x 4.0 '" 2.4 m PLAN y
Distance of cent re o f buoyancy (B) from A
AD= i-
24
'" 1.2m -------
Distance of centre of gravity (G) from A
-:.~:.
, " -".1:
,G
4.0m 2.4 m
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I
GM = 'r/ - BG '" 0.41 67 - 0. 8 '" - O.3H33 m. Ail s.
- vc sig n me ans thalthc meta-centre (M ) is be low the centre o f grav ity (G). T itus th e c ylind er is in
un stabl e equilibrium . Ails.
Problem 4.13 A solid cylinder of !O em diwneler alld 40 em /ollg. COIIS;SfS of nm parrs made of
differel17 mll/erin/s. Theftrsl pari GIllie base is 1.0 em long and of specific gral'iry '" 6.0. The Oilier pari
of Ille cylinder ;s mode of tlie mareria/ IWI'il1g specific gWl'ily 0.6. Siale, if if call flom \'enically in
Irma.
Solution. G ive n: D : Wc m
Length. L ", 40 cm
Len gth o f I st pa rt. 'I: 1.0 u n
Sp. gr .. SI == 6.0
Densit y of 1st part. l
PI'" 6 x 1000 '" 6000 kg/m
Le ngth o f 2nd pan,
Sp. gr ..
, ", 40- 1.0=39.0cm
l
S2 '" 0.6
Sp.gr.
=0.6 -
T
Dc n~i t y of 2nd part , P2 '" 0.6 x 1000 '" 600 kgfml
1
The cy linde r will floal l'c n ic all y in W31c r iF its meta-ce ntric he ight GM is
1.0cm
posi tive. To find me ta -cc ntric hc ight. find the location of ccntrc o f gra vit y
U.
(G) and ce nt re o f huoy all cy ( 8 ) of th e combined so lid c ylind er. Th e di s tance
of the ce nt re of gra vity o f th e so lid cy linder fro m A is given as T LJ.-l
,
Sp.gr = 6.0
A G : [(Weight o f 1st pan x Distance ofCG. o f 1st pa rt from A) F ig . 4.15
+ (Wcight of 2nd pan of cy lindcr
x Di stance uf CG. of 2nd pan fro m A) I
+ IWc ight uf 1st part + wcig ht of 2nd p~rtl
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To fi nd th e ce lllfC o f bu oyancy of th e co mbined two parts o r of th e cy lind er. de term ine Ihe dcptll
of imme rsion of the cyl in der. Let the de pth of imm ersion of the cy linde r is II . T he n
Weigh t of the cy lin de r " We ight of wa ter displaced
It , 39 .0 11: , 1.0 It , II
- )( (. It x - - )(600 )( 9.81 + - Cit x - )(6000 )(9,8 1 = - (. 1)" x - x 1000 x9.8 1
4 100 4 [00 4 100
I ": h is in cml
GM= ~ - BG
wllerc
•
1 = M.O.1. of pla n of the body about Y- Y ax is
= '4If D-xh=
,
4"It (10)-x29.4
,
111
1
~
'V
'" ~ (10)4/ .:!.( 1O !
64 4 )
x 29.4 '" -.!... x
[6
10 ' = -,-'~OO
29.4
O;;;-c = 0.2 12
19 x 29.4
GM = 0.2 12 - 1.72 '" - 1.50S e rn
As GM is - ve. it mea ns th at the Me ta -ce ntre M is below the cen tre o f gra vi ty (G). T hu s tlw
cy linder is in uns tab le eq ui librium and !\O it ca nnot fl oat ven ica ll y in water. An s.
Problem 4.14 A rectangillar POII/OOII 10.0/11 long. 7 m broad (lnd 2.5 m deep weighs 686.7 kN. /I
carries Oil ils "pper deck (In empty boiler 0/5.0 m di",,,eter weighing 588.6 kN. The celi lre 0/ gw!"il)'
o/Ihe boiler alllilile POIi/OOII are (1/ Illei r respectil'e relltres alollg a l"erlicallille. Filld tlte //Iela-celllric
height. lI'eighl dellsity a/sea lrater is /0./04 kN1mJ.
Solution. Give n : Di me nsiu n u f pon tuon = [0 x 7 x 2 .5
Weig ht o f pont oon. 11'1'" 6S6.7 kN
f
IG,
T
5.0 m
Dia. of boile r. D=5.0 m lG
Wr ight o f boile r.
\\' fu r sea wate r
11'1 '" 5SS.6 kN
= [0. [04 kN/m 3 IT
"t B
G
,
gm ~
1.
To find the met a-ce nt ric heig ht. first dc tc nni n ~ the co mmo n ce n- A
I
tre of gravi ty G and cOl11 mon ce ntre of buoya ncy B of the ooi la and 1 -7.0m- l
po ntOO n. Let G I nnd G , nrc the ce ntre of grav iti es of pontOOn and Fig. 4.16
boiler r.:sj)Ccli ,·e ly. The n
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AG 1 ",
2.5
2 '" 1.25 III
,
AG1 ", 2.5 + 25.0 "" 2.5 +2.5 '" 5.0 III
The distanl'C of co mm on (;cnt rc of gravity G from A is given as
1\1 x AC, + IV, X AG,
AG '" ~---.~o.'--~
\~ + IVz
I
to.Om
I· 7.0 ~ ------l
J
Fig . 4. 17 Plan of tbe body
= 10.104 x I. x h x Deplh of immersion a/ water·line
1275.3", 10.104 x 10 x 7 X II
All= ~==
1.803 == .90 15 III
2 2
BG == AG - AB '" 2.98 - .9015 '" 2.0785 In - 2.078 111
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h",O.6)(L = ~L
0.9 3
1• °
, 1
Fig . 4.18
L
The distance of centre o f grav it y G from A, AU '" -
2
The dist ance of ccnlT" o f buoyanc y B from A.
GM"' ~- BG
•
where I ",""::'" D~ and ';j '" Volum e of cylinder in oil '" ~ 0 2 X "
M 4
~ <~ =%
IJD < 3/4. A. ns.
Problem 4 .16 511011' /lw / a cy/;ndrit'(I/ buoy of I m diameter Illld 2.0 m heighl \\'eiglling 7.848 kN
wil/ 110/ floll i "ulial/ly in sea waler of densily f()JO kglm J• Find Ihe force necessary in a "erlica/
chain a((a("/It:d al Ihe cell ire of base of Ihe buoy Ihal will keep il ,·ulica/.
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-, x I' ~X 1 4
J 64 6'
V " ~ D 2 xh "::'X I ~ X.989
4 4
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Purl II. Let tlie force applied in a ve rtical chain 3nachcd aI the centre .,.,.,J-t-1~,,-~
of the base of Ihe buoy is T (0 ~ccp the buoy venical. :0
Now find the combined position of ccmn: of grav ity (G') and cen tre of
buoyancy (B'). For the combined Centfe uf bUUyJIH':Y. let
/J' = depth of immersion when the force T is applied. Then
TQlal downward force = Weight of water displaced
or (784S + n
= Density o f wate r x g x Volume of cy lilldcr in water
= lO30x9.81 x ~ D')( Ii' I where II': depth ufimmeThion I
, A
4 7935.9
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:. Wei~hl of cOile
3.0 3.0
or 800xlt= 1000 x II)
hltan!a+ 11>11
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di(lmeler f) (md l'erlin,/Iu:ighl H. Show Ilwl jor stah/e equilibrium of the COli I' H < !.. [V i. 5;;; ]"1,
2 2 S
Solution. Given:
Dia. of oone =D
Hciglll o f cone'" H
PLAN OF
Sp. gr. o f cone = S CONE AT
WATER LINE
Let G", CemTC of gravity of cone
B '" Ccmrc of bUOYHIlCy
~ D _I
29 = Arcx angle
A = Apex of the cone
II'" Depth of immersion
T
J = Dia. of cmw at Waler surface "
Then AG:2H
4
, 1
3 fig. 4.22
A8= - II
4
Also weight of cone =Weigh t of water displaced.
I' I , '2
lOOOSxgX,lTWX H : IOOOxgx-rrr'xh or sn-H=,h
3
SR!H
II = - -
,-
R" ,
B" t~ne = - = -
H "
N=Hmne.r=ltlan8
SX(Hlan6)l xH
II '"
(1/ tan er,
SX II l xtan 1 exfI SH J
I,: " : __ or h 3 =SH 3
It" tan " e ,,1
I,,,, (SH1)1fJ = Sill H ... (1)
Distancc. 8G '" AG -An
J
=-H - - b= -
3 3 (H - b)= -3H(- .1/3
S /I)
4 4 4 4
'" 2 HI I _SI Il I ... (2)
4
Also I", M.O. Inenia of the plan of body at wate r surface
'" 3... It
64
.
V", Volume o f cu ne III water'" 3In: , In: ,
x 4 x iI + x h '" 34 iI+ IH.S
III
I
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~d'
J 64
- = .----o"'c----c 16.H.slll
V x 1 It d H.S'1l
3 4
Now Mcl<l-ce ntric height GM is given as
I 3d " 3H
GM = - _ BG '" ~~'"'- :.-- II _ S'/3 1
'rJ 16.fI ,S"J 4
GM should be +ve for swblc equi librium or GM > 0
... (3)
"'
II> 4.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Of DETERMINATION OF META -CENTRIC
HEIGHT
The mcla-cc ntric heigh t of a noati ng vessel can be determined, provided we know th e (emre of
grav it y of the Ooaling vc~scl. Lei"", is a known we ig hl placed over the ce ntre of the VCS1;e J as show n in
Fig. 4.23 (iI) and the vesse l is floating.
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GM=.!.... - BG
where
•
1== M.O.l. of the ship al water-line about Y-Y
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.--
WATER LINE
2.25
~10m ~
'" 75% o f -.!.... x 70 X 101 ", .75 X...!... x 70 X 101 ", 4375 111 4
[2 12
We ight of ~h ip
lUlU V" Vu lume of ship in wme r '" -:::c-:'c'-'C'':'''-'O''--:-:c:
Weight df.>nsily of wate r
19620 '" 1941.74 m1
10. 104
.!... '" 4375 '" 2.253 111
'rJ 1941. 74
GM", 2.253 - IJG or .999 '" 2.25] - BG
BG = 2.253 - .999 = 1.254 m.
From Fig. 4. 25. it is c lear lhal Ih e di stan ce of G from free surface o f the wa ter '" dist ance o f B
from water surface - BG
" 2.25 - 1.254 ", 0.996 111. An s.
Problem 4 .20 A pOIl/QOI! of 15696 kN di~placemt'1lI iJ floating in water. A »'<'igh! of 245.25 kN is
IIwred 1/"014gh a diSllIllce of 8 m across the deck ojpOIl/OOIl, II'hic// lills the pontoon l!lrOJlgll all angle
·r. Find mela-anlric height of the pontOOIi.
Solution. Given:
Weig ht of (lOntoo n = Di splace ment
W = 15696 1; N
"' MOl' abl e we ight. 245,25 kN
11'( '"
--;:""",,96,,2;.-;;:,;;;;
== -;-: == 1.788 III . '\ IIS.
15696 x 0.0699
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,
•
Fig. 4.26
Restoring couple '" \I' x Distance GA
= II'x GM sin 9 . .. ( i)
This couple tries 10 decrease Ihe imgle
d1 S
Angular 3(;celcralion of the body. (l = - - ,- .
d,
- ve sign has been introduced as Ihe restoring couple tries to dcr rcasc the angle B.
Torque due \0 inenia = Moment of 11lcrlia about Y-Y x Angular acceleration
= I y_y x
[- -dtlr"J
,-
IV ,
f r' r = gK
where IV = Weigh t of body, K = Radius of gyra tion about r·Y
IVxGMsin9= _~ K 2 d2?
g dr ' "'
For sma ll angle e. sine - e
K'
Dividing by - , , we gel d1?+ GM Xfx e ",0
dl- K-
Th" above equalion is a differenlial equat ion of second deg ree. The solUlion is
e ", C ,S l n
. JGM.g
~ XI + C2 COS
JGM.g
Kl
xI ...(iii)
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sin JGM.s: T
- - - x -=O=sinlt (.: sinlt=OI
Kl 2
T: 2n j£,'
GM.g
8x8
- - : 2n , 1 ;cOCC~~ : 19. IH sec. Ans .
0.7x9.81
Problem 4 .22 The lime period of rof/illg of a ship of weighI 29430 k.N ill sea waler is 10 seconds.
T/l e cellire of buo}'(l/Icy of Ihe ship is /.5 m be/ow II/e cen/re of grlll'it)'. Fifl(llile radius of g)"",liOl/ of
Ihe ~IIip if Ihe moment of inerlia af Ihe ship al IIIe lI'aler Urle aboUI fore and aft luis is I()(x) m~. Take
j'l'ecijic weiglll af sea Imler as = 10 I (X) Ntm J•
Solution. Given:
Time period. T : 10 s«c
Distance between centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity. BG : I.S 111
Mome nt of Inertia. I: 10000 m~
WciglH. IV" 29430 kN '" 29430 x 1000 N
Let the radi us of gyration: K
PiTSt calculate the meta-cenuie height GM. whieh is given as
I
GM: BM - BG '" - - BG
•
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K = clO
- c,-,-
J~I'~3c3C'C'C',,-1 = 6.93 m . An s .
" 2,
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The upward fOrl'e cxcncd by a liquid on a body when the body is immersed in the liquid is known 8S
buoyancy or force of huoyancy.
2. The point through which force o f buoyancy is _,upposed to act is called centre of buoyancy.
J. The point about which a body slanS oscillating when the body is ti lled is known as mcla-ccntre,
4. The distance between the mela-ccnlre and centre of llravilY is known as mcla-Ccnlric height
where I ~ Moment of lnenia of \he floating body (in plan) at water surface nboutthe axis Y-Y
'!j .. Volume of the OOdy sub-merged in wuter
BG '" Distance between ~entre of grnvity and centre of buoyancy.
b. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged OOdy are :
6., Angle through the ship or flo.1ling OOdy is lilted due to the movement of 11',.
8. The time period of o!'Cillation or rolling of a floating OOdy is given by T", 21f
v~
c;;;t;g
,,'here K .. Radius of gymlion. GM .. Mela -cenlric height
T", Time of one complete o!'Ciliation.
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EXERCISE
4 . Show thai the distance bctw~..,n the mcta-ccntre and centre of buoyancy is giw" by Hili ~ -
,
V
where I • Moment of incnia of the plan of the float ing body at water surface about longitudinal axis.
V _ VOlume of the body sub -merged in liq uid.
S . What arc the conditions of equilibrium of a floallng I>ody and a sub-merged body ?
6. How will you deten"inc the meta"':c"l,;C height of a floating body experimentally ? Explain wilh ncal
sketch.
7. Sclectlhc correct Staiement:
(a) The buoyant force for a floating body passes through the
(i) centre of gravity of the body (ii) centroid of vol ume of the body
( iii) mcta-.celllre of the body (il·) cCllIre of gravity of the suh.merged pan of the body
(,,) ccntroid of thc displaced volume.
(b ) A body sub-mer~~"<.l in liquid is in equilibrium when;
(i) it' meta-.centre is above the centre of gravity
(I;) its mcta...:cn!rc is above the cenlre of buoyancy
(iii) its centre of gravity is above thc centre of buoyancy
(i" ) its centre of buopn,y is abo,·e the centre of gral·ity
(,,) noneoflhesc. IAn s. 7 (II) (" J. (b ) (i1')1
8. Dcri,·c an cxpression for !he lime pcriO<l of lhe oscillation of a floating body in lcnns of radius of gyrmion
and mela-.centrie hcight of the floating body.
9. Define the termS meta-<.·entrc. ccntrc of buoyancy. mcla-centric height. ga uge pres,ure and absolute
pressure.
10 . What do you understand by the hydroslatic equation ? With the he lpof this equation. derivc the expression
for the buoyant force acting on a sub·merged body.
II . With neal sketches. explain lhe conditions of equilibrium for fiOal ing and sub-merged bodies.
12. Differenlime between:
(i) Dynamic viseosi1y and kinematic ,·iseosity. (ii) Absol ute and ga uge pressure (iii) Simple and
differenti al manomelers (i" ) Cent re of gr~vily and cenlrc of buoyancy.
(Del/,i Ulli'·t"rsiry. Dec. 10M)
1. 1\ wooden block of width 2 m, depth 1.5 til and lenglh 4 til floats horizontally in water. f ind the volume
of water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy. Thc specific gravily of thc wooden hloc k is 0.7.
IAns. 8.4 til ! . 0.525 m from (he basel
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CR~ER
~ S.I INTRODUCTION
Kinematics is dctincd as that branch of sc ience whic h deals with motion of particles without
co nsidering the forces causing the motion. The ve locit y at any point in a flow field at an y till1~ is
studied in this brandt of fluid ll1~chanics. Once the velocity is known. (h e n the pressure distri bution
and hence forces ac tin g on the fluid can be dClemlincd. In this <:hapter. the methods of determining
velocity and acceleration arc discussed .
The fluid motion is described by two methods. The y arc - (i) Lagrangian Method. and (ii) Eulerian
Method. In the Lagrangian method. a sin gle fluid particle is followed during its nlO1ion and its
yelocity. acceicration, density. clc .• ilre described . In case of Eulerian melhod. lhe velocily. ilccelera-
tion. prcssure. dens it y etc .. arc described ,,( n point in flow field. The Eulerian method is common ly
used in fluid mechanics .
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,.
- 0 -P
- . ( dill )
•. J.....
~
('P) "" ,.",
=0 -
'at =0
(~~L~I =0
where av = Change of ve locity
as = Length of flow in the ui rcction S.
Non-uniform flow is lhal type of flow in which the veloci ty al any given time ctl311gCS with respect
\0 space. Thus, mathematically. for non -uniform flow
('V)
as ' _ron"",
.0
.
5. 3. 3 Laminar and Turbulent Flows. Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in whieh
the fluid panicles move along we ll·deflned paths or stream line and all the stream-lines arc straight and
parallel. Thus the panicles move in laminas or layers gliding smooth ly over the adj acent layer. This
type of Ilow is also called stream-line Ilow or viscous flow.
Turbulent now is that type of flow in which the fluid panicles move in a zig-zag way. Due to the
movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way. the eddies fonnation takes place which arc responsible
VD
for high energy loss. For a pipe flow. the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number-
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It is delined as the quanti ly of a fluid flowing per second through a seclion of a pipe or a chanrlCl.
For an incom pressib le fluid (or liquid) Ihe rale of flow or discharge is expres.scd as the vo lum e of fluid
flowing across the s.cclion per second. For compressibl e fluids. Ihe rale o f flow is usually expressed as
the we ight of fluid flowing across Ihc section . Thus
(i) For liquids Ihe uni ls of Q arc mJfs or iilres/s
(ii) For gascs the uni ls of Q is kgffs or Newtonfs
Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which
A :: Cross-sectional area of pipe
V:: Average ve loc it y of fluid a(;fOSS the section
Then discharge Q= A xY. ...(5.1 )
.. S .S CONTINUITY EQUATION
The eq uat ion based on Ihe principle of conservation o f mass is called contin uit y eq uati on. Thus for
a fluid flow in g through th e pipe at all the cross-sectiun. the quantity of fluid per secund is constant.
Consider IWO ",ross-sections of a pipe as show n in Fig. 5. 1.
Let VI:: A vera ge velocity at cross-sedion I- I
PI = Density at section I- I
A I = Area o f pipe at section I-I
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and V2. P2' A~ arc correspo ndin g valu es al section. 2-2. <D @
~~ ,_",.l~'"'.'"'.'"'.'"".'"'."11.,"".,.,."
The n rate of now section 1- 1 "" p ,A, VI
Rate of flow at "ce uon 2-2 == P ~!Vl
Acco rdin g 10 law o f co nse rva ti on of 1ll,ISS
Rate of flow al seclio n I - I
OF FLOW
== Rate of fl ow al sec lio n 2-2
DIRECTl ON~
- 7""
i
'
+.
b"""'" " ',~"",..,. i ,
or p, A I V, = PzAIVl ... (5 .2 )
Eq u:u ion (5.2) is appli ca ble 10 the co mpressi ble as we ll as inCQlIl - Fig . 5.1 Fluid flowi ng through
pn: ...s iblc fluids and is callcd Contlnull}' Equation. If the fluid is in - a pi~.
compressi ble. Ihc n P, '" p, and continuity eq uati on (5.2) redu ces \0
... ( 5.3 )
Problem 5.1 The diameters of a pipe atlhe seclions I (/lId 2 lire /0 em mid 15 em respeclil-ely. Find
rhe disc/wrge Ihrough lilt' pipe if the relocily of W<lIer flowing through rhe pipe ar sec lion 1 is
5 mls. Determine also IIIe )'e/oeify al sl'clioll 2.
Solution. G iven:
CD <ZJ
At sc(;ti on 1. D,,,, lO cm ,,,O.1 1ll !
AI "'..::. (0 , 2) :"::' (. I) l " 0 .007854 Ill l _ , D,=1Ocm
4 4
V, '" 5 m/s.
At scc tio n 2. O 2 ,,, 15cIll ", 0.1 5 III
V," 5m./s.ec
A2 ="4" (. 15t =0 .0 1767 m-, Fig. 5.2
(/) DiSCharge through pipe is g iven by equa tion (5. 1)
or Q=Al x V,
= 0.007854 x 5 = 11.03927 III lls. A/l s.
Using equ.u io n (5.3). we ha ve A,V, " A 2 V1
A, V, ,O~.=
OO 78~54
,=-
( ii) V 2 = - A,
-,- " - 0.0 1767 )( 5 .0 = 2.22 m'-~. Ans.
Problem 5 .2 A 30 em diameler pipe. coIII'eying warer. branches illlo 111'0 pipes of diametl'Ts
20 em and 15 em respecti)'e/y. If IIIe (II'erage ~'e/oeir)' in II,e 30 em diamerl'r pipe is 2.5 mls. find the
disc/mrge ill this pipe. Also derermille rhe ),elocity ill 15 em pipe if tile (II'ew ge I'e/oeify ill 20 em
diumeler pipe is 2 mls.
Solution. G iven :
(j)
Fig. 5.3
I I Ii
~ I IL
11" 1 11" , ,
A, '" - V , = - x .3" =0.07068 m "
4 4
V, '" 2.5 In/s
D2 '" 20 ern = 0.20 III
Al =~ (.2)2 = ~ x .4 = 0.0 3 14 OI l ,
V2 =2 rn /s
DJ = 15cm = O.15m
A):-
,
II ,
,If
(. Is r =- x 0.22S '" 0.01767 m -
,
I I Ii
~ I IL
A
, B,
t
~ ~
0
12m 1.5 m ,
! I
~ ,
V>B= 3 m/sec
Fig. 5.4
Diameter o f pipe CE", Da :
Then now ratc thrQu~h CD : QI3
"'
3.0 x (1.2)2 == VBe X ( 1.5) 2 [Di Vide by ~]
3)( 1.2 2
V nc l = 1.92 m/s . An s.
1.5
(iii) The flow ratc through pipe
CD=QI= Q = 3.393 = 1.13 1 rn J/s
3 3
Q 1 '" VCD x Are a uf pipe CD )(~ (Om)!
. 131", Veo
, )(0.8-, '" 0.5026 Veo
)(4
.
1.1 31
V ClJ : - - - = 2.25 m /s. Ans.
0.5026
(i,') Flow rate th rough CEo
Q 2 == Q - Q 1 = 3.393 - 1.1 3 1 = 2.262 rn J/s
2.263 = 2.5
,
)("4 x (DClf
,
2.2(3)( 4 ~5'
=,, \.1;).0" 1.0735m
"' DeE::
2.5 x Il
Diame ter of pipe CE:: 1.0735 m. A n s.
I I Ii
~ I IL
V = V2
V, '" 12m/s NOZZLE
J
Value o f g= - 9.1I 1 m/s 2 and li0: 4.5m
- 1/ 0: 2g/l . we gel
Using.
V~
V!
,-12 , =2)«(-9.81 »( 45
Fig . 5.5
I I Ii
~ I IL
A\c
" ,
VI-X VI Itx (0.025)2 xI2
Al = - ' _I", 4 = 0.0007896
V1 V1 4x 1.46
OJ = Di31nclcr of jd 3\ point A.
x4
OJ "'V/0.0007896
It = 0.03 17 m '" 31.7 mm. A ns .
Consider a Iluid cle ment of Icnglhsdx. tty and dZ in the direct ion o f .(, y and Z. LeI U, I' and II' arc the
inlet ve loc it y co mponents in
x.)' and Z directions respectively. Mass of fluid ente ring th e face ABCD
per seco nd
= p X Velocity in x-d irection x Area o f ABeD
=pxux(dvxdz)
'" - -
"
ay (pI') d,l.dydz
and in z- di rcct ion '" -
a
- (pw) d_l dydz
a, y Fig. 5.6
I I Ii
~ I IL
. dx d)' dz.
I I Ii
~ I IL
(
=px u, + J:
a.. )
dr X(r+dr)dO I': CD=(r+tlr)dO I
=p xlI,xr + u,dr+r -
[ a.., d,+ -a.., (d,')' 1d O
aT ar
'" r{lIrxr +u , xdr+ rJ;; .df] dO
[Th e tenn containing (11,)1 is very small and has been ncgk~ t cd l
Gain of mass in r-di rect ion per un it time
'" (M aS/; through All - Mass through CD) pcr unit time
[
= p.Il ,.rdO- p.u r·r.de - p u,.dr+r dr,ilf de a.., 1
[
= -p 1I, .dr + r dr,ilT .dO''', 1
[Tlli s is writlcn in this form because
(r. de. dr. I) is eq ual to vo lum e of
ele mentl
aU a r.J6.dr
= -P aE! ' , [Multiplying and div iding by rl
Total ga in in fluid mass per unit time
u, (lU
'l . r. dr. dfJ - p-aUa- · rtia,. tir
= - P [ -;:- + -, -, ...(S.SA )
ae
I I Ii
~ I IL
"' - p[
U, Ju,]
---; + Jr -p
dUe
Ja r =
dP
at [Cancelling rilr . d9 from bolh sides ]
[u,
-dp +p - + - Ju,] + p -aile . ~ __ 0 ...(5.50
"' at r dr r i.l9
Equation (5.5 C) is Ihe continuity equation in polar co -ordinates for two-dimensional flow.
I I Ii
~ I IL
~ (furl" ~ (r sin 8)
{)T aT
=2rsin8 (": si n e is cons tant w.r.!. r)
Now jje'" 2r cos e
Differentiati ng th e nbovc cqumion w.r.l . e. we gel
a
{}9 (" 0) '"
a (2,- cos 9)
as
'" 2, (- sin 8) (.: 2,- is conSlalll W.r.I. 9)
= -lrsi n e
LeI V is the rcsu hant ve locit y a1 any poim in a fluid flow. LeI 1/. I' and w arc its componclll in .1', y and
Z di rections. The velocity co mponents arc functions of space-eo-ordinates and lime. M31llcmal icall y.
Ihe ve locit y co m ponents arc given as
U=ft(.I',Y·Z,I)
\' "'li·I, y, Z, I)
w=f,(.r.), . z. t)
and R~~ullaI11 vdoc ily. V= IIi + vj+ wI: = Ju l + v l + w l
Lei <1r <1 , and a, arc Ilic lot al acce lerdtlo n in x. y and Z directions respective ly. Tllen by the cliain
rulc o f d ifferc ntia tion. we lIave
du au iI.l au dy au dz au
a = - = --+--+- .- + -
, ill dl ax til til dl ay az
dx ely dz
- =u. - = I'anO- =w
til ill til
du dll dll du du
a = -;II-+I'-+W-+-
, til dx dy dZ dl
d,'
a . = - =u -
dl' a,· d" av
Similarl y.
) til ax +v -d), +w -dZ + -(II ...(5.6)
dw dW dW dW dW
a.= - =U - +>' - +>' - + -
- I
If ih ay azal
('or ste ad y no w. -
av '" O. wllcrc V is result ant veloc it y
a,
I I Ii
~ I IL
o - - =' -
dll all all
+l' -
au
+ W-
, - <II (Ix ~, dz
dl'
a , = - =II - +I' - +W -
a,· dv dv
... (5.7 )
} dl ax 0;, Jz
dll'
" =-=,-+,-+w-
aw all' all'
t dl ax ()y Jz
Acceleration vector A=ai +aj+at: 1 .. .(S .&)
I I Ii
~ I IL
dw d", dw d...
" == Il - h - +W - + -
;: (.Ix ~. Jz at
Now from velocity components. we have
au
-
, all == o. -au
= 12.,-, -
Oil
= 0 alld - ~ 0
ax dY dz at
Jy = - 20.\)" ~ = - I O_~. a~ =0('11' = 0
ax Jy iJz iJ!
dW ow ow dW
ax = 0, oy '" 0, az '" 0 and at = 2.1
Su bstitutin g the valu es. the accel erati o n co mpone nts at (2. l. 3 ) at lime I '" I arc
lIx = 4~.3 ( 12x2) + (- 10;')') (0) + 21 x (0) + 0
'" 4&x~ = 48 )( (2)~ = 48 x 32 = 1536 units
",." 4x3 (- 20xy) + (- IOx!y) (- IOx~) + 21 (0) + 0
4
=- &ox y + l00x\-
=_80(2)4( 1)+ HlO (2)4 X I = - 1280+ 1600= 32Q unils.
<I, == 4.yl (0) + (- In;)') (0) + (11) (0) + 2.1 == 2 .0 units
Accele ration is A = a,i + (I) + II! = 15361 + 320j + 2k. An s.
Resultan t A =J( 1536)l + (320)1 + (2)l units
"'
=J2359296 + 102400 + 4 '" 1568.9 unit s. Ans.
Problem 5.7 Th e [o/lowing CUjCS represent Ihe Iwo ,-e/oe ily compOI.enIS, determine the third com-
ponnll of "e/ociry SlIdl flwr riley salisf)' rile COII/in uir), eqllllfio" :
(i) 1/ =.y2 + l + z" : "=xl-Y{] +.t)'
(Ii) \. = 2/. '"
= 2.\)"z.
Solution. The continuity cllualio n for inco mpressible fluid is ~ivc n by equation (5.4) as
all + 0" + aw =0
ih a), ih
Cuse I. - a" =2.T
a."
a, ,
- =2x)' -z + x
iJy
Substituting the va lu cs of all and dl' in continuity equa tio n.
dx d),
h+2q- l
, +x+ -
aw~o
a,
ow ,"\ '
- =- 3x - 2~)" + z-orow= (- 3.(- 2ty + z-) dz
a,
I I Ii
~ I IL
[nt egrati ng. we get " = _ 4.\)' _ 2)' _;1 + f ey, Z) = _ 4xy _ x 2y + fey, z), Am .
= ..?y
ow
Solution. For the givcll Ouid flow field" -ax = lxy
I' :.lz
a,·
- :2yz
ay
aw
az-,, - h y - 2yz.
['or a case o f possible stead y inco mpre ssib le fluid flow. th e continuity eqU3lion (5.4 ) should be
sm isfied.
i.e ..
dw
Substituting the I'alues of dll , ,uld - . we ge t
d.' d,
dll dl' dll'
- + - + - '" 2xy + 2)"2 - 2.1)' - 2)'2 '" 0
dx dy d,
I I Ii
~ I IL
1I
au
:U - + V -
au +W -i}J j
.( ih dy OZ
(l , =U -
dV
+ V-
ilv +II' -
ai'
) ax dy dZ
il,= It -
all' h -ali' h ' -a!l'
- ax d)' dz
2 dU
u"'_t)'.-= l.ry. -= x 300 -
all l au 00
ai' dy dZ
2 <lV th' rlv,
V=Y Z. ax = 0. {)y =2y:, dZ =y'
w= - 21yz-yz·.-:;-= - 2yz. -,
, i)waw , aw
= - 2.t: -:' , -, = - 21)'- 2)': .
oX y Z
I I Ii
~ I IL
To find -
"ax . we must diffe re ntiate equation (it) with respcci to x.
au = -:;-
-
a [1.2 73 Q (0.4 - 0.1 x)--•[
ax 0.1"
= 1.273 Q (- 2) (0.4 - 0.1 .1)- 1x (- 0.1) [Here Q is co nstant]
= 0.2546 Q (0.4 - 0.1 _r) , ... (iii)
~ I I~
~ I IL
'" 1.27] x 0.2546 x (0.02) 2 X (0.4 - 0.1 x» [-: Q '" 0.D2 m'/sl
:.Convective acccl~ralion al the middle (where x = I 111)
= 1.273 x 0.2546 x (0.02)2 x (0.4 _ 0 .1 x 1)-3 m/s 2
"" 1.273 x 0.2546 x (o.oll x (O.3r3 mls 2
= 0. 0048 mls·. An s.
Case II . When Q changes from 0.02 m3/s 10 0.04 1I1 3/s in ]0 seconds. find the 10lai acceleration
at x'" I 111 and r '" 15 seconds.
Total accclcr;l1ion = Convective 'lccclcrmion + Local ac(;clcration ,11 t'" 15 seconds.
The rmc of now at I = 15 sccunds is given by
(0.04 - 0,02) J
=0.02+ x15= O.03mfs
30
The velocity (14) and gradient ('"a.. ) in terms of Q arc given by equations (Ii) and (iii) res[l<-'l:tivcly
i.l"
Local acceleration: -a; : -a;i.l [1.273 Q (0.4 - 0.1 .rr ! 1
I I Ii
~ I IL
5.8 . 1 Velocity Potential Function . II is defined as a scalar function of space and time such
that its negative derivative w ilh rcspccl l0 any dircrtion g ives the nuid velocity in that direction. It is
defined by 0;. (Ph i). Mathematically. Ihe velocity. polcnlial is defined as 0;. '" f(x. y. z) for steady flow
sucli that
U=_dQ
d'
v'" - dQ ...(5.9)
ily
11'=- -
d,
il,
where II, \' and I\' MC the components of velocity in .l.), and z dircdions respectively.
The velocity components in cy lindrical polar co.()rdinales in terms of vctocity potential funct ion <Ire
given by
". = ; ; )
whe re
and
'"
II, '" ve locity component in radial direction (i.c .. in , dircctioll)
lie = velocity component in tangential direction (i.e .• in 0 direction)
.. . . .
The COl11lnUlty equation fur an IIKumpresstble steady nuw tS -
. au + -a" + -a\~ == o.
a.T ay at
Substituting the values of u. \' and I,' from equati on (5.9). we gtl
alq. a~9
f'or two -dimension case. equation (5.10) reduces to - , + - , '" o. . .. (5. 1 I)
a.T - ay '
If any valu e of 9 that s.11isfies Ihe Laplace equation. wilil"()rrespond IU some ,",<lse of fluid flow.
P ro lle rties o r th e l'o te nt !:,1 I'- unctio n. The rotational co mponents· arc gil'en by
I I Ii
~ I IL
U)
X
== .!.[aw
2 ayaZ
- ~l
Substituting the values. of I•. I' and w from cquatioll (5.9) in the above rotational components. we
gel
'"'
a!q. (l! Q a!q. a"41
If 9 is a continuous function. IlIcn - - " - - 0- - " - - : etc.
(hay dyi}x ilzih dxilz
ro~ =w. =wx =O.
When rotational components <lfe zero. the flow is called irrotational. Hence the propcnics of the
poccntial function arc :
L If velocity IX'iClllial (41) c!\iS!~. the flow should be irrotalional.
2. If veloci ty potential (41) satisfies the Lapla(;c cqualion. it represents the possi b le steady inc01l1-
pressible irrotational flow.
S.S.2 Stream function . It is defined as Ihe scalar fUIl(;tion of space and time. SU(;h. Ihat its partial
derivative with rcsp.:ct to any direction gives the veloci ty component at rig ht angles to that direction. It
I
is denoted by IjI (Psi) and defined unly for two·dimc nsional flow. Mathcmati<:alJy. for steady flow it is
defined as IjI : / (x. y ) such thut
a.
Jx ",. ... {5.12)
I I Ii
~ I IL
a( aya.) a(""J
,h - a:;- '"
+ dy
a'. a'.
0 or - a.•ay + (lxdy '" O.
Hence cxistclH:c of \jI means a possible case of fl uid flow. The flow may be rot ational or irrmat ion al.
.
The rolallonal component W, .IS gIven
. by 00, '" - '(',ax '")
2
- - -
it),
.
Substituting th~ va lues of 1/ and I' from cqualio rl (5. 12) in the above rotational component. we gel
an - ay
I I Ii
~ I IL
x)'
, 1 xy
, ~
Solution. Given: 9=- - - X + - + ,
3 3
The p3nial dcriv31il'cs of q. W.r.l..l and yare
-
dQ
=- -
i J.l ly
-2 x + - - ... (1 )
ax 3 3
d$ 3xy".I J ,
- : - - - + - +-y ... (2)
ay 3 3
I I Ii
~ I IL
. ,
11= "'3 ,
+2x -x-y. Ans.
3
An s .
(ii) The given val ue of <p. will rcprcSCIH a possi ble case offlow if it satisfies llie Laplace cqumion. i.e..
(fiji a 2
- , + - , =0
<1>
ih · dy ·
From cqumion s ( 1) and (2). we have
dQ '" lOx
ax
i.lQ = - lOy.
ay
Bul velocity components" and I' arc given by t>{jualion (5.9) as
u:-d1p:-IOx
ax
" ,, - -
a. = - (-10y) = lOy
ay
Th" velocity components at the point (4. 5), i.e .. al x " 4. Y " 5
"" - 10 X 4 " - 40 units. An s.
I'" 10 x .5 " SO unit s, A ns.
I I Ii
~ I IL
1' = -
a. = 5 un li s/sec. An s.
a.,
Rcsul1ant velocity
,. 5
Direction is give n by . lanS ", - = - =0.833
" 6
== lan- l .833 = 39° 48', An s.
e
Problem 5 .13 If for II two-dimensional potelltial flow, the )'elociTy pOlelitial is gil'ell by
41=..-(2), - 1)
delerm;" " Ihe I'docily III Ihe [XliII/ P (4, 5). Dekrm;IIe "bo Ihe WI/Ill.' of slreOIll "melioll IjI (II the poillt P.
Solution. G i ve n ~=x(2y - l)
(i) The vc loc ity componcllIs in the directi o n of x and ), arc
1/
a; a
= - -ih '" - -ax Ix (2)' - 1)J =- (2)' - I J = I - 2)'
I I Ii
~ I IL
dill '" ak
(J.T ax
But f rom equation (ii), Oljl = _ 2x
0,
dljl dk
Equating the value of -,;;--. we get -:;- '" - 2.1.
ox oX
1ntcgratlng
. th " ' n. we get k
IS equalto = f - 2xd x = - -2x~
, - '" - X-.,
Substituting this value of k in equation (iii), we gel It' '" y1 _ , . _ ,,1, AilS .
Stream fun(;tion If a1 I' (4. 5) '" 5' - 5 - 4' '" 25 - 5 - 16", 4 IInits. A ilS.
Problem 5.14 711,. stream /1I1II:tioll for II two-dimensional flow is git'en by \jI = 2xy. (aleulMe Ille
\'cloeily at IIII' point P (2. 3). Find lile I'elocity pOfelllillljullc/ion $.
Solution. GiVt'1l : IjI = 2 ly
The ve locity componen ts 1/ and I' in tcrms of Itf ar~
d. a
- - = - - (21}')= - 2x
1/=
ay ay
I' = -"" = -a (2.1)') = 2y.
ih ax
At th~ point P (2. 3). w<" get 1/= - 2 x 2 = - 4 units/sec
v = 2 x 3 '" 6 units/sec
Resultant vcloci ty at /, , /, , 1"'=
p=" .. + 1' _ ", 4 +6 = ,,1 6 + 36 .J5i = 7.21 units/sec,
Vel ocity l'olenli,.1 Fu n ction ¢I
"'
2x'
., - , 1
+C= x + C ... (iii)
I I Ii
~ I IL
2 '
Integrating lliis equatio n. we get C == J- 2y dy =- ~ . == - l
Substituting this val ue of C in eq uati on ( iii). we get q. == x~ _ yl, AilS .
Problem 5.15 Skelch Ihe s/re(lfll lines repreSented hy W == .; + i.
Also Jim{ QuI Ihe I'e/ocil)' lind ilJ' dir ediOIl al poin/ (I. 1 ).
Solution. Given \j1 '" ,,) + I
The ve locity compon ents II and I' arc
oed lane=
I'
-=-:-
II
2
4 2
I
-HH--- +--+-+-t--~ ,
e = t all I . 5 = 26° 34'
Res ultant veloc ity makes an an gle o f 26" 34' wilh .f- axis.
Sketch of Stream li nes
w=x2+l Fig. 5. 10
Ld 1jI = 1.2.3 and so on.
Then We ha ve 1 =->.,l + l
2=-I) + l
3=·,J+i
and so 011.
Each equa ti on is a equm io ll of a ci rcl e. T hus we s hall ge t concemric circles o f differcm diam ete rs
as show n in Fig. 5.10.
Problem 5 .16 Th e l'e!oCily components in (I Il!"o -dimensioll(l/ flow field fo r (In incompressible
fluid (Ire liS follows:
I I Ii
~ I IL
- a" : 1
VI'
-= - 1
a.< ay
~+,)I'= I - I =O
ih
d)'
Hence flow is continuous and velocity potent ial exists.
Let 41 = Velocity potential.
I I Ii
~ I IL
a.;.
ax = - Il= - (.r - 4v)=-x+ 4y
. . .. ( i)
I I Ii
~ I IL
Ok
Diffacnliating equ ation (ri) w.r.1. y. We gel QIjI", _ x _ o+
il)' oy
But from cqu3lion (I'). we Itave
a.
- = - .t+4,}'
ay
Equatillg the twO values of d\jJ ,we gel
"
-x+ -
"oy =-x+4y
'y"
- =4y
A fluid pani cle whi le moving may undergo anyollc or combination of follow ing four ly pes of
disp lacements:
(i) Linear Translation or Pure Tran slation.
(il) Linear Dcformmion.
(iii) Angular Dcfornwtion. and
(iJ') R01alion.
S. 9. 1 Lineilr Translation. It is defined as the movement of a fluid c lement in such a way thai it
moves bodily from olle position 10 another posit ion and the twO axes ab and cd rcprcsemcd ill new
positions by (I'b' and c'd' lire parallel as shown in Fig. 5.11 (a).
5 .9.2 linear Defo rmati o n . II i~ddlned as the defonnalion of a fluid clemenl in lineardireclion
when lhe eleme nl moves. The axes of lhe elemenl in lhe deformed POSilion and un-deformed posilion
,
are parallel. bUI lheir lenglhs change as shown in Fig. 5 II (b).
,
eI ~+-
.' .' ,
• -t ~ _4 d'
• 0
0 , , • ,,' "0
-~-
,
(0) LINEAR TRANSLATtON
~
, (b) LI NEAR DEFORMATION
'!~ ,"
'" "
.-"'
0
,
'" , .
t ,' o.
, , ,
0 o
(e) ANGULAR DEFORMATION (eI) PURE ROTATION
~ I I~
~ I IL
5.9.3 Angu lar Deformation or She af Deformation. It is defi ned as the average change in
lhe angle conta in ed by two adjacent s id es. LCl ll.9 1 and "'6 2 is the change in angle ~ twccn two
adjacent sides of a fluid c lement as shown in Fig. 5.11 (c) . then angular deformation or s hear strain
rale
Nuw .... 6 1 :
dV AI" ':h·
-x- · - and l!.6,=
a" 6)' all
- . -
ax Ih ax - oy ll.y dy'
5 .9.4 Rotation . II is ddincd as Ihe mOVellll'nl of a flui d element in sucll a way Ihat both of it~
a)les (horizontal as well as ... crtical) rolah! in Ihe same dir"ction as s hown il\ Fig. 5.1 1 (d). II is equal
to~(~-
2 ox Jill
oy for a two-dimensional clemen t in x-y p lane. The rotational compon ents are
W. '
-
~(a"
2i1x
-,,,]
Jy
.. ,( 5.17)
W •
J'
~(a"
2ozox
_awl
5 .9 .5 Vorticity. It is defined as the vai lic twicc o f the rotation and h ~ncc it is given as 200.
Problem S.18 Aflilidflow is gi),en by V '" 8fi _ iOAJyj.
Find Ihe ~'he(lr slmin rale lind ~'/('Ie whelher Ihe floK' is rola/iuII(I/ or irrol(lliOllll/.
Solution. Given V", S..-li - I Q~yj
,av a,· ,
and \' '" - lOx·y. a.t = - 20.1)" (ly = - lOx"
I I Ii
~ I IL
, ..
(ii) ROla1101l. 00, IS given by w, == -
I - [al' au)- -
1 , , 1 '
== - [(y- - .c ) - (y - x-)] .: 0
2a.ray 2
Rotation is zao. which means it is case of irrotational flow . AilS.
Vortcx flow is defined as thc flow of a fluid along a curvcd path or the flow of a rotating mass of
fluid is knowll a . VOrtell Flow'. Thc VOrtCll flow is of twO types namely:
I, ForlCcd vOrtell flow, ;lnd
2. Free vonell flow .
5 . 10. 1 Forced Vortex Flow. Forced vo rtex flow is defined as that type of vortex flow. in
which some ellternal torque is requircd to rotate the fluid mass. T he fluid mass in thi s type of flow.
rotates at constant angular velocity. (0. Thc tangential vcloc ity of any fluid particle is given by
I'= rox r ... (5.18)
I I Ii
~ I IL
V
I
_::1'__ _
=~=~=-{--::::~ LIQUID
::=:::f:::::
VERT iCAL .... :::::=t::-::
_-_-_1--_-_- :-:-:-£cccc
CYLI NDER
-=-=-}-:-=-= _-:-:-:t-:-:-
•
L1
(a) CYLINDER IS STATIONARY (b) CYLINDER IS ROTATING
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
(iii) Centrifugal force, till" acting in the dirc(;tion away
,
from the cemfC. O. Fig . 5.13
Now. the mass of Ihe clement'" M ass density x Volume
=pxMx!:J.r
ap) ,,'
lp+-
a, ty L\A - pL\A = pL\A6r - ,
ap v l
a, 6r L\A = pL\A6r - , ,
-
dp ,,1
Cancelling 6r)( L\A from both sides. we get - = p - ...(5.2 t)
a, ,
Equation (5.21) gives the pressure variation along the r:,dii.1 di rection for a forced or free von cJ\
flow in J horiwllml plJnc. The cJ\pression dp is called pressure gradient in the radial direct ion. As ap
ar ar
is posilive. hence pressure increases with the increase of radius ' r' ,
The pres~ure variation in the "enical plane is given by Ihe hydrostatic law, i.e. ,
ap
az-= - pg ... (5 .22)
dp: -
ap dr+ -ap dz .
or aZ
Substituting the values of -
ap frOnl eljuatioll (5.21) and
ap
aZ front cljumion (5.22), we gel
a,
I I Ii
~ I IL
Equation (5.23) gives the variation of pressure of a rmating fluid in any plane.
S. IO.4 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow. For th., forced vorlex flow. from equation (5. 18).
Wi' have
.'=",xr
where ill '" Angular ve locity'" Constant.
Substituti ng lhe value of,' in equat ion (5.23), we gel
(!) ~ r l
dp '"
,
P x- - dr - pg dz.
Consider two points 1 and 2 in Ihe fluid ha vin g forced von e,; flow as shown in Fig. 5.14.
Int egrat in g the abo ve equation for poilUs I and 2. we gel
"'
"'
p '1 l'
='2(00-'1 - oor n - pg lz2- zd
I',·, ro , Xr,-
'
Ld l , - l , = Z. thcn wc ha vc Z= - '- = • ...(5 .2 4 )
- 2g 28
I I Ii
~ I IL
AXtS OF
ROTATION
, , nR l Fig_ 5.16
" nR- x II + nR - (x + Y) - 2
x (x + Y)
, nRl
" nR - x II +- - (x + y) ... (ii)
2
Equ atin g (I) J nd (ii). we get
, 1 nR"
rtR- (II + .f )" nR x It +- - (.l + y)
2
",
nR ' nRl
- - .f= - - y or .f" Y
2 2
or Fall of liquid at ce ntre = Rise of liquid at th e e nds.
Problem 5 .21 All ope" firc"fa r la"t of 20 cm d;wl1t:ler 'IIId 100 CIII fOllg COllla;" 5 ...aler "1"0 a
lreiglll of 60 CIII. Tile /'IIIt is rolated {,bOUI ils I'erlical llXiJ' at 300 r.p.m., fiml Ille deplll of (lflfabola
forllled a/ lite f ree Sllrface of "'I'/er.
Solution. Given
Diame ter o f cy linder ,,20 em
Rad iu s. '. -
2. =!Oem
2
I I Ii
~ I IL
I I Ii
~ I IL
,""
W= - - =
60
21t x 300
60
=31.4 1 rad/s
W=-- = ,""
60
21t x 600
60 '" 62.82 radls
Height of parabola.
As the Itcight o f parabola is more than the Itcight of cy linder th e shape of imaginary parabola wi ll be
as showil ill Fig. 5.11.
Lei r =' Radius of the parahQla at the boltom of the vessel.
ill~
Hei glll of imaginary parahQla
I
== 12.40 - 30 == 42.40 em.
Volume of wa lU left in Ihe vessel
"'tmSIj~ :~ :E 72.4cm
= Volume o f water in portions ABC and OEF
'" Initial vo lume o f wala
T
1
- Volume of parabo loid AOF
+ Volume of paraboloid COD. I" \ I. I' I
Now vol ume of paraboloid 4cm
42. l \ I I I
I \ I I I
~
AOF ='
4
It
x Oi.
,
X Height of panlbola
72.4:
'" - x 12" x - - == 4094. 12 em
3
1GL,_jt>
I
I
IMAGINARY
\ .
\ I '\
I
IMAGINARY
I
_IH
'
4 , CYLINDER PARABOLA
For Ihe imaginary parabola (COD). w == 62.82 rad/sec FIg. S.17
Z == 42.4 ern
r == Radius ill Ihe bottom of vessc l
I I Ii
~ I IL
==
,
~ x Area at llic lOp of the imaginary parabola x Heig lll of parabola
Radius.
==
15
15
R = -=7.5cm
2
em
I
T"'"
om
Tl
u,ngth of cylinder == 100 ~m
Initial height o f wa ler == 70 em.
When axial depth is zero. the depth of paraboloid = 100 e m.
......... 15cm ~
Usin g the rcl~tion.
Fig. 5.18
w =.~I00
~X~2~X~9.~8}1 " 442.92 "59.05 radls
75x75 7.5
0' ,v __ 6Q x w _ ,60~X;,'"9c·O",
" 563.88 r.p.m . An s.
21t 21t
Problem 5.25 For tile problelll (5.24), find tile difference in IOtal preHlfreforce (i) at tile boltOIll
of cylinder. {lnd (ii) at tile sides of the cylinder due to row tion.
I I Ii
~ I IL
After rotation. the depth of water at the bottom is nut cunstant and hell,",c pn:ssurc force duc 10 the
height of w~ tcr. will 1I0t be l'OIISlanL Consider a circular ring of radiu s r and width tiT as shown in
Fig. 5.19. Lee Ihe height of water from tlie boUOIll of the lank uplo free ~urface of water at a radius
r=Z= - - .
fil','
2,
Hydrostatic force on ring a1 Ihe bonum.
<IF", pg x Area o f ring x Z
1
TOlal pr~ssun: forc~ al tll~ bollom
R o/r' d.
J io
'" dF'" 9810x2xltrx--d,
2,
2, r dr
J /
Fig . 5.19
~ I I~
~ I IL
z= lI) ;r1
2,
The second cquation is obtaincd from the fact that ror closed I'essel. I'olume of air berore rotation
is equal to thc volume of air after rotation.
Volume of air before rotation'" Volume of closed vcsscl- Volume of liquid in vessel
/tr l x Z
Volume of air after rotation'" Volu mc o f paraboloid formed '" "'-~-"
2
----y'l'--=
-- -
-- -
~ : --'
-_-_t::-_c
=:=:=t=:- -:-1-:-:-
----
:-:-]-:-
---- ::E
--- -: -
i" i'l i<1
fig. 5.20
Pro blem 5.26 II "en'd, c)'/illlhiw/ ill shape (11111 cloud at Ihe lop (llId bollom, eOlllaills .wler IIplo
a "eighl of 80 em. Th e diameter of rhe ressei is 20 em (lIId lellglh of rnse/ is 120 cm. The "esse/ is
rOlmed (II (I speed of -I()() r.p.m. ahOll1 ils "erli~'(li luis. Filld Ihe heighl of pllwh%id formed.
I I Ii
~ I IL
"'
It , 11 , ,Z
- xV- x ( 120 - 00)= - 0-)(40= It,· X -
"' 4 4 2
~X 202X40= 4000x1t=1f.rx ~
"'
, 4000xllx2
,·xZ= = 8000 ... ( i)
•
Using relation w' , ! ,wcgc\Z= -
Z~ -- ""'';-'CX
.4C ,-,-,'_ = -.4C"C"8~'Ox",_' =0.894 ,2
2g 28 2 x98 1
T
Substituting this value of? in (I). we get
11
:--:I- :
:-:-r-:-:
1
N"" 400 r.p.lll. Fig. 5.22
or ro "" 41.88 radfs
.4~L8~8~';'~L~0-_'
2
Then
ro R 2
Z, "" - - "" - "" 89.34 Clll.
2g 2x98 1
I I Ii
~ I IL
, ,
'11" ''''
1
:. Using tlie relation. Z:~ or l20=ooxr Fig. 5.23
2g 2 x980
(fi ,J '" 2 x 980 x 120" 235200 ... (i)
Vulume of air before rOl<ltion '" Volume o f ai r after paraboloid
IIR! )( (120 - 180) = Volume of paraboloid
= II(1)( Z
2
1
1 = 11 )(10 )(40)(2 8000
r ~ ""-"'::'C;;;"'-'" = 66.67
"' 11)(120
0 -
120
Substituting the value of? in equat ion (i). we get
{Ii )( 66.67 " 235200
Speed N is given hy
to
(oj
=
r
= 2rr.N
35200
66.67
== 59.4 radls
60
60 )( 1,1 60)( 59.4
N 0 ~~- "'~"'":: == 567.22 r . p,m . Ans .
"' 211
0
211
Problem 5 .28 The q/i",hk(.Il'(:n'c/ of IllI! problem 5.26 is r Olflled {II 700 ,.p.m. ahO"1 ils }'erlieal
luis. Find Ihe area ,mCOl'ued {II Iile bOl/om of Ille lank.
Solullon. Given
Initial height of water " KO cm
Diameter of vessel " 20 cm
Rad ius. R" 10 em
u:ngth of vessel = 120cnI
I I Ii
~ I IL
73.3 l X IO ~
== 274.12 ern " '. I
2Xg 2 x 980 "" I "" x,
Froll) Fig. 5.24.
': I- r, --.t: ' l
A K Of
I
x l +x 2 =174.12 - 120= 154.1 2c m . .. {i) '"
From the parabola. KOM. we ha ve
l (120+ x, ) 2 Xi
= ltr, x -1I:r, x- ..• (v)
l . 1
Equating (il') and (1') . we gel
_ 21 2 2
_ 0.573 ( 120 + 2,74 '1) - 4,3 x '1 X'l
'" 0.573 [1 20 ' + 2,74 ' ,,4
. + 2 x 120 x 2.74 ,,2
. 1 _ 4.3
. ,:
I I Ii
~ I IL
-~J20.573
~5~66~.3o '" 2 1930 = 14400 + 7.506'24 + 657.6 'l
~ - 4.3 ' 14
=_
-~6.~
S7~.6~±~J~4~3~2~
43~7~.7~6~+~9~6~
564
=.7,,
2
6.4 12
1
Le ngth of cy linder, L :: 100 elll
Pressure of a ir above water :: 5.886 N/cm! "'"
P '" 5.886 x
"'
H ead du e 10 prc~s u rc. II = plpg
l - 30cm- l
5.886 x 10"
:: =6 m ofw ater Fig. 5.25
IOOOx9.8J
S(lecd . N = 250 T. p. m.
21tN 2/t x 250
w ~ - - :: :: 26. 18 radJs
60 60
Le t xI:: He ig h! of parabol o id fo rm ed. if the vesse l is assum ed ope n at the to p and il is vc ry long.
Then we ha ve XI:: -
'
w-R': : -.26.".1",8-,'"x ",
" :...' = 71\.60cl11 ... (i)
2g 2x 981
leI 'I is the radiu s of llie actua l para bo la of hc ig hl .T2
I I Ii
~ I IL
I I Ii
~ I IL
J
""
dr r r
Integrating. we gel
e
0'
Total force on the top o f th e e ylinda is obtainL..:l by ink grat in g the above equat ion be tween the
°
lim its and R.
.
Total force or FT ", i"
-(f)
P -r-
o 2
" x2 n rdr= -(f)-
P ' x2 n
2 0
r dr i"'
... {S.2S)
Total pressure foree on the bollom of cy linder. F /I
= Weight of water in cylinder + total force on the top of cylinder
. .. (5.26)
I I Ii
~ I IL
, ,
"'PC" - -
-2 [ -"']', -pg [z l - zd " ' -
pc,
- 2
I I Ii
~ I IL
X ' I lOxO.2
\' 1
v1 = - - = '" 5 IIl/s
0.4
Now usin g equation (5.27) , we ge t
"
117.72 X [o j 10 2
1.24 x9.8 1
+
2x9.8 1
+ 0. 1= !!1.. +
pg "
2 x9.81
+0.2
1
f!.l.= 117.72x IOl + 10 + 0.1- 52
- 0.2
"' pg 1.24x9,S I 2x9.SI 2x9.8 1
"" 9677.4 + 5.096 + 0. 1 - 1.274 - 0.2 '" 9676.22
Pl "" 9676.22 x pg = 9676.22 x 1.24 x 9.8 1
= 117705 Nfm 2 = 117.705 x 10) Nfl1l 2
= 117,705 kNfml (abs.) = 117.705 kNfm l. " " s.
to .s . 11 INTRODUCTION
Ideal fluid is a fluid which is incom pressible and inv iscid. Incompressible fluid is 3 fluid for whi ch
density (p) re main s conSlanl. ln viscid fluid is a fluid for which viscosity (1-1) is zero. Hence a fluid for
whic h densilY is constanT and viscos it y is zero. is kn own as an ideal fluid.
The shear s tress is give n by. t = 1-1 dll . Hel1l'e for ideal flu id th e shear Slress will be zero as 1-1 "" 0
dy
for ideal fluid. Also the shear force (w hi ch is equal to s hear stress multiplied by area) will be ze ro in
I I Ii
~ I IL
.. 5. 1) UNIFORM flOW
In a uniform fl ow. th e velocit y remains eonstall1. All the fluid panicles are movi ng with th e same
veloci ty. The uniform flow may be :
(i) Par<llieltox·axis (ii) P<lral le l to y-ax is.
5 . 1) . 1 Uniform Flow Parallel to x - Axi s. Fig. 5.27 ((I) shows th e uniform flow paralld to
...·axis. In a unifo rm flow. the ve locity re main s co nstant. A ll the fluid panicles are movi ng with tlw
same veloc it y.
•
•
•
•
Fig. 5.27 (a)
•
Let U" Ve locit y which is uniform o r constall1 along x-axis
II and V" Co mpone nts of uniform ve loc ity U along x and y-ax is.
For the uni form flow. parallel w x- axis, thc ve locit y components II and v ~ rc givcn ~s
I I " U and ,. " 0 ... (5.28)
But th~ ve loci ty II in term~ of st rea m functio n is give n by.
1/" o~
Oy
and intcTms o f ve locit y potcntial thc vc locit y II is givcn by.
,= -a,
a.,
,= -a. <l¢
oy =-a,- ... (5.29)
lh~t o~ "" o¢
Similarly, il ca n be shown v=_
,h oy .. .(5,29A)
I I Ii
~ I IL
flow . And U. )' represents tne product of velocity and area. Hence
y~2
, ~ U x 2~2U
"
U. )" rcpresenls the volume flow rate.
Plotti ng lJf potcntiH I lin es. For pote nti a l lines, th ~ ~quat i on is
p '
,
Fig. 5.28
... a U X \EU
y~lJ ., • ,
1\1 == U . x + C2 ... (5 .32)
Lei ~ == O. where.f '" O. Substituting these va lu es in the above equ alion. we gel C2 == O.
Hence equat io n of po te llli a l lines becomes as
~ = U . .t
The above equat ion shows that polc ntialli nes arc slrai ghtlin es parali c I to y· axis and at a di slance o f
.f from y- axis as s how n in r ig . 5.29.
Fi g. 5.30 shows th c plol of strea m lines and polenliallines for uniform flow para li c I to x-ax is. The
,
Slrca m li nes a nd pote llli a l lin es interseci each other 31 ri g hT angles.
,
PolenUat lines
,"
o
••
"• "'
5'
• • •
••
Po1ential
-?1 ~"'" tream lines
;;
~
• •" •" •
o
II "
-
• • • •
V ,."
, , 3 , • , V
,-, ,
Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.30
I I Ii
~ I IL
Fig . 5.3 1
Th" velocity components u, y a long ,(-axis and )~axis are given by
Il=Oand,' =U ... (5.33)
These velocity components in Icnns of strcmn functi on (1jI) and ve locit y polcmial function (9) arc
given as
II" -
ow 0 -
ilQ .(5 .34 )
ay ax
,, = _ dl¥=Jq.
>0' Jx dy
... (5.3 5)
But from equation (5.33), "== U. Subst ituting I ' '" U in eq uati on (5.35), we gel
~""S
., . ,
o > ;' ;' 5 potenUat
•
>
, , . /,
•
I
I •
, ,. , -
,. ,
•
o "•
"
N
0 ,,, ,
-
"-
Fig. 5.32
' -0 •
I I Ii
~ I IL
Pl otting of Potential lin es. For potentia! lines. the equation is <fl = U.y + C 2
Let q. = 0, wllerc), = O. Then C z = O.
Hence equation of potential lines becomes as 9 = V.)' ... (5 .38 )
The above equatiun shows that potential li nes J rc straight lines parallel 10 .I-axis and at a diswnce of
)' from the .{-axis as shown in Fig. 5.32.
to 5 . 14 SOURCE FLOW
The source flow is the now coming from a point (source) and
mov ing uut r:ldial1y in all dir~tions of a plane at uniform Tmc.
Fig. 5.33 shows a sour(.'C flow in whi<:h the point a is the source
from which the fluid moves radially outward. Tlw strength of a o
source is defined as the volume flow rate per unit depth. The unit
of strength of soun;" is m 2ls. It is rcprcsemcd by q.
Let u , = radial veloci ty of flow at a radius r from the source 0
If = volume flow rat¢ per unit d¢pth
r = radius
The radial velocity II, at any radius (is gil'¢n by.
Fig.S.33 SoIlrr:t{lIJW(Flvwa'way
", = - -
21(( " .. . (5.39) fro m wll rct")
The above equation shows that with th¢ increase of r. the radial velocity dec re3S<:s. And at a large
distance away from the source. the veloc it y will be approximately equal to zero. The flow is in radial
direction. hence the tangenTial velocity,,& = O.
li:t us now find the equation of stream function and velocity potenTi,tl function for the source flow .
As in this case. /Ie '" O. the equation of stream funct ion and velocity potential function will be obtained
from 11,.
Equation of Stream Function
By definition. the radial velocity and tangential velocity compone nt s in tenns of stream function arc
given by
/I - andll e = -ihv
I aW
=- - (See equation (j. llA)]
' rae ar
"m u, = 2!r (Sec equation (5.39) ]
_ "" = --.!L
r dO 21(r
'/ q
d'V= r. - .d6= - de
21(( 2 11
InTegrating the above equatiun w.r.1. 6. we get
I I Ii
~ I IL
1jI",.iL. e .. . (5.40)
2,
In the above equation. q is constant.
The above cqumion shows Ihal stream fUllction is a function of a. For 11 given v~luc of a. the
stream function IjI will be l'()l1stant. And this will be a radial line. The stream lines \:an be ploued by
e. e
hav ing different values of Here is taken in rndians. 't'-t
Plotting of 5tream lines
When 9 =O, IjI = O
, "••,
9=45° = _
4
units "
.~;'/>_, Stream lines
are radial
Jd9 = J...!L.dr
2"
Potential tir>8S
are cirele
2 f -;-dr ~I _"'"''''>o\:.t
q q
1jl= n [ : 2n is a eonstant term]
q ,. 2
=
,. ,
log, r ... (5.4 1)
2,
In the above equation. q is constant. o. / -v
The above equation shows. thatth~ vclocily potential function is
a function of r. For a given value of r. the velocity function 9 will be s '0
C()nstant. H~nce it will he a circle with origin at the source. The
velocity potential lines will bc circles wilh origin at the sourc" as
shown in Fig. 5.35.
Let us now find an expression for the pressure in terms of
radius.
Fig. S.l S Pottwtiallinn for souru.
I I Ii
~ I IL
=- 8~(1 .. (5.4 2)
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
Slrcam lillcs arc horizontal as shown in Fig. 5.36 «(I).
,.",
Y E 0.8 '+' '" 4
,.
,.,
Y E 0.6
y z
y: 0.2
0.4
....,
\II '" 3
,
, ,., ,
p'
Fig. 5.36(11)
(ii) The stream funcTion for a uniform flow parallclto the positive direction of the y- axis is given by
equatiun (5.37) as
1jI = -UX .l
The above equation shows thal stream lines arc straight lines parallcl 10 the y·axis .11 a distance .l
from the y-axis. Here U", 10 mts and hence the ahove equation hecornes as
1jI= - lOxx
The negative sign shows Ihm the stream lines arc in the downward di roxtion.
For .l" O. the stream fU"':tlon '¥" 0
For .I = 0.1. the stream function '¥" - I 0 x 0.1 = - 1.0 unit
For x = 0.2. the stream (un ction '¥ = - lOx 0.2 = - 2.0 unit
For .' = 0.3. the stream function '¥ = - lOx 0.3 = - 3.0 unit
The oth~r valu~s o f stream function can be obt ain ed by substitutin g the different va lues of .1". The
stream
,
l i n ~s arc vertical as shown in Fig. 5.36 (h).
..• 7
• .. •;0
• •
M
o o
.. .. .. ..
• • • •
o O.t 0.2 0.3
Fig. 5.36 (b)
~ I I~
~ I IL
P,+(u,)~
- P' +(u,):
- - = _. -_ .
pg 2g pg 2g
P, (u,)~ _ p, (u,):
- + ---- + --
p 2 P 2
I I Ii
~ I IL
Frcc·vo ... c~ flow is a <:ircul:llory flow of a fluid suc h Ihm its stream lines arc conccmric <:ircles.
For a free-vortex flow, u& x r '" constalll (say C)
Also. circulation around a Slrealll Ii"c of an irrolalion vonc~ is
r",2rrrxue=lnxC (":rx"e=C)
where ue '" tangential velocity at any radius r from the centre.
r
jje=--
27fr
The circulation r is takcn positivc if the frec vortex is anticlockwisc.
ror a frcc -vortex flow. thc vclocity cumponents are
r
lie = - - and 1/, =0
2"
Equation of Stream Function
By definitiun. the stream function is given by
"e=--
-a. and
I ",
" , =de
-- (See equ ati on (5. I2AlJ
a,
In casc of freC-I'ortel flow_the radi al velocity (u,) is zero. Hence equation of s tream fum:tion will
be obtained from t:lngential velocity. I/e' The value of lie is given by
r
I/e = - -
2"
Equating the two values of "e- we get
I I Ii
~ I IL
d.
- -- =
r or d'¥ = - -r- d,
d, 2 lt r 2"
Integrating the above equation. we get
u~=
I
--
d, and [Sec equation (S.9A)[
d e
r
Here II, = 0 and ue = - - , Hence. the cquntion of polcnlial Fig. 5.37
2"
function will be obwincd from ue'
Equaling Ihe two values of us- we gel
~ d$ = r r r
d~ = r. .<19= - de
r 2 tt rae 2" 2,
Integrating the above equation. we get
~
• Y-
•• •
o '
,.,
•
Fig. 5.38 POlenlialli"~1 ar~ radial.
~ I I~
~ I IL
The flow pancms due to uniform flow. a source tlow. a sink. flow and a free vortex flow can be
supe r-imposed in any lin ear combination to ge\ a resultant flow whic h close ly resembles th e fl ow
around bodies. The rcsultan! flow will st ill be potential and ideal. The following arc the importan t
supcr-im(X>scd flow:
(i) Source and sin k pai r
(ii) Doublet (specia l case of source and sin k combination)
(iii) A pl;lnc source in a uniform flow (flow past a half body)
(i,') A soun:c and sink pair in a unifonn Flow
(I') A doublet in a uniform flow.
5.1 7. 1 Source and Sink Pair. Fig. 5.39 shows a source and a s ink of s tre ngt h q and (- q)
placed at A and lJ respectively a1 equa l distance from tile point 0 on the x-axis. TtIUS tile source and
s ink are plal'Cd symmetrically o n the x-axis. The sou rce of s tre ngth q is placed at A and sin k of
strength (- q) is placed al 8. The combination of the source and the si nk would result in a !lownet
whe re stream lin es will be circ ular arcs staM ing from point A and end ing at poi nt IJ as s ho wn in
Pig. 5.40.
A
o
/1-1-'--- . ------II-- ' ------I
Source (q)
Stream
line"
~-~ Sink
,
~ I I~
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leI r, e
= Cylindri cal co-ordinates of point P wilh rcs(lCct 10 origi n 0
x.Y'" Corresponding co·ordinates of point P
',_ 8 , " Position of point P with respect to sourcr placed at A
'2_ 6 2 '" Position of point P Wilh respect to sink placed a1 n
a", Angle subtcndcd at P by the join of source and sink i.e .. angle APE.
LeI us find th e equation for the resultant stream function and velocity potential function. The
equation for stream function due \0 source is given by equation (5.40) as III , '" If· 8 , wllcrcas due 10
2,
sink it is given by IV, '" (- qe 2 l. The equation for resultant stream function (\II) will be the sum of
- 2,
these twO stream function.
. U [ ...
- q.U
~ ... (5 ...1 5)
The eq ua tion for potential function due 10 source is given hy equation (5.41) as 4>, '" .!L log " , and
2,
due to sin~ il is g iven as 4', = - q log,r,. The equation for re~ultanl potential function (9) will be the
- l /t -
sum of these two potential function.
4'=4'1+4',
=.!L log, r l +
l/t
(-q)
l /t
log, r 2
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To pron' that n'Sult lml strt'!lnl lines will be circular arc pass ing through source and s ink
The resultant stre am fUllcti o n is give n by equ ati on (5.45) as
-q.a
.~ -
"
For a given stream lin e l¥ '" co nstant. In the above eq uati on tile te rm .!L is al so constant. T liis
mea ns th ai (9 2 - e,l Of ang le 0: will also be constant fo r vario us positio ns o f P in the pl ane. "
To s,uisfy ttJi s. th e locus of P mu st be a (;ircJc with AB as chord . hav ing its ce ntre on y- ax is. as
shown in Fi g. 5 .40.
Consider th e cquali on (5.45) ag ain as
- q -q
. ~ - "~ - (EI1 - EI,)
21\: 2/f
= ...2...(6 1 - O v
(e, -a!)=
"
2 lTIjI
q
Tak ing tange nt 10 both s ides. we ge t
- )-' - - - '-
(x+ a) (.I· - a) = Ian (2'.)
1+ -- ' - .--'-
(.1+ (1) (X- II )
q ,
y (x-o)-
, )' (.1'+0) = Ian ( -
" -
. ) ,
l
x' a + .vl " ,: I
0'
,"0 '
I-- , ---t=.:..:'-=1,__
x·, - a"" + y- = - 2a)" COl (".)
q
F ig. 5.41 (d )
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, "
.\--a + y" + 2(1},l:ol (2"'
q 1') =0
... (5.4 7)
The above is the eq uat ion of a cin:lc· with centre on y·axis M a distance of± a COl (2:"' ) from
Sim ilarly, il Can be show n th al Ihe poten tial lin es for Ihe sou rc e-si nk pair will bc eccentric non-
imcrse(;,i ng cirdcs with th eir centres 011 the x- axis as shuw n in Fig. 5.41 (b).
PoIent;alline.
Sink
Fig. SAl (b) Polentia/linn for SQuru sink pair (potentia/lina are «untric
non-inlerlt'Ct ing circlN with Ibrir t:t'ntrn on x-axis).
°The equation.C + y' ~ (II is the equation of a c;rcle wilh centre a1 origin and of radius ',,-,
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The eq ua tion for stream func tion duc to sou rce is g ive n by equ ati o n (5.40) as 1jI, = ", x 0 , .
2,
-'I'- x e,• . The rcsultam
. k·
w h.:reas ...' lIe to Sin ' II ·IS g .i ven by 1jI ,
-= ,-, Mrc~ m fUllction IjI is givell ~s
, p (• . y)
(1 , 1)
Fig. 5.42
a rig hl angl ed Irian gle wilh angle 0, '" 90° '" 90 x It" ~ radian s.
• 180 2
liP 1
AI<;o Ian Ell :: - : : - " 0.5
AB 2
8 1 :: tan
, ,
0.5" 26.56° " 26.56 x 180 radians" 0..463
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, 8 ,
' - xO.463 - - x -
l it In 2
= 0.294 - 2.0 = - 1.706 m !/s. Ans.
To lind the veloc it y m th e poin t P. let us tirst fi nd the stream function in terms of .l and y (.X).
o rd inates. TIle stream function in terms of 9 1 and 9 2 is giv,, " by equ ati on (i) above as
"'
9 1 "" 13n-
1
- Y-
H'
and 9 2 ", tan - ,-
(x - a )
Substituting th ese va lu c~ of 9 1 and 9 2 in eq uat ion (iI, we gel
/I = d",
"
0,
= ~
or [!!J...
21l
1an
, _ ,__ (h tan
x + a 21(
1_'_] .t - {l
q I q. I [
'" 2~ x (Y J' x -( _,- +-,-) - -2-', x 1+ (Y
1+ - - --
J' x -(,- - -,-)
x +a x -a
Ifl (x + ,, )2 I if' (x -a )!
, -,-, '(.-, '+-0")"+
~,,, x -(_'-+-0- ) - -,-; x 7(_,~-oC),C+~y2'X -(,- _- ,-,)
q, (x+a) (h (.t -a )
= 2; (.\ +(1)1 + / - 21l (x_all + vl
At th e poilll P( 1. I). the componelll "is obtained by substituting .f = I and )' = I in th e above
equa ti on. Th e value of" is also ,;,qual to o ne.
q, I+I (12 (I - I )
u= -
2 lt(1 + 1) ;: +1 ~ 2ft(l _ 1)"+ l l
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(12 Y
2 n (.f _a)l + /
At th e point P( I , I).
= -q, x -J - -"
'I' I
x-
2n 5 l it 1
= _, _, x .!.. - _q_l = _4_ x .!. _ _8_ = 0.1272 _ 1.272 = _ L 145 mlsl
21t 5 2n 21t 5 21t
T he n:sulta n! vc IOl.'it y, V = Ju 1 + v" _ ~rOc2c5c44:c;,-+-(C_-IC,C4C,::T)1 = I 174 m/ s. AilS.
Problem 5.37 For Ihe abo,'" problem, de/ami" " Ihe preswre al P( I, I) if Ihe pressure al infinity
is zero Wid dellsily o/fluid is 1000 kg/m J.
Solut ion. Given:
Pressure at in fini ty, Po = 0
Dcn~ily of fluid , p = 1000 kgfm 1
The ve loc ity· o f fl uid aI infi nity w ill be zero, If Vo = ve loci ty at infi ni t y. thcn Vo = 0,
The result ant veloc it y of fluid at P( I , I) = 1.174 mfs (c alc ul akd above)
or V= 1. 174 m/s.
LCl p = pressure al P( I . I )
A pp ly in g Be rno ull i's tlleorem at point m infi ni ty and m poin t P, we get
Po Vo' P V"
-+- = -+-
pg 2g pg 2g
V' p V '- p V'
0' 0 + 0= L+ _ or 0= - + - or 0= - + -
pg 2g pg 2g p 2
~= _ V' =_ 1.174 ' (': V", 1.1 74 mls)
0'
P 2 2
-------'--
* From equation (5,39), the velocity at a distance 'r' from sourcc or sink is g;"cn by u," ~ , At infinity,
2lfr
r is very very !:\fge hene" velocity is Zero,
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Fig . 5A)
Let e is the angle made by P al A whereas (9 + Be) is the angle at B.
Now the stream funct ion at P.
• = -
Ifa q If
(9 + 00) ': - - 39
- - ... ( 5 .4 9)
21t 21t 21t
From B. draw Be J. on AP. Le I AC '" or. CP = rand AP = r + or. Also angle HPC: 09. Tile angl~
oa is very sma ll. Tile distance BC can Ix: taken equal to r x 00. In triangle ABC. angle BCA = 90 0 and
h~nce distanc~ BC is al so equal to 2<1 . sin G. Eq u ~ting the two values of Be. we get
fxOO=2<1.s inG
SG= 2a.si nG
,
Substituting the va lue of oa in equation (5.49). we get
W': - - x
q 21t sin e
l it r
= -- x --
J.l si n e [.,' 2n. q = J.l from equa tio n (5.48)1 ... (5.50)
2, ,
In Fi g. 5A3, when 2(1 -t O. th e a ngle 09 sub tendcd by point P with A and B becomes very small .
Also or --+ 0 and AP hecornes ~qua l to r. Then
s inG: PD =2'.
AP ,
Also Apl '" A02 + P02 or r2", .( 2 + )'2
Substituting the va lue of sin G in equation (550). we get
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.~+l=-....!2....
2,.
The above equati on can be written as
.r2+i+2X YX-"-
41t1jl
+[-"-
41t'l'
)' -(_, _)2=0
41f\jl
[Addi ng and subtra<:ting (4~\I r]
or .t
1+ (Y + - "-)' = ( - "- )' ... (5,51)
41t1t/ 4ltlj1
The above is Ihe equmion of a circle with centre (0. - " - ) ,md radius - "- . The centre o f Ihe
41t1jJ 41t'll
circle lkson y -a~is at a distance of - " - from x-ax is. As Ihe radius of the circle is also equal 10 - "- .
41l1j1 41l0/
hence the circk will be tangent to the x-axis. Hence str.:am lines of Ihe doublet will be the fam ily of
circles tangen l to (he x- axis as shown in Fig. 5.44.
Stream ~""" are circles
tangent 10 . -aX;S wittl
centre on y-axiS
Stream lines
y lines
Fig. 5.44 SITI'am /inff for II doub/fl .
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: - q Jog (r +or) - -
l it '
q Iog '= -
q '0,
l it ' l it '
(<+,,]
r
q Iog (1+
-- : - "]
l it
-'
' r
or
",..!L
2, , [ " .
As ---; IS a sllIall quamu y. Hence ---; ("]' . 1
becomes neglig ible
41= L
21[
x (~]x!=J:..x
r
-~
r 2)[ , -
.~ +l", Lx~
lit 0;.
The above equation c;m be wrinen ~
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1jI=- ~ X y
21l (Xl + /)
The velocity componc llts 1/ and I' arc obtained from the st ream funct ion as
d,, [-2;X(X2+l)
u=ay-=(1),
" ,]
"-:, ;y[(>'~r')] ~ is a consw nt ternl)
2,
"-;, [(:,':)~>l
[ ... ~'[!' ('<'+r') }y[-Jj[.<'+"'l ' [2y] +(>' +,.' ) .I
_ 2),2 1
(.ol +l) , + (X-' +)' ')
-
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and
\'" ;n [(x::"/ )!]'" n[(O~5~ :'~l)l[ ] '" ~[~] ,,- 0.509
2
5
'" ..!. x
r
(_L] x ..!.~(sin
lit J9 r
9)
=- -x....,
" I cos e ... (Ii)
21t r·
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y '
sin , =-:~=O. 894 and cos , x O.5
=-:~= 0 .44 7
r ,,1.25 r "1.25
Substituti ng the values of r, sin a and cos e in above cqumions (i), (ii) and (iii), we gel
J.I sin e 5 0.894 z
' l I = - - - - = - - x r.= =- O.636 m Is. Ans.
21t r 21t ,, 1.25
J.I I
If,'" - - x ----,- x cos e '" - - 5 I
x - - x 0.447 = - 0.2845 IlI/s
21t ," 21t (1.25)
J.I sin 9 5 0.894
lUlU lie'" - - x -,- =- - x - - = - 0.569 rnls
21t r 211 1.25
+ ,
•
'01
(al Uniform !low (b) Soufce now
, \ (f. &)
,' ",
"
fG ( \&
0
~
,"
0
, , . 0
~
1--'. _
Fig.5.4-6 FlO'W pall"n reuliling from Iht combinalir)n of a uniform flow and a $Our("t.
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Th e stream fUllction (\V) and pot ential fllllCiion (IJI) for the rc suhant flo w arc obtained as give n
belo w :
It' " Stream func ti on du c \0 uniform flow + stream func tio n du c to source
= ..!.
r
[v.r cos a
21t
= +.!L] v. ...!i.....-
cos a +
2 J(r
At the s tag nati on point. f) = II radian s ( 180G ) and f = fsand net ve locit y is zero. This mean s u, = 0
and 1'& = O. Substituting these values ill the abo ve equati on. we get
=- v+ - ' -
2J(rs "'
q
's=- -
2,U
...(5 .55)
From th e abo ve equation it is d e ar that positio n of st agnati on point depends upon th e f ree stream
ve loci ty V and source s trength 1/. Al th e Slngnatio n point. the value o f strea m fundi on is obtained
fr011l equat ion (5.54A) a~
. 0,1
2 = 12 ... ( <<6)
~ ..'
The abo ve re lat io ll g ives the equatio n o f stre am line passin g throu gh sta gnation point. We kn ow
that no fluid mass crosses a stream line . He nce a stre am line is a I'irlua l solid surface.
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(1) flow over a plalle half-body (i.e., flow over curve BSB') out~idc IjI = '1 alld
2
(2) source flow wi thill the plane half-body.
IjI=U.y+..!L{}
If we take IjI =
"
%in th e above equation. we will!!et the equalioll of the divid illg stream line.
EquatiOIl o f the dividing stream line (i.e .. equation of curve 8SB') will be
From tlie above eq uation, tlie main dimensions of tlie plane lialf·body may be obt ain ed. From tliis
eq uation. it is clear that y is maximu m. when 6", O.
Hence At 6 '" O. Y is maximum and y ...., '" 2(~ ... tlie maximum ordinate
y= 2(~ ( 1 - T' ~) '" 4~ ... tlie ordi nate above tlie orig in
At6=lt, y = -.!L
2U
(I- ~l '" 0
It
... tlie !cadiug po int of the half-bod y
At
6
=2'
3lt
)' = 2(~ (I- ~: ) =- 4~ ... the ordinate be low the origill.
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Leading -"-
Y_ -- 21)
peOn! -"-
'"
Origin
Fig. SA7
The above equati on gives the radial veloc it y at any point in the now field. Tllis radi al ve locity is due
,,,
tn uniform flow and due \0 sou rce. Due \0 source the radial veloc ity is~. lience the velocity due
10 source dimillishcs wilh im:rease in radial distance from the source. At lar~c distance from the
source the contribution of soure", is negligible ,md hence free stream uniform flow is nOl influenced
by Ihe prescncc of source.
0' rl:os e = - - q-
,.U BU1 fl'OSe=X
x= - -q-
2nU
Wh~n "6= 0 or -Usine=O or si ne :: 0 as U canno t be zero
e = 0 or nBu1 y=rsine :. y'" 0
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... (:'i.58)
Problem 5.39 A III1i/orm flow .... irh a I'e/ocity of J mh is flowing ora a p/(lIIe source of slrell8111
30 m!k Til<' uniform jlow lind $Ollrce flow are in IIIC sallie plwle. A palm P is siwaled i/I the flow
field. The dimmee of Ihe /loim P from Ihe source i.! 0.5 III ond il is III a/l angle of 30 0 10 Ille ulliform
flow. De/ermine: (i) Slreamj,m CliOIl a/ point P, (ii) resuil'IIIll'docil), of jIow <II P allli (iii) location
of ,~Iag,wlion poinl from lite ,~ource.
Solution. Givcn : Unirorm veloci1y. U = 3 m/s : sourcc streng1h. If = 30 m1fs : co·ordin;i1cs or
point Pare r = 0.5 m and (} = 30°.
(i) Siream fimcliOIl at poinl P
The stream run<:tion at any point in the combined now ncld is given by equntion (S.S4A)
IjI=U,rsin(}+.!La
2,
at poi nt p, r = 0.5 m and (} = 30° or 30 x 1t radians.
180
,
1jI=3x0.5xsin30o + 30 x
21t
(30
180
X1t)
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.-::3~O~
:]xcos300 + -::;-
21txO.5
'" 2.59& + 9.55 '" 12. 14
's= -q- = - ]0
-- = 1.59 m . An s.
2/tU lit x 3
The stagnation point wi ll be at a distance o f 159 III to tlie lert side o f Ihe source on the x- axis.
Problem 5 .40 A wli/o'm jlOII' Willi" ,'eiOCil)' of 20 mls is ]/0"" " 8 orer " J'ou,ce of Slrength 10 111 21$.
Tlu~ uniform flow Glllt -Wlm; e flow are in Ille same pili/Ie. Oblain III" eqllMi011 of Ille dil'idil1g Siream
/in e ""'/ skelCh Ihe flow p"l/em.
Solution. Given: Un iform 1'~ loc ity. U :: 20 m/s : Source strength. q :: 10 m 2/s
(i) £,/lIl1lion of Ille dil'iding SIri'lim line
The st re31l1 function a1 any point in th~ combined now field is given by equation (5.54A)
::20x rsine+..!.Q.e
2rr
Th" value of th" stream function for the d ividing stream line is 1jI:: 2.. He nce substituti ng IjI '" 2. in
2 2
the above equation. we get the equation of the dividing stream line.
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"
(ii) 5kelci! of flow pal/ern
- 0.25 III The max. - \'C ordin ale
For ske tc hin g Ihe flow pattern. Jet us first find the location of the stagnation poilll. The horizomal
distance o f the stagnation p<linl S from the source is given hy th e equation.
', = -q- : 10
'" 0.0795 III
2rr.U lit x 20
Hen,;:" Ihe s tagnat ion poin t lies on the x- a~is a1 a di~lanc", o f 0.0795 m o r 79.5 mm frorn Ih'" source
tow'lrds left of th e so urce. The flow p'l\1Crn is shown in Fig. 5.49.
-~§:,,~
. ";~
J}
79 .5 mm
Fig. 5.49
Problem 5.41 A uniform flow wi,1I a I'e/ocity of 2 m/s is flowing ol'er a source placed III ,lie
origin. Tile s/agl1a /ioll poill' occIlrs (II ( - 0.398. 0). De/ermille "
(i) Slrellg/II of Ille source. (ii) Maximum widlll of Rallkine half-body allli
(iii) OIlier pril1cipal dimellsiolls of Ihe Rallkine Imlf-body.
Solution. Gi ve n
Uniforrn ve locity. u= 2 rnls
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We know thm r == ~
, 2 lf U
or q= 2ltUx ' . " 2ltx 2 x 0.398 = 5.0014 m1/s '" 5 m l/s. Ans.
(it) Maximum Iddtl' of Ril/lid/le half-body
The main dimensions of the Rankine half-body arc obtained from equation (5.57) as
y= .!L(l-!)
2U ,
... (1)
Maxim um width of Rankine body '" 2 )( Y ...... '" 2 )( 1.25 = 2.5 Ill. AilS.
(iii) Olher PrincipaldillWII$iOIlS of Rallkin<' lIal/-body
Using equation (5.57), we gel
y = -"-
2U (I --"-),
y -,,- [Ji)1= -"-[1_-'-]=-"- =- '
=2V It 2V 2 4U 4x2
=0.625 m
The above value gives the upper ordinate at the origin. w here source is placed.
Width of body at origin == 2 x 0.625 == 1.25 III
At the stagnation point. th e width of the body is zero.
0.625m
5
0.398
Origin
Stagnation (Soon;<! is placed here)
point
Rankine ha ll·body
Fig. 5.511
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Sink
"'""'
·;te' ~{'
•
•
0 •
Sink
Pix. ~)
"'
,
- '. 0
,' •
•
"
" •
•
•
x, ••
,,'
Fig. 5.51
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'" U x r cos e + !L
2,
[log, '1 - log,'21 (.: -,""reos6)
The following arc the importam poil11s for the resultant flow p.dtcrn :
(a) The re will be two stagnati on points 5, and 52' one to the left o f the source and other to the right
of the sink. /\11hc stagnat ion points. llie resu ltant ve locity (i.e .• velocity duc 10 uniform flow. ve locity
duc to sou rce and ve locity due to s ink) wi ll he zero. The stagnation point 51 is to the left o f th e source
and st agnat ion point S2 will be to tlie rig ht of th e sink on the x-ax is.
Let ).'s = Distancc of tile slaguation points from origin 0 along .r-axis.
Let us ca lcu lat<) this distane<) " 5'
For the stag nat ion poin! 51'
(i) Velocity due to uniform flow = U
(ii) Velocity due 10 source = cc,,~q,-, The ve locily a( any radius due 10 source == ~l
2n (xs a) 2nr
r"Or .':II' the radius from source == ("'s - a)
-"
(iii) Velocily due 10 sink '" ~,-'!.,--,
2n ("s + a)
Al 5 1' th~ radius from sink'" ("'5 + a))
At poi nt 51' the velocity d ue to uniform flow is in the positive .l -direction whereas due 10 source and
sink are in Ihe -ve x-direction.
(- q)
The resultant ve locity at 5 1 = U - cc-,'
::; '' --,
2n ( x.~ a)
Butthc resu ltan t velocit y at stagnation point 51 shou ld be zero.
u- II + q =0
2n (x s -a) 21l" (xs+ll)
U= q - q
2n(" 5-a) 2n(xs +a)
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q [ I
'" l it (xs
"'
Th" above eq uatio n gives th e locati o n of the stagnation point on the .(· axis.
(b) The s tream line passing thmugh th e stagnation points is having zero ve loc it y and hence ca n be
re p laced by a so lid body. This so lid body is having a s hape of 0'131 as show n in Fig. 5 ,5 1. T here wilt
be two flow fields. o ne wit hin the ova l contour and the Olh er outside the solid bod y. TIle flow fi el d
within Ihe ova l co ntour w ill be due 10 source and s ink whereas tilt! flow field outside the body w ill be
du e to unifonn flow onl y.
The shape of so lid body is obtained from Ih e s tream lin e ha vin g stream function eq ual 10 zero. But
th e stream function is g iv en by equat io n as
0 = U x r sin a + .!L (9 1 _ e ,)
21'f •
if (el - 6, )
'" -2rr Usi n 6
... (5 .62 )
Prom th e abo ve equation. th e distances of the s urface o f th e so lid body from the origin call be
obcai ncd or th e shape of th e so lid body can be obtained. The maxi mum width of the body (Y""",) will
be equal to OM as shown in Fig. 5.52.
"
,
s, A " 0 , s,
]<- ' - +- .----<
F ig. 3.32
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OM = _" ~(I_
'_- '-",,)-,-',,-,)
-" It U .
Sill
I'f
2
From th e above cqumion.lhc valu e ofy ..., is obtained by hit and triallll cth od till L.H.S." R.H.S . In
"2xo (,+-"1
,0u
and Width. B=2 x y"""
= 2a (nu;-. )-
cot ... ( :'i .66)
Prob lem 5.42 A Iwifarm flo ... of I'eloeity 6 mls is flo ..... ing {liong x-{l.fi,~ 01'(' , {I SOilree {lnd a sink
...hicil are silllmed along .(-axis. The strengtli of source and sink is 15 m"/s alld they are m a distallce
of 1. 5 III alwrt. Determille :
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x. =a 15 1'" 1.076rn
J(I+rwUq )=0.75 [1+ IlxO.75x6
Ttw above cqu ali oll gives lhe di,13nce of Ihe stagnation points frolll the origin. There will be two
stagnation poi nts.
The diswnce ofslllgoation poims from the source and sink'" x, - II = 1.076 - 0.75 = 0.326 m. Ans.
(Ii) Lenglh olld ",idlll 0/ fhe Runkine 0>'01
Length. L = 2 x x, = 2 x 1.076 = 2.152 nl.
Width. B '" 2 x y""" ... (i)
Let us now lind Ihe value of Y"",.
Usin g equ3lion (5.64). we gel
Y"",,"'<ICOI ( 'Uqm ..
y
1
=0.75col (" 6X" )
15'"'' = 0.75 COl (O.4Il Y....,)
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,= -q la, -a,) -
15 (8 2 - 9,)
=
0.398 (9 2 - 6, )
. A ilS .
211: U si n e 21l 6 x si n 9 sine
5. 17.5 A Doublet in ill Uniform Flow (Flow Past ill Circular Cylinder). Fig. 5.53 (a)
shows a unifonn flow of velocity U in the positive .H lircction and Fig. 5.53 (b) shows a doublet at the
origin. Doublet is a spcdal case of a source and a sink combination in which bolh of equal strength
approad each olher such that distance between them tends to be zero. When the unifonn flow is
flowi ng over tlie doublet. a resultant flow will be obtained as shown ill Fig. 5.53 (c). This res ultan!
now is kn ow n as th e n ow llas l a Rankine ova l or equ;'tl :,xes o r n ow p as t a circular cylinde r .
H
\\
f--'
(a) Unif"",, flow
Poten~al l >nes
Stream lines
.., ~~,m ., s, $,
,,'
Fig. 5.53
The stream function ( 1jI) and velocity potenti al functioo ($) for the resul tant flow is obtained as
given below:
I¥ " SITe,lm function due 10 uniform flow + stream fUlH:lion due to doublet
"uxy+(-J.l ,,, a)
si n
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'" Uxrcos 6+ - x - -
II cos e (':x=rcos 6)
2, ,
O~ (u xr- L)Sine
2"
This mean s either sm. e =0 or UX·, _ ..1:...-_o
2"
e
(i) If si n = O. [h en 9 = 0 and ± 1'( i.e.• a tlOri zonl al tine th ro ug h lh e origi " of the douhlet Th is
hori zontal line is the x-ax is.
,-- J).1
2n:U
= a constant as).l and U arc constant.
r= ~2~tU =R
This givcs that the close d body profile is a circular e ylimler of T:ldius R wi1h ce ntre on double t. The
di vidin g strcam linc corrcsponds to 'V = O. Th is strcam linc is a circlc of radius H. The stream line'll = 0 has
twO stagnat ion poims SI and S2. At SI . the un iform fl ow sp li ts into two stream s that !low along the
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=U R' ]sine
(r--;- - P- , R
2,U
2) ... (5.69)
V .... oclt y Co m po ne nts (u , a n d ( 9)
Th" I'elocity components at any point in Ihe flow fie ld are given by.
","'-,IJ.
-ae =- - [U( , - - r
," (}9 R'].sinS1", -I U ( , - -R
r
'l cuse
r
wd 11 0 a.(lr
=--= - -
(Jr
'].sin e1=-u (1+-,
a [U (, - -Rf
R'].sma, "
.. .(5 .7 t)
,0
- VI' sign s liows the cloc kwise direction of tangential ve locity at that point. The value of lie i~
maximum. when e '" 9(10 ,md 270°.
At e = 0 " or 180".lhc value o f lie = O. Hence on lhe surface of the cylinder.l hc resultant ve locity
is zero, when 0", 0" or ]lIDo, These two points on the surface of cyli nder li. e .. at 0 '" 0 0 and 1&0°1
whae resultant velocity is ze ro. are known as stagn3lion points. Th~y ar~ denoted by SI and S2'
Stagnation poin t SI corresponds to e "" 180° and S1 corresponds to e '" 0°.
Pressure dis tribution on the surface of the cyli nder
Let Po = pr~ssure at a point in the unifonn flow far away frolll Ihe cy linder and towards the
left of Ihe cylinder [i.e" approaching uniform flow ]
U '" velocity of uniform flow 31 that point
/I = pressure at a point on the surfa<.:e of the <.:ylindc r
V '" resu ltant vc locity at th at point on the surface of the cy linder. T his velocity is equ al to
lie as ", is zero on the surfacc of th~ cylinder.
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"' p
30· 1
1 _ 4 sin 30o : 1 - 4x GY =1-~ : I - I =0
I - I =0
1 _ 4 sin 1 ISOo = 1- 0= I
AI 9 = 0 a nd 180°, th ere arc stag nati on points 52 and 51 respectivel y.
Al e= 30 Q and 150 0 , the pressure co-efficient is zero.
Al 9 = 90¢, lhc prcs~urc cO-1>'ffici<' nl is - 3 (i.e.,leaM pressure)
The va riation o f press ure co-efficie nt along th" surface of th ~ c ylind er for diff~renl valu<,s o f e are
sh own in Fig. 5.54.
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The positi ve pressure is actin g normal 10 th e surface and IOwards the surface o f th e cy l inder
whe reas th e neg at ive pressure is acting normal to tile surface and away from th e surface o f the
cylinder as sllow n in Fi g. 5.55.
' f'
.i\
o· ",. , . / 150~180·
w·
,
0
00"
I-
-
\ /
-, "- V
F ig. 5.54
~
/ --,r--<:- - pressu r"
,",~- pressure
".
Fig. 5.55
Problem 5.43 A IIl1iform jlow of 11 m/s is flowillg ora a doublet of strengtll II:! •
I/I"/S. 'I'Iledoublel
is in Ihe line of the ulliform flow. Determine:
(i) slrope of Ihe Rankine oml (iij radius of Ihe Rmlkine circle
(iii) )'(1111<' of .l'lrealll litle fimcliOl1 (1/ Rankine circle
(il'J re~·"II<"'1 re/ocily at (I poinl 011 Ille Rankine circle a/ lm angle of 30° from x·,uis
( I' j \'{jille of II/{uimum ,·e/oi.'iry 0' 1 the Ran/due circle (lnd lQ(;lIliOlI of Ihe poilll wllere "e[o<:iry is maT.
Solution. Given U = 12 m/s: J.I = 18 1I1 2/s
(i ) Shape of Ihe Rankine 0,",,/
When a uniform no w is Flowing over a do ubl et and doublet and uni foml n ow are in lin e. then the
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On the s urface of the cyl inder, the radial velocity (u,) is lero. The langenlin] veloci ty ("a) is give n
by equation (5.73) as
ua=-2Usin 6=- 2 x 12 x sin 300 =- l2m/s. AilS.
- ve sign shows the clockwise direction of tangential velocity a1 thai poi n\.
Rcsul1alll ve locity.
(,,) Maximum "e1ocity and ils foell/ioll
The rcslllwnt ve locity at an y point 011 Ih e surface of the I:ylindcr is equal to I'a" But "6 is give n by,
" a=-2UsiIl6
This velocity wi ll be maximum. when = 90°. e
Max. ve locity " ~ 2U" - 2 x 12 = ~ 24 m/s . Ans.
Problem 5.44 A uniform flow 0/ JO /Ills i$ flowillg OI'er a doublel of j'lrenglll 15 m 2/$. Tile doublel
i.~ ill IIII' lille of Ihl' ulliformJIow. 1"11<' polar co-ordilWles of a poim P ill IIII' flow field are 0.9 III and 30°.
Find: (i) Slrealll line/ul1Cliol1 lIml (ii) /Ile "'j'ullllll/ "docil)" a/lire poini.
Solution. Given: U = 10 I11 ls: ~ = 15 111 2/s: r = 0.9111 and = 30°. e
Let us fi rst find the radius (R) of the Rankine c ircle. This is given by
R= ~ P = Jl5
=0.488m
21!U V~
The polar co-ordinates of the point /' are 0.9 111 and 30°.
Hence r '" 0.9 111 and e '"
30°.
As the va lu e of r is more than th e radius of the Rankine circle. hence point P lies outside th ~
cylinder.
(i) Vallte 0/ Siream line/wne/ioll III III<' poil1( P
The st ream line function for the cOllljXlsite flow al any point is given by equa ti on (5.69) as
,
P{O .9 m, 30' )
-
-
Fig. 5.56
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HIGHLIGHTS
1. If the fluid characteristics like velocity. pres.ure. density etc. do not change at 3 point with ",spc<;t to
lime. the tluid flow is called steady flow. If they change w,r.l. time . the fluid now is called unsteady
now.
(~) '" 0 for unifoml flow and (~;) c#- 0 for non-unifonn flow.
J. If the Reynolds number in a pipe is less than 2000. the flow is said to be laminar and if Reynold number
is more Ihun 4000. the flow is said 10 be turbulent.
4. For compressible flow. p"" constant
For incompressible flow. p '" constant.
5. Rate of discharge for incompressible fluid (liquid). Q ~ A x I·.
6. Continuity equation is wrillen a, A,", '" A,'·. '"
A,,·).
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(,
au
",u-+,·~+
dU au
()u
.. '~ + -
' iJX{)yi.lZ(J1
;n, ;),0 i),. a,·
II : U- + " - + II' - + -
' axiJyilz dt
al<' all' a", a...
: ,h
" " - H -()y +W -at ' -i)I '
9. The components of ~elocit y in x. )' and l dir~""lion in Icnns of velocity polential (~) are
u__ "*."
d.t
K_'*ily and", _ _ ()q>dZ .
10. T he stream funclion (1jI) is defmed only for Iwo -<;l imensional flow. The ""Ioc i!y CQln ponems in J and
16. The pressure variation along the radial direction for ,-ortex now along a horizont:ll plane.
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19 . In case of clo"'" cylinder. thc volume of air before rotalion is equal to Ihc volume of ai r after rotation.
20. If a close cylindrical vessel completely filled wi th waler is rolated about its "cMical axis. the IOU!
pressure forces acting on lhe top and OO1(om arc
21. For a free vonex flow the equation is .£L -+- ,·f ~
+ ZI .. .!!.l... + -+- Zl'
pg 2g pg 2g
EXERCISE
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1. The diameler:s of a pipe .11 the seclions I and 2 me 15 cm and 20 cm respecti,·e ]y. Find the discharge
through the pipe if "ciocily of water at section I is 4 mIs, Dctemline also the ve locity at section 2.
IAns. 0.07068 m'/s, 2.25 m/sl
2. A 40 cm diameter pipe. conveying water. branches into two pipes of diameters 30 cm and 20 cm
respectively. If the averagc veloci ty in the 40 em diameter pipe is 3 m/s. Find tne discharge in this pipe.
lliso detennine the velocity in 20 em pipe if the average velocity in 30 em diameter pipe is 2 m/s.
IAns. 0.3769 ml/s . 7.5 mlsl
3. II 30 em diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.8 at a velocity of 2 m/s. lit another section the diameter is
20 Cm. Find the velocity at this >cetion and also mass rat~ of flow of oil. IAn s. 4.5 m/s. 113 kg/sl
4. The velocity "cctor in a nuid now is given by V = 2~ 1 - 5.rYJ + 4/k.
Find the velo<'ity and accelemtion of a fluid panicle at ( I. 2. 3) at time, / ~ I.
(Ans. 10.95 units. 16.12 unitsl
S. The following case .. represent the two velocily components. delenninc the thin! component of velocity
such that they sa(isfy (he continuity equat ion
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[An•. (i) ... _ - 8<z - 2xz1 + I( x. y) (ii) I' = -!UY >" + 3}"l '' + I(x, t)]
- "2
Calculate the unknown "clocily components so (hm they satisfy the following cqualions
(II i t . 2.-2, v. 29'<.'" _? (ii) ,,_ 2K + 2sy. 1<'. r
- 4xz + 2yz .•'.? [AilS. (ill<' _ - LIz _ x'zi
14 . f or the "cloci ty components given as : I< .. flY sin .'Y. I' _ ax sin xy.
O blain an expression for Ihe velocily polcntial function. [Ans. ¢I_ (J cos.I)' l
1 S. II fluid now is gh'cn by : V _ I o..-Ji - 8.1'\;'
f ind the shear strain rale and state whether the flow is rotational or irrotational. [AilS. - &ry. rotational I
16 . T he vc!ocity components in a two-<l imensiona l flow arc
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It ~ J
(i) 0 , "A,V, "'"4 (0.45)x 3 '" 0.'177 m Is.
(j)
-
d ,_ 450mm
Fig. 5.57
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.. 6. 1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous c hapter. we stud ied the ve locity and acceleration 31 a point in a fluid flow. without
tak ing into consideration the forces causing the flow. Th is chapter includes the study o f forces causing
fluid Flow. Thu s d ynamics of fluid flow is thc st udy of fluid motion with the forces causing flow. The
dy namic behaviour of thc fluid flow is anal ysed by Ihe Newlon'S second law of molion, which relates
Ihe accele ralion wilh Ihe forces. The tluid is assumed to be incompressib le and non- viscous .
According 10 Newlon's seco nd law of motion. Ihc nel force F , acti ng On a fluid elemenl in the
direClion of X is eq ual 10 mass In o f the fluid clement multiplied by Ih e acceleration (/. in Ihe x-direction.
Th us mathemati cally.
F, = m.(/, ...(6.1 )
In Ihe fluid flow. Ihe following forces are pre.'lCnt:
(i) F g• gravity force,
(ii) Fr Ihe pressure force.
(iii) F .. force due 10 vis.:osi ty.
(iI') F,. force due 10 lurbulence.
(I') Fe' force due 10 compre"sibilily.
Th us in equa tion (6. 1). the net force
F, = (F, )" + (Fp) , + (F) , + (F,)x + (Fe),'
(0 If the force due to compressibility. Fe is neg ligible, the resulting net force
F, = (F, )" + (Fp) , + (F,.) , + ( F,),
an,j equ31ion of motions arc called Reynold' s ell uation s of motion .
(ii) For flow, where (F,) is negligible. th e resulting equatio ns of 1Il0t ion are known as
Na"ier-Stokes Equation.
(iii) If the flow is aSl;umcd \0 be ideal. viSl:ous force (F.) is zero and equation of 1Il0tions arc
known as Eule r 's elillation of mo tion.
259
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, "'
Substituting the value of II, in equa tion (6.2) and simpl ify·
ing the equalioll. we gCl
ap d,' (a )
"""', (b)
- -
as dsdA - pg dAds '::OS a = pdA<I~' x -:;-
oS Fig . 6 .1 Forcl!S on <l fluid l'Ieml'rll.
Dividing by pd,j'dA. - -
ap - 8 cos e =I'al'-
pas a~·
ap ill·
0' - - + gcos 9+1' - =0
pas as
But from Fig. 6.1 (b). We have eos a= ~
d,
1lip <lz ",h, lip
- +g - + - =0 or - + gdz + \"lit, = 0
p lis d.! ds p
dp
0' - +gdz+"d,,=O .. .(6.3)
p
Equmioll (6.3) is known as EuJc(s equmion of mot ion.
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Bernoulli's eq uati on is obta ined by integrating tlie Euler's equatio n of motion (6.3) as
.. 6 . .5 ASSUMPTIONS
The following arc the assumptions made in th e dcri vati on o f Bernoulli' s equat io n :
(il Th e fluid is ideal. i.e., viscos ity is zero (U) Tile flow is Meady
(iiI) The flow is incompressible (iv) Tile fl ow is irrOlalional.
Problem 6 .1 Water is flowing Ihrough a pipt! of 5 cm diameler under 0 pressllre of 29.43 Nkm ?
(gouge) lind lI'ilh lI!ellll I'e/oeily of2.0 mA Filld Ille 100a/lleml o r rollIl ellergy per utilI weiglll oflllt!
water m a cross-seclioll. which is 5 m IIbol't! Ihe dmum lille.
Solution. Given:
Diameler of pipe = 5 el11 = 0.5 m
Pressu re. 2
p '" 29.43 Nkm '" 29.43 x
VelocilY. v=2.0mfs
Datum head. z =5 m
Total head '" pressure head + kille ti c head + datum head
29.43 x 10"
Pressure head : ~ :
1000 x 9.81
=30 m { p for wa ter = IOO(L.~~}
l
pg m
1,2 2x2
Kindic head : : = 0.204 III
2, 2x9.81
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VI 16.0 x 16.0
Velocity head at SCi:lion 2 '" ---.L = '" 83.047 m. A il S.
2g 2x9.81
(iii) Rate of discharge :: A ,V, or A 1V2
'" 0.03 14 x 4.0 = 0. 1256 ml/s
= 12S.6I1tNs/s. r\,,-~ .
Problem 6.3 SIMI' Bem ol/IIi 's tileorem for steady flow of "n ;nco mpTHsib/e fluid. Deril'C (In
c.<pression fo r Bern oulli 's c'I,wrion from first principle {lilt! Slale Ih e a~'~'umplions made for ~'uch a
deril'ation.
Solution. Stat ement of ll e rn oulli 's Theo ~m _ It stales th at in a steady. ideal n ow of an incom -
pressible fluid, Ihe 10t,11 e nergy at any puint uf the fluid is constant. The total e nergy cunsists of
pressure e nergy. kinetic e nergy and po tential energy or datum e nergy. These energies per unit weight
of the fluid are:
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A, '" -
,
"
4 (0. 1)" '" .00785 III ,
Zl=4 m
po'" '1
and V, = -Q.Q35
= - - - : 4.456 mIs
A! .00785
Apply ing Bc mu ull i's equ ation al sc(;l ions I and 2. we gel
4
oc 39.24x 10 + (1.1 14 )1 + 6.0 ",,,,,;"PL',,,,, + (4.456)1 +4.0
IOOOx9.81 2 x9.81 l 000x9.81 2 x9.81
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Problem 6 .5 Warer i,~ flowing Illrough II pipe iIarillg diameter 300 mill alii/ 200 111m III Ille boftom
and upper <'lid rcspecli\'e/y. The illtensi1), of pressure ar Ihe halTom t1nd i.! 24.525 Nkml and flw
pressure a/ Ihe upper end is 9.81 Nlcm l. D elumine Ihe differe' lce in darum /wad if Ille mIl! of flow
I
through pipe is 40 lilk
Solution. Gi\'~n : 0 ," 200 mm
Sect io n 1, DI = 300 mm = 0.3 111 P2 "9.81 Nlcnl
P I'" 24.525 Nlc rn ! '" 24.525 x 104 Nlm!
\
Sect io n 2,
Rate of n ow
D1 '" 200 111111 '" 0.2 m
Pl=9.8 1 Nkm-=9.81 x 10 Nfm-
'" 4 0 litis
, 4'
1Z,
.-
ill
D,"'300mm
P1 '" 24.525 Nlcm
2
.04 .04
V,"'-" - - " ,,0.5658 mfs
AI ~ D'
4 '
0:: 0.566 m/s
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Pl V,
, P' V,
,
- +- +ZI = - ' + - '- + ,.
pg2g pg 2g +
The Be rno ulli 's equat io n was de ri ved o n th e assumpt io n thm fluid is invis.:id (non-\' is,",ous) and
the refore fricti o nl ess. But a ll the rea ll1uids Jre viscous and he n,",e o ffer resistan ce to now. Thus there
arc alwa>'s so mc losses in fl uid flows and hence in the applic ati o n of Bc rno ulli' s equati o n, thcse losses
hJ\'e to be ta ~ e n into conside ration. Thus the Bc rn oulli 's equ ati o n (o r re al flu ids betwee n points I and
2 is g il'c n 3S
, ,
..b.+~ + Z l = P2 + ~ +Z2 + !JL .,.(6.5)
pg 2g pg 2g
where "L is loss of ene rgy betwee n points I and 2,
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Problem 6.7 A pipe of diameter 400,mm carries water,III (/ I'elocity of 25 mls. The pre.~,~ure.f lU Ihe
points A and B are gil'ell as 29.43 Nkm- "lilt 21.563 Nk",- respec/iI-ely ...hile IIII' da/lun /,e(l(/ {/( A and
B "re 28 m lind 30 m. Find I/,e IOH' of head ber".een A lind B.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of pipe. D = 400 mm '" 0.4 111
Vclocily. V=25mfs
At point A , "" = 29.43 Nlcm 2 :: 29.43 X 10 N/m 2
z" = 28 III
4
~
1:P ((\(I'I~\C~
•
<'~ ~?l
25 ""?~-~
I'll '" I' '" Ill/s
,
~9""'~ ZB
Total energy at A.
_ _ _ _D
o ATuM l LINE
fig. 6.6
29.43 x [ O~ 25'
= + + 28
IOOOx 9.81 2x9.8 1
'" 30 + 3 1.85 + 28 '" 89.85 111
At Ilo ini B . PH'" 22.563 Nlcm' '" 22563 x 104 Nlm l
zo",30m
\'/1 '" I ' '" V" '" 25 mls
P 1,2
Total Crlcrgy at B, Eo= ....!. + ....!. + ZB
P8 2g
4
'" 22.563xt0 + 25' +30=23 + 3 1.85+30=84.85m
JOOOx9.8 1 2x9.8 1
Loss of e nergy = Ell - EIJ= 89.85 - 84.85 '" 5.0 m. Ans.
Problem 6.8 A conical lube of lengrh 2.0 m is fixed I'erlicallv wirh ils smaller end upwards. The
~'elociry offlow ar fhe smaller elld is 5 mls wllile at rhe lower end if is 2 mls. The pressure head ar fhe
l'mllller<'IId is 2.5111 ofliqw·d. The loss of liead ill file IIIbe i,~ 0.35(\,/ -i'll: . wllere 1'1 is file I'docify at
2,
Ille SlIIlIlIer end lIlid v: {II lile lower end relpeCfil·dy. D ef<'fmim: Iile pfeSJ'llfe ilead af Iile lo ..... er end.
Flow lakes pl(lct' in lile dOIl'nW(lrd direcfion.
Solution. LCllhc smalle r clld is rcprcsclllcd by (I) alld lowcrcild by (2)
Givell :
U:llgth of lube. L=2.0m
1' 1" 5 nils
P1/pg = 2.5 m of liquid
\'1 '" 2 mls
Loss of head
'------+1-----' ®
Fi g. 6.7
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ZII = 0
If l /! ' ,
Arc ~ . AB= "4DB ="4 ( .5>-=0.1 963 111 -
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Q 02
vB = - - " - - = 1.018111/5
Arc ~ .1963
V'
Total e nergy al A =E~=&+.....:1.. + Z...
pg 28
9.8 1)( 10 ' (6.369)1
'" + + 0= [1.49 + 2.067: 13.S57 m
870x9.8 1 2x9.8 1
Bernoulli' s equatio n is appli ed in all problems of incomprcssi bk fluid now where ene rgy cons;(I -
erations are in vo lve d. But we s hall consider its applicat ion 10 the follow ing measuring devices:
l. Vemurimctcr.
2. Orifice meter.
3 . Pilot-lube.
6 . 7 . 1 Venturi meter. /I. vc nturimctcr is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow o f a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It co nsists of three pans:
(i) A s hort converging parI. (ii) Throat. and ( iii) Di ve rging pan. II is hascd on the Principle of
Bernoulli' s eq uati on.
Expression for ute of flow through ve nturi meter
Consider ~ vc murim eter fllted in a hori zoillal pipe through whil:h a fluid is flowing (say water). <I S
show n in Fig. 6.9.
Let til = diame ter at in le t or at SCl:tion ( I). 1
PI = pressure at section ( I)
1'1 = ve locit y of fluid at sec tion ( 1). _ T
a == area at section . (I ) == -
4
" "I 1. - '. HROAT
and tl2 _ P 2' "2' £l2 arc correspondin g va lu es at secti on (2).
Apply ing Berno ulli' s equation at sect ions ( I ) and (2). we get
, , F Ig. 6.9 Venlur;meUr.
.£!.. + s... + ZI== P2 + ~+Zl
pg 2g pg 2g
As pipe is horizonwi. he nt"e ZI == Zl
PI
2
1'1
- +- " - +-
Pl vi or . -
2
P I ~ PI _ I'; _ 1'1
pg 2g pg 2g pg 2g 28
I I Ii
~ I IL
BUI
PI-P2 is Ihe difference of prc:;sure head s m scc~ iulls I and 2 and it is equal 10 " or
Pl - P2 == II
pg pg
" = -' -
" [";:'r
2g
"--';f::"--
2g
"i
28
.[ '] vi'["d,· -, (/; ]
1 _ (j~
(/,-
=
28 (Ii
"'
Q=Cx
"'" d I'
"I'" 7
,
x 2,,,
.J2ih ...(6.8)
'lU i ai
where Cd == Co -efficie nt o f vc nlurimdcr and irs va lu e is less than I.
Value of ' h' ,iven by differential U· tube milnometer
Case I. Let the differential manom~ te r contai ns a liquid which is heavier than th~ liquid flowing
throu gh thc pipe. Lct
S h := Sp. gra vi ty of thc ht.> a l·ier liquid
So '" Sp. gravi ty of the liquid flowing throu gh pipe
.\" '" Differe nce o f th e hcavier liquid column in U-tubc
Cllse II. If the dilTerc nt ial manometer contai ns a liquid which is lig hter than th e liquid nowing
through the pipe. th e value of II is give n by
~ I I~
~ I IL
Case IV. Similarly. for inclined \,cnlurimeli:r in which differential IllallomCler contains a liquid
which is lighter Ihan lhe liquid flowing through Ihe pipe. lite value of II is given as
Problem 6.10 A horizolltal relllllrimelf'r wilh inlet and Il"oat diameters 30 em and 15 em respec-
tinny is I/Sed to mellsure Ihe flow of 'WlIer. Ti,e rellding of differenti,,' manomeler conllecled to II,e
inlet and Ihe rhrom ;.1 20 em of mercury. Dererlllille rile flUe of flow. Ta/(e Cd '" 0.98.
S olution. Given:
Dia. at inlet.
4 4
Dia. at throat. d 2 = 15cm
a,,,,~xI51"'176.7cm2
. 4
Cd '" 0.98
Reading of different ial manometer'" of '" 20 cm of mcrcury.
Difference of pressure head is given by (6.9)
where Sh = Sp. gral'ity of me rcu ry'" 13.6. So '" Sp. gral'ity o f water =
=20 [ -136
, - -I 1 =20 x 12.6cm = 252.0 em ofwatcr.
Q=C
II , a,
-
.Jfiii
, J'a , ,x
"2
28/'
706.85 x 176.7
'" 0.98 x x ~2 x 9.& 1 x 252
J(706.85)2 _( 176.7)2
~ I I~
~ I IL
Problem 6.11 An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing !hrougll (I l'en7llrillleler /1(I)';n8 illier diameter 20 em
and IhrOal diameter /0 em. Th e oi/·mere",)' differential mOllomeler sllOWS ( 1 reading of 25 em. Calcu-
Ime lite discharge of ai/through IIII' horizol1lal 1'l'lIlUrimeler. Toke Cd '" 0.98.
Solution. Given:
Sr . gr. of oil. So '" 0.8
Sp. gr. of merc ury. s~ " 13.6
R eadin g of differential manometer. x:= 25 em
13.6
:25 [ - 1
- -I cm o f o il =25 [! 7 - 1J = 400c lll ofoi l.
0.8
Dia. nt inl et.
rr , ,
"4 x 20" '" 31 4 .16 c m -
d 2 '" IQem
2 1421375.68 2 1421375.68 1/
" 3().1 (; 111 S
J98696 6 168
" 70465 CI111/S = 70.465 1itn' 'iI.~. An s.
Problem 6.12 A horiZOl1tlll l"el1turimeter .... ilh il1lel di","eler 20 e ll! allli Ihroat diameter 10 em is
used to ",e"sure Ihe flow of oil of Sf!. gr. 0.8. TIl e discharge of oi/through "e1lluri",eter is 60 litres/s.
Fil1d 'he re(U/ili g of Ille oil·ml'rCliry diJferellfill1 mO/Jometer. Tuke CJ = 0.98.
Solution . Gi vc n : <I, = 20 cm
rr , ,
", = - 20- = 31 4.1 6 cm-
4
<ll =lOc m
I I Ii
~ I IL
IT 304 x 60000
"' "h = 107 1068.78 = 17.029
II '" (17.029)" = 289.98 nn of oil
al
,
'" -
.
x (20t '" 3 14. 16 em"
,
4
Dia. at throat. d1", IO em
"
a, '" - x 10' '" 7&.74 em '
. 4
.
PI'" 17.6$8 Nfem z '" 17.658 x 104 Nfm 1
p 17.658 X 10·
p for wate r '" 10<Xl [.;: ~ and _, '" '" 18 1ll of wata
m pg 9.81 x 1000
p,
- - '" - 30 cm of mercury
pg
'" - 0.30 m of lI1~rcu ry '" - 0.30 )( 13.6'" - 4.08 m of wat~r
I I Ii
~ I IL
"
", '" - (30r = 706.85 cm-,
4
Dia. at throat. d 2 =lOcm
"
"1 =="4 (10) == 78.54 eln-'
p 13.714 x 10'
Pressure head. --.!..
pg
== 'C2;:':'ii'c
IOOOx9.8 1
= 14 m of water
p,
~ ,,- 37 em o f mercury
pg
Cd " ~h-hl ==
19.032 .76 13
== 0.98
19.032
"
I I Ii
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Discharge
Problem 6 .15 A 30 em x 15 em )'emurimeler is iliseY/cd i/l {l >'crlic,,/ pipe nlfryillg "'(lIer, flo K'illg
in Ihe upward direc/iOlL A different;,,/ mI'TCIl'Y mU/lomder C01mccll'd /0 'he inlel (md IhTool girl'S II
Teadillg 0[ 20 em. Find Ihe discharge. Take Cd := 0.98.
Solution. Given:
Di3. at inlet. d,=30cm
"
a,= - ( 15)-= 176.7cl11
- 4
,
II "' .r [.s~ -1]= 20 [13.6 _LO] = 20x 12.6 = 252 .0 em of wate r
So 1.0
Cd = 0.98
Discharge, Q= C , (1 , (/,
/, , x ,/28/'
"a l {/ l
706.85 x 176.7
= 0.98 x [:~'§¥~~~ x ./2 x 981 x 252
~(706.85)1 (176.7 )1
8606759336 86067593.36
" rtiiii~~
./499636.3 31222.9 " 684.4
= 125756 cm 3 1s = 125.756 litis. Am.
Problem 6.16 A 20 CIII X 10 cm renlurimel/!f is i"sel·'ed in a rerlin,l pipe earning oil ofsp. gr. 0.8.
Ib e flo .... of oil is in "fI'nm/ direClion. Tbe tlijJerenn! of /el"e/s hel"·een Ille II'TOal and in/el J·eclion iJ·
50 cm . The oil merc"ry differenlial manometer Ril"es a reading of )0 em of mercury. Find li'I!
tlisc/wrge of oil. Neglectlon·es.
Solution. Dia. at inlet. d , = 20 em
"
a , = - (20) - = 3 14. 16cm
4
,
Dia. at throat . d z =lOem
I I Ii
~ I IL
=30 13.6 -
[ ~-
0.8
1 1=30(17 - 1]= 30x 16 =480crn of oil
T he discharge.
23932630.7 J •
'" = 78725.75 em Is", 78.725 llt resls. Ans.
304
Problem 6.17 I" (I "erlic,,/ pipe cOlll'eying oil of specific 8m)'il), 0.8, Iwo pressure gllllge:; hU\"I:
been illS/ailed (II A and n where 1/", diameters are 16 ClIIllnd 8 em respectire/y. A is 2 melres abo",: 8.
The preSJure glwge readings 1/(/\'/: s/loll'n Illallhe pres.illTe al B is greater t!ian III A by 0.98/ Nlem",
Neglectillg all losses. cu/cu/a/e I/!e flow f(!le. Iflhe glluges (II A alUi B aTe rep/aced by lUbes filled wilh
Ihe Jllllle liquid (//1(1 collnec/ed 10 a lj·lllbe COIIWilling mercllry. ClI/cli/aie Ih,. difference lIf lel'eI of
mercllry ill Ihe two limbs oflhe U-lIIb,..
Solution. Given:
Sp. gr. of oil. S,, '" O.S
Area at A. AI=~(.16)''''0.020Im' ®
Dia. at 8. 8 e m'" 0.08
D IJ '" m
'm
A, '" -" (.OS) - '" 0.005026 m ,
f-t-LG\
, ~ _I
Area at 8.
• 4
(i) Differe nce of pressures. PR - p", '" O.9S1 Nlc m'
®
9SlON
'" 0.98 1 x Ht Nlm ' '" - -,-
m
Differe nce of pressure head Fig. 6.9 (,,)
p p 98 10
8 - A '" ;;;:""~7 '" 1.25
pg 800 x 9.8 1
I I Ii
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PA PB.
- - - -ZA~Z8=
vi v;
- - -
pg P, 2g 2g
v'v'
P"'p~PB
( ] +2.0-0.0= 2; - 2;
v"
-1.25+2.0:....!..- --<i..
Vl
2g 2g
V" V~
O.75=....!...-.....:L ... ( i)
2g 28
Now appl ying conti nuity equation at A and B. we gel
VA xAI = V8 xA!
! L
®
/
0'
,
Substituting the va lu e o f VI! in ctjualion (i). we gel
Then h=X(~:-I)
where "'" (~; + Z... J- (~; + 2 8) = ,p"'Cp-C8'P~8 + Z... - Z/I
=-1.25+2.0-0
136
0.75=_1' [ - - - 1 =xx 16
0'
1
x'" 0.75 '" O.(l4687 III = 4.687 e m . Ail S.
16
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
"
a,= - { 15t= 176.7cl11',
4
Rc~ding of differenti al manometer. x = 30 em
Difkrcnce o f pressure head. II is give" by
(~~ + Zl ) - ( ~; +Zl)=11
A lso
Loss of head. ilL = 0.2 x kinetic head of pipe = 0.2 x - ' "
2g
Now app lying Bernoulli' s equation at sections (I) and (2). we get
I I Ii
~ I IL
/,= (.E.!.
pg
+ZI) - (!!.pgJ. . +Z1)
=X
[' 1 [".6 1
~- 1
So
=25 - - - I = 352.77 Clll o f oi l
0.9
I I Ii
~ I IL
33795 1 1
: -- , - Nlc m '" 3.J7~ Ntcm . AilS.
10
Problem 6.20 Crude oil of specific gral-it)' 0 .85 flo .... s up ..... ards ar a roll/me rale offloll' 0[60 lilre
per second II"Of/gil a I'err;cal I'ellwrimeter .... illI lUi inlel diameler of zoo mm and a Ihroal diameter of
100 mm. Tile co-efficielll of di.~c1w'ge of Ille rel/llfrimeler is 0.98. The I'ulical di.ltance belween Ihe
pre.~.mre tappings is J(}() 111m.
(i) If Iwo preJ'sure gauges are cunnee led 01 Ihe lappings sIIch Ilwl liley are posilioned 01 'h e (el'els
of Iheir corre,"pondillg lapp;'lg poinls, determine Ihe difference of readings in Nkm 1 of Ihe two pfeS-
J'ure glmges.
Iii) If a men""y differelilial m(lIiomeler is COlinected. in fllace uf preSJ'ure gauges. 10 tile tappingJ'
J'uch Ihal Iile cOli/leCling lube IIfllO merc'lf)" are filled wilh oil. delermine Ihe dif/erenCl' iii 111<' level of
'he mercury CO/Willi.
Solution. Gi ven:
Specific gra vi ty of oil.
I I Ii
~ I IL
IJ
lllill '" III
..L
(j)
I \=
re presents throa t. Then ! T,
Zl- Z, = 300 111111 = 0.3 In I, ~
(il Difference of readings in Nfc ml of tile /h'O prl'SSlIre gauges
The discharge Q is given by.
1
...
Q=C (/,(/,. x .Jfih
,~ (I,
'
- (11
,
2,1, F ig. 6. 11 (a)
I I Ii
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Area,
Area, "
(/, '" - (S) '" 19.635 em
• 4
,
H ead of water for no flow '" i!..L '" 3 m (ga uge ) '" 3 + 10.3", 13.3 In (abs.)
p,
p,
Throat pressure he ad = - ' = 2 III of wa~er absolute.
pg
-. P, p,
DI !fere nec of press ure lIe ad. II '" - - - ' : 13.3 - 2.0: 1 1.3 m : 1130 e m
pg pg
Ra~cofflow. Q is~iven by Q= Cd
6. 7.2 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate. It is a device u.',cd for measuring thc rak of flow of a
flu id tllrough a pipe. It is a cheaper devicc as co mpared to I'cnturimd cr. It also worb on the Same
pri ncip le as that of vcnturimetc r. It co nsists of a flat circular plate which has a ci rcular sharp edged
hole ca ll ed orifice. which is coocen tri c with the pipe. Tile orifice diamder is kept ge nerally 0.5 times
the diameter of Ihe pipe. though il Ill~y vary from 0.4 10 0.8 tim es th e pipe dimncter.
A differemial manomete r is connected Jt stttion (I). which is at a distan"" of aboul 1.5 to 2.0 tim<,s
the pipe diameter upstream from the orifl"e plate. and at section (2). whid is at a distance of about half
the diameter of Ihe orifl"e on the downstream side from Ihe orifice plate.
I I Ii
~ I IL
--
DIRECTION OF FLOW
.i .-- D IFFERENTIALMANOMETER
,
T
3m
( lpgi + (Plpg ll) '" h"
Zl)- + Differential head
Now section (2) is al the vcna·co nlracta and <12 represents [he area al the vena -cont racta. If "0 is
the area of orifice then. we have
Cc = - ",
".
where Cc == Co-effident of contraction
"l="OXCc ... (ii)
By colltinuity equation. we lIavc
...(iii)
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
\', =2gl1+ ~ (""J'
J2gl1
\', ==
'-[::1' c',
Q="o XC d
'-[""1'
",
c',
x
~2g"
",]' ,-[::]'
,-["" C;
CJuoat M
... (6. 13)
Ja~ -l/&
,- [",]'
",
where Cd == Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.
The co-efficicill of discharg e for orifice mClCf is Illuc h smaller than that for a venturi meter.
Problem 6.22 All orifice lIIeler will! orifice diameter {O em is iliseT/cd ill a pipe of 20 em diameler.
The pressure gauges fifled upstream wId down.nream of Ihe orifice meIer gil'e.! readillgs of
19.62 N/cm 2 alld 9.81 Nlem z respeC/iI'ely. Co-efficietll of discharge for Ille orifice meier is gil'ell {IS
0.6. Filld Ille di,~clllI'ge of Waler IflrOllgll pipe.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Solution. Given
Dia. of orifice. do'" ] 0 em
P 19.62)(104
---.!. '"
pg
-:-;O:::-""'
1000)(9.81
C- = 20 III of waIi: r
9.8 1x I0·
Similarly "" 10 m of water
1000 x 9.8 1
Area. "
a o = - ( 15)"= 176.7 cm-,
4
Oia. of pipe, til = 30 cm
Area. III
4
=- "
(30) = 706.85 cm ,
Sp. gr. of oil. So = 0.9
Reading of diff. ll1anOlneter. x = 50
cm of mercury
I I Ii
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176.7 x 706.85
",0.64 x xJ2x981x 705.5
~(7 06.85)2 _ (176.7)2
I I Ii
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PIEZOMETER .....
TUBE
1
"
V-PITOT.TUBE if
IT
... _-_._--
.. ., _- ......___--..
....
<
~
-_
f~:: ~ =::=::=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:
------------ ::::~ -:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
-----------_
::."'" -----
':..-'10 = __ _-
.
----------- ---------------------
Fig. 6.16
4 . Pi lOt-stat ic lube. wllich co nsists o f two circu la r concel11ric lubeS o ne inside the ol her wilh some
annular space in between as show n in Fig. 6.1 7. The outlel of lh ese lwo lubes are co nn ec ted 10 the
diffe rcl11 i;ll mano meTe r whe re Th e d iffe rence of pressure head 'h' is measured by kn ow in g the
difference o f Th e levels o f Th e mallo mcter liquid sa y.\". Thell h "'.f [~: -I}
Pro blem 6 .24 A pilOt-.I/atic lUbe placed in the cemre of a 300 mm pipe lille has one orifice pointing
upslream mid olher perpelli/icu/ilr 10 il. Ti,e meall I'e/oeily in II,e pipe is 0.80 of the cell/TtlI I·e/ocil)'.
"-ind II,e discharge Ihrougll the pipe If the pre.l$llre difference bet .....een the 11>'0 orifices i.l
60 mm af ..... ater. Take the co-effieielll of pitot IIIbe as C. '" 0.98.
Solu t io n. G iven:
Dia. of pipe. d", 300 mm '" 0.30 III
Di ff. o f pr~ssure head. I,,,, 60 mm o f wa ter '" .06 m of wate r
C. '" 0.98
Mean veloc iT y. V", 0.80 x Central ve loci ty
Central ve locity is give n by eq uatio ll (6. 14)
'" C • .J2g11 = 0.98 x .J2 x 9.8 1 x.06 '" 1.063 m/s
I I Ii
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Problem 6.25 Find the I'e/oeify ofl/I(' flow of GIl oil Ihrough <l pipe. ",1'1'0 IIII' difference of mercury
lerel ill a differential V-lube mil/wmeler COllnected /0 Jhe two tappings of the pilOHube is 100 mm.
Toke co-efJicietll of pilor-wbe 0.98 alld sf!. gr. of oil" 0.8.
Solution. Given:
Diff. of mercury level, X= IOOmlll=O.lm
Diff. of pressure head. II = x [~: -I] =. 1 [_'g_.:__ I] "" ].6 III of oil
Velociiy o f flow '" C. J2gl1 = 0.98 .J2 x 9.81 x 1.6 '" 5.49 m/s. Ans.
Problem 6.26 A pilol -Slalic (ubI' is u~'ed /0 ",ea~'ure Ihe ..docily oflt'(l/er in a pipe. The ~'Illg'illlio"
pressure head is 6 II! (I"d Sialic pressure head is 5 m. Ca/culllle Ihe "e/OCily of flow aSJ"umillg Ihe co -
I'jficil'nl of 'uhe equulla 0.98.
Solullon. Given:
Stagnation pressul\! liead, 11, =6111
SIalic pressure head. ",=5m
11=6 - 5= I m
Velocity of now. V = C. JZg" = 0.98 JZ x 9.81 x I = 4.34 III/S. Ans.
Problem 6.27 A sub-marille mOI'es IlOrizollilllly ill seo Imd I/Os ils oxis /5 m bdow 1/1/' sllrface of
"·Iller. A pilo/./ube properly placed jusl ill frOlll of Ihe suh -marille olld (l/oll g ils axis is cOimecled 10 Ihe
IWO limbs of II U-lIIbe COIlIO;Ilillg mercury. The differellce of mercury lel'el is found ro be 170 mm. Filld
l/ie speed of Ihe SUb'lIlllrille kllowin8 1//01 Ihe sp. gr. of mercury is 13.6 and 1//01 of sea· Willer is 1.026
willI re.lpect offre.lh Willer.
Solulion. Given:
Diff. of lIIercury level, .r = 170 111111 = 0. 17 11\
Sp. gr. of mercury , Sj= 13.6
Sp. gr. of !.ea-watcr. SQ= 1.026
lI=x -
[S'l So
- I =0. 17 - - -J
1.026
['3.6 1 =2.083411\
I I Ii
~ I IL
pilOI-lUbe is 0.981 N/cm<. ea/clliare Ille rale of flow of Wilier II/rough pipe, if Ille meatl \'elocity of
flow is 0.85 limes rhe cemral 1't1/ociry. Toke C. '" 0.98.
Solutio n. Given:
Dia. of pipe. d" 300 mm '" 0.30 III
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the mOllie ilium principle. which states
th~t the net force "cling on ~ fiu id mass is cqual to Ihe ch"ngc in moment um of now p.:r unit time in
that dircction. The force acting on a fillid mass '/11' is givcn by thc Newton's second law of motion.
F:/II:><o
where a is the acce leration acting in the sallie direction as force F.
8",
d,'
F= m -
,"
'" d(m •. )
!m is constant and can be taken inside the diffe re lll ial }
,"
F == d(IIII') ... (6. 15)
d'
Equation (6.15) is known as the momentum principle.
Equation (6.15) can be written as FAt", d(ml') ... {6 . 16)
which is known as the illlpu{se'lIIomenllllll equation and states that the im pulse o f a force F ac ting on a
fiuid of mass /II in a shon interval ofti mc dt is equal to the ch~nge of momentu m d(mv) in thc direction
of force.
I I Ii
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"•
P,A"_-ll-_
(0) (0)
Fig. 6. 111 For~ 011 bend.
Net force acting o n fiui d in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction
PIA I - Pt\~ cos 0 - "'x'" (Mass per sec) (change of ve locit y)
'" pQ (Final velocity in the direction of x
- Initial ve loc ity in the direction of .f)
=pQ(V2CO~O-VI) ...(6. 17)
F , '" pQ (VI - V2 cos 0) + PIAl - PY\l cos e .(6. 18)
Similarl y the momentum equation in y-dircction gives
o- Pt\~ sin e-F. = pQ (V2 sin 0)e- ... (6. 19)
,..,. '" pQ (- Vl sin 0) - p0~ sin 0 ... (6.20)
Now lhe resultam force (FR ) 3<:ling on lhe bend
,"
'" 'Fz +Fl. ... (6.2 1)
tanO"'~
,.
And the angle made by lhe resultant force with horizontal direction is given by
... (6. 22 )
F,
Problem 6 .29 A 45° reducillg belld is connecled ill a pipe line. ,be diamerers ar 'he inlel and OIl/lei
of,he bend being 600 mm Imd 300 mm respec/ire/y. Filld lire force e:terled b), warer 011 II,e bend if/be
in/ellsil), of pressure ar illiel 10 belld is 8.829 Nkm! lind rale of flo ..... of ..... arer is 600 lirres/s.
I I Ii
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Solution. Given:
Angle of bend. 9 = 45"
Dia. at inl c!' DI '" 6CKl1ll1ll = 0.6 III ill
Area.
f[
A1='4D1 ='4(.6)
: It 2 - - ""'1----/ /
_P2~ ___ ~ ~'
,
= 0,2827 m2
Dia. al outle!, Dl = 300 mill '" 0.30 III
Fig. 6.19
:. Area.
Q 0.6
V, '" - = - - - '" 8.488 mls.
+ Al .07068
Apply ing Bernoulli's equation a1 scc ti o lls ( 1) and (2) , we gel
, V'
.£.!..+~+Zl= II) + ....L+zz
pg 2g PI! 28
B", 11'" 12
, , 8.829 X 10
4
2.1 22" 8.488'
l!J...+~ = III + V1 or +
/I,
=- ~ +
pg 28 pg 28 1000x9,81 2 x9.8 1 pg 2 )(9.81
9 + .2295'" PtPS + 3.672
"
li z = 5.5575 x 1000 x 9.81 Nfm 1 '" 5.45)( 104 Nlm 1
Forces on lht: bend in x- and y-dircclions arc given by equ ation s (6. 18) and (6.20) a~
I I Ii
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~
.1'
p;/" cos 45'
~ V, cos 4 5'
I")
"- "- ,
''I
- V
p' $ ------
IDI
Fig. 6.21
, 135'
Lx
Force along .(·axis
: F, : pQ[V I,- V~,J + PI..A I + P;o..Al
V lx : initia l ".. Iocily in th .. direction of.>:: 3.537 m/s
V~, " final ve loci ty ill the dircctioll of x = - V~ cos 4 5° = - 3.537 x .707 1
PI.< : pressure at s,:,ction ( I) in x-dir.. c ti o n
: 39.24 N/cm ~ " 39.24 x 104 Nlm 2
Pl, : pressure at section (2) in x-dircction
: p~ cos 45°: 39.24 X 104 X .70 71
F,= 1000 X .25[3.537 - (- 3.537 X .7071)[ + 39.24 X 104 X .07068 + 39.24
X 104 X .07068 X .707 1
: 1000 X .25[3.537 + 3.537 X .7071 [+ 39.24 X 104 X .07068 II + .70711
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Rcsuhant force. ,
F = J F,1 + Fl ,
F,=4980.1
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Resultant fore\' F II '" JF.1 + F/ '" J( 4316.98) 2 + (10420.44 )2 '" 11279 N. ,\IIS.
"~
A'""''' .' q'
V.sin45"
V,
,
L
/
- - ~-
- -
(j)
'.
Fig. 6.23
The ang le made by F/I with .r-axis
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Discharge
V, sin 4 5 '
V, cos 45"
".
Fig. 6.24
Apply ing BCrrloulli' s cqualioll al sections (I) and (1)
P, V,~ P! ¥l!
-+-=-+-
pg 2g pg 2g
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Area. "
A=A 1 =A 2 = - ( .3) =0.0706810
4
,
DiM:hargc. Q" 0.30 rn J/s
~-
e - - <2!
v y
v, p,A,
(j)
/ L,
Fig. 6.25
Angle of bend. a == 90°
PI = 24525 Nfcm 1 = 24.525 x 10· Nlm 2 = 245250 Nf m l
1'2'" 23.544 Nfcm! " 23.544 x 104 Nlm 2 " 235440 N/m!
['orce DO bend along x-axis Fx '" pQ lVI" - V2, 1 + (PIAl)" + <,,02),
whe re p = I(X)(}. VI> = VI = 4.244 mls. V~, = 0
(PIAl), = PI A l = 245250 x .07008
(P:A2) , =0
,..~ = 1000 x 0.30 [4.244 - 0] + 245 250 x .07068 + 0
= 1273.2 + 17334.3 = 18607.5 N
Foree on bend alon g y-axis. Fy = pQ lVI , - V2)· [ + (PI A l), + (Pi'-2)y
where VI , = O. V2, = V2 = 4 .244 Ill is
(PIAl),. = O. (P:A:U,. = - P0-2 = - 235440 x .07068 = - 16640.9
F,. '" 1000 x 0.30]0 - 4. 244] + 0 - 16640.9
= -1 273.2 -16640.9= -1 79 14.1 N
F,
and lana : - . 17914.1 = 0.9627
F, 18607.5
a = 43 0
54'. Ans.
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Area.
Area.
Discharge.
i
(j)
Fig. 6.26
Apply ing continuity equalion at scrtions (I) and (2 ).
A,V,=A 1Y2=Q
.,d 0.2
.0003 14
'" 63.69 rn ls
Applying Bernoulli's equ ation <II sec tions (1) and (2). we gel
Ie ' V'
1:l + _'_ + z, '" ~ + - '- ' "
pg 2g pg 28
1:l = (1S.92')
V,' _ V,' = (63.69') ""~~ = 206.749-12.917
pg 28 2g 2 x9.8 1 2 x9.81
= 193.83 m of wate r
N N
p, = 193.83 x 1000 x 9 .81 - , = 1901472 - ,
In ' rn '
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Are a. "
A I ",-(I),,,,0.7854m ,
4
GJ ~
;_~ll""'""v;_-"A,!""---1
1
I
CD
3r'f '+ '"
@
A
Fi g. 6.27
Dia. of pipe at scction 2.
Are a. "
A, '" - (0.7)' '" 0.3848 III
• 4
,
2 1
Pressure at scction I. PI'" 7.848 kNlm '" 7848 N/m
VI'" -
Q
~
O.
- - - '" 0.764 IlIls
Al 0.7854
PI VI! ~ P2 V} !...
- +- - - +- pipe is horizontal.
pg 2g pg 2g
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", ,( . ,,,,64
,,,Ic,-' (J.55)'
-'-"- == 0.8 + 7"
pg 2 x9.8 1 2x9.8 1
== 0.8 + 0.0297 - 0.122 == 0.7077 111 of water
1', "" 0,7077 x 9,81 x 1000
== 6942.54 N/ml or 6.942 kN/ml, Ans.
Let F~ == the force cxcrlcd by pi pe lransition on the flowin~ water in the dircdion of flow
Then net force in the direction of flow == ralC of change of momentum in Ihe dirc<:!ion of flow
or = p(V2 - VI)
PIAl - P~l + F,
7848 x .7854 - 6942.54 x .3848 + F, = 1000 x 0.6]155 - .764]
6163.8 - 2671.5 + F, = 471.56
F, "" 47156 - 6163.8 + 2671.5" - 3020.74 N
The force exu[cd by water on pipe transition
= - F, " - (- 3020.74) == 3020.74 N. AilS.
MomcnI o f rnomclltum equation is derived from moment of 1ll0lllCnlum prillciplc which states that
the resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal 10 the rate of change of moment of momentum.
Let VI == velocity of fluid at section I.
'1 == radius of curvature at section I.
Q == rate of flow of fluid.
P == density of fl uid.
and V z and '1 = velocity and radiu~ of curvature nt sec tion 2
Momentum of fluid at section 1 = mass x velocity == pQ x Vl/,f
MOlllent of 1Il0tllcntUill per second nt sectiOn I.
=PQXV1x'l
Similarly moment o f momentum per second of fluid at section 2
=pQxV!x,!
Rate of change of moment of momentum
= pQV!'2 - pQVl'1 = pOlY!'! - VI'tI
According to moment of momentum principle
Resultant torque == rate of chan ge of moment of momentum
... (6.23)
Equation (6.23) is k.now n as moment of momentum equation. This eq uati on is applied :
I. ror analysis of flow problems in turb ines and centrifugal pumps.
2. ror fmding torque exert ed by water on sprink.ler.
Problem 6 .36 A lawn Jprlllkler II'Ilh MO nou{ej of diamele," mm each Is cotlnecteil aCfOSJ a lap
of Wilier as shown ill Fig. 6.28. The 1I0zzies are at a distance of 30 cm alld 20 Cllifrolll Ihe cellrre of IIIe
tap. Tile rale of flow of waler Ihrollgll lap is 120 cmJ/.i. The 1I0zzies discll<lrge Wilier ill Ihe dowlllI'lird
directioll. Determllie Ihe lIIlgu{ar Jpeed at II'lIicll Ihe ,Iprin kle, will rotate free.
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Q 6OxlO --<>
V '" V A '" =_ = 4.777 m/s.
... A 8 .0000 1256
The jet of water coming oul from nozzics A aJld 8 is havi ng veloc ity 4.777 mls. These jets of water
will exc n force in llle opposite direction, i.e .. force exerted hy Ihe jets will be in Ihe upward direction.
The torque exerted will also be ;lIlhe opposite directiun. Hence IOrquc at B wi II be in the ami-clockwise
direction imd al A in the dockwis.: di rection. But torque at B is 1001\: (him the torque at A ;md hence
sprin kle. if free. wi ll rot ate in the anti·clockwise di rection as s hown in rig. 6.28.
lA:t (0 '" angular veloci ty o f the sprin kl er.
Then absol ute velocity of wata at A.
VI = VA + (Ox 'A
whe re fA'" distance of nozzle A from the centre of tap
" 20 elll = 0.2 III IW x 'A= tangential ve loc it y d ue to rota tion I
VI = (4.777 + 00 x 0.2) lilts
Here 00 x ' A is added to VA as VA and tangential ve locity d ue to rotation (00 x fA) are in the sallie
dire<.:tion as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Similarly. absolute velocity of wate r at B.
V 1 ", VB - wngential velocity due to rotation
=4.777 - wx 'IJ (where 'B= 30 em = 0.3 III)
'" (4.777 - 00 x 0.3)
Now applying eq uation (6.23), we get
T" pQ(VZ'2 - VI'I( I Here,z" 'B"I='A
'" pQAIV 1f B - Vlr,, 1 Q'" QA '" Q R
6
= 1000 x 60 x 10 ((4.777 x 0.3 (0) x .3 - (4.777 + 0.2 (0) x .21
The moment of momell1 UIII of the fluid entering sp rinkl er is given zero and also there is no external
torque applied 0 11 the sp rinkler. Hence resultant external torque is zero. i.e.. T", 0
1000 x 60 x 10 6 [(4.777 - 0.3 (0) x.3 - (4.777 + 0.2 (0) x .21 = 0
(4.777 - 0.3 (0) x 0.3 - (4.777 + 0.2 (0) x.2 '" 0
4.777 x.3 - .09 00 - 4.777 x.2 - .04 (1)= 0
0. 1 x 4.777 '" (.09 + .(4)(0 '" . 13 OJ
.4777
w" - - = 3.6746 rod/s. An s.
0.13
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Problem 6.37 A h,WII sfJrillkler shown ill Pig. 6.29 lIa.1 O.S elll diameter 'lOuie ar lile end of a
fOlilIing arlll alllt discharges Wafer ill the rate of to mls \'e/ocily. Defemlim' Ille torque required /0 hold
Ihe rofaling "rm s/alio,wry. Also determine the conJ'tan' spud of rOI,,'iOIl of Ille 'If"'.
If free 10
rO/lIIe. t10
Solution. Dia. of each nOlzle = 0.8 elll = .008 III 20 em 25 em 1 mise.;
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V TRAJECTORY
J":;;::::1- -..(/ PATH
u "
., "
;; : -;:--·L f
;.., \c':-:-:
'
Ucos9
. --1
NOZZLE
y=UsinOx x
UeosO
I
- xgx
2 Ucos9( x
)' .
sma
=x - - -
cos 9 2U
gx
2
cos'e
=.Ttan 9 _
2U-
g.<
sec' a - '-,- = sec!
cos-O 1J.: (6.24 ) e) . .
Equation (6.24) gives the varia tion of y with thc squarc of.T. Hence thi s is the equatio n of a parabola.
Thus the path travelled by the free jet in atmosphere is parabo lic.
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s= Ulsin " e
... (6.25)
2,
(ii) Tim e of fli ght. It is the time taken by Ihe fluid particle in reaching fro m A to IJ as shown in
Fig. 6.30. Let T is the time of fligh!.
Using equation (iiI, we have y = U sin e x /_ ..!. gIl
2
when the panicle reaches at B. y'" 0 and I'" T
Above equation becomes asO '" U sin exT - ..!.g x r-
2
O=Usin9 - ..!.g'f 1Cancelling T)
"' 2
,
T = .2~U~si~""
, ... {6.26)
(iii) T im e 10 rea l' h hIghes t po int. The tillle to rcaeli liigliest point is halftlie tillle of niglit. Let P
is tlie tillle to reacli liigliest point. tlien
P= T = 2Usin8 = Usi n8 ... (6.27)
2 gx2 g
(iv ) Horl:ton tul run g" of th " j cl. Th~ tOlal horizontal distauce travelled hy til<: fluid particle i~
called horizontal range of the jet, i.e .. the horizo ntal distance AB in Fig. 6.30 is c alled horizontal range
of the jet. LeI this range is deooted by x·.
Then x· = velocily .::omponent in .l-dire'::l ion
x time taken by IiiI' panicle 10 rea.::h from A 10 B
= U ,::os 8 x Time uf flight
=U\'os8x 2Usin 8
g
1 1
U
=- 2 \'Os e sin 8 = -U
sin 28 .,,(6.28)
g g
(v) Valu e of 8 fo r lll" x illlUnl range. The range x· will be maximum for a given velocity of
projection (U). when sin 28 is maximulll
or when sin 28 = 1 or si n 28 '" sin 90° =
28=900or8=45°
l
U" . ' U
Then maximum range. .l *rn'" '" -5111- 8 = - { '.' ,;" 90" = 1{ ... {6.29)
g g
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=e
20 In WALL:
~i 'f---20 m------t
1
1,'.(
, ,
y=x tan e- -"- , sec" a
2U· Fig . 6.31
where y = 8 m. x = 20 Ill. U = 20 Illis
9.8lx20 2
8 = 201:tnfl- , scc 2 e
2 x 20-
'" 20 tan e - 4 .905 scr 2 e
'" 20 (an e - 4 .905 [I + (an ! 81
'" 20 (,III e - 4.905 - 4.905 1:1112 e
4.905 (an' e - 20 Ian e + 8 + 4.905 '" 0
"' 4.905 ta n' e - 20 Ian e + 12.905'" 0
"'
tan e ""
20 ± J20 l
- 4 x 12.9{lS x 4.905 20 ± Jr.400M-2~5~1C;19"
"" ",ccce,;;,:,;.",,,,,,-
2x 4.905 9.8 1
Area.
1-- 5 m---.1
1
.\" '= 5 Ill. ), '= 7.5 - 1.5,= 6.0 m
The equation of the jet is give n by (6.24) as Fig. 6.32
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'" 5 tan e-
.7256 - .7256 tan l e
l
0.7256 lan e - 5 Ian 0 + 6 + .1256'" 0
0.7256 tan 2 e- e
5 tan + 6.7256 '" 0
This is a quadratic equation in tan e. Hence solution is
I an e '"
5± JSl - 4 x .7256 )(6.7256
"-''-'''---"""""",,,,,7-'''':'=''
2x.7256
"" 4 _ 7~~S x (J2y {sec 45° "" COSI450 "" - : - "" J2}
.fi
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29 .0 =.r lan 9 -
9.8h· 2 0",,' e
1 ""
2 x (29.69)
= .f tan 0 _ 0.0055 seclO x x l
.0055.1. 1
=.r lan 0 - ,
cos- 0
or tan e - .0055 .l leos'e - 29 '" 0 .. (i)
The ma~imurn value of or with res[)Cct to 0 is obtained, by diffcremi<lti ng th e above equ<ltion w.r.t.
dx
o and Subsliluling the value of ~ '" O. Hence differe miating the eq uation (il W. r.t. O. we have
"9
[
.r sec l 9 + tan 0 x dxl
"9 [ , ((-2»).
- 0.0055 x x
cos 0
I
~-,- (-sIl10)+ ~-,- x h~
cos 9
d' ]
dO
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2 dx ,_.t·sln
' · 0 2.r dx ]
x sec e + tan 9 -IIG - .0055 [ oos J 0 + ----r-
cos O-'( 0 = 0
, ' 0 - .00 55
.I SCC [2X1sinej_
J _ 0
,~ 0
90.9 0 (90.9)" I
- - x tan - .0055 x \ x ----;-:- - 29 '" 0
lane tan - a cos ' s
45.445
61.9 = - . 10 = -
-,- or sin 45.445
- - = 0 .7 341
si n " e 61.90
sin e '" JO.7341 '" 0.8568
9= lan- I .8568 = 58° 57.8'
Substitutin g this va lue of e in equation (iii). we gel
90.9 90.9 _~9~O~.9= 90.9
x= - - ~ = =- - =54.759 In
Ian 9 Ian 58° 57.8' Ian 58.95 1.66
= 54.76 n1. An s.
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HIGHLIGHTS
I. The .tudy of fluid motiun with the forces causing flow is called dynamics of fluid flow, which i,
analysed by the Newton"s second law of motion.
2. Ilemoulli"s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler"s equation of motion. Bernoulli's equation Slales
"Fo r a steady. ideal flow of an incompressible fluid. the lotal energy which consist, of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and datum energy, at any point of Ihc fluid is ron,l;ml' . Mathematically •
h~ .{ [Sh
S"
-I] .(when differentia l man01Heier contains heavier liquid )
h .. (~+ <L) - ('&; +t~ ) .. x [ ~: - I] ... (for inclined ve1l1urimetcr in which diffcre1l1ial manometer
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,"
.!!..(I/II·j
II. The force excned by a fluid On a pi"" bend in the directions of ..- and y arc given by
mass
F , '" - - (Initial velocity in the direction of.r - Final wlocily in x-direction )
=
.;. In itial pressure force in .T-direclion + Final pressure force in .r-dir~"::lion
"
g
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EXERCISE
( A) THEORETICAL PROBLEM S
l. Name the di ffer':,I! forces present in a fl uid flo ..... , For the Eu ler"s equation of mOlion. which forces arc
taken in10 con,ideralion.
2. What is Eulcr"s equation of mOl ion ? How will you obtnin llemuull;'s equation from it?
J . Derive Bernoulli's eq uation for the flow of an incompressible f.iclionlcss fluid from consideration of
momentum.
4. State Bemoulli's theorem for steady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive an expression for Bernoulli s
theorem from first principle and Slale Ihe assumptions made for such a Jcrivalion.
5. What is a "cnwrimetcr ? Derive an expression for the discharge through a "cnlUrimetcr.
6. Explain the principle of "cnwrimet.:. with a oem sKelch. Derive the cxprcSSiOl1 for the rate of flow of fluid
through it
7. Discuss the re lativc mer;ls and demerits of "c1l1urimeter with respect to oriflce -mctcr.
(Delhi Ulliwrsily. Dec. 2(02)
II . Dcfine an orifice ·melcL l>rovc that the discharge Ihrough an orificc-mc ter is given by the relation
"aa, r:>7
Q~C" x ,,2gh
J",l - ,<5
where '" ~ area of pipe in which orifice -muter is fitl~-d
" 0 • area of orifice (Technical Uni.-ersity of M.P.. S 2(02)
9. What is a piloc -Iube? How will you dctennine the velocity at any point wilh the help ofpilOl-tube?
(Dd"i UlliWfSily. Dec. 2(02)
Ill. What is the difference between pitot-tube and pitot _static tube ?
II . Siale the momcntum C4uation . How will you apply mOmentum equation for dClennin ing thc fo.-.:c cxcrted
by a flow ing liquid on a pipe bend ?
12. Whal is Ihe difference belween momentum equmion and impulse momentum equation.
13. Define momenl of momentum equation. Whe.-.: Ihis equation is used.
l~ . What is a free jet of liquid? Deri"e an e ~prcssion for thc path tra"clled by free jet i,suing from a nOl7.le.
I S. Prove Ihatlhe equalion of Ihe free jet of liquid is given by the expression.
l
gx l
y ,. x Un 0 - -::--:-:osee 0
2U-
where x. y • eO-<lrdi nales of a poinl on !he jC!
u. "elocily of issuing jet
o ~ inclination of the jet with horizontal.
16 . Whieh of the following stmemelll is eorrce! in case of pipe flow
(0) flow I:lkes pkt~c from hiJ!hcr pressure 10 lower pressure ;
(b) flow takes pl"cc from higher velocilY to lower vel<:x,ity ;
(e) flow takes place from highcr ele"aliOIl to lower elevalion ;
(iI) flow takes pla~e from higher encrJ!Y to 10"'cr energy.
17 . Dcrive Eulcr's equation of motion along a stream line for an ideal nuid stating clea rly the ass umptions.
Explain how Ihis is integrated to gel Bernoulli's equalion along a stream -line.
Ill. Stale l3crnoulli's theorem. fo,·lention the as>umptions made. How is it modified while applying in
practice? List OUI its engineering applications.
19 . Define continuity equalion and Bernoulli's equation.
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1. Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a pressure of 19.62 Niem I (gauge) and with
mean ~elocity of 3.0 mls. Find the total hend of the water at a cross-section. which is 8 m above the datum
line. [Ans. 28.458 ml
2. A pipe. through " 'hich water is flowing is having diameters 40 cm and 20 Cm at the cross-sections I and 2
respectively. The velocity of wmer at sect ion I is given 5.0 mls. fi nd the velocity head m the scrtions I
and 2 and also rate of discharge , IAns. 1,274 m : 20.387 m; 0.628 mJlsl
J . The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 15 cm at sections I and 2 respectively.
The rate of flow through pipe is 40 litresls. The 'lCCtion I is 6 m above datum line and section 2 is 3 m
above lhe datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 29, 43 Nlcm l . find the intensi ty of pressure at section 2,
[Ans. 32.19 Nlcm' l
4. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters JO cm and 15 em at the bottom and upper end respec -
tive ly. The inten~ity of pre .• sure at the bottom end is 29,43 Nlcm l and the pres,ure at the upper end i~
14.715 Nlem1. Delennine Ihe difference in dalum head if the rale of flow through pipe is 50 Hlis
[,\ns. 14.618 Illi
5. The waler is flowing through a taper pipe of length 50 m having diameters 40 em at the upper end and
20 emallhelowerend.allhe rate of 60 litresls. The pipe has a slope of I in 40. Find the pressure at the
lower end iflhe pr~ss ure al lhe higher le~eI is 24.525 Nkm', [Ans. 25.58 Nlem' l
6. II pipe of diameter 30 em carries water at a "elocity of 20 mlscr. The pressures al Ihe points A and Bare
given as 34,335 Nlem' and 29.43 Nlem' respecti,·ely. while the datum head at A and II arc 25 m and 28m.
Find lhe loss of head belweeTT A and B, [Ans . 2 ml
7. A conical tube of length J.O m is fixed \'enically WiTh i" smaller end upwards. The velocity of flow at the
smaller end is 4 mls while al the lower end it is 2 mis, The pressure head al the smallcr end is 2,0 m of
liquid. The loss of head in Ihe tube is 0.95 \" 1 - ,·,)'ng. where "J is the velocity at the smaller end and ",
at the 10"'cr end respectively, DClennine the pressure head at the lower end. Flow takes place in downward
di re<:tion , [Ans. 5.56 m of fluid I
II . A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravily 0.8. changes in diameter from 300 mm al a position A 10
500 mm diameter 10 a position B which is 5 m at a higher level. If the pre"ures at A and Bare 19.62
Nlem ' aT,d 14.91 N!cm ' respective ly. and Ihc discharge is 150 Htresls. detennine the loss of head and
direction of 110w, [Ans. J .45 m. I-l ow takes place from A to 8 1
9 . A horizontal venturimeler with in let and throat diamelers 30 em and J5 em respecl ivcly is used 10
measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected 10 inlet and throat is 10 cm
of mel"(:ury . Detennine lhe rme of flow. Take CJ • 0,98 IAn s. 88.92 litreslsl
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.
to the tappings. in place of pressure gauges .
[Hin t. Q'" 0.08 mJ/.s. ti l ,,200 111m" 0 .2 m. til " 100 mill" 0.1 m,
, ,
Cd" 0.98, Z, -Z t" 300 mill. 0.3 m. II," _ (.2") ",0,0314 m"
. 4
II l • _ <II X n, M-::i:
11,= _(. 1 ) =O.Q07854m ",UsmsQ=Cd • x .. 2gh
- 4 Ja,2- ai
Find 'h , This "3lue of h '" 5.17 Ill.
Now use , • [.!!L!i) .;. (ZI _ '2)' where p .. 800 kg/m!, find {PI - I'll.
P8 pg
where h" 5 . 17 m, S," 13.6 and Sf" 0.8. Find the ~alue of x which will be 32.3 em. I
JII. A venturimetcr is installed in a 300 mm diameter horizontal pipe line. The throat pipe rates is 1/3. Water
flows through the installation. The pressure in the pipe line is 13783 Nkml (gauge) and vacuum in the
throat is 37.5 em of mercury. Negl"'ting head los< in the vemurimcter. delennine the rate of flow in thc
pipe linc . [Ans. O. 153 m'/sec[
~ .
[llin t. ill ,. 300 mm .. 0.3 m. ill " "3I x 300 ,. 100 mm = 0.1 •
m. P t ., 1].783 Nlcm " .. 13.783 x Iv Nhn -.
39. The ma~imum flow through a 300 mm diameter horiwntal main pipe line is 18200 litre/minute. A
vcnturimcter;< inlroduce<l at a poi nt of the pipe linc where the pressure head is 4. 6 m of water. Find the
smal lest dia. of throat so that the pressure at the throal is never negali'·e. Assume eo-efftcicnt of meter as
unily. [Ans. ii, = 19204 mm]
[Hint . "I '" 300 nnn .. 0.3 m. Q .. 18200 litres/minule .. 18200/60 .. 303.33 litres/s .. 0.3033 m' ls. P,lP8
40. The following arc the data given of a change in diameter effected in laying a water .• upply pipe. The
change in diameter is grddual from 20 ern at A to 50 ern at H. l'ressures at A and Hare 7.848 Niem I and
5.886 Nkm ' respccliYcly with the end B being 3 m higher than A. If the flow in the pipe line is 200 litre/s. find :
(i) direction of flow, (ii) the head lost in friction I:>elwecn A and 11.
[Ans. (i) From A to 8. (ii) 1.015 111 ]
[Hin t. D A .. 20 em = 0.2 m. DB = 50 em '" 0.5 m. PA = 7.84 8 Niem I = 7.848 x 10"' NIm"
fiB = 5.886 Nlem 1 = 5.886 x 10" Nlrnl. ZA '" O. ZB = 3 m. Q '" 0.2 m' ,.
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v'
E~ .. (r~/p x g ) .;. ....d... .;. Z~ .. (7_848)( 10' /1000 x 9 _81) ';' (6.369'12 x 9.81) + 0 .. 10.067 m
"v'
EB .. (I'i/r )( g) + ~ + ZH"' (5.886 x 10'/1000 x 9.81) + (l.DlS"12 x 9.81 ) .;. 3 .. 9.052 ml
2,
41 . II ,"cnt urimeter of inlet diameter 300 mm and throat diameter 150 mm is fi ~ ed in a vertical pipe li ne. 1\
liquid of 'po 8f. 0. 11 is flowing upward th rQugh the pipe line. II differential manometer containing mercury
Siy"," a reading of 100 mm when connected at in let and throat . The vertical difference belween inlet and
throat is 500 nllll. If Cd " 0.98. then find : (r) Me of flow of liq uid in lilre pcr seeo",' and (i') differcn.:c of
pressure between in lel and throat in Nlm ' [AIL<. (i) 100 litre/s. (i') 15980 N/ml ]
4 2. 1\ "colurimeter with a throat diameter o f 7.5 CHI is installed in a IS em diameter pipe . The pressure al the
entrance 10 Ihe meIer is 70 kPa (gauge) and il is desired Ihallhe pressure al any poinl sho uld nOI fa ll below
2.5 m nf absolute water. Detenn ine the ma~imUln flow rate of water through the meter. Take Cd " 0 .97 and
.,
atmo spheric pressure as 100 )':Pa. (J.N.T V .. Ifyliaab(l(/ S 2(02 )
IHln t. The press ure at the throat will be minimum . Hence ~ '" 2.5 m (abs .)
"
til "' 7.5 em ;. Al ", - (7 .5 ) ", 44. 175 em -'
4
p, : 70 kPa : 70x 10) Nhn l(gauj;ej,p.... '" 100 k Pa '" loox 10J Nhn l
PI (abs. ) .. 70 x 101 + 100 X 10J .. 170 X IO J Nhn l (abs .)
P 170 x 103
LL .. .. 17.33 m of water (abs. )
Pi: )OOOx 9 .81
43. Find the discharge of waler flowing through a pipe 20 em diameter placed in an inclined position. where a
vcnturimCler is inscrted, having a thro at diametcr of 10 cm. The difference o f pressure between the main
and Ihroat is measured by a liquid of specific gravity OA in an inverted V-tube . which gi"cs a reading of
30 CI1I . The loss of head Octween the main and throal is 0.2 timcs the kinetic he~d of pipe.
(i>elh; VIII"t.",sily. Dec. 2(02)
II " II "
Illin t_ G ivcn : ii, '" 20 em :. " I '" -(20'
4 4 10-) ~ 25 II em-.
) = 100 II em' ; tI,_ = 10 em :. a,. '" -(
[ S"s, ] ( 01.0.4 )
x .. 30 em.h ..... 1- ----;- .. 30 1- - ~1 8 cm .. O.1 8 1TI
Il UI h is al<o
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"'28
h L ",O.2x..:.L
m (l!L+ZI)-(!i+
pg pg
Zl) + .1.._~
28 28
= ilL
"
O. 18 +~ - ~ .. 0.2 "1
, .. (12 + ZI)-(rlpg Zl) .. o.18m and
-+- hL .. 0.2 v,l)
28 28 28 [ pg 21(
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.. 7. 1 INTRODUCTION
Orifice is a small opening of any cross-section (~uch a~ circular. triangular. rectangulardC.) on the
side or al Ihe bonom of a tan k. throug h which a fluid is flow ing. A mouthpiece is a short lenglh of a
pipe which is IWO to three times its diameter in lenglh. fllted in a tan k or vesse l conlaining Ihe fluid.
Orifices as we ll as mouthpieces arc used for measuring the rale of fl ow of fluid .
I. The orifices arc class ifi ed as s ma ll orifice or la rgt: o rifice depending upon the size of orifice
and head o f liquid from the centre of Ihe orifice. If the head of liquid from the centre of orifice is more
than five times the depth of orifice, Ihe orifice is c all ed small orifice. And iflhe head of liquids is less
Ihan five limes Ihe dept h of orifice. il is known as large orifice.
2. The orifices arc classified as (,) Circular ori fi ce. (i,) Triangular orifit""', (ii,) Rectang ula r orifice
and (iv) Sq uare orifice depending upon their cross-secliollal areas.
3. The orifices arc c l a~sified as (i) Sharp-cdged oriflce and (ii) Bell-mouthed orifice depending
upon Ihe shape of upslream edge of Ih.:: orifices.
4. The orifices are c lassifi.::d as (i) Free diseharging orifices and (i,) Drow ned or sub-merged ori-
fices depending upon Ihe nalure o f discharge.
The sub-merged orifices arc further classified as (al r ully sub· merged orifices and (b) Parti ally
sub-merged orifices .
Consider a tank filled wilh a ci rcular orifice in one of ils sides as shown in Fig. 7. 1. Let I I be the head
of the liqu id above the centre of the orifice. The liquid flowing through the orifice fonns II jet of liquid
whose area of cross-section is less than that of orifice. The area of jet of fluid goes on deneasing and at
II section C·C, the area is minimum. This section is ~pproxim~tdy al a distan ce of half of dia meter of the
orifice. At this section, the streamli nes arc straighl and parallel to each other and perpendicular 10 the
317
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""' ZI '" Z2
,P!
'
-PI + -VI = - +I'i
-
pg 2g pg 2g
Now !i =H
pg
f/+O=O+ - '
.,,
2g
.J2gll
\'2 '" ...(7.1 )
This is th eoretical ve loc ity. Actual veloci ty will be Jess th a n this va lu e.
=
v
r:>::U ' whe re V = actual veloc ity . .)2gH '" Theoret ica l velocit y ... (7. 2 )
v2gJ1
The value of C,. varies from 0.95 10 0.99 for different orifices. de(l<:nding On the ~ha pc. size of the
orifice and on the twad under which flow takes p lace. Generally the value of C. = 0.98 is taken for
sharp-edged orifices.
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I
: ",~A"
':"C'CI:'O'e""oc"'";'~Yc:: x 'CCA"'C""'O
Theore tica l ve loc ity T heoretical area
' C,~''C'C' ::-
Cd",C"x C c ... ( 7.4)
The value of Cd varies from 0 .6 1 to 0.65. For genera l purpose the va lu e of Cd is take n as 0.62.
Problem 7 .1 The head of W(lter o\"er (m orifice of diameter -10 mm is 10 m. Find the actlla/ dis-
chargc ""d "elua/"e/oeily of thc jet al ,·c"a-contracta. Take Cd '" 0.6 ,md C. '" 0.98.
Solution. Give n:
H~nd. H = 10cm
Dia. of ori fi ce. ,,=
40 mill 0.04 III =
Area, a = 4,
~ (.04 )-
. =.001256 , 111
Cd = 0.6
C. '" 0,98
(i) -c.C
, A"':"e'C'cdC;"~""h,",~gc'= : 0 ,6
Th eore tical di sc harge
BUI Theoretical discharge = V'h x Area of orifice
V/h '" Theoretical veloc it y. where V'h '" J2g H = J2 x 9.S ! x JO =14 m/s
m2
T heoretic al discharge = 14 x .00 1256 = 0.0175S-
,
Ac tua l dL.;;charge = 0.6 x Theoretica l di scharge
= 0.6 x .0 175S = 0.01054 mlfs. Ans .
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1
320 Fluid Mechanics
(ii ) -o;CA"'
:; C"'C"C"C'CICOC';"""Y;::: '" c. = 0.98
Tht:orctical \'d ocit y
Actual ve locity '" 0.98 x Thcorctical ve locity
'" 0.98 x 14", 13.72 m/s. Ails.
Problem 7.2 Th e head of \I"o/er o"er tile Cenlre of (ill orifice of diameter 20 """ is I m. Th e {lelul' /
d;~'c1wrge Ihrough IIII' Qrifice is 0.85 lilre/s. Find Ihe co -effieien, of discharge.
Solullon. Given:
Dia. of orifice. d = 20 mill = 0.02 III
Q" ,A"C'c.,",r"'"'''''="=","c,~,,=,,'k~Xc;H='=i'.'hC'CoCf~w,'=',,·'=i="~m='c·c',""=·,".,,',"='k=
Time (/)
and thcOrc1ical disch~rge = area of orifice x ~2gH
S~Y~
I I
WATER
b"",',h, ,r'!
:,.·l
. .. (7 .5 )
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7.S .2 Determiniltion of Co- efficient of Velocity (C v ) ' Let C-C represents the ve na-
rontracta of ,( je t of W3lCr com ing out from an orifice under constant heal! H as s ho wn in Fig. 7.2.
Consider a liquid particle which is at vc na-co ntraCIa at a ny time and takes Ih e position al P alon g the
j et intim c '(.
Let .1 '" horizontal distance tra ve ll ed by the part id c in tim e ' r'
)' '" vertic al di stance betwee n P and C-C
V", actual velocit y of j et al vc na-colltracta.
The n ho rizomal di stance , x'" V X I . ..( i)
I ,
and vertic al di stance. y= - gr ...(ii)
2
= J4 yH '" ...(7 .6 )
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c= _ .' - = 4.3 43
= 0.96. Ans.
,. .J4yH .J4 x 0.5 x [0 4.4 72
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Solution. Given:
Discharge. Q'" 98.2 litIs" 0.0982 ml/s
Dia. of orifice. d= 1201l11n=O. 12m
Head. fI:lOm
Horizontal distance of a point o n the jet from vc na-contracta . .\' '" 4.5 m
Jnu vertical distance. }, = 0.54 In
Now theoretical velocity. V'h = J2g x H '" J2 )(9.8 1 x 10 = 14.0 m/s
Theoretical disc h~rgc. Q'h'" V'h )( Area of orifice
3
'" 14.0 x 0.QI131 '" 0. 1583 m fs
. . Actual discharge Q 0 ,0982
The val ue o f C, IS g ive n by. Cd = . '" - = - - - = 0.62. ADS.
, TheorclJcal discharge Q'h 0.1583
The value of Cc is given by equation (7.6).
C"'x= 4.5 '" 0.968. Ans.
'" J4yH J 4x O.54xlO
The value of Cr is g iven by equation (7.7) as
Cd 0.62
C< '" - = - - = 0.64. Ans.
C, 0.968
Problem 7.6 A 25 mm diameter nozzle di.~c1/{/rge$ 0.76 mJ of water fler minule when Ihe Ilead is
60 III. The diallleter of IIIe j,'1 i.1 22.5 111111. Delerlllin e : (i) Ihe I'allle$ of co-efflciet!/$ C". C. alld Cd ali<I
(iij Ille loss of head dlle 10 flilid resis/allce.
Solution. Givcn :
Dia. of nou:lc. D=25mm",,0.025m
Actual discllargc. Qoct " 0.76 m]/minut c = 0~6 ,,0.0 1267 111]/S
~~3a.d~fjCt.
(i) VoilleJ ofco-eJftcicllI.l:
~:~.~nmm"0.0225m. t I3
-
N~"" I ~;'~~
-=~3:.=
-- .==3)-
Co-cfficicm o f contraction (C~) is givcn by.
C _ Area of jcl
C - Area of nozzle Fig . 7.3
!!. d'
~=
1
= _4__ " l 0.0225l ,, 0.81. Ans .
!!. Dl D 0.025
4
Co-efficient of discharge (Cd) is givcn by.
C _ Actu al dischargc
d - Th core ti<.:al disc hargc
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V ,-_ .OO.007854
I963Vl_ V1
4
where VI and V1 arc theoretical ve locit y at se ctio ns ( I ) and (2 ).
App ly ing Bcrno ulli 's eq ua ti on at sec tio ns ( 1) and (2) , we gel
,l p, V,1
-PI + -V = - ' + -'-
pg 2g pg 28
V, )'
5.8S6x 10 + ( 4" v/
4
'" 0 +
1.. l!.l. '" Atmosph eric press ure =01
I OOOx9.8 1 28 2g 1 pg
V1 V1
.,-"''cc,
6 .0 + ,
2g x l 6
= - '-
2g
Tlicoretic al d ischarge '" V 1 X A l = 11.205 x .00 1963 '" 0.022 111 3,s
_ Actua l diiiCh argc _ 0.02 _ o . ~
C,_ _ - - _ .7"", Ans.
Th eo re tical d isc harge 0.022
Problem 7 .8 A I(mk has Iwo ,dell/ie,,/ orifices VII one of ;I~' l'erliCa/ ~·ide5. The upper orifice is J m
be/ow Ihe ,..aler $lIr!<I('(! ami/ower Oil" is 5 m he/oM' Ille waler Sur/IK e. If the 'Oll/ue of C./or cad,
orifice is 0.96, find IIIe point of i"lersediuII of Ihe Iwo jelJ'.
Solullon. G ivc n :
Height of water from orifice (I ). 11 1 = 3 m
r rom orifl cc (2). H~ = 5 m
C. fo r both '" 0.96
LCI Pis thc point of interscctio n of the twO jelS coming
from orifices ( I ) and (2). suc h that
x = horizo ntal di stance of P
)"1 '" ve rtica l di stance o f P Fro m o rifi ce ( I ) Fi g. 7.5
)'1 '" ve rt ic al di stance of P From o rifice (2)
Th en )'1"')'2 + (5 - 3) ==.\'2 + 2 III
The value o f C. is given by e quat ion (7.6) as
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"'
B", Y'''')'2 + 2 .O
30'2 + 2.0) '" 5)'2
2)" '" 6.0
y, '" 3.0
From (iI),
(2), we gd
p '" 7.848 Nfcm 2 '" 7.848)( 104 N/m'
Apply ing Bernoulli's eq uati on 3l sections ( I) (water surface) and
I H
T
~1.5 m
II v: 1 P Vl
_' + _1 +ZL"'.:...l.+..:.L+Z,
pg2g pg2g '
I 1
Taking datum linc passing throug h (2) whic h is very clo.'iC to the L---1 !,t----'
bonom surface o f the tank. Then Zl = 0, tl = 1.5 III Fi g . 7.6
Also l!1.. = 0 (allnospheric pressure)
pg
..!!J.. = 7.848 x 10'
"od =8 III of W3!cr
pg 1000)( 9.& 1
8+0+1.5=0+ ---+0
v; I Vj is negligible}
2,
,
9.5 = V2
2g
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v!
J2x9.8lx9.5 _13.652m/s
Rate of now of wawr = Cd x a 1 x V ,
n ~ 3
:0.6x "4 (. 1) xlJ.652m/s: O.064J m /s. An s.
1
Problem 7.10 A closed {(10k partially filled willi wat'" UpfO (j heighl of 0.9 III hm'ing lIIl orifice of
diwlleler 15 mm a/ the bOl/om oflhe wllk. The air is pumpl!(/ inlO Ihe ljpper part of the Iilllk. De/ermine
tI!I' preJJure reqllired for a disc/mrge of 1.5 lilres/s Ihrough Ihe orifice. Takf' Cd = 0.62.
Solution. Given:
Heiglll of wa ter above orifice, If = 0.9 In
Dia.uforifice. d= 15mm=O.O I5m
:. Area. (/ = '4'[']"
t/" = '4 (.015t = 0.0001767 In-,
2 x 9.81(0.9+ lOP)
9.81
IO P
or 2x9.8 1 ( 0.9+ )= 14. 148 XI 4.148
9.81
to II == -,14.,IC40SC'CIC4CIC4,S 0.9 = 10.202 - 0.9 = 9.302
9.81 2 x9.81
9302 x9.81
= 9. 125 Nfcm!. An s.
10
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- -
---- --
~~-.---
'01
,.)
Fig. 7.1 LarKt uctangu!ar ori/ict.
,: Cd )( b x
Ii,
"-'" ]'"
.J2iJI/' Jh dlt ,: C~ x b x.J2i -3f2 [ 1/
,
... (7 .8 )
Problem 7 .11 Find Ihe diIcharge Ihrough a reclangular orifice 2.0 m ...ide and 1.5 m deep filled 10
a w"lu lallk. The "'aler IeI'd in Ihe lallk is 3.0 III abo}'e Ihe lOp edge of Ihe orifire. Take Cd = 0.62.
Solution. Given:
Width of ori li<.:e, b = 2.0 III
!kpth of ori fice, "=1.50t
Hei gh t of water ahove top edge of the orifice, H I = 3 III
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Cd == 0.62
Disc harge Q is give n by equati o n (7.8) as
2
, ~ 31' 3f1
Q= - Cd xb x,, 2g 11f 2 - - 1f 1 I
= -
,x
2
0.6 x 1.5 x .)2 + 9.8114.0 u _ 3.0 u [ rn 1/s
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Fu lly sub-maged orifice is one which has its who]" of lhe outlet
side sub-merged under liquid so that it d ischarges ajcl of liquid into the
liquid of the same kind. It is also called totally drowned orifice. Fig. 7.8
shows the fully sub-merged orifice. Consider two points (I) and (2).
point I being in the reservoir on Ihe upstream si de of the ori fice and
point 2 being at the vcna-contracca as shown in Fig. 7.8.
Let III '" Height of water above the top of Ihe orifice on Fig. 7.8 Fully sub.merged ori[ir:t'.
the upstream side.
H2 '" H eigh! of water above lhe 00[[0111 of the orifice.
fI '" Difference in water level.
b = Width of orifice.
Cd := Co-efficient of discharge.
Height of water above the ce ntre of orifice on upstream side
= ", + Hl - H, := H, + Hl ... ( 1)
2 2
Hdght of water above the ccntre of orifice on downstream side
= H , + Hl _ H ... (2)
2
Apply ing Bernoulli·sequalion at ( I) and (2). we get
-
p, V,'
+-
p.
: - ' +-
V/
pg 2g pg 2g
li", H , + Hl , -
Pl :
Now - H and V, is n~gligible
pg 2 pg
H , + Hl + 0 '" H , + Ih V,'
H+~'~
2 2 2,
V1' = H
2,
V2 '" .J2g H
Areil of orifice =l>x(H1 -H,)
Oischarge through orifice = Cd x Area x Velocity
:= Cdx I> (1/ 2 - H,) x .J2g11
Q:= Cdx I>(H 1 - H,»( .J2gH. ... (7 .9)
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= 0.62 x 2.0 x 1.0 x ,12 x 9.81 x 3 111 3/S = 9.5 13 mJ/s . Ans .
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+f Cd X b x /ii [H /,,2 - H
3I2
1. ...(7. 10)
Problem 7.16 A r{'(/lUlgl/lar orifice 0/2 In ..... id/I! IInif 1.2 m deep isjifleil ill 0I1e J'ide o/a large
Wllk. The ",aler lel'e! 011 Olle side of Ihe orifice is 3 III abo!'e rhe lOp edge of the orifice, II'Mle 011 Ille
OJ/WT side of lire orifice. Ihe ...lIla /e"ei is 0.5 '" be/ow its lop edge. Calculate Ihe diiicilarge Ihroug"
Ihe orifice if Cd '" 0.64.
Sol ulion. Given: Width of orifi~. /, =2 rn
Deplll of orifice. If = 1.2 111
Height or w~tcr from tOP edge of orifi<:c, H I '" ) 111
DiffeT"",:c of water leve l on both sides. H", 3 + O.S '" 3.5 111
Hcigtll o f Waler from the bottom edge of orific,,- Ifl = HI + d = 3 + 1,2 = 4.2 HI
Th" oritice is partially sub·maged. The discharg" throug h ,ob-maged ponion.
Q I = Cdx bx (H 2 - H)x .J2gH
= 0 .64 x 2.0 x (4. 2 _ 3.5) x ..j",C,c9".oS"I<=3.<5 '" 7.4249 mJ/s
Ttw discharge through free portion is
Q2 = t Cd X bx ,fii[H3J2 - HIJ/2]
Consider a tank containing SOme liquid upto a hei gh t of HI. Let an orifice is fined at the bollOIll of
the tank. 11 is required to find the tillle for the liquid surface to faJi from the height II I to a heigh t H 2.
Let A = Area of the lank
II = Area of the orifice
T", Time in sL'Co nds for llie liqu id to fall from fli to H,.
Let at any time, the height of liquid from orifice is II and IClt lie
liquid surface fall by a sl1\all h"ighl till in lime tiT. Ttwn
Volume of liquid I"aving lhe tank in tim", tiT: A x rill
Also lhe theorctkal vcJOCily through orifice, V = .j2g11
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-2 A
Fe
[ru ruj -_ 2A [JH, -=
,H, _,H, ,lH,j ... (7 . 1 I)
Cd .(1.,,2g· Cd . a. ,,2g
For emp tyi ng th e lank comp letely. Hl == 0 and hence
T-
lA .[ii;
... (7. 12)
- Cd .a.J2i"
Problem 7 .17 A circu/<If la"k of diameler 4 m COJ/ fai/IS Inlier uplO {/ /wiglll of 5 m. The ({lIIk is
prodded Willi aJ/ orifice of diameler 0.5 III (j( Ihe bOllom. FiJ/d Ille lillie fakell by waler (i) I() fall from
5 m la 2 iii (ii) for co mpletely t'mplyillg the ({lIIk. Take Cd = 0.6.
Solution. Gi ve n :
Dia. of tank. D=4111
Area.
4
"
(1= - (. 5) =0. 1963 111"'
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20,653
'" 0.5217 '" 39.58 lIt'm nd s. An ~ .
:. Arc",
:. Area, (I "
= - (.05)- = .001963 ,
01-
4
2 x 1m[,f5 - JH:]
90: J'
0.62 x 0.00 1963 x 2x9.8 1
=455.2 15 [2.236-~1
.
90
,[iT;. '" 2.236 - 455.2 15
'" 236 - 0.1977 '" 2.0383
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1
- n (2 Rh - h )dll",
dT:
"' CJ .a.J2gh
The total tim e Treq uired 10 bring th e liquid lel'd from HI to H2 is obtained by integrating the above
equation between the limits H, and H2.
Ca .a.,,2g II,
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:. Area. (1 "
= - (.05) = O'()O I963
4
111 - '
'r __
Cd . a .
'
.J2i
[4
3
H lil 2H
- R
5
$!l]
I - - I
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_\~~~~{~~~~;~~~(~:_; -
- :.:.:.:.:.:. _.
Di a. of lank =4.0 m
A :: ~ (4)!:: 12.566 m 2
Area.
4
tI---- 4.0 m -
" - {1
Di a. of orifi ce. <l:: 200 mm ::O.2 m
Area. (I'" -
" {.2t '" 0 .03 14 m-, z.o m
4
Cd:: 0 .6
ORIFICE 7
Fig. 7. 11
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Consider a circular horizontal tank of length L and radius R, comaining liquid upto a height of H I'
Let 3n orifice of ~rea ' Q' is fillcd at the bottom of the tank. Then the time requi red to bring the liquid
level from fli to 112 is obtaincd ~s :
Lc t at any time. tlie licigli t of liquid over orifice is '/1' and in time dT. Jet tlie hciglit falls by an licight
of 'dh·. Le t at tliis time. the width of liquid surface == AC as sliown in Fig. 7.12.
I_ L _I
Fi g . 7.12
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Surface area.
Vo lum e of liquid lea vin g tank in til llC tiT
= ==.:-,,..1
- 2L
x ax,f2i
Cd
II,
II,
[2K - I,]
III
dh
T= 4L [(2R/ 12 - (2R- Hd
J1
!].
... (7 . 16)
3C" x " x J2i
Problem 7,2.2 A/I orifice of diameler f()() mm iJ filled III rhe hOllom of a boiler drllm of fe/lglfl
5 1M GIld of diameler 2 m. The drllm is IlOfizollla{ (IIld half full of warer. Filld Ille rime required 10
empl}' rhe boiler. gil'ell Ihe mlue of Cd " 0.6.
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Solution. Gi ven:
Di3. of orifice. d '" 100 !lllll '" 0.1 III
Area. "
a'" - (. n- '" .007854 ,
nJ '
4
Length. L =S Ill
Dia. of drum. D= 2 m
Radiu s. R=lm
Initial he ig ht of wa ter. 11 1= 1111
Final height o f wa t~ r. Ill'" 0
Cd'" 0.6
f'orcompletely emptyin g the tank. Tis give n by equati o n (7. 16)
Area. (I "
= "4 (. 15)- = 0.01767 Ill " ,
Lenglh. L =8.0 rn
Dia. of boiler, D=3.0m
:. Radius, R= 1.5 [1)
Ini,ial height of water. H)=2.4m
rind he ighT o f wa Ter. Hl '" 0
Cd'" 0.6.
For co mple tel y empl ying the lanl;. T is given by equ ation (7. 16) as
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I , The mouthpieces arc classified as (i) External mouthpkcc o r {iil Inlc mal mouthpiece depend·
in g upon their position wi th respect 10 the tank or vesse l to which th.ey are fined.
2. The mouthpiece arc c lass ified as (I) Cy lind rical Illoulllpiccc o r ( ii) Con ve rge nt mouthpiece or
(iii) Convergent -divergent mouthpiece depending upon their shapes.
3. The mouthpi eces arc d a.%ifi ed ,IS (i) Mo uthp ieces running full or (ii) MUUThpieces running free.
depending upon the nmure of discharge ;u the outlet of th e mo uthpiece. T his d assificatiun is o nl y for
internal rnoulhpi c<:cs which arc known Borda's or Rc-cnlran t mouthpieces. A mouthpiece is said to bo:
rurming free if th e ~ l of liqu id after contraction docs no t touch the si des o f the rl1outhpiece. But if the
jet after contraction expa nds and fill s the whole mouthpiece it is known as run ning full.
• Please refer An. 11.4. I for loss of head duc to sudden enlargement
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~ = atmospheric pressure = 0
pg
, ,1
If '" 1. 375 - '
2g
"g il
-- - = 0.855 J2g H
1.J75
Theoretical veloc ity of liquid at outlet is V'h = JZglI
Co -efficient o f ve locity for mOUlhpkcc
Cc for mouthpiece ", I as Ihe are a o f jet of liqu id at o l,lliet is equa l to the area of mouthpiece at o Ull et.
T hu s Cd = Cc x C. = 1.0 x .855 = 0.855
Thus Ih e va lu e of Cd for mouthpiece is more Ihan the va lue of Cd for o rifice. and so di ;;c hargc
throu gh mouthpi c<:c will be more.
Problem 7.24 Find the discharge from II 100 mm diameler c.u emal mouthpiece. filled to a side of
(l /tlfge \'esse/ if the head ol'a the mouthpiece is../ metres.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of mouthpiece = 100 11\ = 0. 1 In
Problem 7.25 An eX le",,,1 cylindriCll/ moulhpiece of diame/a 150 mm is discllllrging "."Ier u",fer"
conJHml llead of6 m. Delermine rhe disclwrge "nd "bw/"re pressure head of ,.."Ia 1I1 n'nll·conlraC/".
TlIke Cd = 0.855 alld C,. fo r \'ellll'COlllfllCW = 0.62 . Allllospilaic pressure head = 10.3 til of Wafer.
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p I '! p~!
~+.....1..+ZA=_
c +-'-Hc
_-------. ------.
............. .........
pg 28 pg 2g
"
B", .!!..t,.. = II. + II.
pg
I'A '" O.
A
I
Fig . 7.14
Bm ,~ =-0".62'-
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B", H", 1.315
2,
Vil = ~= 0.7272 II
28 1.375
I
He'" fl. + f/ - .7272 Hx - -,
(.62)'
'" fl. + f/- 1.89 H= Ha - ,89 H
= 10.3 - .89 X 6.0 {-: Ha '" 10.3 and 11= 6.0)
= [0.3 - 5.34 = 4.96 m (Absolute). An s.
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If 3 mouthpiece converges UplO v"na-conlraCla and then di verges as s hown in Fi g. 1 15 tlle n that
type of mouthpiece is ca ll ed COllvcrgcm-Divcrgcnt " 1outhp iecc. As in this lIl oulhpicr c the re is no
s udde n clllargc men! o f llie jet. th e loss of ene rgy du e to sudd en en large me nt is elim inated. The co-
efficie nt of discharge for this mouth piece is unit y. Let H is th e head of liqu id over llie mouthpiece.
Applying Bernoulli's equation to the free SUrf,I CC of water in tank and sect io n C-c. we hav e
II~'
, Pc Vc
,
- +- + z= - + - +,"
pg 2g P8 2g
Taking datum pass ing through (he centre of orifice. we ge l
... ( i)
,. ~
~ : Il +/f - I ' ... (ii)
28 ~ c
Bm
1,2 1,2
H,. + ~'~ =Hd + -'
Zg Zg
Also from (;) . Hc + v/ IZg=II + H"
lid + v/IZg = II + lid
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Qm>., '" a, x ,)28 1/ '" 12.566 x .J2 x 9.& 1 x 200 '" 7H7 1.5 CIlIJ/S. Ails.
Now ratio of are as at oullet and throat is give n by eq uati on (7 .17) as
,
- lr
4 I
,/' - d
4
, '" 2.2 135 or
c r::r = 2. 2 1JS
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~1 + 1O.3 23
H
0'
to !
-,-:
,-
4= Hi 1+ - or 16= 1+ -
H H
8 or 15", -8
H
.005 x 4
" J.0CXJ47 == .0217 m == 2. 17 CIII . AilS.
It X 13.508
(ii) Dia. a \ oullet (d,). App lying Bernoulli's eq uation to the free water surface and ou tlet of mouth·
piece (See !'ig. 7.15). we get
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Now
4 x .005
= ,1:04::X7:.00
",5~ '" 0.035 III = 3.5 .:m. Ans.
11: X I', 1f X 5. 1724
A shon cy lind ric al tu be anached to an orifice ill s uc h a way Ilial th e lube projects in wardl y \0 a
tank . is c alled an inlc rn al mo uthpiece. II is also ca lled Rc-c mraru or Borda 's mouthpi ece. If the length
of the tu be is equ al to its di ame te r. the jet of liqu id co mes Oll t fro m mouthpi ece with out to uc hin g the
s idc50ftbc mbe as ~h ow n in ri ~. 7.16. T he moU!hpiccc is kn ow n as fUlI/ling/ree. But if the leng th of
the tu be is about 3 li mes its d iameter. th e jet comes out wi th its diameter equal to th e d iamete r o f
mouthpi ece a t o ut let as s how n in Fi g . 7. 17. T he llI o uth piece is said to be fUlUlingfull.
(i) Bo ni n's !\Io ut hpi l'C" Run n in g Fre.. , Fi g. 7. 16 s hows the Bonia's llI o uthpiece runnin g free.
Let H = heig ht o f liquid above th e Ill outhp iece,
a = area of Illouthpiece,
" e " area of contracted jet in th e mo uthpi ece,
ve " veloc ity th ro ugh mouthpiece .
Thc n ow of fluid th ro ugh mo uth p iece is takin g place d ue to th e press ure force exc n ed by the flu id
o n th e entrance SC1:tion of the mo uth p iece. As the area of the mOllthpk'i:e is "a' hence total pressure
force o n entrance
"pg.a . 11
where II = di stance of e.G. of area ',,' from free s urface = H.
=pg.a. H , ..(i)
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According 10 Newton's second law of motion. the net force is equal lO the ralC of change of mOlllen -
ttl 111.
Now mass of liquid flowing/sec '" p x (I e )( I'e
The liquid is initially at rcst and hence initial velociTy is zero bUI final veloci ty of fluid is I'c'
Riue of change of lllomClllum = mass of liquid flowing/sec x [tinal velocity - initial velocityj
= pac x 1',lv, - 0] = pac v/ ... (Ii)
Eq uating (I) and (Ii). we get
pg ,a.H. = pac' \./ ... (i ii)
Apply ing Be rnoulli's equation to free su rface of liquid and section (1) -( 1) of Fig. 7.16
The jet of liqu id after passing through C·C, suddrnly enlargrs at sc£tion (1 H I). Thus therr will be
a loss of head due to ~uddc n cn l arg~1llen\.
1
(v<_1'd
It L '" '-'-c;-"- ... ( i)
2,
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== .JgH \'1
. .
:. Co-efficlen l of ve loc1t y, C, = -
l'l = J,[iii. =
I
M= 0.707
2811 ,,2
V'h
As th e are a of th e jet at o utle t is equal to the are a of the mouthp iece. hence co-effi cient of
contracti on ", I
Cd '" Cc X C,.= 1.0 x .707" 0.707
Discharge. Q" Cd X (/ x J2 gH "" 0 .707 x a x J2gH ... (7.20)
Problem 7 .29 An in tern(ll mouthpiece of 80 mm diameter iJ" di~"C!lIIrging ....aler unde r (I constant
head of 8 metres. Find Ih e discharg e through mouthpiece .....1"'"
(i) Ti,e mouthpiece is runnillg free . alld (ii ) The mo uthpiece is rI/IIlling JIlII.
Solullon. Give n :
Dia. of mou thpiece. d = 80 10m = 0.08 III
Q=0.5x(lx J 2gH
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HIGHLIGHTS
1. Orifice is a small opening on (he side or al the bottom of a lank while mouthpiece is a shon length of
pipe which is 1WO or three limes its diameter in length.
2. Orifices as well as moulhpic~es arc used for measuring (he rJle of flow of liquid.
J. Theoretical "clocity of jet of waler from orifice iii giwn by
V ~ J 2gH • where If _ Height of Water from the cenlre of orifice.
4. There arc three hydraulic co-efricients namely:
c = Actual ve loc ity at vcna-contmcla = x
(a) Co-efficicnl of ,-elocity.
• Theoretical velocity J4 yll
C • Area of jet at vena - COIHracta
(b) Co-efficicnl of contraction.
< Area of o rifice
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T 2A.[ii
.. Cd.ll,jf;'
9. Time of emptying a hemispherical taTI); by an orifice fiued at its bonom.
- : '" J
1+ H. - H,
", H
where il , '" Area of mouthpiece at outlet
il, " Area of mouthpiece at vcna-contracta
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EXERCISE
I . T hc head of water over an orifice of diameter 50 10m is 12 m. Find the :tctual discharge and actual velocity
of jet at vena-COntr~cta. Take Cd ~ 0.6:md C, ~ 0.98. IAns • .018 m'/s ; 15.04 mlsi
2. The head of water o,'cr the centre of an orifice of diametc r 30 10m is 1.5 m. The actual discharge through
the orifice is 2.35 litrcs/sec. Fi nd the co-cfficient of discharge. IAn s. 0.613]
3. A jet of W:ltcr. iss uing from a sharp cdged "crtical orifice under a constant hend of 60 em. has the horizon -
tal and "enical co-ordinalcs mcasured from lhc vena-conlmcta at a cenain point as 10,0 cm and 0.45 cm
respectively , Find thc "alu~ of C •. Also find the value of C, if Cd -O.60_ [Ans. 0_962. 0 _6231
4. The head of "':tIer over an orifice of diameter 100 mm is 5 111. The waler coming 011\ from ori fice is
COlleCICd in a circular tank of diameter 2 m. The rise of ",ater level in circ ular tank is .45 111 in 30 seconds.
Also the co-ordinales of a cenain point On the jet. measur~..J from \'ena<nntracta ,ore 100 ern horizonl:]1
and 5.2 ern venica!. Find lhc hydraulic co-cffieients Cd' C, and C,. IAn s. 0.605. O.9 ~. 0.6171
5. A tal1~ has two identical orifices in one of its "crtical sides. T he upper orifice is 4 tl1 below the water
.urface and lower one 6 III belo'" thc water surfacc. If the value of C, for each orificc is 0.98. find tlte point
of intcrsection of the two jets. [Ans. At a horizontal dislance of 9.60 eml
6. A closed vessel contains watcr UP!O a height of 2_0 m and over the water .urface there is air having
pressure 8. ~29 Nlcm ' alx we atmospheric pressure. At the bottom of the vessel there is an orifice of diam -
eter 15 em. Find the rate of flow of water from orifice. Ta~ e Cd " 0.6. IA ns. 0.15575 m' lsl
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.. 8. 1 INTRODUCTION
A notch is a device used for measuring Ihe rate of flow of a liquid through a small chan nel or a
tank. It may be del1ned as an opening in the side of a tank or a sm all ehannel in sueh a way that the
liquid surface in the tan k or channel is below the tOp edge of the opening.
A weir is a concrete or m3!\onary structure, placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs.
It is generally in the form of ven ic~1 wall. with a sharp edge at the tOp. running all the way across the
open dannel. The notch is of small size while the weir isof a bigger size. The notch is generally made
of metallic plate whi Ie wei r is Illade of concrete or masonary structure.
I. Na p pe o r Vein. The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called Nappe or Vein.
2. C res t or Sill. The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over which the water flows. is known
as the sill or crest.
355
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The expression for discharge over a rcctallgular notch or weir is the same.
NAPPE
Consider a rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as shown in Fig. 8.1.
Le! H " Head of water over Ihe nest
L " Length of the notch or weir
For finding the discharge of water flowing over the weir or notch, cOlIsidcT an elementary horiwntal
strip of water of thickl1es~ dll alld length L at a depth" fronl the free surface of wakr as shown in
Fig. 8.1 (c).
The area of strip "Lxdh
and theore tical velocity of water flowing through strip" J2gl!
The dischargc dO. through strip is
dQ'" Cd X Arca of Strip x Th~'Orctical velocity
... (1)
where Cd '" Co·cffleient of dischargc.
The total discharge. Q. for the whole notch or weir is dctcnn ined by imcgrating equation (I) bctwCt:n
the limits 0 and If.
2
="3Cd ' " IHI ~.
X/.X.y2g ...(8. 1)
Problem 8. 1 Find rhe discharg e of Wilier flowillg o ra a reclangulor norell of 2 m /engrll Wllell ,he
COIISIaIll head ora rile lIorch is 300 mm. Take Cd " 0.60.
Solu l io n. Given:
Length of the notch. L=2.0m
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Cd '" 0 .60
2
= - xO.6 x 2.0 x J2x9.S r x [O.3011,s m J {s
3
'" 3.5435 x 0.1643 '" O.SSZ m' /s. ADS.
Problem 8 .2 D e/ami/Ie I/Ie /leighl of II reC/(lIIgu/M weir of I<mgll! 6 111 10 b<! buill llc mS.f II rectwl-
gll/ilf chalillel. Tire I/I(1Xillllll1l deptll of Wil Ier 0/1 rile lips/ream $ide oflhe weir is I .S III alld disC/llIrg" is
2(X)() l i lres/s. Take Cd '" 0.6 alllt lIegleel end cO/llme/iolls.
Solution. Given:
Length of wt'ir. L=6 m
!krIll o f wate r. H I= 1.8rn
DiSl:hargc. Q '" 2000 litIs", 2 m 3/s
Cd '" 0.6
Let II is he ig ht o f Wale r above the crest of wei r. and Ill'" he ight o f we ir (rig. 8.2)
The d isch:lrgc uve r Ihe we ir is gi ve n by the equatio n (8 . 1) as
2
Q'" - X Cd X l. x./fi X /1 )12
1
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= 1.83 x L x 0.8538
The expression for the discharge over <I triang ular nOlch or weir is the same. II is deri ved as :
Le t If = head of water above the V- notch
e = angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip OrWJtcr o f lhickncss 'dh' at a de pth of II from the free surface of Waler
as sho wn in Fig. 8.3.
From Fi g. 8.3 (b). we ha ve
e = -AC : AC
;-;:C"'"
t;lI1 -
2 OC ( H II ) , ,
AC=(If - II) tan
,
-z ~ r
.'\t'o--'-
,.,
Width of strip =AB=2AC=2(H - l!)tan- • <0,
Fig. 8.3 Th~ triangular notch.
== 2 x C x tan -,
d
2
2
x,fig [ -
"
tan
,'2 '"
Discharge, Q=.!
15
xO.6x I x .}2 )(9.8 1 x wn ... (8.3)
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2
Q= - xCdXLX.Jfi xHIf!
3
'" '32 x 0.62 x 1.0 x .)2 x 9.8 1 x (.15)">11 mJ/s '" 0.10635 ml/s
The same dischargc rasS<.'s through the tria ngular Tight -angled weir. But discharge, Q, is giver> by
equation (8.2) for a triangular weir as
Q= -
8
X
e
Cd x tan - x.[fi X H~f!
15 2
8 90'
0. 10635 == - x .59 x tan ""2 x
15
FE x H/'/2
8
= - x .59 x I x 4.429 X H IY2= 1.3936 HI 512
15
e 2g xl-/ w
Q= -8 xCd xlan -xv =
15 2
8
== - xO.6x tan
15
(90°)
-
2
xJ2X9.81 x (0.36)w= 0.11 02 1ll 3/s
The same discharge is passing through the rcct.lngular wei r. But disc harge for a I"\:l:tangul ar weir is
given by equation (IU) as
2
Q="3 xCd xLx Iii xfl·Vl.
0.1 102 == ~ xO.7 x I x J2 x9.8 1 x fI·Vl. == 2.067 H )J2
3
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Q= -
8 e
xcdx.[fi xtan- xll 5t2
15 2
8 90·
Q= - X.62x.j2x9. Rl x tan - xH~
15 2
II. triangular notch or weir is preferred to a rectangular weir or notch due to following reasons:
I. The expression for discharge for a right-angled V-notch or weir is very simple.
2. For rnc~suring low disdargc. a tri;mgu)ar notch givcs 1110re a<.:curate results th~n a rectangular
notch.
3. In case oftriangulur notch. only one reading. i.e., H is required for the computation of dischnrge.
4. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary .
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The discharge through twO lri~ngular notches FDA and BeE is equal 10 Ihe discharge through a
single triangular notch of angle 9 and it is given by equation (8.2) as
8 ~
Q1 = - XCd X I<ln- )( ,,2g xH
Y1 a
15 ' 2
Di sch,n ge through trapczoidalnoH:h or weir FDCEF= Q, + Q1
2
"" -
3 Cd L
I
'28 x fI -1I2 + -158 Cd' )( Ian en)( v"X
v -'-I;
f2ii x H SIl. ...(8 .4)
Pro blem 8 .7 Find Ihe discharge through (l Ir(lpezoiJal II oleil "'hid, is I m "'ide al the lOp Gild
0..10 m til the bulIO'" wu/ is 30 em jll height. The /W{Id of ",Mer 011 the li DICh is 20 em. A ssume C,,Jor
reCllmg"{"f portio" '" 0.62 ,,"/life/Of lTitmg,,/ar portioll '" 0.60.
, , , ,
Solution. Giv",n :
Top width. liE = I III --- - -- -
Q= -2 Cd X L x.ffi x~ + -8 '
Cd x tan - x../2i x H '>r.
3 ' 15 ' 2
2 8
= - x 0.02 x 0.4 x ./2 x 9.81 x (0.2 l Y.! + - x .60 x I x ./2 x 9.81 x (0.2)Y.!
3 15
= 0.06549 + 0.02535 '" 0.09084 m3fs " 90.84 Ill res/s. An s .
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... (8 .5)
Problem 8 .8 Fig. 8.7 sho ws II stepped lIolc/'. Find lilt' discharg/' l"rOJ/gll Ihe notch il e d/o r 1111
= 0.62.
sec/ion
Solution. Given: T
50cm fl,
L I = 40 em. ~" 80 em.
-~
LJ = 120 Clll
"I = 50 + 30 + 15 =95 em. Iscm
" ~ x 0.62 x 120 x J2 x 98 1 x 50ll.l " 77677 1 cm 3,s" 776 .77 1 litis
3
Q = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 = 154.067 + 530 . 144 + 776.77 1
= 1460.98 ]iUs. ADS.
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For all accurate value of the discharge over a weir or notc h. an accurate measurement o f he ad ove r
the weir or notch is ve ry esse ntial as the disch arg e ove r a triangular !lotch is proportional 10 HYl and in
case of rectang ular no tch i1 is proportional \0 HY2 . A s mall error in thc measurement o f head. will
affect lhe di.<;chargc co ns iderabl y. The fo llowing c ases of error in Ihe rnCa5 urcmcnt of head will be
considered :
( i) For Rectangular Weir or No tch.
(ii) For Trian gular Weir or Notclt.
8 . 8 . 1 for Rectangular Weir or Notch . Th e disc harge for a rectangular weir or notch is g iven
by equation (8.1) as
~
Q= -2 xCJ xLx,,2g xH-
3
=
== KH1I2 ...( i)
2
where K = "3 Cd X L )( .Jfi
Differe ntiating th e above equation. we get
3
I12
dQ-
- Kx -2 H dH
K x ~xH"2dH
Di vidin g (ii) by (i). dQ '" -~2~;n- '" 3 dH ...(8.6 )
Q KH JI2 2 H
Equ ati o n (1\.6) shows that an error o f 1% in mcasurin g fJ will produce 5<;<, c rror in di scharge ovcr
a rectang u lar weir or notch.
8. 8.2 For Triangulilr Weir or Notch. The discharge uver a triangular weir or nutch is g ivcn
by equation (8.2) as
Q'"
8
15 e r->:
C d' tan T,,2 g xH
YJ.
SIZ
'" KH ... (iii)
where K '" -
8 e
Cd' tan - ,J2i
IS 2
Differe nli~ting equ~tion (iii). we gel
K~ 1/ 311 dll
Di viding (il') by (iii ). we get dQ '" _.2co",,~-
5 dH
JIl
...(8.7)
Q K fi 2 H
Equation (8.7) show s thaI :111 error of 1% in III c ~ suring H will produce 2.5% e rror in disch~rg c over
a triangul~r weir or notch.
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:: -8 X .62 x 1 x 44.29 X H Y2
15
30000 x 15
:: 2048.44
8 x .62 x 44.29
H '" (2048 .44):!I·~:: 2 1. 1 1 ern
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Consid er a rese rvo ir o r tank o f uniform cross·section al are a A. A rec ta ng ul ar weir or notch is
prov ided in one of its si des.
Let L = Length of crest of the wei r o r notc h
Cd = Co·efficien t of d i><: harge
H , = In it ial height o f liqu id ahove the crest of notc h
H2 = Fin al hei g ht of liqu id above th e crest o f no tc h
T = Ti me req ui red in seconds to lowe r the heig h! of liqui d from " , 10 H1 •
Le t at an y instant. the heig ht of liquid surface a bove the cre"t of wei r or notch be /, and in a small
time JT. let the li!.juid surfa\:e fall s by ·d''-. T hc n.
- Adh=Q x dT
- ve s ig n is tak c n. as with th e im;rease of T. /, dec re ases.
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, "" ~ __--=-~A~dl~,_ __
-Adh=iCJ XLx,,2g .11 xdTordT= Z
"3 Cd X LX/fiXhli!
Th" [01.11 lime Tis oblai",:,d by integrating Ih" :thovc equalion between the limits H, and H!"
lo' ,Fr-
-
fHl
If,
-Adh
~Cd XLx.fiixllm
3
0'
... (8.8)
Consider II reservoir or tank of unifonn '-Toss-sectional area A. havin~ 11 triangular weir o r nOleh in
one of ilS sides.
LeI a", Angle of the notch
Cd == Co-emden! of discharge
HI'" Initial height of liquid above the apex of 1I00(h
H) '" Final heig ht of liquid above the apex of nOH;h
T = Time required in seconds. 10 lower the heighl frolll HI to II! above the apex o f the 1I0\cll.
LeI at any instant. Ihe height of liquid surface above the apex of weir or notc h be II and in a small
timc dT, let th~ liquid surface falls by 'dll', Then
- Adll=QxdT
- ve sign is taken, as wit h the increase of T. II decreases,
And Q for a triangular notch is
8 , =
Q= - xCd xtan - .. 2g xlrV2
15 2
8 e"-::- ~, ,
- Adll= - xCd xtan -x .. 2g xII -xdT
15 2
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tiT", Adlt
8 e r;:>;: J/'
- xCd xtan - x,,2g xll -
15 2
The total lime .,. is obtained by integrating the above equation between th e lim its III and 11 2,
T dT- J, r -Adh
1. - JH, ~ C
15 d
Ian ~ vJ2; II SI !
2 "'-e;
"' f"' 0,
II Si'2 dh
'" ~15Ae X
(--
')[Ji"
, ]'"
8xCd xtan x..{fi 3'" II,
2
T 3A [ , , ]
'" Cd X LX .j2i :.{Ji; - J'H,
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5xMOO
'" 4 x .62 x Ian 90"x .)2 x 9.81
[ "
2" -]iT
J
2
T= SA 9
4x Cd xlan l x.[fi Hl "
[~ - ~l
H I -
180 =
4x.60xlan
5xlO
(90' )
[ ,
---y;y - ( )'"
2 xJ2x9.81 Hl 0 .3
'l
= 4 x .60 x501 x 4.429 [ H/' '1 - (0.3)liZ
' ]
0'
180 x 4 x 0.60 x 4.429 = 38.266.
50
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I
or "I'T - 6.0858 '" 38.266
H,
I I.~ 1
-,-
~ '" 38.266 + 6 .0858 '" 44.35 or H, '" - - '" 0.0225
fI ;! • 44.35
112 ", (0.0225)"1.5", (0.0 225 ),6667 = 0.0822 m = 8.22 COl, Ans .
Velocity of approach is defined as the veloci ty with which the wate r approaches or rc~chcs the
weir or nOld before it flows over it . Thus if Va is til.: velocity or 3pproach. then an additi onal head /10
V'
cq uallo .....!L duc lU veloc ity of .tpproach. is acting on the water flowing over the notch. Then initial
2,
heigh! of water over the nmelt bc\;OIllCS ( 11+ Il o) and I1nal hei ght becomes equal 10 11 0 , Then all the
formulae arc changed taking into co nsideration of ve loc ity of approach.
The ve loc it y of approach. Va is determined by finding the discharg e ove r the nOlch o r weir
neglecting veloci ty of appro ach. Then di viding th e discharg e by the cros.'H;•."Ctional area o f the channel
on the upstream sidc of the weir or notch. the ve locity of approach is obt ained. Mathe matically.
Q
Vo = CC---C'c----C
Arca of ch annel
This vel ocity o f approach is used to find an additional head (II. = ~.:). Again the discharge is
l:aJculatcd ,lI1d above process is repeated for l11or~ accurah: discharge.
Discharge over a rectan gular weir. wi th velocity of approach
2
'" "3
X Cd X L x .,ffi [(HI + h o )Y2 - h,:n [ .. .(K.10)
Problem 8.15 Wulu is flo,..illg ill II rec/Illlgu/w c/UWIlef of I III ,..ide "JIl/ 0.75 III deep. Filld 11,1'
disch"rge o,·u (I reCl,mgu/ar ,.."ir of aes//ellgll, 60c IIl. iflhe head "fwaler v,·er Ihe creSI of weir is
20 cm "",/ ,..(ller from dlm,"el flvws m ·er Ihe weir. Tilke Cd == 0.62. NeglecI elld COll/ractiOllS. Tilke
,·elOeily of approach illlO COllsidew/im, .
Solution. Givcn :
Are a o f channel. A", Width x d~pth '" 1.0 x 0.75 '" 0.75 m l
Length of we ir. L=60 cm=0.6m
~lcadofwmer. H 1 =20cm =0.2 m
Cd = 0.62
Discharge over a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is given by
I I Ii
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:. Additional head.
v'
"" '" - "- '" (. 1309)212 x 9.81'" .0008733 m
2,
Then di scharge with velocity of approacl"t j~ given by L-q ualion (8.10)
2
'" - x 0.62 x 0.6 x
3
J2 x 9.8 1 ](0.2 + .OOO87)Jf2 - (.OOO87) lI2 ]
Q= 3.. X Cd x Lx
3
J2i I(H I + h.):sn. _h. m ]
2
'" - x 0.6 x 100 x J2 x 9.111 ]( 1.5 + .0 I 27):sn. - .01 27 3/2 ]
3
'" 177. 16] 1.5127·V2 _ .0127m ]
= 177. 16 ]1.8605 - .00 143 J = 3 29.35 Ans. m',s.
Problem 8.17 A rectangular weir of cre),tlengtll 50 cm is used to measure tile rate offlow ofll"ater
in a rectangular cliallnel of 80 elll ....ide and 70 em deep . Dererm ille rile discliarge in lire challnel ifrlle
warer lel'el i.f 80 111111 IlbOl'e rhe cresr of weir. Take I"elocity of approach illlo consideration and mlue of
Cd '" 0.61 .
Solution. Given:
Length of we ir. 1. =50cm =0.5 11)
Ar~a o f channel, A = Wi d th x de pth = 80 CIII X 70 Cill == 0.80 x 0.70 == 0.56 m<
H~ad over weir. Il '" 80 111m '" 0.08 m
Cd == 0.62
The discharge ove r a rectangular weir without ve locity o f approach is g ive n by equation (8.1)
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2 (.0369)"
Head due to Va> Ir = V;t2g = = .0000697 III
" 2 )(9.81
Discharge wilh velocity of approach is
,
=::. X 0.62 X 0.5 X .)2 )(9.81 [C08 + .0000(97)312 - .0000697~nl
3
'" 0.9 [53 X [.0R00697I.S - .00006971.~J
3
'" .9153[.02265 - .0CKl00(582) '" 0.2073 111 /5. AIlS .
Problem 8.18 A suppre.ued reClimgu/ar weir I.! COIIJlrUCled acroJ.l a ellalilie/ of 0.77II! widtll Willi
a head of 0.39 //I and Ihe crest 0.6 III (lbOl'1" the bed of the chaliliel. Eslimale the discharge oru ir.
Con sider \'e/ociry of approach and aSSU/II(' CJ '" 0.623.
Solution. Given;
Widlh of channel. b = 0.77 111
Head over wdr. H = 0.39 m
Hcigtll of ere,! from bed of channel", 0.6 m
Deplh of channel '" 0.6 + 0.39 == 0.99
Value of
SuppresSI.""d weir me an s that the width of channel is equal to width of weir i.e .. there is no end
contraction.
Width of channel" Width of weir" 0.77 m
Now area of channel, A" Width of chan nel x D<:pth of ch ann el
" 0.77 x 0.99
The diSCharge ove r a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is given by equation (8.1).
v- 0.345
Now velocity of approach. Q
• - Area of chan nel
~'"C'!c~
0.77 x 0.99
" 0.4526 lIlls
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2
'" JX 0.623)( 0.77 x ./2 )(9.81 1(0.39 + 0.0 1(4)312 - (0.0 1(4)3n 1
2
'" 3" x 0.623 x 0.77 x 4.43 [0.2533 - 0.001061
'" 0.3573 mJ/s. An s.
Problem 8.19 A slwrp crested rectangular weir of I In heighl e.tfe/ld.i across a rec/(l/lgular
c/wrme/ of 3 m ",id,h. If lilt! head afwaler 0\'''' I/Ie weir is 0.45 Ill. co/cu/m(! the discharge. COllsida
I-e/oeily ojupproac/I (1111/ IlHume Cd '" 0.623.
Solu ti o n. Gi ven:
Width o f channel . h=3 m
Heigh t of weir =I m
H~ad of water over weir. H '" 0.45 III
Depth of channe l '" Heig ht of we ir + Head of water ove r we ir
'" I + 0.45= 1.45m
Value of Cd '" 0.623
The discharge ove r a rectan gular we ir with out ve locity o f approac h is given by ~ qual io n (8. 1) as
2
Q'" - X Cd X b x ,ffi X H lI!
3
v- Q
• - Area of c hanne l
= ~~~~~L~~S~~~~
Widlh of cha nn el x {kplh of channel
-"L66~SO
~
3 x 1.45
'" 0.382 1I1/s
V l 0382'
h = - "- '" = 0.0074 11\
" 2g 2x9.8 1
Now the discharge Wilh ve locity of approach is give n by.
2
Q'" - X Cd X b x Jii I(H + 11)311 _ Ol).ln l
3
2
'" - x 0.623 x 3 x ~ 2 x 9.81 [(0.45 + 0.OO74)3ll _ (0.0074)311 1
3
= 1.703 m 3 /s. An~ .
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II Ii
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where til '" 0.405 + .003 ", 0.405 + .003 '" 0.41 25
H .40
Q'" .41 25 x 1.5 x .J2 x9.8 1 x (.4),\12
'" 0.6932 ",.lIs. AIl-"
Problem 8.21 A weir 36 melfes /ollg is dil'ided inlO 11 eqlUll bays by !'<,nical pO,~I.f. eael! 60 em
wide. Determine Ille di,Kllarge o\'er Ille weir if Ihe head OI'er Ihe crest is 1.20 //I allli \'e/OCify of
approach is 2 metres per second.
Solution. Given:
Lengt h of wc ir. L[ '" 36 10
Numbcrofbays. = 12
For 12 bays, no. of vertical post = I I
Width of c;l<:h POSt =60cm=O.6m
Effective length. L= LI - 11 xO.6'" 36 - 6.6 '" 29.4111
Head On wdr, H = 1.20 III
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, I
_ = tan _ = 14 ° 2'.
" "
2 4 1 1
By giving this s lope to the sides. an increase in discharge through the
triangular portions ABC and DEF of the we ir is obtained. If this slope is
not provided the weir would be a rectang ular one. and duc to end Fig. 8.9 The cipollelli u·ejr.
contraction. thc di scharge would decrease. T hu s in Ca.>C of cipolletti
weir. the factor of end contractio n is IIOt required which is shown be low.
The discha rge through a rectangular weir with twO end con tra ct ions is
=-
8
X
r:c
Cd X ,,2g X
9
tan - Hm
15 2
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.2296
V" = _ _ = 0.514 m/s
0.40
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ru=
L '" length o f th e creS!
7::,,:"::,,:~::~:~
: !r,
:"::":-".:?:~~-r~~
,,,,,,0 "'i''' O
~ , ----<
F;g . 8.10 B~Qad<{;Tf'Jted wt:i~.
1,2
- = H - II
28
1. = J2 g ( H /r)
Th~ discharge Oller weir Q = Cd x Are a of n ow x Ve loc it y
l J
... (8. 18)
=C d XLXJ2 g( Hll - II )
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/,= -32 If
Q""" will be obtained by substitut in g this value of II in equation (IU8) as
For a narrow -crested weir. 2L < H. It is simi lar lO a rectangular we ir or notc h hence. Q is given by
2
Q'" - X Cd X L x .fii X n ln ...(8.20)
3
Fig. 8.1 1 shows an Ogee weir. in wh ich the crcS! of Ihe weir
rises upto maximum heigh! of 0. 11 5 x H (w here H is [he heigh! o f
,~e
Wale r above inlet of the weir) and then fall s as shown in f'ig. 8.11 . CREST
The disc harge for an Ogee weir is the same as that of a rectangular
weir. and it is given by
2
Q= - X Cd X f. x .fii x If'! .. ,(8 .21 )
3
Fig. S.1l An Ogff 'Wt'ir .
... 8 . 16 DISCHARGE OVER SUB·MERGED OR DROWNED WEIR
When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is above the crest o f the weir. the n the wei r
is called to be a sub-mcrged or drowned weir. Fig. IU2 shows a sub-mc rged weir. T he tOial
discharge. ove r the we ir is obtained by di viding the we ir into two parts. T he port io n between upstream
and downstream water surface may be treated as free weir and ponion between dow nstream water
surface and erest of weir as a drowned wei r.
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,
"'~X Cd ' xL x fii IH- h l)f!
Q 2 '" di scharge thro ugh drowned porti on
'" Cd, x Are a o f flow x Ve locity of fl ow
Velocity of appro ac h.
o
18.084
V:: - = - - = 0 .36 m/s
" A 50
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== ~ xO.6 x3 x ,)2 x9.8 1 1.20 - .10(~+ 0.8 x3x . IOx J2 x9.81 (.2 - .1 )
== 0.168 + 0.336 == 0.504 nI'/s. Ans .
HIGHLIGHTS
1. A nouh is a dcvice u.'iCd for measuring [hc rotc of flow of a liquid through a small channel. A weir is
a cOllcrete or masonary ,truewre placed ill the open channel over which Ihe flow occurs.
2. The discharge Ihrough 3 rectangular notch or weir i. gi,·en by
2
Q"'"3CJ XLXHJfl
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Q""3
2
Cd, X Lx Jfi 8
X H II2 + T5CJ, x tan
a ,,28
"2)( r::o::
x It!'!
~ I I~
~ I IL
where mK_
2 cd"O. 405+ -~
.003
... without velocity of approach
3 H
.003
~O.405+(
H+ha
I ... wilh velocity of apP!U.lch.
12 . A trapezoidal weir. with side slope or I horizontal 10 4 vertical. is called Clpollelti weir. The dis.::harge
through Cipollctti w~ir is given by
o
Q = ~ Cd X L X J2i HJn. .. , wilhout velocity of approach
'" ~ CdxLx J2i [(H + h)lfl_ h}1:.'1 ... with velocity of appro.1ch.
EXERCISE
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CR~EK
.. 9. 1 INTRODUCTION
This chapler deals with the flow of fluids whic h arc viM:ulIS and flowing at very low veloc ity. At
low ve locit y lh e fluid moves in laye rs. Each layer of fluid slidcsovert hc adjaccnllaYCf. Duc 10 relath'"
. du 1111
velocity betwee n two laye rs the velocity grad ient - exists and hence a shear stress 1 '" j.l - aCL~ On
<f)' <fy
lhe layers.
The followi ng caso"s will be considered in this c hapler:
I. Flow of vi scous flui d through ci rcular pipe.
2. Flow of vi<;C{}us fluid between 1WO parallel plates.
3. K inctic energy torrcction and momentum correctioll f;!ClOTS.
4 . Power absorbed in viscous flow through
(lI ) Journal bearings. (h ) Foot-step bearings. and (el Collar bearings.
,
Fig. 9.1
'" (_)
VisWUI flow throllgh a pipf'.
(b)
387
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Ihen the intensi ty of pressure on face CD will be (p + ~ a.x). Then the forces acting On the fluid
clcmcru ,m: :
L. The pressun: force, p X It,l on face AB.
/lltr-
' ra"J
ax '
p+- lh 1tr""-tX2ItrXal=O
The shear stress t across a section varies with " as - al' across a section is constant. Hence shear
ax
stress distribution across a section is linear Ill; shown in Fig. 9.2 (11).
SHEAR STRESS VELOCITY
DISTRIBU,)ON / DISTRIBUTION
?' ---, C-
) ~
{., 'I
Fig. 9.2 Sbt'ar urt'u and vl'iociry distribution across a st'Ction.
(i) Ve locity Distribution . To obtain the velocity distribution across a section. the value of shear
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-, -
dll up ,
= - -- or
du
-
1 dp
"' - - ,
dr ax 2 dr 2)1 a.r
Int egrati ng this above equation w,r.t ' , . we gel
o= - '_ QP n2+c
4/1 ax
c :- - '_ QP R2
4).1 ,h
Substituting this va lu e o f C in e quation (9.2) , we get
l iJP 2 1 dP 2
,= - - , -4).1-
4)1 fh
- R
ax
I op
= - - - [R - r l
2 2
... (9.3)
41J ax
In ' ljuation (9.3). v~lucs of ).I. ~~ and R :Irc const~nt, which means the ve locit y, II va ries with the
squ are of T, T hus eq uati o n (9.3) is a equ ation o f parabola, This shows Ihm the vciocity di stribution
across Ih e sect io n of a pipe is parabolic. Th is ve loc ity distribution is sliow n in r ig. 9.2 (b).
(ii) Ra l lo uf !\Iud mum Veloc ll ,f lu AHrage Vel ocl t y. The velocity is maxi mu m. whe n f ' " 0 in
eq uation (9.3). Thus maximum veloci ty. Umo, is o btained as
u = __,_ op R2 ...(9 .4)
..... 4J.l ,ll-
The average ve loc ity. II. is ob tained by dividing the di sc harge of the nuid across th e seetion by the
area of the pipe (rrR\ The di...:hargc (Q) across the sectio n is Obtained by considerin g the now through
a circular ring ,dement of radius r and thickn ess dr a~ ~ho w n in Fig. 9 .1 (b ). Th e fiu id fiowing per
s<!(;ond Through Thi s c le memary ri ng
dQ = ve loci ty ~I a radiu s r x area of ring cleme nt
= II X 2rr r dr
1 ap 2
=- - - [R - r 1x2rrrdr
2
4J.l ax
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: -1
4~
[-a")X2'
ax
[!!'..C_~]'
2
: _1 [ - ''') x 2'['" _"']
4 0 4 pfJx 2 4
- Q
-,,-(-a
8j.I ax
p
) R'
Average ",",ocity. ,: --: ,
Area rrR -
" : _I
8p.
(-,p)
ax
"' [-a
ax
):: 8R-1l:-; _
R' p
8~lii
: - L I": )."2 - ,( I '" L from Fi g. 9.3)
R'
" 8p.uL
(D /2)2
(p _ ) _ 321.l11L
I P! - D' . where PI - P! is Ihe drop o f pressure.
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321-l uL - Q
PI - P2 '" - -,- , where II '" average ve locit y == - -
D' Area
100 =900xQ
30
Reynolds numbe r, R, * = -
pVD
-
where "
p=Po= 9oo. V= j; =0.471.D=0.1 m.~1=0.097
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, -
,
where p = 900 kg/m". V ", average velocit y = II = 1.732 mls
i.e .. T'" - - -
dp'
dol 2
Shear stress at pipe wall. where r '" R is gil'e n by
To =
-ap
-~~
R
ax 2
~
-a~
p = --,
- (,-,
p,~--,-p,,-
,) PI -Pl", f! I -P l
Now
d.T Xl - XI Xl XI L
D .05
and R ="2=T= ·025m
.025 N ,
t o = 2280 .9 6x -~--, = 28.512N/m ·. Ans.
2Ill ·
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I - IR2 - r 2 1= -
u= - - ap - 1 -ap H1 [ 1- -" , 1
4 ).1 ax 4).1 ax N-
BUI from equation (9.4) U""" is give n by
~: [",J0.5
0.1 ~2
f = 0.1 x.J5 '" 0. 1 x .707 '" .0707 III
'" 70.7 mm. Ans.
(iii) Vclocil f HI 4 em rro m Ihe wull
r= R - 4.0= 10 - 4,0 = 6.0 em = 0.06 n1
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"U-,HJl="HO,6),] - ,.,,=
== 1.511.0 - .361 == 1.5 x .64 '" 0.96 m/s. Ans. F ig . 9.4
Problem 9 .4 Crllde oil of ~ == /.5 poise and re/mil'l! densit), 0.9 flows Ihrougll a 20 mm diameter
I'crlical pipe. Tile pressure gaugesji.\ed 20 In apart read 58.86 Nkm : milt 19.62 Nkm ] <IS $110 ...11 in
Fig. 9.5. Filii! Ille direcliol1 ami mle of flow [llfOllgl! IIII! pipe.
I.S 1
Solution. Given: )l" 1.5 poisc " 10 == O. J 5 Ns.im
Ix: same. Hence to find Ihe d irec tion of flow , ca lcu la te (~ + z) at A and 8.
A = l!..4. + Z~ >Om
.g
6x l0 4 x9.81
+0 1·: r=900kg/cm~1
=
900x9.8 1
58.86 N/cm
,
= 66.67 III
I--!- 20mm
The value of (:g+ Z) <II
Fig . 9.5
2 xIO· x9.81
= + 20 = 22.22 + 20 = 42.22 m
900x9.8 1
As lh e value of (:~ + z Jis higher at A and Ilene" flow lakes place from A 10 B. An s.
(ii) Ral., o f flow. T he Joss of press ure IIcad for viscous flow lh rougll circular pipe is g iven by
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'" ( : ; +ZA J-(:; +28) '" 66.67 -42.22 '" 24.45 III
32 xO.l5xu x20.0
24.45 " i
900 x 9.8 [ x (.02)"
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op
-
196.2 x 4 ,
ax -- - 0.1
'" -7848 Nlm' perm
~ _I ,(~aPlo'
- &!-t d.f]'
1 ,
:: 8xO.7 x (7848) x (.OSt
:: 3.50 Illfs
(iii) Rernold s numbe r , R,
Loss of pressure head is given by equ ation (9.6) as lit " 32'W~
pgD-
Power required == IV x I,/ watts ...( i)
where IV = weight of oil flowing poer sec = pg x Q
SUbstituting the va lu es of Wand II/ in equation (i).
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10 Illis ca se also, Ihe sllcar stress distribution, Ih c vdocily di stribut ion across a sec tion; Ihe ratio of
maximum ve locity \0 average ve locit y and diffcrcnc~ of pressure head for a give n length of parallel
plates, aTC to be calculated.
, PARALLEL PlATE
DIRECTION -I-----~-"";...---~
- OF FLOW
T,
, 1
PARALLEL PLATE
I--<
Fig. 9.6
"
ViscOUJ flow bU'U'f't'n two paralld plall'S.
Consider two parallel fixed plates kepI at a distance '( apan as s ho wn in Fig. 9 .6. A viscous fluid is
flowing between these two plates from lcft to ri ght. Consider a fluid cJcmC(1{ of length AI" and thick -
ness Ily at a diMancc), from the lower fixed plale. If p is the intcnsily uf pressure on lhe f<lcc AD of lhe
fluid clemen! then ill1ensity of pressure on the face CD will be (p + ~ I1r). Let 1: is the shear suess
acting on the face BC then the shear stress on the face AD will be (1: + ~ Il.Y} If lhe wid th of lhe
e lement in the d irection perpendic ular to the paper is unily then the forces aCling on the fluid element
arc:
1. The pressure force. P x Il.y x I 011 face AD.
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""
stress T" fl -
"y
from Newton's la w of viscosity for laminar flow is substi tuted in equation (9.7).
C _ _ ~ap ~ -
,- ___'_ "P,
f'Qx2XI 2)JJx
Substituting the va lu es of C, and C 2 in eq uat ion (9.8)
II
I ap
= - - - ltv - y-1
, ...(9.9)
2)1 a( -
'""'
In the aoove equation. )1.. -::;- and t are constant. It means Ij varies with the square of y. Hence
equation (9.9) is a equation of a paraoola. Hence velocity distribution across a section o f the parallcl
p late is paraoolic. This \'clocity distribution is show n in Fig. 9.1 (a).
1- to -I
-
- -.. (&) ,0)
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The average ve locity, ~. is obtained by dividing the d ischarge (Q) across th e section hy Ihe area of
the section (/ x I). And the d ischa rge Q is obtained by considering the ralC of flow of fluid through Ih~
strip of thickness Ify and inlcgrating it. The ralC of flow through strip is
dQ'" Velocity al a distance), x Area of strip
J 2 ap
= - - - [l), - y 1xdyx 1
2).1 ,h
_ dP.1 J
- Q 12jl ih I dp 1
"=-~ = - =- ----, ... (9. 1 I )
Area Ixl [2)t ax
----,
I all 1
U'!'." '"
II
_''1"'-' 'ap,
1
,',:- =8='2
12 3 ... (9. 12)
- - -r
12j.l ax
( iii) [)ro p uf Press ure h"Hd for" gh'e" Le";;t h . From equation (9. 1 I). we have
-
u = - ---,
1 ap 1
1211 ax
Inte grating this equation w.r.1- x. we get
I'
1
ilp=
II
1
- -
I
, ~ dx
12)Ju
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Fig. 9.8
"J""
1:11 -
t=11 dU
dy ()y
__
= fl~ [ l dP(ly _y1l]."[ __1 OP(/ _ 2Yl ]
2).1 a.1 2).1 ax
l=--~
I ap 11-2)'J .,.(9. 14)
2 ax -
In eq uation (9.1 4), ~: ,lIld, ,m: l"OnSlnnt. I'len<:e t \'~rics Iincarly willi y. The shear S1ress diSlri bU1ion
is show n in Fig. 9.7 (b). S hear stress is n1a!limul11. w hen y = 0 or I m the w all s uflhe plates, Shc~r stress
is zero , w hen y '" 1/2 Ihal is al the centre line between Ihe (WO plates. Max. s hear Slress (t o) is given by
l op
t o "' - - - t. . .. (9 . 15)
2 ax
Problem 9.7 Calcu/me: (i) tile pressure grailielll along flo ..... (ii) l/ie a\'erage !'e{oeity. (wd
(iii) Ille discharge for Oil oil of !'iseasil), 0.02 Nslm ! j/O"'ing belween 1....0 SlatiQnary ptlralld plates I m
wide m(II' II"i»ed 10 mm tlfwrt. Tile !"docily mid ....ay bel,..enl l/ie plates is 2 mA
SolutIon. G ive n
Viscosity. IJ == .02 N sJm1
Width. b = I 111
Distance between plates. 1= 10 111111 = .0 I 111
Velocity midway be tween the plates. U mo , = 2 mrs.
tip == .2C·O:cx,8~XCC'.O..
2 == - 3200 N/ m , per m. An s .
-
d., .01 x.OI
(ii) Ave rage "cloelt)" (;;:)
U ... ,
Usin g eq uati on (9.12), --- . -3 - 2U",,, 2x2
u == - - - . - - == 1.3 m/s. An s.
3
3 3
(iii) Disc harge (Q )
" 2 - -
= Area of n ow Xu = b XIX U == I X .01 X 1.33= .0133 m Is. An •.
,
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1396 Fluid Mechanks
Proble~ 9.8 Dt tennine (a) the prtssurt gradient, (b) the shear stress at the two horiumtal parallel
platts and (c) the discharge per metre width for the laminar flow of oil with a maximum Vt!locity of
2 mls betwu n two horiumtal porallel fued plates which are l oo mm apart. Given II = 2.4525 N s/m2•
Solution . Given :
U-.A = 2 mis, t = 100 mm = 0. 1 m. ~ = 2.4525 N/ml
U = __
1 OPt2
mu ~ ox
Substituting the values
p
2.0= - I x aa x(. I )'
8)( 2.4525 x
to is given by equation (9. 15) as to = - 1. op X t=- 1. (- 3924) x 0.1 = 1.96.2 N/m1, Am.
2 ax 2
(iii) Dlscbarge per metre wkllh . Q
= Mean velocity x Area
1 2 ~wL
PI - P2 == - ,- ,-
11 =
03 x 10 ' x 1.0 x .05 x .0 5 == 0.52 rn ls
12 x 1.20
Rate of fl ow = ii x Are a == 0.52 x (8 x /)
= 0.52 x 0.20 x .05 111 3/s = .0052 1I1
3/s
1
== 0.0052 x 10 litreJs " 5.2 lit re's. A ns.
Problem 9.10 Wa/a at ISoC flows belweell two l(!fge parillie/ plales ill (l dis/arlce of 1.6 mm oparl.
D t!lermille (iJ ,lie mluimll'" !'e/ocir)' (ii) lile pressure drop per Illii/lenglil and (iii) Ihe shear slress (l/
Ihe "'(I /Is of Ihe p/lUes if Ihe Il\"emge veiocily is 0.2 rnA Tile "iscm-;Iy of water (II Ij OC is gi"en as
0.01 poiJe.
3
Solution. Gi\'cn : t= 1.6 mm = 1.6 )(1 0 m
= 0.00 16 III
ii
.
== 0.2 m/sc\: , )l == .0 1 PO ISC = ru
.OJ
== 0.00 1
(i) Max imum ,·clocity. Un", is give n by cqu ,ni on (9. 12)
3-
i.e., U" .... == "2" = 1.5)( 0.2 = 0.3 m/s. Ans.
( ii) The prt."Ss ure dn.p . (P, - Pl) i ~ given by t'qu3t io n (9. 13)
12 ~I UL
PI - Pl= ~
L211U
or prc~sllre drop per un it le ngth = - -
,-
r
' " - I 2 x .01 x -;-~0~.2~ = 937 .'N
- 44 Im ' pcrm .
01
ox - -10 (.eX) 16i
(iii) Shea r s tress :.tthe walls is g ive n by equati on (9.I S)
I op I ,
t o=- - - X I = - x 937.44 x .00 16 = 0.749 N/m ". Ans .
2 ox
2
Problem 9.11 TilerI' is a ilorilOllla{ c rack 40 111m ... ide and 2.5 mm deep ill a ...al/ of Illickllf'ss
100 mill. W<lIer leab' I/lrougil rile crack.. Find rile raIl' of lea kage of WlIIer Ihroug/l IIIe c rack. If Ihe
difference of pressu,e bel"'eell IiiI' 1"'0 endI of Ihe CTack iJ' 0.02943 Nkm 2. Take IiiI' "iscosil}' of ...ater
1',/11(1//00.01 poise.
Solution. G iven :
Width o f crac k. b = 40 mm == 0.04 m
D~plh of crac k. 1= 2.5 nu n = .0025 111
Le nglh o f crack. l. = 100 111m = 0. 1 m
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Momen tum Cu rredlo n I' Hct Ot . It is defined as the rati o of momentum of th e flow per second
based 011 actual vcloc il y \0 the momentum of Ihe flow per second based 011 average veloc it y across u
section. It is denoted by ~. Henc~ mathematically.
~ = Momen tum per second based 011 actual vd ocity .
. .. (9. 17)
Momen tum pe r second based o n avera ge velocit y
Pro b le m 9.13 Show I/",//he momentum co rrection jador ""'{ energy co rrection judor jllr [llminar
flow /hrough" cirClll'" pipe lire -II) WId 2.0 respec/h·e/y.
Sol u llo n. (!) I\ lomc ntum Correction Factor or ~
The vciocity distribution through a circ ul ar pipe for laminar now at an y radius r is given by
equation (9.3)
--
Fig. 9.9
Rate of fluid flow inll th rough Ih", ri ng
= dQ = velocity x area of ri ng clement
=ux2ltrdr
Momentum o f Ihe fluiu Ihrough ring per second
= mass x velocity
= p xdQ x I j = P x 2ltrdrx II x II = 2ltp u 2rdr
TOlal aClual momentum o f the fluid per second across the secti on
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Mome ntum of Ih e fluid per second based on ave rage veloc ity
mass of fluid ,
= x ,we rag c ve locit y
~,
... (3)
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Viscous Flow 401 1
= is?(:r,R'
(a
= 64 =~.A"'.
= --ax
64~
!tp p)
R
, 48 3
(ii) Energy CorrtCtJon Factor. (L Kinetic energy of the fluid flowing through the elementary ring
of radius',' and of width · dr' per sec
and
1402 Fluid Mechanics
Kinetic energy of the now/sec
."- .,
.
= i x p x rul'X[8~ (- ~) R'r
= -x
I p x ~x
2
I
64 x 1Ij1'
(il)'
_...1!... x H'
ilx
_ p.
- 128 x8~ 3 -
(ilp)'x
ax
R' ... (5)
For the lubrication of the machine pans. an oil is used. A ow of oil in bearings is an example of
viscous now. u a highly viscous ~i1 is used for lubrication of bearings. it will offer great resistance and
thus a grealCr power loss will take place. But if a light oil is used, a required film between the rotating
pan and stationary metal surface will not be possible. Hence. the wear of the two surface will take place.
Hence an oil of correct viscosity should be used for lubrication. The power required 10 overcome the
viscous resistance in the following cases wiU be detennincd :
I . Viscous resistance of Journal Bearings.
2. Viscous resistance ofFoot·step Bearings.
3. Viscous resistance of Collar Bearings.
9.5.1 Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings. Consider a shaft of diameter D rolating in a
journal bearing. The clearance between the shaft andjoumal bearing is filled with a viscous oil. The oil
film in contact with the shaft rotates as the same speed as that of shaft while the oil film in contact with
journal bearing is stationary. Thus the viscous resistance will be offered by the oil to the rotating shaft.
Let N = speed of shaft in r.p.m.
t = thickness of oil film
L = length of oil film
21CN
.. Angular speed of the shaft, ro = 00
, 21CN D .DN
.. Tangenllai speed of the sbaft= m x R or V = - - x - = - -
60 2 60
OIL
......-1 .
= JUt D l NL x D = !:~::",.;D:,J.:.:
1
N:::L
60t 2 t20,
Power absorbed in overcoming the viscous resistance
Tange nti a l speed of sli afl. V = nON '" c'cXcO~.O~5,Xc600= = 0.5 x IT Illfs
6IJ 6IJ
Shear stress
d,
t =Il - ~" V 0.9 ;;-;;O~5~X::..;;'", = 1883.52 N/m2
dy -; = -10- x 0.075 x 1O ~_1
N = 60 r. p.m.
Find power aowrbed
Problem 9.16 A ~'''afl of diameter 0.35 III rotales 1II 200 T.p."" ;"side a s/ee,'e 100 Ill'" [ollg. Th e
d)'llllmic ",'scosily of [llbricalitig oil ill Ihe 2 mm gap bellt'<'lm J'lee,'e ami J'/u'f/ is 8 poi,\'es. ell/cIl/are Ille
{lower [OJ'/ ill Ille beMing.
Solution. Gi ven:
Dia. of shaft. D = 0.35 111
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Problem 9 .17 A slee,'c, in which (I sh aft of di(llnder 75 "'II!. is n",n;ng {II !Zoo f.p.m., is iI(ll'ilig (I
radill/ clearance 0/0.1 mm. Calculate Ihe torque resi~'I"'lce if Ihe length of ~'Ieel'e is 100 mm ami Ihe
splJCe is filled wilh oil of d)'llllmic I'iscosily 0.96 poise.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of shaft. 0= 75 mm = 0.075 m
N = 1200 T.p.lll.
/=0.1 mm =O. l x [O-3 m
Le ngth of sleeve. L = 100 Ilun = 0. 1111
' 0.96 Ns
11 =.096 poise = - - --,
10 m "
nON /t x .075x 1200
Tangential ve locity of shaft. v= ~ '" 60 = 4.71 2 Illls
V .96 4.712 ,
Shear stress. t = !l - == - x 4523.5 Nlm -
I 10 .lx lO J
Shear force, F =t xnDf.
= 4523.5xnx.075x.I '" 106.575N
Problem 9.18 A slrap of / 00 mm dim"eleT r""$ in a beMin!; of lenglll 200 mm willi II radial clear·
ance ofO.o25 mill al 30 r.p.lII. Filld Ille "elocily of IIIe oil, if ille power reqllired 10 overcome I/Ie l'iSCOliS
,e.\·i.~tallce is 183.94 'i'tlll.~.
Solullon. Gi ven:
D" loornm =O.1 111
L " 200 mm " 0,2 m
3
I " .025 111111 " 0.025 x 10 m
N" 30 r.p.rn . : H.P . = 0.25
Find viSl:osity ofoil.).t.
The h.p. is given by equat ion (9.18) as
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133.94 x60x60x.025xlO- J Ns
J
It x .001 x 900 x 0.2
" -
ft n-N,-
" dr x r = -
)1' 3
n-Nr dr ... (9. 19)
151 151
Tot allUTque required to overcome the viscous resistance.
T= fR1fT", j RL n2N?dr
Jo 0 151
'" L
15/
R
n2N r ? dr= L n2N
Jo 15/
[~lR
4
= LnlN~
151
0 4
Power absorbed.
'«NT
p" - - - watts
60
2nN
" - - ' - J.1 nNR
2 ~ = '"o
- '"'"N",'R;:,.
' ... (9.20)
60 601 60 X 301
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R = D : Q:!. = O.05 m
2 2
N", 750 r.p.m.
Thickness of oil film , I = 05 mnl = 0.0005 m
c. 1.5 Ns
1-1= 1 " P0l5C= - - ,
10 m "
The to rqu e required isgivcn by cqu~lioJl (9.19) as
T= L rc 1NH4 Nm
60,
I!n 1N" R4
1'= wa llS
6Ox30 xI
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-<c-
Fig. \1.\2 CQ/larinan"ng.
Consider an c lcn\cmary circular ring uf radius ' r' and wilhh dr of th e bearing surface. Then the
torque (dD required 10 overcome the viscous resistance on Ihe ekmc ntary circular ring is Ihe same as
give n by equa tion (9. 19A) or
dT" L N,3 df
",
It!
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RI
o 0.15
= - ' . - - = .075 III
2 2
1 = 0.25 111111 == .(0)25 III
I-l == 0.9 poisc = 0.9 N~
10 m-
Torque required is given by equmioll (9.21)
. ~( , 4 4 0.9 1t~ X250[O. I ·-.075·]
, . - /t"N [R , - H,I = - x Nm
601 • 10 60 x 0.00025
= 14804.4 [ .000 I - .000031641 = 1.0114 Nm. An s.
Power lost in visco us resistance
2nNT 21t x 250 x 1.01 14
• --~= '" 26.48 W . An s.
6Q 6Q
The loss of pressure h c ~d. II, in a pipe of diameter D, in which a viscous Ouid of viscosity ).I is
Ilowing with a velocity jj is given by Hagcn Poiscuille formula i.c .. by cq uation (9.6) as
II = 32).111L
, pgO l
where L = length of pipe
The loss of head due to friction· is given by
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3211;;£ x D x 28 16,
4 .L.u' . pg. V ' "
II .p. D
f=~. . .. (9.23)
R,
Problem 9.23 Waler is flowing {lnOllS/' (I 200 111m diameter pipe ... ilh coefficient of friClion
/= O.().I. The sileaf Siren' 2
(j/ a point 40 mm from Ihe pipe a.tis is O.()()981 Nkm . Calcuhlle II,e shear
t = - --
ap ,
ax 2
But ~~ is constant across 11 secti on. Across a sectio n. there is no \'ari~tion of x and there is no
variation of p.
,- ,
At the pi pe wa ll. radius", 100 nun and shear stress is to
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Prob lem 9.24 A pipe of diameter 20 em Oll<llellglil 104 m i,~ laid at a slope of I ill 200. All oil of
sp. gr. 0.9 alii! \'iscosiry !.j {Jilise is pumped lip (1/ Ihe rale of 20 lilres per second. Find Ille f,ead lost
due ro frictioll. Also [(Ileulate the power reqllired to plmlp Ihe oil.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of pipe. D=2Qcm=2.50rn
Length of pipe. L = IOOOOm
4 ./. L .u
-,
Head lost due to frict ion,iI, ==
D x 2g
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Ii x nD xl=Vx ~02
4
_ Tt 2 [ VD
II ",Vx - D x --- ~ - ... (1"1')
4 TtDxl 41
Equating the value o f Ii from <iii) and (il·). we get
VD
"
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... (9 .24 )
Problem 9 .25 All oil dash-flol COIIS;S/.! of II pislOn mOl'ing ill a cylinder IWI'iIiS oil. TI,;s arrange-
melll is Iised 10 damp out the I'ibratiolls. The pislOn falls willi uniform speed (!lId co!'ers 5 em in
foo seconds. If on uddiliOlwll>'eighl of 1.36 N is placed 011 the top oflhe pis/oil. itfalls Ihrough 5 em
in 86 ~'ecollds wilh uniform speed, The diameter oflhe pisloll is 7,5 em lind its /ell gl/J is 10 em. Th e
clearance between IiiI' piS/Oil ,md Ihe cy/illder is 0./2 em which is uniform Iinoaghoul. Find the
\'iscosily of oil.
Solullon. Given:
Distance covered by piston due to self we ight, = 5 em
Time laken. '" 100 sec
Additiunal weight. '" 1.36 N
Time taken to cover 5 elll due to additiona l we ight. '" 86 sec
Dia. of pisto n. D '" 7.5 em '" 0.075 111
Length of piston. 1_= 10cm=0.1 m
Clearance. 1=0.12cm:0.0012m
Let the viscos ity of oil =,
IV = Weight of piston.
V = Velocity of piston without addit ional weight.
¥" = Velocity of piston with addi tional weight.
Using equation (9.24). we have
_ 4 IVt J _ 4[ W + 1.36] IJ
].\ - 3ltV J LV - 31tD ) LV *
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The following arc the cx pcrirn cmal mctllods of dClcrmining llie co-efficient of viscosity of a liquid:
I, Capillary lube method.
2. Fa llin g sphere rcsis\JllcC met hod.
3. By rmating cylinder method. and
4. Orifice type viscometer.
T he apP;lralUS uscd for determining the viscosity of a liquid is called viscometer.
9 . S. 1 Capillary Tube Me thod . In capillary lube method. Ihe viscosity of a liquid is calculated
by measuring th e pressure difference for a given length of th e capillary lube. The Hagen I-'o isc uill e law
is used for "3lculatin g viscosity.
-
~~~~~-~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~
-- ~. --
T
~ - - -
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~_ 1\
- :- : - :- : - :- j jD
)'
CONSTANT HEAD
,~,
,' JI"\\J
ME~!~~ING --:=:::-'
Fig.9.14 Capillary tllbe Vi5CQmeter.
Fig. 9.14 shows lh~ capillary luhc viscomel,;,r. Th~ liquid whose viscosily is to be del,;,rmin,;,d is
fill,;,d in a consta nt head lank. The liquid is mainlained at constanl I,;,mpermure and is allowed 10 pass
through Ihe capilluy tube froU1the constant head lunk. Then, Ih~ liquid is collected in a measuring tank
for a given lime. Then Ihe rale of liquid collecled in Ih e tank IX'r second is determined. The pressure
head "II' is measured at a poim far away from the tank as shown in Fig. 9.14.
Then 1/ = Difference of pressure head for length L.
The pressure at oUl lel is atmospheric.
Lei D = Diameter of (;api lla ry lUbe.
L = Length of tube for whic h difference o f pressure head is known.
p = Dt:nsity of flu id.
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4
where Q is ralc of liquid flowing through lube.
32f.l x Q xL
~D2
_
/, = _ _4" ,,_ - '"_. 128).l Q. I.
pgD2 1tpgD"
npghD'
.. .(9 ,25)
).1= 128Q.L
Measurement of D should be done very accurately.
~ I I~
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=, ( ') wR,
HI HI
x2n RI H xRI
_ 21fllwll H I2 R I
... ( i)
- (R2 - Rd
If the gap betwee n th e bonom oflh e two cy linders is '/1 ' , th en Ihe torqu e appli~"d on inn er cy li nde r
( T 2)is give n by equatio n (9 .19A) as
But he re 11 2 4
R =R 1· t = h thcn T1 ", 6011 It N fl l
2(R1 - RI)'!T
11 " ... (9.27)
rrR,2w [41f1IR) + Hi (Rl - HI)]
where T " IOrqu e meas ured by th e strain of the tors ional s prin g .
N I • N2 " radii of inner and o uter cy linder.
II " clearan ce at the botto m o f cy linders.
H " he ight o f liq uid in annul ar space.
~ := co-efficie nt of vi.<;cosity to be de te nnined .
Hence. th e va lue of ~ (;an be calc ul ~ltcd fro m equat io n (9.27).
9 .8.4 Orifice Type Viscometer. In thi s meth od. th e time taken by a ce na in quant ity o f the
liquid whose vis.;:osily is to be detc nnin cd , 10 fl ow thro ugh a s hort c ap illary lube is no ted down. The
co -efficie nt o f viscusit y is the n obwined by comparing with the co -efficient of viscosit y of a liqu id
whose viSl.'Os it y is kno wn or by th e usc convcrsio n fa ctors.
Visco melc rs s uch as Sa ybo lt. Red wood or En g ler arc usua ll y use d . Th e princ ipl e for ali lhe th ree
visco meter is same. In th e United Kin gdom. Red wood visco mete r is used whil e in U.S.A .. Sayboh
visco mda is co mmonl y used.
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V= AI - -
, Saybolt v i5Cometer.
Fig . 9.17
where A = 0.24. B = 190. I = time noted in seconds. v = kinematic vis.;osily in slol; es.
Problem 9 .26 Tile \'is"osil), 0/ (In oil 0/ ~p. gr. 0.9 is mea~''' reJ by a capillary I"be 0/ diamela
50 mm. Th e differe1l ce o/press"re head belwe,," 111'0 poinlS Z m aparl is 0.5 m a/water. Tile mass 0/
oil collected ill tI metlsllri1lg t(/II1r, is 60 kg ill /00 secollds. Find Ihe I'ismsily 0/ oil.
Solu t ion. G iven
Sp. gr. of oil =0.9
Dia. of capillary tube. D = 50 mill = 5 cm = 0.05 III
Length of tube. L = 2 III
Difference of pressure h~ad. 11 = 0.5 m
Mass o f oil. At = 60 kg
Time. 1= 100 s
60
Mass of oi l per second = - - = 0.6 kg/s
100
[knsity of oi l. I' = sp. gr. of oil x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Di scharge. Q= Massofo i! Is = -
0.6
- m 3/s= 0000667
. III ' Is
De nsity 900
Using equ~tion (9.25). we get viscosity.
4
1tpgll D
[here II = 111 = 0.5 J
1'=128Q . L
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d1
Usin g re lation (9.26). we get!!= ~ Ip, - Pj l =
9.81 X[2 x 10 Jf 17500 - 9001
[8U 18 x 0 .0075
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d'
Now using the rcl31ion. II '" ~ [p, - PI! which is for a falling sphere.
I8U
['or a rising bubble, the relalion will become ~s
= _-;-;-:,---=2"(1'.I0
:"2='"--;0".I)"X
".00
,,,,'::X:::'.:8116
-,,,:==--,.,;
It x (.1 )1 x 4 1.88 [4 x .295 x .005 x .1025 + .1 1 (.1025 -. 1)]
2 x .0025 x .005 x 5.886
= -,-:;=~=~=::;
/tx.O I x4 1.88 [.0006047 .000025]
=0. 19286 Ns/rn 2 = 0.19286 x 10 = 1.9286 po ise. An s.
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Problem 9.31 A sphere of diamerer I mill /alh 11"014811 335 III ill 100 secQlIl1$ ill (j l'isCOIH fluid.
If Ihe
,e/alil'e den.!ilies of Ihe sphere (Illd Ihe liquid are 7.0 (lIId 0.96 respec/il'ely. de/ermine Ihe
dJllllmic l'isCQsily of Iile liquid.
Solution. Given:
Di3. of sphere. d" 1 mm " 0.00 I m
Distance travelled by sphere = 335 mm == 0.335 t11
Hence vi""nsily '" (1 kg ~ 1 m ) )( --;- '" kglms. Hence kglms '" _N_~ .
S 111 m-
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311 X 10- 3 X U x 0.06 X 10- 3 '" ~ x (0.06 X 10-")3 X 2650 x9.8 1 - ~ x (0.06 X 10-3)3 X 1000 x 9.8 1
6 6
Cancelling (/I x OJk) X 10-·)2 throughollt. we get
HIGHLIGHTS
I . A flow is said to be viscous if the Reynolds number is less th~n 2000. Or the fluid flows in layers.
2. For the viscous flow through circular pipes.
Op ,
(I) Shear Siress ...... t - - af 2" (i/) Velocity ...... u _ - -'- ~P [,r - ,zJ
4jl OX
32 IiL
(iii) Ratio of velocities U : " .. 2.0 Loss of pressure head. Ill '" ~
pgD -
"
where ~ '" pressure gradient. r", radiu.' al any poim.
" h 12j.luL
... Loss of pressure head
J .~
, 'p
l"-"2a.. 1t - 2y ] Shear stress dislributioll
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Torque.
Torque. T .. ~ l(lNK'
""
,. flIlJNl R'
6OX)OXI
where R_ radius of the shaft. N .. speed of the shaft
8. For the collar bearing the torque and power absorbed are given as
" rrJNl
T _ _II ,
leNIR, .. - R,• I. p", .. IR,~ - R'l
60, . 6Ox301 • ,
where H, .. internal radius oflhe collar. Rl .. external radius of (he collar.
I .. Ihickncss of oil film. P = power in wallS.
9. For the viscous flow the co~fficicn( of friction is given by.! "" ~
~
pVD VD
where R, . 1he Reynolds number .. - - . - .
"
10. The co-efficienl of viscosily is detennined by dash-pol
'
~rrungcl1lcn( as)1 E
4IV/)
3/tLO JV
where IV "" weight of (he piston. r = dcaran~c between dash -pot and piston.
L", length of 'he piston. 0 .. diameter of the piston.
\' "" "cioci,y of the piston .
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where >I' '" spe~ific weight of fluid. L '" length of the lUbe,
D = diameter of the capillary lube. Q '" rate of flow of fluid through capillary tube.
d _ diameter of the sphere. P, _ density of sphere.
PI '" densi ty of fluid. U", "doci!y of sphere.
NI ~ rad ius of outer rotatin g cylinder. RI '" radius of inner stal;o"a,y cylinder.
T ~ torque.
EXERCISE
J
,. --
l2fliiL
P81l
whcrell = Visco~ity of fluid. Ii ~ Avcrage velocity.
1 ~ Distance between thc two pamllcl plates. L ~ length of the plates.
9. Define the tenns , Kinetic energy correction factor and momentum correction factor.
HI . Prove that for viscous flow throuSh a circular pipe the kinetic enersy correction factor is equal to 2 while
4
momentum corrcction factor ~ J.
II . A shaft is rotal ins in a journal bearing. The clearance belween Ihe shaft and the bearing is filled wilh a
,·iscous oil. Find an cxpression for the power absorbed in overcoming vi>eous resistance.
12 . Prove Ihal power absorbed in o,·ereoming viscous resistance in foot-Slep bearing is given by
P. ""~60'~'xN~'301
~.r;-
where N ,. Radius of Ihe shaft, N ,. Speed of 1he shaft.
t ~ Clearance between shafl and fool-slep bearing. II ,.,. Visco,ity of fl uid.
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I . A crude oil of viscosity 0.9 poise and sp. gf. 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of diameter
80 111m and of length 15 m. Calculate Ihe difference of pre,sure at the two ends of the pipe. if 50 kg uf the
oil is collectcd in a tanK in 15 seconds. [Ans.0.559 N/cm' l
2. A viscous flow is laking place in a pipe of diameter 100 mill. The maximum .-eiocity is 2 m/s. Find the
mean velocity and the radius at which this occurs. Al so calculate the "eiocity at 30 mm from the wall of
tbe pipe. IAn s. I m/s. ,~ 35.35 mm. u ~ 1.68 mlsi
J . A fluid of viscosity 0.5 poise and specific gravity 1.20 is fluwing tbrougb :, circular pipe of diameter
100 mm. The maximum shcar stress at the pipe wall is given as 147.15 N/m ' . fmd (0) thc presslIre
gradient. (b) the average velocity. and (e) the Reynolds number of the flow.
I/\ n<. (a)- 64746 Nitn 1 per m. (b) 3.678m/s. (e) 882.721
4 . Detemline (II) the pressure gradiem. (b) the shear stress at the two horizontal parallel plates and (c) the
discharge per metre width for the laminar flow of oil with a maximum "elocity of 1.5 m/s between two
hor;~omal
•
parallel "xed plates which arc 80 mm apart. T ake vi.cosity of oil as 1.961,Ns.
lIl'
IAn•• (a) - 3678. 7 N/m' per m. (b) 147.15 N/m'. (c) .08 m'lsl
5.. Water is flowing between two large parallel plates which arc 2.0 mm apart. o,,!enninc : {oj maximum
vciocity, (bj the pressure drop per unit lenglh and (c) Ihe shear stress a! walls of the piate if the awrage
velocity is 0.4 m/s. Take viscosity of water a.< O.QI poi~.
IAn s. (a) 0 .6 m/s. (b) 1199.7 N/ttt l per m. (e) 1.199 N/m! 1
6. There is a horizontal crac~ 50 tttm wide and 3 mm deep in a wall of thidness 150 mm. Water leaks
through the crack. find the rate of leakage of water through the crack if the difference of pressure between
the two ends of the crac~ is 245.25 N/ml. Take the viscosity of water 3> 0.01 poi.,e. [An.•. 183.9 em'lsl
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p-
20 . II liquid is pumped through a 15 em diameter and 300 111 long pipe al the rale o f 20 tonne5 pcr hour. The
density of liquid is 910 k glm) and "incm~lic viscosi ty ~ 0.002 m )!s . Dclennine the po" 'cr required and
show thaI the flow is viscous .
[Hi nt. D '" 15 em _0.15 Ill, L '" 300 m. IV", 20 tormeslhr
.. 20 x 1000 kgf/60 x 60 sec • 5.555 kgOsec • 5.555 x 9.81 Nts .
Q '" ~= ~5~.55~5~'~9~.
, 8C' '" 0.0061 111 , Is. v_ Q = 0.0061
P8 910 )( 9 &1 II ~ (.l51)
Hence. • f
•
32 x 1.82 x 300 x 0.345
(91O X 9.8 1 x 0.15 1)
•
30
I' '" pg.Q.hJ'IOOO '" 9 10 x 9 .81 x 0.0061 x 30!l{)()() '" I.6JJ kW.
21. An oil of specifIC gravity 0.9 and viscosity 10 poise is flowing through a pipe of diamdcr 110 mrn , The
velocity at the centre is 2 m/s. find: (I) pressure gradie nt in the direction of now. (il) shear mess at the pipe
wall: (iii) Reynolds number. and (il') vel ocily al a di,tance of 30 mm from the wall.
IUln t.p =900 kglmJ; IJ = 10 poise", IN s/m 2 ; 0= 110 mm =0.11 m,
(;) (-tlP)=
,Ix
41J X V m ...
Rl
4xlx2
0.0551 = 2644.6 Niln
,
(ii) dPx
_ (-- -
' o- ) -Rz 2644 .x
6 --
0.055 =~.~7' 7' NIm'.
tlx 2 2
pxiixO 9OQ xlx O.ll
( iii ) R = "' .,99 ' and
' IJ I .
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CRM'J'RK
.. 10. 1 INTRODUCTION
The laminar now has been discussed in chapter 9. In laminar flow the fluid panicles move along
straight parallel palh in layers or lam in ae. such that the paths of individual fluid panicles do nO! cross
those of neighbouring panicles. Laminar flow is possible only at low velocities and when the fluid is
highly viscous. But when the velocity is increased or nuid is less viscous. the fluid panicles do nO!
move in straight paths. The fluid panicles move in random manner resuhing in genera l mixing of the
part icles. This type of flow is called IlImu Jcm flow.
1\ laminar flow changes!O turbulent flow when (I) veloc ity is increased Of UI) diameter of a pipe is
inc reased or (iii) the vi_'\Cosily of fluid is decrea_"",d. O. Reynold was fiut to demon~trate that the
transition from laminar to IlImuJcnt depends nOt on ly on the mean velocity but on the quantity pVD .
"
pip'" if R, < 2000 the now is said to be laminar and if R, > 4000. the flow is said to be turbule nt. If
H, lies betwccn 2000 10 4000. the flow changes from la minar 10 tu rbulen t .
433
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Whc n a liquid is flowing throu gh a pipe, the veloc ity of th e liqu id layer adjaccm to th e pipe wall is
zero. The ve loc ity of liq uid goes on in creas in g from the wall and thu s ve[ocit y gradiem and hence
shea r Stre~s arc prodm;ed in th e whol e liquid due to vi><:osit y. This viscous action c au ses loss of
energy whkh is usually kn own as fric tionn[ loss.
On the bas is of his ex perime nts, Wi[lium Froude gave the following la ws of fluid fraction for
turbulent flow.
The frictional resistance for turhulent fl ow is :
(i) proportional to 11". whl,re " var ies from 1.5 to 2.0.
(ii) proportion al to thc de ns it y of fluid.
(iii) proport ion al to the area o f s urface in cOntact.
(i,') independe nt of pressure.
(v) depende nt on the nature of th e su rface in contact.
10.l . 1 Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes, Co nsider a uniform hori -
w mal pipe. havin g stead y fl ow as shown in Fig. 10 .3. Let I - I and 2-2 arc tWO sc<:lio ns of pi pe.
Let (It" pressure inte nsity 31 section I-I.
V, " ve locit y of flow at secti o n I - I,
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-- T,
-- "-1-, ------
"
pg 2g "'
~+ -'- +Zl = 1'1+V/+ Z2+I!
pg2g !
I'XPXLXV 1
PI - P2 =
A
Btu from equat ion (il. PI - 112 = pgli,
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f' p ,
Ilf '" - x- X L x V- ... (iii)
pg A
P Wetted perimeter
In equation (iii). - = ~=",c:==c --= -
A Area
f' 4 2 f' 4 L V!
" r = - X - XLXV = - x - -
pg d pg d
4to X L
(PI-Pi)= d ... (1 0.3)
1
PI - P2 __ 4/ . L. V
Equation (10. 2) can be written a;; II{ = ~cc:~
pg dx2g
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The sllenr stress in viscous flow is given oy Newton ' s law of viscosity as
d,
t,. '" j.I - , where t " '" shear stress due to viscosity.
tly
Similar to the expression for viscous slieaT. J. Boussincsq expressed the tu rbulent shear ill math -
ematical fonn as
<Iii
t , "''1 - ... (10.7)
dy
where t , = shea r stress due to turbulence
'1 = eddy viscosi ty
Ii = average veloc ity at a dislunce y from boundary.
The ratio of '1 (edd y viscosity) and p (ma ss den sity) is known as kinematic eddy viscosity :md is
denOlcd by {: (c psiloll). M alhemal icaliy it is wriucn as
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II' =1 du
dy
and I"~ • the fluctuation componenl of velocity in y-dircction is of the same order of magnitude as ,,'
and hence
,,' =1 -d"
II)"
_T = pl-,d"
-
( ]'dy
... { 10.12)
Thus the total shcar stress at any point in turbulent flow is the sum o f shear stress due to viscous
shear and turbulent shear and can be written as
-T=].I -+p
<1" /,(<1"]'
'-
d)' d)'
... ( 10. 13)
But the vis<:uus shear stress is negligible except ncar the boundary. Eq uatiun (10.13) is used fur
must of turbulent fluid flow problems for dctennining shc~r stress in turbulent flow.
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_ , d" '
t o rt :p x (ky),x ( dy J
For small values of y that is very close to th e boundary of Ihe pipe, Pral1 (.hl assum ed shear stress T
to ~ COnstant and app rox imakl y equal to t o wlli ch prese nts Ihe turbulen t shear Slress at the pip.:
boundary. Substitu ti ng t "" t o in equ ati on ( 10 . 14), we get
dd"Y = ~p"
,'yVp ...( 10. 15)
~Ll _ _L
In c"uation
'i
( 10.1 5),
fi pO ha s th e dim ensio ns
!IIL lr l
ML '
L
r ) - T " BUI -T is ve locit y and he nce
fi has th e d i mension of ve lo ci ty. whi c h i s kno wn as shear ve loc ity and is deno ted by" •.
Thu s
fi
P
-
n '
= u•. th en cqumlOn ( 10. 15) !J;.,comcs - = - II •.
dy ky
dll I
For a give n case of lurhul cnl now. u. is conSlant. Hence integ rating ahiwc equ ati on. we gel
",
u =T1og,.y + C ... (10. 16)
",
lin,", "" k", log, R + C ,
C=U m,,-, - - log R
'
Substitutin g the va[u e o f C in equ ati on ( 10 . [6). we get
II. II . II.
II '" k [og, ), + u""" - k log, R "" II,,,,,, + k (log, ), - log, R)
"" "mlU + -0",4 log, (yI R) [ .: t. = 0.4 "" Karm an con, tan t]
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'L ~
IIJ
_ " i~ ___ _
'
(a) Smooth bounda<y t (b) Rough bounda<y
For turbulent flow analysis along a boundary, the flow is divided in two runions. The first rurtion
consists of a thin layer of fluid in th e itnm",diate ndghbourhood of the boundary. where viscous shear
stress predominates whi l", the shear st ress due to turbulence is negligihle. This run ion is known as
laminar sub- la yer. The height upto which the effect of viscosity predominates in this zone is denot~d
by /)'. T he second portion of flow. where shear stress due 10 turbulence arc large as compared to
viscous stress is ~nown as turbulent zone.
If the average height k of the irregularities. projecting from the surface of a boundary is much less
than 0'. the thic kness of laminar sub -layer as shown in Fig. 10.4 (a). the boundary is "ailed smoot h
boundary. This is because. outside the laminar sub-layer the flow is turbulent a nd eddies of various
size present in turbulent flow try to penetrate the lamimlr sub-layer and reach the su rfac e of Ihe
boundary. BUI due to greal thickn ess o f lamin ar sub-laye r Ihe eddies arc unable to reach the s urfa"e
irregularities and hence the boundary behaves as a smoot h boundary. This type of boundary is called
hydrodyn:llni"ally smoot h boundary.
Now, if the Reynolds number of the flow is increased the n Ihe Ihidnes~ of laminar sub-la yer will
d"'creasc. If Iht: thiCkn ess of laminar suh-Iayer bcco ln"'s much sl)1all er Ihan the avcragt: height k of
irregularities of Ih e surface as show n in Fig. 10.4 (h). the boundary wi ll aCI as rough boundary. This is
because the irr"'gu larities of Ihe surface arc above th '" laminar sub- laye r and the eddies prt'scnt in
lurbulent zone will come in contact with th'" irreg ularities of the surface and lot of cnergy will be 1051.
Such a boundary is ca ll ed hydrodynamically rough bou ndary .
From Nikuradsc's experim ent :
k k
I. If /)' is less than 0.25 or S' < 0.25. the boundary iscallcd smooth bounda ry.
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"
Ilk
,
2. If - '- lies betwee n 4 and 100. boundary is in transition stage. and
10.5.2
"
Velocity Distribution for Turbulent flow in Smooth Pipes . The velocity distri-
bution for turbulem now in smoOl h urruugh pipe is given by cqumion (10.16) as
11= "
- Iog,y + C
k
It may be sccnlhal at )' '' 0, the velocity /I at wall is - ... This means that velocity II is positive at
some distalll:e far away from the wall and-"" (min us infinity);n the wall. Hc",:e at >01Il1' finite distance
from wall, the ve locity w ill be equal lO zero. Lei (his distance from pipe wall is y'. Now the eonstanl
C is determined from the boundary condition i.e .• at y '" y' . II '" O. Hence above equation becomes as
O= T log,
.. , f +corc=-Tlog,y
11"
II . II. , I I. ,
II = T log, y - T log, Y = T log, (yl)')
.!!.... '" 2.5 x 2.3 Jog 1o (yly') I': log, (yly') '" 2.3 loglo (yly'»)
. ,
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II ·Y
'" 5.75 10&1 0 - , + 5.75 10&10 9.259 [.: 0.i08 =9.259]
!l.y
"" 5.75 loglo - , + 5.55 .. .( 10.20)
10.S.3 Velocity Distribution for Tu rbulent Flow in Rough Pipes . In case of rough
bound aries. lite thic kness of laminar sub- layer is I'cry sma ll as shown in Fig. 10.4 (b). The surface
irregularit ies arc abol'c the lam in ar sub- layer and hence the laminar s ub-layer is com p letely destroyed.
Thus y' ca ll be considered proport io nal 10 th e Ilcighl of protru sions k. Nikuradse 's e~pcrimc l11 ~hows
k
the va lu e o f y' for p ipes COaled wit h unifonn sand (rough p ipes) as y' '" - .
30
Substituting this va lu e o f y' in equation ( 10. 19). we gct
~ :: 5.7510g lo
14.
[-y-)::
I.:I?IJ
5.75 [loglO (yll.:) x 30]
'" 5.75 logl o ()"II.:) + 5.75 101:10 (30.0) '" 5.75 log 10 0-11.:) + 8.5 ... (10.21)
Problem 10 .1 A pipe-lille carryillg water has orerage height of irregularilies projecling from Ihe
sllrface of Ihe bOlilidory of Ille pipe as 0.15 mm. W/lal Iype of bOlllldary is il ? The slteM Slress
dln'eloped is 4.9 Nlm'. Tile kill ematic riscosit)' of Wilier is .01 stol.:es.
Solution. Givcn :
Average height of irreg u larities. 1.::: 0. 15 111m '" 0.15 x 10- 3 m
Sh~a r stress d~veloped. to'" 4.9 Nlm2
Kin~m:nic viscosity. v'" 0.01 stok~s '" .01 cm1ls", .01 x 10-1 m 21s
[knsity of water. p '" WOO kg/J11 3
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" ,
Since - '- lies between 4 and 100 and hence pipe s urface behaves as in transilio rl .
Problem 10.2 " A rOI/gl! pip" is of diomeler 8.0 em. Tile \'('IQcily <II a point 3.0 em from Willi is 30%
more Ilwn 1/11' !'elocily til a point I em frolll pipe wall. Delermille IIII' at'erage IJeiglll of Ihe roug/me.f.!.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of rough pipe. D " 8 elll '" .08 tl1
LeI ve locit y of flow al I crn from pipe wall '" II
Then velocity of flow al :I em from pipe wall "1.3 II
The ve locity distributio rl for rouglt pipe is giwn by equation (10.21) as
~ '" 5.75 loglo (ylk) + 8.5, where k'" height of rough ness.
".
For a poilU. 1 elll from pipe wall. we have
-
, = 5.75 log 10 (I.OIk) + 8.5 ... ( i)
".
For a point. 3 ern from pipe wall. velocity is I,) " and hence
1.311
- '" 5.75 log,o (3.0/k) + 8.5 ... (ii)
".
3
Di viding (ii) by (i). we ge l 1, = c',,"'~5c'O:"~'""(i3'cOc'-i'C)+",,"C
'
5.75 log ,o(J 1 k) + 8.5
or 1.3[5.75Iog lO (Ilk) + 8.5[ = 5.75Iog I0 0.0Ik) + 8.5
or 7.475 logl o ( I/k) + 11.05", 5.75 lug lO (3.0/k) + 8.5
Of 7.475 log lO ( l /k) - 5.75 log 10 O/k) '" 8.5 - 11.05 = - 2.55
or 7.475 [log lo 1.0 -Ioglo k[ - 5.75 [Iogl o 3.0 - log lo k[ = - 2.55
or 7.475 [0 - loglo kI - 5.75 [.4 771 - 10); 10 kJ '" - 2.55
or - 7.475 log lo k - 2.7433 + 5.75 log 10 k '" - 2.55
or - 1.725 logl o k '" 2.7433 - 2.55 '" 0.1933
0. 1933
log w k = - 1.725 = - 0.1120= 1.888
"'
k", .772fi COl. An s.
Problem 10.3 A .\1/100111 pip" of diameter 80 mill atlll 800 //I Io/Ig carri,'.1 Wafer af II,e rale of
0,480 m J/lllinule. Calculate Ille 10.1$ of head. wall .Ihearillg .lIre.lS, celltre lill<' 1·e/OCily. ["elocil), alld
she!" SlreSJ (1/ 30 mm from pipe wa/l. Also ca/Culmt' II,e II,icklless of lamillar .Illb-layer. Take kill -
emU/ic ["iscosit)' of water (jJ 0,015 stokes, Take the mlile of co-f'jficiellt offriclioll ,from Ihe re/alioll
girt''' (IS
.0791
f= ( R,)'I~' where R, = ReYliolds IIllmber.
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Discharge. 0048
Q =. In
3Iminute '" 0.48
60 = .0081031s
to= 7 '"
Jj V !
.004636 x 21000 x 1.591 1 = 5.866 N/m l, An s.
(i ii ) Ce ntre- line ve locity. U""'-, for smoo th pipe is given by eq uation ( 10.20) as
1/ lI. y
-
,. = 5.75 login - , + 5.55 ... ( i)
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Slicar stress ,. --
"R '
A poin t 30 mm fmlll pipe wa ll is having r =4 - 3 '" I ern = .01 III
t o x .01 5.866 z
! a1 (r = .0 1 Ill) =- - = 1.4665 Nfm . A ns •
.'" 4
Velodly at a point ) em from pipe wa ll meanS y = 3 ern :: .03 III
U u y
and is given by equat ion ( 10.20) as - '" 5.75 loglo - ' - + 5.55, where u. = .0765. y:: .03
II, V
u .0765 x .03
.0765 '" 5.75 log w .015 x 10 ..... + 5.55
1)'= 1J.6xv
11.6)(.0 15xlO--I =2.274xIO-lm
.0765
1
:: 2.274 X 10- em = .02274 em. A ns .
Prob lem 10 .4 De/ermine Ihe wall siJe(lTing J'ln:ss in (l pipe of diameter 100 111m which ~'lIrries ",,,Ier.
The ,-e/OCilie;- al Ihe pipe cenlre and 30 mmfrom Ihe pipe ,'enlre are 2 ",Is ""'/ /.5 mls respeCI;'·e/y.
Th e flow in pipe is gi"ell (IS lurbulent,
Soluti o n. Given
Dia. of pipe. D", 100 mm '" 0. 10 m
-"'".~u_-::.' =.515
,. loglQ - (K)
,. y
where II '" [ .S IIl/s at y = (R - r) = 0.05 - 0.03 = .02 III
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2.0 -1 5_
_5751
. og, & .05_")288
__ . ur 0.5_':>288
__ .
u. .02 II.
Using the relation u. '" FoTP. where p fur water'" 1000 kglm l
0.2185= Jl~or 1~ =O.2185~=O.0477
or t o == 0.0477 x 1000", 47.676 Nfml, An s.
10.5.4 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity. The
average veloci ty U . through the pipe is obtained by first finding the 100ai discharge Q and then dividing
the total disdJ.arge by the area of the pipe.
ELEMENTARY C IRCULAR RING
/
,,
- - I----
FLOW
.
- r --
'
~
Consider an elementary circular ring of rad ius 'r' and thickn ess dr as shown in Fig. 10.5. The
distance ofille ring from pipe wal l is y '" (N - r), where R '" radius o f pipe.
Then the discharge. dQ. through the ring is given by
dQ = area of ring X veloci ty
= 2rrrdr X II = II X 2rrrdr
H
TOlal discharge. Q= f dQ= f o .. x2rrrdr ... ( I0.22)
(a) for sm oo th pip es. For smooth pipes. the velocity diSlribulion is given by cqu;uion ( 10.20) as
u u.),
- = 5.75 Jog lo - + 5.5
II. v
,.y 1xu.
[5.75Jog lO --;-+5.5
"' 11=
Bm )' =(R - r)
Q= r'[
Ja 5.75 1og lo , .( H-
v ,) 1
+ 5.5 II. X 2tt rdr
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"'
(el Dirrc~nce of the \' ~Iodty at any point and an' rage ve locity for s mooth and rough Ilipes.
... ( 10.24 )
The veloc it y at any poin t for turbul ent n ow for s mooth pipes is g ive n by equat io n ( 10.20) as
u u.(R - r)
- ~5.75Jogl o +5.5 [·: y=R - r [
II. v
and Ihe average vdocity is given by equation (10.23) as
U u. R
- ~ 5.75 Jog lo - + 1 75
II. I'
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, --
- iJ : [ 5.75 10g lO ,.R+ 1.751
,.IN-')+ 5.5] - [5.75 101,: .0--
II.U, v v
0'
II-V [ U.(R-r)
- - '" 5.75 10g.o:::CC--'" log lO~
,.N]+ 5.5 - 1.75
'. ,
:5 .75 10g lO
[
,.R]
,.IRv- ,) + ~ +3.75
R ,- -
'" 5.75 login ( - ') + 3.75
fJ - U
- - = 0 = 5.75 logl o (yIR) + 3.75 or 5.75 IOIlIO (yIR) = 3.75
,.
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II - U
- - '" 5.75 log 10 (yIR) + 3.75
,.
y'" H, ve locity II becomes'" lin""
"'
-"'._••~---"Uc '" 5.75 loglo (RIR) + 3.75 '" 5.75 X 0 + 3.75 '" 3.75
,.
"0< II ....... : 2.0 and u. from (I) '" 0.14511
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== '41t ~ _
D )( U "'41t 1 J
(0.3) x 1.4533" 0.1027 m Is . '\n s.
10.5.5 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law. The
ve loc ity distribution for tur bulent flow as give n by equations ([0. 18). (10.20) and ( 10.21) arc
logarithmic in nature. T hese equatio ns arc nO! cOIlVcniclll 10 usc. Nikuradsc carried OUl experiments
for difFerent Reynolds number 10 determine the vd oc it y dis tribu tion law i n smoot h pipes. H e cxprcsscd
the ve loc ity distribution in exponenti al form as
Por - =-
" 6
I
- =-
" 7
/I 10
I I
Thus if - = - . the vel oci ty distribution law becomes as
" 7
Equiltion ( 10.28) is kflown as I n ih power law of velocity disnibution for s mooth pip.:s.
The loss of h.-:ad. due to fri cti on in pipes is given by equation (10.2) as
II = ~4~.!~.~L~.~V_'
I rlx2g
In this equation. the val ue of co-"fficie nt of friction. f should h,:, known accurately for predi cting th.-:
loss of head due to friction in pipes. On the basis of dimensional analysis. it can h,:, shown that the
pressure Joss in a stra ight pipe of d iarne ta D , length L. roughness k. average velocity o f now fJ.
viscosity and density o f nuid J.l and p is
~ I I~
~ I IL
pi;l = ~ 9 [n,.~J or
2
The te rm of lh e rig ht hand side is called co"c fficic nl offri cli on f. Thus/ = 1\1 [R" ~]
Th is equati on shows that friction co-e m de n! is a functio n of Rey no lds num ber a nd kID rati o . where
k is the ave rage hei ght of pi pe wall roughn ess protrusio ns.
(a) Variation of 'I' for Laminar Flow. In vi sco us flow chapte r. it is show n that co-effic ie nt of
fric tion "f fo r la min ar fl ow in pipes is g ive n by
f= ~ ... (10.29)
R,
Thus friction co-e ffi c ient is olll y a funcli OI) o f Rey no lds number in case of lam inar n ow. It is inde-
pe ndent of (kiD ) rat io.
(b) Variation uf l' fu r Turbul~nl Fl ow. For turhule nt flow . the co-dfi c ient of fri ct io n is a funct ion
of R, and kID ratio. For rel at i ve rou ghness (kiD), in th e Itlrbulc nt !lo w Ihe boundary may be smooth or
rough and hence the va lue of J ' wi ll be diffcrCIII for thcse bound ari es.
(,) '/' rur s muuth pip es. For turbul ent n ow in smooth pipes. co -e Ffici~nt o f frictio n is a func tion
of Rey no lds num ber o nl y. The value of laminar sub- laye r in case of s mooth pipe is large as compared
to the a vc ra ge hc ight of surface roughn ess k. The va lu c of 't' fo r s mooth pi pe for Rcy no ld s num be r
varying from 4000 to [00000 is give n by the re lati on
/= .0791 ...(10.30 )
4
(R,t
The equati on (1 0 .30) is give n by Blasiu s.
The valucof J ' for H, :> JO~ is obta ined from equati on ( [0. 23) whi c h gives til<' vel ocit y di stribu tion
for smooth pipe in te nn s o f avc ra~e ve locity (U) as
fJ ("oR)
- = 5.75 10g lo - -+ 1.75 ...( [0 .3 1)
!t. v
From equat iOll (10. 6), we have/= ~ , where V= ave ra!!:", velocit y
pV'
... ( 10 .3 IA )
"'
Su bstitutin g the valu e o f u. in equatio n ( 10.3 1). we get
fj =5.75JOg 1o [ J /1 2 )R +t.75
U J/ 12 v
I I Ii
~ I IL
Fluid Mechanics
I :2.03 Jog 1o
r<-.: [UD
- ,ffJ ) - 0.9 1
v4! v
But U D = R, and hence above l~uillion is writ1cn as
"
~ = 2.03 Jog lo (R,..[4j) - 0.91 ... (10.32)
, 4/
Equ ation (10.32) is valid UplO R, = 4 x 1O~
Nikuradse's experimental resuit for t UTbtlk"! now in SlllOOlh pipe for 'ris
I
fA7 '" 2.0 ]ogl o (R, J41) - 0.8 ... (10.33)
,4 /
7
This is applicahk uPIO R, = 4 X 10 . But the equation ( 10.33) is solved by hit and tria l method. The
val ue of'j ' (i.e .. co -c fficicnl of friction) can alternate ly be obtained as
.05525
000
/=.8+ ... (10.34)
(N,) 0'\1
.•.
The valueuf '1'Ii.e., fril:tion factor which is used in cqualion (ID.2A)] is given by
0.22 1
/= 0.0032 + (R,t2l7 ... ( I O.3·M )
(ii) Va lu e of 1 ' fo r rough !liIJes. ror turbulent flow in rough pipes. the co-efficielll of frict ion is
,\ fu nction of rclmive roughness (kiD) and it is independent o f Reynolds number. This is because the
val ue of laminar sub-layer for rough pipes is very s mall as compared to the heig ht of sutface roug h-
ness. The average velocity for rough pipes is give n by (10.24) as
U
- = 5.75 log lO (Rlk) + 4.75
",
8m
Substituting the val ue o f Ij. in the above equa tion, we get
U
~ = 5.75 Jog 1o (Rlk) + 4.75
U ,, /12
I
which is simplified 10 the fontt as ~ = 2.03 10g lO (Rlk) + 1.68 ... ( I 0.35)
, 4/
But Nik uT<ldsc's e~perintental result gave for rough pipe the following rel~t ion for '1 ' ~s
I
r;;-; =2 tog lO (Rlk) + 1.74 ... (10.36)
, 4/
(e) Va lu e of 'f ' fo r co mm ercial pi lles. The \'~Iue of '/' for commercial pipes such as pipes made
of metal. connc tc and wood is obtained from NikuT<ldsc's e~pe rimen tal data fo r s mooth and roug h
I I Ii
~ I IL
= 2 10gIO ( R,
R ik
Fl] - 0 .8 ... ( I 0.37)
2. KOIIRh pi llt'll
I
~ - 2 10&'0 (Rlk) = 2 log 10 (Rlk) + 1.74 - 2 10gIO (Rlk )
,4 f
= 1.74 . ... (1 0.38)
Problem 10.7 For tile problem /O.6,jind tile co-effie;ell! offriC/ion and Ihe orange 11t>;glll ofrol,gll-
ness projections.
Solution. From th c sol mio n of pro bl em 10.6. we have
R=0. 15111
u. = 0. 1458 lOIs
iJ = 1.4533 m's
r or co-e ffi cien t o f fric tio n. we know Ih at
II, = ff .J112
0' 0. 1458 = 1.4533.JTi2
I
.)4 x 0.2
~ (0.")
2 loglo - - + 1.74 or 3 .5355 = 2 loglo
k (k.") + 1.74
0'
.15 )
logl o ( - = -~
3.~
53~5~5~-~I~
.74C = 0.8977 == logl o 7.90
k 2
0 .1 5 == 7.90
k
~ I I~
~ I IL
D
:, Radius, R"'2=O.25m
Length of pipe. L '" 4000 III
DiM: hargc. Q'" 0.5 111 3fs
3
Average height of roughness. k '" 0.40 II1Ill '" 0.4 X 10- III
First fi nd the value of ,",o-efficient of friction. Then cakulmc the head lost duc 10 friction ilnd then
power required.
ror a rough pipe. Ihe value of l' is given by the equation (10.36) as
'2
I":"":" '"
.;4 J
]oglo (Rlk) + 1.74",. Ing lC , ( .25 ) .4 xlO
J + 1.74
,,'4/" = 733
I 1 '" 0.1364 or /= (0. 1364t14
, = .00465
"'
Also the average velocity. fJ = Discharge =~=~ '" 2.546
Area If 0 2 It (.5)!
4 4
Problem 10.9 A JmOOlil pipe of diameler 400 mm and /ellglll 800 m carries ...aler al Ille mIl' of
0.04 m)/s. D elermine Ille head IOJ'I due 10/riCliOIl ....all shear Slres~·. ce"lre-/ille \'e!ocily (md Ihickness
o/imlli/llir sub-layer. Take Ihe killematic l"iSfMily of \I'll/a as 0.018 Siokes.
Solution. Givcn :
Dia. of pipe. D "" 400 mm "" 0.40 m
D
Radiu s. R""2,,0.20m
Rey nolds number. R, '" VxD" U xD '" 0.3J83 x 0.4 ,,7.073 x 104
V V .0 18 x 10-4
I I Ii
~ I IL
f _ f· p· Vl _ j. p. fP [-o' v= U I
(I - 2 2
,
= 0 .00485 x 1000 x (.3 I84 )l N/m = 0.245 Nlm',' AilS.
2.0
(iii) The ce ntre- Jin e ve locit y (II"",) for smooth pipe is g ive n by equatio n ( 10 .20) as in which
j j : II .... at y "' R
II II . R
....!!:O!. '" 5.75 Jog 1o - + 5.55 jPut in equation ( 10 .20), II '" II".., at y '" HI
II . v
Problem 10.10 A rOl jgh pipe of i/iaml!ler 400 mm wid leng/II /000 II! carries »"ater (If /he rUle of
0.4 ", J/s. The 1\"(11/ rOllghness is 0.012 mm. Determine the co-efficie'll of f riction. \\"(11/ s/JelJr ~·Iress.
centre-line "d ocity and "e/ocity (It a distan ce of 150 mm f rom the pipe 11'(11/.
Solut ion. Given:
Dia. of rough pipe. D ", 400mm ",0.4 m
I I Ii
~ I IL
(i) T he va lue o f co-cfricicllt of fricti on 'f' for ro ugh pipe is given by the eq uat ion (10.36) as
~
1.0 = 2 log 10 (RII<;) + L74
, 4[
1.0
ri"7 = 2 ]ogl o ( 0.20 1 ) + 1.74
,,4[ .012x l0
=2 IO~IO (16666.67) + 1.74 = 10. 183
4/ = (_,_)2 '"
10.1&1
.00964
_ .00964 _ 00'
[ _ - - - _ . _41. Ans.
4.0
(ii) Cen t,..., -li"" velocity (II ..... ) for rough pipe is give n by equation ( 10.21 ) in which u is made
:= "m.., at )' '" R and hence
2
Di sc harge Q Q
where V", "'7'''''''"
Area
--"
~D2
---
~ ( .4 )l
= 3 . 183 m /s . A ns .
4 4
3.1831
= .24
00 I x l 000 x -- "
2.0
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Problem 10.11 A smooth pipe line of 100 mm diameter c(!rries 2.27 m3 per millule ai,,'mer (If 20°C
wilh kinem(llic "iscosily of 0.()098 Ilokes. Calculate III I' friction Judor. m(l.limllIM refoei/)' (lJ we ll (l~'
x/wur SlrellS (l/ IiiI' bo undary.
SOlution. G ive n :
Dia. of pi pe. D = lOO rnm =O. 1 111
Radiu s of pipe. R '" 0.05 In
Di ~ h arg".
Kine/lHll k viscos ity, v '" O.{l098 stokes'" 0.0098 e m'ls = 0.0098 x 10--1 m~ls
U xD 4.817xO. l
Rey nolds nu mbe r is give n by. R,= - - = .... =4.9 154 x lOs,
v 0.0098 x 10
The fl ow is lurbul clll and R, is mo re (hall lOS, Hence for smooth pipe. th e co·crfkicnl of fric ti on
'f ' is o bla incd from equ ation (10.33) as
I
J4i == 2.0 logl o (R, J41) - 0.8
I
fA"i == 2.0 logl o (4.9 154 x 10, x ..."4[)
" - O.S
"' ,,4/
== 2.0 Il og lO 4.9 154 x lOs + loglo ,f4i 1- 0.8
= 2.0 15.69 15 + loglo J4l J - 0.8" 2 x 5.6915 + 2 loglo ,f4i - 0.8
" 11.3830 + 10g\ 0 (,f4i)1 - 0.8 = 11.383 + loglO (4j) - 0.8
I
,f4i -log 1o (4j)" 11.383 - 0.8 " 10.583 ...(i)
"'
(i) FriCli01I[aClo r
Now. friction fac tor (J* ) = 4 x co·cfficic nt of friction " 4[
Substitu ti ng the va lu e of '4F in equa ti o n (i), we gel
I
~ - log 10 r" 10.583 .•. (i i)
, ['
The above eq uati o n is so lved by hit and trial method.
Lei r = o. t, th e n L.H.S. o f equation (ii), bn'()mes as
I
L. H.S." f'i<:O - log 1o 0. 1 ,,3. 16 - (- 1.0) ,, 4.16
... 0.1
I I Ii
~ I IL
BUI (orexael solution. L.H.S. sliould be 10.583. Hence value ofr lies betwccn 0.1 and 0.01.
Le!.t" '" 0.013 the n L. H.S. of equation (ii), becomes as
L. H.S. '" =I - 101: )0 0.013", 8.77 - (- 1.886) '" 8.77 + 1.886 == 10.656
"O.Ot3
which is approximately .-:qualto 10.583.
r
Hence the va lue of is equal \00.013.
Friction factor. r
= 0.0 13. An s.
(ii) M" ximum "e/ueil), (u"",,)
Now we kROW that = 4/ r
Co-efficient of friction. ! = f· '" 0.0 13 = 0.00325
4 4
Now the shear ve locity (If.) in krrns of co-eFfIcient of friction and average velocity is given by
r·
cqu31ion (IO.3IA) as
OO325
u.==u- fi
f7 =4.817x 2 =4.817xO.0403=O.J94
For smooth pipe. the velocity al any point is g iven by equation ( 10.20)
I I Ii
~ I IL
vx D
: - - , - = VX D XIO
6
10-
Find: Diamcler of pi pe.
Let D = Di ameter o f pipe
I'!cad loss in ten us of friction fad or is g iven as
!J: -,J'cX<oL'cX-,-v_
'
I Dx 2g
No w Q = AxV
. .. 0.382 )
From CqU3UOU (U ), V = - -'-
( ": D'
I I Ii
~ I IL
I I Ii
~ I IL
w here
v: Q ", 0.6 '" 2. 122 111/5
A ~ (O.62)
T he pow er* 10SI is give n by, P '" pg x Q x h! '" 1000 x9.8 1 x 0.6 x 11.6 ~w '" fiS.27 kW. An s.
lOOO 1000
HIGHLIGHTS
I . If the Reynold number is less Ih:m 2000 in a pipe. the flow is laminar while if the Reynold number is
more than 4000. the flow is turbule!!! in pipes.
2. Loss of pressure head in a laminar flow is proporlionallo the mean velocity of flow. while in case of
turbulent now il is approximately proportional to the square of wlocity.
3. Ex['ression for head loss due to friction in pipes is gh"en by Darcy -Weisbach equation.
Z
h '" 4 x f x Lx V . where! '" co-eff,cicll t of friction
J dx 21(
7. TIle expression for shear stres.~ in turbulent now due tQ I>r:mdtl is t ~ pI" [d")l.
,Iy
where 1_ mixing length.
8. The velocity distrib uti on in the turbulent now for pipes is given by the expression
u ~ u_ -+ 2.5 u· log, (yfR)
where 11_ .. is the centre-line velocity.
}' ~ distance from the pipe wall,
R .. radius of the pipe.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Or if
,<
~
,
0 .25. the boundary is smoolh : if 0' > 6.0, the boundary is ro ugh
and if
,
6' lie Dctwcen 0.25 \0 6.0 , thc boundary is in transition.
f., "
R; ..... for lami nar flow •
• 0.07~~ for turbulent flow in smooth pipes for R, <!; 4000 by S 1O~
(R,)
.05525 n'
•.0008 + -----.... for R, S hE but <!; 4 x 10
,
(H.)"'
~ • 2 10l! to (Rlk) + 1.74 for rough pipes whcre R, . Reynolds number.
'"
EXERCISE
I I Ii
~ I IL
" -u
- - '" 5.75 10g lO 6lR) + 3,75,
'.
13. Obtain an e~pression for velocity distribution in turbulent now for (I) smooth pipes and (iiI roug h pipes.
(Delhi Uni,'er.,ily. I)eceml>er. ZOO])
J. A pipe-line carrying water lias average height o f irregUlarities projecting from the surface of the
boundary of tile pipe as 0.20 rum. What type of the boundary is it ? The shear stress development is
1
7.848 N/m . Take value of kinematic viscosity for water as 0.01 stokes. IAn s. Boundary is in transition I
2. Detenninc the average height of the roughness for a roullh pipe of diameter 10,0 em when the velocity at
a I"'int 4 em from wall is 40% more than the "elocity at a point I em from pipe wall. [Ans. 0_94 eml
J . A smooth pipe of diameter 10 em and 1000 m long carries water at the mte 0[0.70 m1/minute, Calcu late
the loss of head. wall _,hearing stress. centre line velocity. velocity and shear stress at 3 em from pipe wall.
Al so calcu late the thickness of the laminar sub-layer. Take kinematic viscosity of water as 0.015 stokes
and value of co-efficient of friction J as
.0791
f· --,,-4 . where R, '" Reynolds number.
(I<)
IAns. 20.05 m. 4,9 Nlml ; 1.774 mls ; 1.65 mls ; 19.62 N/m1 : 0.248 mml
4. The velocities of water thro ugh a pipe of diameter 10 cm. are 4 mls and 3.5 mls at the centre of tMe pipe and
2 cm from the pipe centre respectiYely . Delennine the wall shearing stress in the pipe for turbulent now.
[Ans. 15.66 kgflnt' l
S. f or turbulent flow in a pipe of diameter 200 mm. find the discharge when the centre· line velocity is
30 m/s and veloc ity at a point 80 mm from the centre as measured by pilOt·tube is 2,0 m/s.
[Ans. 64,9 litres/51
6. For problem 5. find the co-efficient of friction and the average height of roughness projections.
IAns. 0.029. 25 ,2 mml
7. Water is nowing through a rough pipe of diameter 40 em and length 3000 m at the rate of 0.4 ml , •. (:ind
the power required to maintain this flow . T"kc the average height of roughness as K _ 0.3 mm.
[Ans. 278.5 kNI
I I Ii
~ I IL
K. A ,mooth pipe of diameter 300 111m and length 600 m carrie. waler at rate of 0.04 ",2/s. OClcnninc thc
head losl due [0 friction. wall shear stress. cenlre-line ~elOCilY and thickness of laminar sub·luycr.
Take the kinematic viscosity of water as 0,018 stokes. lAos. 0.588 m, 0.72 NiemI, 0.665 m/s. 0.779 mml
9. A rough pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 800 111 carries water at the rate of 0.4 mIls. The wall
roughness is 0 ,015 mm. DClcnninc thc co-dflcicn! of friction. wall shear stress. centre line "elocil), and
velocity at a distance of I ()() min fmm the pipe wall.
IAn s. f .. .flO263. TO", 42. 08 N/cm'. w.... '" 6.457 mIs, U = 6.2 49 m/s]
I ll . Dctcmlinc the d;,lance from the ~-en(re of Ihe pipe. a( which the local ~elocity is equal to Ihc :l"cragc
velocity for turbulent now in pipes. [Ans. 0.7772 RI
I I Ii
CHAptER
to I 1. 1 INTRODUCTION
In chapters 9 and 10. la minar flow and turbulent flow have ~"n discussed. We have ..;;cen lilat when
th" Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe flow. the flnw is known as laminar flow whereas when
the Reyno lds number is more than 4000. the flow is known ;IS turbulent flow. In this chapter. 1he
lUrbulent flow of fluids through pipes running full will be considered. If 1he pipes are panially full as in
the case of sewer lines. the pressure inside the pipe is same and equ:1110 atmospheric pressure. Then the
flow of fluid in the pipe is not under pressure. This case will be taken in the chapter of flow o f water
through open channels. Here we will consider flow of fluids 1hrough pipes under pressure only.
I I
1. Major Energy Losses 2. Mioo< Energy Losses
I I
This is d~ to friction and it is This is du.. to
cak:ulated by the f,"lowing (s) Sudden expansion of pipe
formula .. , (b) Sudd<!n eoolractioo of pipe
(s) Darcy·Weisbach Formula (e) Bend in pipe
(b) Ch .. zy's Formula (0) Pipe fittir.gs ..Ie.
(e) An obslruc~oo in pipe .
,
from Darcy-Weisbach equ~lion which has been derived in chapter 10 and is given by
,,-
4 ".
11=- Ie'."L".V,- ... ( 11.1}
, d x 2g
whe re II, : loss of head due to frict ion
'65
I I Ii
~ I IL
16 .
~ - for R, < 2000 (VISCOUS now)
R,
0.079,or R, varymg
== ----;!4 . f w m 4000 !O
10'
R,
L == length of pipe.
V == mean velocity of flow.
d == diamc l~r of pipe.
(b) Ch el ~" s I' UI-mulll for loss uf IIl."lI d du .. to fr ldkm in p ili...". Rdcr \0 chapler 10 ankle 10.3.1
in which expression for loss of head duc \0 friction in pipes is derived. Equation (iii) o f anide 10.3.1. is
f'
Ilf == - x~XLXV2
P ... ( I 1.2)
pg A
whe re II ", loss of head duc to fril:tion. P == welled perimeter of pipe.
f
A == ~rca of noss-scdiun uf pipe. L = length of pipe.
and V = mean ve locity o f flow.
A [ ==
Now the ratio of ~
P
Area of flow
Perimeter (wetted )
1is I:allcd hydraulil: UlCilll depth or hydmuli<.: radius and
is denoted hy m.
~d 2
A 4 d
Hydraulic mean depth, In == - = -- ~ -
P '"' 4
SubstilUting A
_ :0 In or -P l In
:0 -
. equntlOn
. (II .2). we get
P A III
pg
xmx _I ", _xlnx II
--.L
L f' L
... (11.3)
I I Ii
~ I IL
II = ~4~.f'c"
. L~.~V_'
r d x2g
Value of
V= C .r;;r
d 0.30
where C '" 60. III '" - '" - - " 0.075 1ll
4 4
, h, hi
,= - = -
L 50
/,
Equating the two valu es of i. we ha ve 5~ '" .0333
I I Ii
~ I IL
V'" Disdlarg c
Velocity of flow.
Area
d
H ydmulic mean depth. m= -
4
/If 4
Loss of ltead pcr unit leng th . i = - '" - - = .002
L 2000
Chczy's formu la is given by eq uation ( 11.4) as v= c,;;;;
Substituting the values o f V. m. i and C. we ge l
0.2 )(• 4 _
_.,cO ~~ x .002 ur J~ x. 002 __ 0.2, x 4 __ .00509
,
'ltd - 4 4 nd- )(50 11-
. bo t h SI·d CS, -d
Squarmg X .
002 _ .OO509
•
~ .~259 or ,r '" 4 x .0000259 '" 0.0518
4 d d .002
d= >lJO.0518 =( .0518) " ~ == O.553111 == 553 111m. Ans.
Problem 11 .3 A crude oil of kinematic I'iscosiry 0.4 sto lce is flowing Iitmugil a pipe of diameter
300 mm at 111l' mil' of 300 lilres pc, sec. Find (he head 1051 due ro friction/or a {'!IIg/h of 50 In oflhe pipe.
Solution. Given:
Kine m;l1ic viscosi ty, v = 0.4 stoke = 0.4 em'/s =.4 x 10--1 It/Is
Dia. of pipe. d = 300 Illm = 0.30 nI
Discharge. Q = 300 lilrcs/s = 0.3 ur' /s
Lenglh of pipe. L = 50 III
I I Ii
~ I IL
. . , .079 0.79
Co "cffic lcnl o f fnctlO n. /= ---w- = ~ = .0048
R, (7.3 16 )(104)"
I I Ii
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Ve locity, V = 3mls
Length, L =5 m
Kincrn:J.Iic vL'iCosil y. v = 0.01 stoke = .01 x lQ---I m1fs
09 .09 0.09
Value of f~ 02 + -0-)=02+ 1 =.02+ - -
R, (6XIO' )" 54.1 3
I I Ii
~ I IL
f= 0.079 '"
R,o. !)
o
Fig. 11.1 Sudden eniargemelll.
PI : pressure intensi ly at seclion I- I.
Vt : ve locity of flow at sectio n I- I.
At : area of pipe at sect ion I- I.
I I Ii
~ I IL
0'
h, =U~ - ~;)+(~~ - ~~) ... ( i)
Consider the contml vo lume of liqllid he twecn sections 1-1 and 2 ·2. Then the force acting on the
liquid in Ihe comrol volume in the dire"tion of flow is given by
,.-~ '" PIAl + p'(A 2 - AI) - P02
Bllt experi mentally it is fOllnd that p' '" PI
F, '" /lIAI + PI(A 1 - AI) - P?"t-2 '" /lIA, - /102
'" (PI - P,JA 1 ... (1 i)
Momentum of liquid/sec al sec tion 1-1 = mass x velocily
'" pAl VI X VI '" pAIV I
,
Momentum of liquid!sec al seclion 2·2 '" pA,V2 x V 2 = pA 2V/
Change of mome ntum/sec", pA 2 Vl 2 _ pA l VI2
Bllt from continuity equation. we have
I I Ii
~ I IL
V,, - V,V,
,
V," V;
' + - , -'- = ' .
v,--
2 ' 2 V, V, +V,'"- V,'
.
g 2g2g 28
V , V' 'V V
= ' + ' - - 1;
2,
(ltj _ V, )'
II , = . . .. ( I 1.5)
2,
I 1.4 .2 Lou of Head due to Sudden Contraction . Consider a liquid flowing in II pipe which
has a sudden COll trn clion in area as shown in Fig. 11.2. Co nsider two sect io ns I- I and 2-2 before and
af!cr (;ontraction. As Ihe liquid flows from large pipe 10 small er pipe. Ihe area of flow goes on
decreasing and beco mes minimum ,11 a sect ion C-C as shown in Fig. 11.2. This sect ion C-C is called
Vcna-comracta. After section e·c, 11 sudden cnl~rgcmc n l of the area takes place. The loss of head duc
10 slldd~ n contraction is actually due to sudden ClllaT)! Cmcnl from Vcna -cnntracla to smaller pipe.
Lei Ac '" Area o f now at section C-C
V,. '" Velocily of flow .11 se<: lion C-C
A! '" Area of flow al section 2-2
V 2 ", Velocity of flow at seclion 2-2
lIe '" Los~ of head due 10 sudden contraction. ~,~ - _ ._ '- '....,.-
~
Now iI,. '" actu al loss of he ad due to en largement from ,
section C-C to section 2-2 and is given by eq uat ion (1 1.5) as o
'" (~. ;gV.)l ~; l ~ -Ir . .(il Fig. 11.2 Sudden con/radion.
From continuity equation. we have
V
Suh~lituling the valu e of ....£.. ;n (I). we gel
V,
... ( 11.6)
k = [ _ 1_ ,
0.62
Ill ", 0.375
I I Ii
~ I IL
t V,' V,"
Th eil /1< beco mes as h< '" -"- '" 0.175 - "-
2g 28
If the value of Co is not give n th en the head loss duc 10 co ntractio n is take n as
: 0.5 -
V} V'
o r ll<",0.5 - 1 . . .. (11.7)
2g 2g
Problem 11.8 Find the Ion" of head ",hen (' pipe of dilllneta 200 m m is ~'udde"ly en/Mgt!tI to (l
diameter of 400 mm . Tile raIl" of flow of '\"lIler {hroug" the pipe iJ' 250 lilres/s.
Solution. Gi ve n :
Dia. of small er pipe. VI'" 200 nun ", 0.20 III
1t 2 1t ,- '
Area. A I'" - D I = - (.2) = 0 .031 4 1 111-
4 4
Dia. of large pipe. D!", 400mm =0.4m
:. Area. A 2 '" ~
X (0 .4)' = 0. 12564 m'
4
DiSl: hargc. Q = 250 litrcsls '" 0 .25 1I1 )/s
Q 0.25
Ve loci ty, YI=-: - - =7.96 m!s
AI .03 14 1
I I Ii
~ I IL
... (ii)
Vl ", .I~26x~'~9~.8!'
100
=O. 1808=O. 181mfs
Disctlargc.
It 2 1
= 4 D, X V,-= "4J'[ '-
(.48) x. 181 =O.OJ275m Is
I I Ii
~ I IL
:. Area, "
Al"' "4 (O.4)- '" 0.12566 111 ,-
Pressure in smaller pipe, PI = 11.772 Nfc11l 1 = 11.772 X 104 Nlm"
Q 0.25
Now ve loc ity. VI'" - =- - '" 7.96 mfs
AI .03141
Q 0.25
Veloc ity . V,=-= - - : 1.99 m/s
• A2 .12566
(i) Luss of head duc 10 sudden c llJargcmc nl,
(7.96 _ 1.99 )2
= 1.816 m. Ans .
2x9.81
(ii) Let the pressure in te ns ity in large pipe '" Pl"
Then applying Bernoulli"s cq untio ll before and aft er the sudden c nlarg cme nl ,
I I Ii
~ I IL
4 '
Apply ing Bernoulli's equation before ~nd after contral:tion.
~1 VI
.fL+ -'- +z '" 1:2+ _,_ + z, + II,.
pg2g pg2s '
8m l, '" <':2 (pipe is horizontal)
~+ VI! '" P2 + V} + II
C
pg2gpg2g
v,l VI
" 0=0.375 - '- and VI '"
2, 4
Substituting the se valu~s in th~ above equation. we gel
VI! V,·
"' 14.0 + cc'''-o-=
16x2g
12.0 + 1.375-'
28
I I Ii
~ I IL
Also from rmbi cill 11. 1 I . VI = VI. WhH~ VI = .Q. = -i0~."30,,-:: = 1.528 mfs
4 AI ~ ( O.5) 1
4
V 2 =4 X VI = 4 x 1.528= 6.112 mfs
From Bernoulli 's c!.juntiu ll. we h~ vc
1
P \C P VI
- ' + -'-=~ + -'- +" c'
pg 28 pg 28
v'
Bm fro m cqum ion ( 11.6). 11=-'----1
c 28 Co
[I ]'
Hence eq uali ng th e twO va lu es of he. we get
V
,' [I ]'
2~ Co - I == 0.2 15
1
6 .11 2 [_I _1]" =0.2[.'1
2x9.81 Co
I ]1 == =;~=--~"
0.215)(2.0)(9.8 1
[ -C,. - 1 :0. 11 29
6.(12)(6.112
I I Ii
~ I IL
QO
VI'" - = - .G3
- - '" 1.6 9 7 Ill is
A, .0 1767
o. Z, '" Z:!
and h c' the head loss due [0 contraction is gi ve n by eq uat ion (11.6) as
he v' [-
= -;-
_8
1-I ]' =-,!'-""o
Co
3.82 ' [-1- - I ]' =0.33
2 x9.8 ! 0.6
S ubMitulin g these va lues in eq uat io n (I). we gel
P, 1.697' PI 3.82 ~
- + =- + + 0.33
pg 2 x9.8 1 pg 2 x9.8 1
~ I I~
~ I IL
Problem 11 .14 In Fig. 11.3 below, 11'/11'11 a suddell cOlltraction is ,illlmdllced in a, horizontal pipe,
line from 50 em ro 25 em. tile pressure c/umge.! from fO,500 /(g/l11- (103005 NinO fa 6900 kg/m-
(67689 Nlm!). Ca/cuiare Ihl' rale a/flow, Alsllme co·.jjicielll of cOlI/rac/ioll of jet ro be 0.65.
FollolI'ing Ihis if Illere is a sudden enlargemellf from 25 em to 50 em alld if Ihe pressure (1/ Ihe
25 em seclio/l is 6900 kg/",l (67689 Nlm') wlul! is the pressure allhe 50 em elilarged sec/ion?
Solu tion. Given:
Dia. of large pipe. DI '" 50cm '" 0.5 III
CD @
' 0
-
D , ~50cm
p, zlOSOO
pJE6900 kglm'
D,= 25 em
kglm l
f-----'
Fig. l1.J
Hc~d los! duc to l'omraction is given by equation (I 1,6).
l
h~ = Vl [ _I _ Loll = 2gv/ (_'0.65_ _,)1 =0.2899 v/2g ... ( i)
2g Cc
From continui ty equation. we Ital'c
" ( 0.
5
°l'
0.25
x V, '" Y1
• 4
... (i i)
I I Ii
~ I IL
v/ v'
10.5 + ,..c"-o-=
16 x 2 8
6.9 + 1.2899 2~
V,"
10.5 - 6.9 "" 1.2899 _0- - _I , _0-
V,'
'" V
1.2274 _,_'
"' 28 16 2g 28
V1 ", .I~3~6~'~2~'~9~8I
1.2274
I '" 7.586 m/s
,
-
Pl V, _ P. v.;°
+ -"- + ZJ '" - + - + Z4 + head loss d ue to sudden enlar£crncnl (II,)
pg 28 pg 2g
Pl '" 6900 kg/Ill ' , or 67689 N/m 1
""' VJ = V 1 ", 7.586 Ill/s
V, 7.586
Y4 = V, '" _0= - - '" 1.8965
4 4
Z}= Z4
And head Joss due 10 sudden enlargement is given by equa tion ( I 1.5) as
~6,,
76:c89~ 7.586 ' = :;;;~I~"=~ + 1.8965' + 1.65
1000 x9.81 + 2 x 9.81 1000 x9.81 2 x 9.81
I I Ii
~ I IL
-;c=PC''-c= "" 6.9 + 2.'0133 - 0.1 &3 - 1.65 '" 9.833 - 1.833 '" 8.00
1000 x 9.8 1
I 104. 3 Lon of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe. This is the loss of energy which occurs
when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a large tank or reservoir. This Joss is simila r to Ihe
loss of head duc (0 sudden contraction. This loss depends on Ihe fonn of entrance. For a sharp edge
cntram:e. this loss is sligtnly more ttJan a rounded or be ll mouthed entrance. In practice the v,duc of
V'
loss of head at the cntram;c (or ililct) of a pipe wit h sharp cornered Cnlrance is taken", 05 - . where
V", velocity of liquid in pipe. 2g
This loss is denoted by h i
v'
/I j = 0.5 - ...( I 1.8)
2,
I 1.4.4 Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe . This is the 105s of head (or energy ) duc \0 the
velocity uf liquiu ~t outlet o f the pipe which is uissipawd either in the fonn of~ free jet (i f oullcl ofth~
pipe is free) or it is lost in the tank or reservoir (if the outlet of the pipe is connected to the tank or
V'
reservoir). This loss is equal to - . where V is the velocity o f liquid 3t the outlel of pipe. This loss is
2g
denoted "0.
. ..(11. 9)
A = Area of pipe : :
V= Velocity of liquid in pipe • I
Thcn (A - a) = Area of flow o f liquid at section I-I. -~- - - - ~- .- - -
As the liqu id flows and passes through section
I-I. a vcna-l·ontracta is formeu beyond $Cction I-I.
after which tbe stream of liq uid widens again anu
ve locity o f flow at section 2-2 becomes un iform and
equal to velocity. V in the pipe. This situa tion is si milarto Fig . 11.3 (a) An obstruction in a pipt .
the flow of liquiu throu gh sudden enlargement.
Let Vc '" Veloci ty of liqu id 3t I'cn a-contrac!a.
Then loss of heau due to obstruction = loss o f heau due 10 enlargement from l'ena·l"Unlracta to
sect ion 2-2.
I I Ii
~ I IL
Th en
c _ area al vena - CO nlracta '" Q<
c - ( A - d) (A a)
" c =Cc X( A-a)
Substitutin g lhi s value in (ii). we get
C~ X(A - a)x Vr =A x V
, ( AxV - v)'
Head loss due 10 ohstrl,.clion '"
(V.. -V )-
28
C« A - a)
'" "-'''''''7''---"-
2g
V' ( A -,)1...
28 Ce (A - a)
( 11.1 0)
I 1.4.6 lo5S of Head due to Bend in Pipe. Wh e n there is an y bend in a pipe. the veloc ity of
flow c hanges. du e 10 whic h Ih e se parat io n o f th e fl ow from th e bound ary and al so fo rmation of eddi es
takes place. Thu s th e ene rgy is lost. Loss o f Itcad in pi pe due 10 be nd is ex pressed as
kV ~
lib = --
2,
where " b ::: loss of he ad due [0 he nd . V= ve loci!y of flow . k "" co·cffi cie nt of be nd
The valu e of k dqlC nds o n
(i) Ang le o f be nd. (iil Radius of curva ture o f bend. (iiI) Dia meter of pipe .
I 1.4.7 loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings . Th e loss of he ad in th e vario us pipe fillin gs
such as va lves. couplin gs etc .. is expressed as
...( I 1. 1 I)
I I Ii
~ I IL
1.0 J
3x3 [ .03 141
2x9.81 0.62 [.03 141- .01767] LOr
9
""':;-;;713.687 - 1.011 = 3 .3 11 m. An s.
2 x 9.81
Problem 11 .16 Determine the rale of flail' of Iruler Ihrougll (l pipe of diameter 20 em and length
50 III when olle end of Ihe pipe is connected 10 (I limk (Ind other end of Ihe pipe is open /0 111ft
atmosphere. The pipe j~. horiZo,,'a/ {lIId Ihe height of wo ler in the lank is 4 m aboI''' Ihe centre of Ihe
pipe. Consider all minor losses and /(Ike f == .009 ill Ihe formllio h! " ./. f . L. V I
d x2g
Solution. Dia. of pipe. d= 20 cm == 0.20 m
Lengt h of pipe, L = 50 In
","fER SUflf"'"
H ~igh l of waler. H=4 m _ ~~ __'-4
0+ 0 + 4.0= 0+
v;
4.0= - '- + h;+ ",
2,
But the ve locity ill pipe = V, :. V = V1
V'
4.0 = - +11; +", ...(i)
2,
V'
From equatio n (11.8). h; '" O.S - and h, fro m eq uat ion ( 11.1) is g ive n as
2,
~ I I~
~ I IL
'm
j L__
_ "V~, __r---~::;,~-
L, " 25 m
Fig . 11 .5
v'
0+0+8= p~ +-'- + O+all iosscs
pg 2g
I I Ii
~ I IL
~'
whe re h j = loss of head al enlfance = 0.5 -'-
2,
4X[ X L,XV;l
/'f, = head InS! due \0 friction i ll piP<" I = :::'-'f:~:'-'"
d 1 xl,
(V, _ ¥1)1
I"~ = loss head duc \0 sudden enlargement '" ,",-;;---"'-
2,
4xfxL xv,l
hf = Head lost duc to friction in pipe 2 = 2_
, dz X2g
BUI from continui ty equation. we have
A ,V, '" A 2V 2
=
4x.0 ] x25xI6
x~
v/ = 106.67 -'-
V'
0.1 5 2, 2,
(V, - V2)2 (4Vl - Vj 1
9V1
11, '"
28 2, 2,
_ 4x.O l x l 5xYll _ 4x.0 I x [5
I' f -
V} -20 V}
- x ~ - . x ~
' 0.3x2, 0.3 2, 2g
Suh~liluling Ihe values of tllese lo~scs in equation (i ), we gel
V,l 8V,' V," 9V," 1
8.0= -'- + - - +106.67 -'-+-'- + 2x V:
2, 2, 2, 2, 2,
v' v',
= -'- [I -+- 8 -+- 106.67 -+- 9 + 2J = 126.67Tg
2,
8.0x2xg '" 8.0x2x9.8 1 ", JL2391 = J 113 IIl/s
126.67 126.67
..
, , ,
Ralc of flow, Q == A, x V, == - (0.3) ' x I 113 " 0.01861 III Is" 18.61111,..,s/s, ADS.
, 4
~ I I~
~ I IL
-0-1
H, l: 400 m
d- O.30m
!"'
H, -
l - v t
Fi g . 11.6
Let HI = he ig h1 of wmer in lSI lank above th e cent re o f pipe
Hl = he igh1 of wme r ill 2nd lank :Itxwc th e ",,"He of pipe
The n difference in elev ati ons belwee n wat er surfaces = H I - Hl
Appl ying Be rno ulli 's equaliOIl to lh" fr"" surface of wa leT in the lw o tallks , we hav"
H , '" Hz + losses
", f1 1 + h i + H f , + 110 ...( i)
I I Ii
~ I IL
Two resen'oirs Willi a ,I'ur/ace lel'eI difference 0[20 melre.1 are to be (onne(fed by f melre diam eter
pipe 6 kill long. What will be Ille tli.leilarg" when a caSI iron pipe of rOllglllle$s k '" 0.3 mill is IUi'd ?
Whm will be Ihe percel1lt1ge increase in rhe discharge iflhe caS I iron pipe is replaced by a Sleet pipe of
roughness Ii. = 0. 1 mm ? Neg /eel aI/locH/losses.
Solution. Given:
Di ffere nce in le vel s. 1,:20m
Dia. of pipe. <1= I.Om :. Radius. Ro = 0.5 11\ = 500 111111
f~ (_, _)1
8.1837
= 0. 0 149
Local losscs arc to be negl ected . Th.is means onl y head loss due to frict ion is 10 be considered. ~lcad
loss due to friction is
20 '"
.0149 x 6000 x V ' '" 4.556 v2
LOx2x9.81
. 11 2 II , 3
DlschHrge_ Q 1 = Vx Area = 2.()95 x - x If '" 2.()95 x - x 1-= 1.645 rn Is
4 4
2nd Case. Sleell'ipe. k",O.1 mm.R o = 500mm
Substitutin g th ese va lues in equatio n (I). we get
,
J1 = 2 loglo (50010. 1) + 1.74 '" 9. 1379
f'" (9J~79
f xLxV 1
r'" 0. 0 11 9
.0119x6000xV 2
Hcad loss duc 10 fricti on. 20 '" L",~,,_ or 20 '" "C"c"'-;"'~"-_ " 3.639 v2
Ifx2g 1.0x 2x9.81
I I Ii
~ I IL
Value of f = 0.0055 [ I + ( 20 X tO
J
~ + IZ,~ )"l] ... ( i)
4X f XLXV 1
Usin g Darc y Weisbach equa ti on. hf =
Dx2 g
h, xDx2g
i= , = 5xDx 2x9.81 :0.2452D
4x LxV - 4xlOOxi l
Now the Reynolds number is given hy.
= IXD =I0 6 D
IO -~
I I Ii
~ I IL
0' 44.581J :
[ (i19)''']
1+ Of 44.58 1J - 1 '" (-t-19)'"
(44.58 D - IY'= .!.:2. or D(44.58D-ll= 1.9 ... ( i i)
D
Equation (ii) is so lved by h.i! and trial method.
(il Let D = 0. 1 111. then LH .S. of equation (ii) oc(:omcs as
L.H.S.=O.I (44.58xO. I - l »)=O.1 X 3.45S3 = 4. 135
This is mo re than the R. Il .S.
( ii) LeI D '" 0.08 m. tllen L. H.S . of equation (iJ) bcCQIll CS as
L. H.S. '" 0.08 (44.58 x 0.08 - 1)3", 0.08 (2.5664)3 '" l.J52
This is less than the R.H.S .
He nce va lu e of D Ik s between 0.1 ~[l(l 0.08
(iii) LeI D "" 0 .085. th e n L.H.S. of equation (il) bcl'Omcs as
L.II.S. == 0.085 (44.58 x 0.085 _ 1)3 == 1.S44
This val ue is sli ght ly less than R. H.S. He nce increase the va lue of 0 slightl y.
(i,') LeI D '" 0.0854 m. then L. H.S. o f equati o n (iil hecorncs a~
L.H.S. '" 0 .0854 (44.58 x 0.0854 _ 1)3 '" 1.889
Thi s va lue is nea rl y equa l to R.H.S.
:. Com~et va lu~ o r D = 0.0854 m . Ans.
Problem 11 .21 A pipe line AR of diameter 300 mm and of lenglll -100 m ,'arries waler al Ilw HilI' of
50Iilres/s. Tlwflow lakes place from A 10 B wi,erI' poinl B iJ' 30 melres aho\"(! A. Fi",l lile press"re al
A if Ihe pUJs" re al B is 19.61 Nkm !. Take f = .008.
S o lution. G ive n:
Dia. or pipe. d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Len gth or pipe. L =400 m
Di sc h~rge. Q = 50 litresls = 0.05 m 3fs
PA V; P8
- + - + lA = - + -
vi + ZII+ h!
pg 2g pg 2g
Bo' VA = VB [.: Dia. is same [
ZA=O.lf/ = JO
"od 11= -~
4 2X~f~X~L:;-::-
X ~V_'
f dx2g
I I Ii
~ I IL
The concept of hydraulic gradien! line and total energy line is very us.cful in the siudy of flow of
fluids through pipes. They 3fC defined as:
[1 .5 . 1 Hydr;Julic Gradient Line. h is defined as the line which gives the sum uf pressure head
( ~ ) and datum head (2) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line
which is obtained by joining the lOp of all venical ordinates. showing the pressure head (plw) of a
flowing fluid in a pip<! from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly wriucn as H.G.L. (Hydraulic Gradient
Line).
I 1.5 .2 Total Energy Line . II is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head. datum
head and kinetic head o f a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some referen~ line. II is also dernwd as
the tine which is obtained by joining the tops of aU I'ertical ordinates showing the sum ofpressurc head
and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as TEL. (Total Energy Line).
Problem 11.22 For tile problem 11./6. draw Ih;: ffydrm,/ic G",di;:,1/ Line (H.G.L.) and Total
Ellergy Lille (T.EL).
Solution. Given:
L" 50 m. d" 200 mm" 0.2 m
H" 4 m./==.OO9
Velocity, Y through pip.: is calculated in problem 11.16 and its value is y" 2.7J4 mfs
Now. "j== Head Inst at entrance of pipe
y 1 0.sx2.734 1
== 0.5 - + ==O.19m
2g 2x9.8 1
,
1:e_L
4m - - hJ;,j.
1 B.... - - - - --- - -
----~ 2 ___..g, 38
L:50 m
d:20=
Fig. 11.8
and h, == Head loss due to friction
I I Ii
~ I IL
~
4 f,-,;X~~'7
X ~V,-
,' 4 x .OI X25x (4.452)' 3
"Ji =
d l x2g
=
0.15x2x9.8 1
= 6 .7 III
I I Ii
~ I IL
hi,
_ ~
4 ~'2f~'~L,
-
~_~X~V
~,'C '" 4 x .oJ x 15 x (1.1 13f ",D. 126m
d"x2g 0.3x2x 9.8 1
V,1 Ll l3'
II == - -
-= == 0.06] III
o 2g 2 x9.81
Alw
Fig . 11.9
Hydrpulic Gradicnt Lin e (H.G.L.)
V'
0) From IJ. take BG '" - '- = 1.0 rn.
2g
(ii) Draw th e line GH parallel to the line BC
(iii) From F. draw a line Fl parallel to the lin e ED .
(il') Join the poi nt H and I.
Then th e line GHIF represen ts the hydraul ic gradicntline ( H.G .L.).
Pro blem 11 .24 For Problem 11./8. draw Ihe hydrrw/ic gradienl "",{Io l,,/ e"ergy /i"e.
So lution . Refer to Problem II.IS.
Given: d= :\00 mm "" 0.3 m
L = 400 m. Q "" JOO liucs/s "" 0.3 11I 3/s
f= .OOS
I I Ii
~ I IL
l"'4wm
d=O.3m
Fig. 11 .10
(b) H. G.L. From D, draw a li ne DE parJlIcI to line Be. The n DE is the H.G.L.
0,
v'
From IJ, take BE '" - '" 0.9 18 III and from Edraw a line ED parallel 10 BC. The poim D should
2,
coi llcide with free ~urface of wate r in the 2nd tan k. Th~n line ED represcnls the H.G.L.
Problem 11 .25 Ti,e rale ofjlow ofwllter pllmped illlo a pipe ABC. which is 200 mlong. is 20 litres/s. The
pipe i~· laid on an upward slope of I in 40. TIl/' length of the porlion AB i5 100 m Imd it~· di",neler
il· /00 mill. while Ihe length of the portion BC is also 100 m but il~· diameter is 200 mm. The change of
di",nt!/er (It B i5 l·udden. Th e jlOII' is laking pia,·" from A 10 C. wlwre Ihe pressure al A is 19.62 Nkm 2
and end C i5 connecled to (I /imk. Find Ihe pressu'e al C (Illd draw IIII! /lyil,,""ic gradient lind lo/al
energy line. Take f = .008.
Solu t ion. Given:
Leng[h of pipe. ABC = 200 m
Discharge. Q = 20 litrcsls = 0.02 m 31s
. I
Slope of pipe. = 111140 = -
40
Leng[h of pipe. AB = 100 Ill. Dia. of pipe AB = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Lenglh of pipe, BC = 100 Dia. of pipe BC = 200 mm = 0.2
111. 111
I I Ii
~ I IL
Velocity of water in pipe 1Jc. V2 '" Q '" 0.02 '" 0.63 111/s
Area o f Be '::' (.2)2
4
Apply ing Bernoulli's cqumion \0 points A and C.
V1 P V!
~+~+ z,\ '" _C + _<_ + Zc + total loss from A to C ... (i)
pg 28 pg 2g
TOlal loss from A to C", Loss duc to friction in pipe AB + loss of head duc to en largement at B +
loss of head duc to friction in pipe Be. ... (ii)
Now loss of head duc 10 friction in pipe AB.
TOl allos.~froIllA IOC = h/l +h, + hI, = 10.52+ .186+ .323= 11.029'= 11 .03111
SubstitUTing this v:1luc in (I). we gel
P V' JI V1
--=l..+.....i.. + z - ....!:. + _c_ + l + 11 .03 . ,.( iii)
pg 28 '\- P8 28 c
I I Ii
~ I IL
'~
f"
, 1 ~''1052
, ,
"'G,. , " 1
."
tt(
~ Lhf ·n3 ,
20 328
~ ....
-
__ - c ,
'll '
---~ '",
Fig. 11.11
=
p~ V;
~ + ~ +"
4
19.62 X 10 + (2.54), + 0" 20 + 0.328
pg 2g l 000x9.81 2x9.8 1
== 20.328 III
Total e nergy at B '" Tot al e nergy at A - " ft =: 20.328 - 10.52", 9.&08 III
! (0.63)2
A lso Vc 11g = == 0.02.
1 x9.RI
Tota l En"rgy l.ine . Draw <I ho ri m nlal line AX as ~h ow n in Fig. I J. I I. Th e co) nlfC- lill e o f Ih" pipe is
,
dra wn in s uc h a way [h al s lope of pipe is I in 40. Thus the po int C will he at a hei ght of
40 x 200 '" 5 111 fro m th e lin e AX. Now draw a vc ni ca l line A D cq ua lto IOta l ene rgy at A . i.e .. A D
= 20.)28 m. f'ro m poi nt D. draw a ho ri zont al line and fro m poi nt /J. a I'c n ica l line. meetin g at Q. From
Q. lake I'e ni cal di stan ce QE == h" = 10.52 1Il. Join DE. f'rorn E. tak e EF = h, = 0. 186 m. Fro m F,
draw a hori zo nt al line and from C. a ve ni ca l line meet in g at R. From R ta ke RG = h" == 0.323 Ill. Join
F to G. Then DEFG re prese nts th e lota l energy line.
1I~' d raul ic Gr.ldl enl Line. Draw the line 1M parallel to the line DE at a d istan ce in the dow nward
V'
direc tion eq ua l to 0.328 Ill . Also draw the line PN para llel to the line GF at a d islan ce of - '- = 0.02.
2,
Jo in po int M to N. Then lin e UlINP re prese nts the hydrau lic g rad ie nt lin e.
Problem 11.26 A pipe lille. 300 111111 ill diameter (md 3200 III 10llg is IIsed to plllllp lip 50 kg per
second of (Ill oil ...llOse dellsity is 950 kg/m J (md ... llOse kinematic viscosiry is 2.1 stokt'S. Tile centre of
Ihe pipe line oll/u: IIpper elld is -10 m abore th(l1l Illal al rile lo·....er end. The disclwrge (II Ihe IIpper end
is armospheric. Fi/ld Ihe pressllre at IIII' lower elld WId draw the Il)'dralllir gradient alld Ihe total
energy line.
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/
fH: G./.-- ,
i, l;, (
T
<Om
A. draw the CClllrc line of llie pipe in such <I way that point C /
/
is a disI 31lCC of 40 III aooyc the horizontal line. Draw a ven i- /
cal line AB through A such that AIJ " 58.05 111. Join IJ with A A
C. Then BC is the hydraulic gr,l(licllI line. Fig. 1l.12
Draw a line DE parallel (0 BC a1 a hdghl of 0.0282 III abo ve the hydraulic gradient line. Thl' n DE is
the total energy line .
Syphon is a long ben! pipe which is llscd to transfer liquid from a reservoir al a higher elevation to
another reservoir a1 a lowe r level wilen the (WO reservoirs arc separated by a hill or high level ground
as show n in Fig. I [.1 J.
:;;:C;:;:;~ SUMMIT
A
- ...,,--- -- --
----- ,
Fig. 11.13
The point C which is at the highest of the syphon is called the summit. As the point C is above the free
surface of the water in the tan~ A, the pressure 3t C will be less than atmospheric pressure. Theoretically.
the pressure at C may be r~-duccd to - 10.3 III of water but in actual pra~1ice this pressure is unly - 7.6 III
of water or 10.3 - 7.6 = 2.7 10 of water absolutc. If the prcssure at C be~'Qllles less tl1:ln 2.7 III of water
absolute , the dissolved ai r and other gases would eomc out from water and ~"OlIcct at the summi t. The
flow uf W3ler will be obstructed. Syphon is used in the fullowing cases:
!. To carry water from one reservoir tu another reservoi r sepa rmed by a hill or ridge.
2. To t:lke out the liquid from ~ tank which is not having nny outlet.
3. To cmpty n channel nOl provided with nny outlet s luice.
P ro blem 11 .2 7 A J)"p ilon of diomelU zoo
mm co"nects 11"0 reserl"oirs Iwdng a diffuence in efem·
lioll of 10 m. The lellglh of I/Ie sypholl is 500 m amllhe Siumnil is 3.0 111 abOl'e Ille Waler {ere/ ill Ille
upper reserl"oir. The le"glh of Ihe pipe from upper resu}"oir 10 Ihe su mmil is 100 m. Delermi"e the
di~'charge Illrough Ille $)"1'/10" alld "Iso press"re <II Ihe summil. Neg/e"1 milior IOSJe~·. The co·efficielll
of friClioll. f = .005.
Solution. Give n:
Dia. of syphon. d", 200 mm '" 0.20 III
Difference in level uf twu reservoirs. H=201ll
Length of syphon, L=500m
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,
Fig. 11 .14
If minor losse s arc neglected thcI11hc luss of head lakes place only duc 10 friction.
Apply ing Bernoulli' s eq uati on to poi nt s A and B.
V1 VI
J!.ii + ~ + ZA '" ~ + ~ + z~ + Loss o f head duc to friction from A 10 8
pg 2g pg 2g
0+ 0 + LA '" 0 + 0 + l /l+ IIJ I'; PA '" I'D '" atmospheric pressure. VA '" VB'" OJ
"'
4xjxLxV 1
1... -Z8= /IJ =
dx2g
B" l ,\ -18'" 20 III
l
20= 4X.OO5X500XV =2.548V1
0.20)(2)(9.8 1
v=~ 20 =2.80mls
2.548
:. Disc harge , Q'" Veloci ty x Area
p, + ;;;-~"~'=
O" _pg 4
+ 3.0 + - .,X~.,,
00~5cX:cc'00
""X+.(2=8"--)' lVc =V= 2 .801
2x9.8 1 0.2x2x9.81
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Problem 11 .28 A SypllOIl of diameter 200 mill C()IweCf$ two re~·er\'oi'.1 hal'ing II differene<' in
eiel'arion of 15 m. Ti,e 10iailenglh oflhe syphon is 600 In oll<llhe sUlllmil is 4 III abore Ihe water level
in II,e tipper resumir.lfrlle separariO/I lakes place at 2.8 III a/wafer absolure,find Ihe maximum length
of syphon from upper f<'SenGi, 10 rhe summit. Take f = .004 and atmospheric pressure", 10.3 III
of ",a/a.
Solution. Gi ven:
Dia. of sypllon, d"" 200 nUll = 0.2 III
Differe nce o f level in two rC!i.ervoirs == 15 III
TOlat ]englli of pipe == 600 III
Hei glll of summit from uppe r rc~rvoir == 4 III
,
Fig. 11.15 (a)
Apply in g Bernoulli's eq uation 10 points A and C and taking the datum line passing throu gh. A ,
v~ Vl
l!..i. + ..:..d... + ZA '" .&. + _c_ + z.- + Loss of head due to frict ion between A and C
pg 2g pg 2g
Substitutin g the va lu es o f pressures in terms of absolute, we have
v'
10.3+0 +0 =2.8+ - +4.0+ II , [.: V< '" velocity in pipe '" V]
2g "
vo! VI
h~ '" 10.3 - 2.8 - 4.0 - - = 3.5 - - ...(i)
, 2g 2g
Apply ing Bernoulli's equation to points A and 8 and taking datum line pa ~sin g th rough 8.
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B. II o4~'~f~',-,:!"~'~V,-'
"' - ... (iii)
/, <lxlg
where L] = inlet leg of syphon or length of syphon fronl upper reservo ir 10 the ~uJ1\mit.
It _ 4)(.004)(L, x (2.47)1
I, - 0.2)(2)<9.81 =0.0248)(L 1
Problem 11 .29 A syphon of di"meter 200 mm COlineCIS 111'0 rcsen'o;,s whoJ'c water J'llff<lcC {CI"e!
differ by 40 m. The rOlllllengll1 oJlhe pipe is 8000 m. The pipe crosses a ridge. Tile .mmmil a/ridge j ,Y
8 III (Ibm'" lire /el'el 0/",(l/e1 in Ihe upper f.-Jerl'ojr. V elermille /lJe minimum deplll oflile pipe be/ow Ille
sUfflmil of II,e ridge, if Ille absolule pre.ullre lIead a/ IIII' .mmlllil of s)'pllon is nOl 10 fall below 3.0 m of
•.-ater. Take f "" 0.006 alld atmospheric pressure head", 10.3 m of ....ater. Th e lellglll of syphollfrom Ille
IIpper resen·oir to tile slmlmil is 500 m. Filld the discharge a/so.
Solution. Gil'en :
Dia. of sypllOn. d",200mm =0.20 m
Difference in lel' els of two reservoirs. fI " 40 m
Total le ngth of pipe, I." 8000 m
Heig ht of ridge summit from wa ter level in upper reservoir = 8 III
Let th e depth of the pipe below Ihe summit of rid ge = x III
Hei ght of syphon from water surface in Ihe upper reservoir " (8 - .r) III
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•
10.3 = 3.0 + (0.904 ) + (8 _ .r) + 4 :dK16 x 500 x (0.904)-
•
0'
2x9.8 1 0.2x2x9.81
=3.0+0.041 + (8- .r)+2.499= 13.54-x
x= 13.54-10.3=3.24m. An5.
Pipes in series nr compound pipes are defined a~ the pip es of different lengths and different diam·
etas connected end to end (in scries) to form a pipe line as show n in Fig. 11.16.
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F ig . 11.16
The discharge passing through e ach pipe is same.
Q=AIVj"AzVt=AlVl
The d ifFt're nce in liquid surface levels is equal 10 th~ sum of tile lOla] head loss in the pipes.
l
H=O.5 Vl + 4Ji~V/ +05V/ + 4f!~V}
2g d 1 x2g 2g d 2 x 2g
+ (V2 -
,
vS + 4fl~VJ~
d'
+ v/
2 ...( 11. 12)
.tg J x.tg g
If minor losses arc ncgLcclL-d. then above equation becomes as
,
H= 4fl L, VI + 4f,L,V~ + 4fJ~V;
' ,
... ( 11.13)
d 1 x2g d 2 x2g d J x2g
If the co.efficknt of friction is smne for all pipes
i.e.. II '" h '" fl = f. then equation ( 1 1.1 3) beco mes as
H= 4 fL,V/ + 4 JL'lV1l + C4~JL,
,,,,V,c'
d,x2g d 2 X2g d ) x 2g
== 4f
2g [ ' , '1
L,V,· + L 2V1 + L)V,
d, dl d)
.. _(11. 14)
Problem 11 .30 The difference in ...aler !J'urface lel'els in 1"'0 lallks ....hich are conneCled by Ihree
pipes ill series of {engl/,s 300 m. 170 III alld 210 III alld of dlamelerI 300 mill. 200 ,,"" allli 400 111m
respeclil'ely, i,f 12 III. Delermine Ihe rale of flo ... of \l"(/(cr if co-efficielll of frietiOIl are .005, .0052 IIl1d
.1J048 respeeli"ely, cOllsiderillg : (i) millor losses also (iO IIcglee/illg millor 10S,Ie.!.
Solution. Given:
Difference o f water le"eI. H = 12 In
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Len gth of pi pe 3. L J '" 210 m and dia .. d.l '" 400 n1ln '" 0 .4 m
Also. I, '" .005./, '" .0052 and!} '" .OM S
(i) Co ns id e ring Minor Losses. Lei VI' V, and V3 are th e veloc iti es in the l SI. 2nd and 3 rd pi pe
respecti vel y.
From co ntinui ty. we have AI VI '" A1 V1 '" A JVJ
A,V, 4 "d,'
d, 0.3 , ()' X VI '" 2.25 VI
o Al - d; d O
1
' 0
V, : - - . - - V , = - , V, '" -
.
2
4 0
and V == A, V, '"
J Aj
d,l
d; \I:
I
=(03 )'
0.4 VI '" 0 .5625 VI
"'2,
• - '- 111 8.8871
12 x 2 x 9.81
v,-- 11&887
= 1.407 mls
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2x9.81x 120
== 1.445 m/s
11 2.694
Di.o;chargc. Q'" VI X AI '" 1.445 x ~ (.3)'" 0.1021 1113/S == 102. 1 lilrcsls. Ans.
4
Problem 11 .30 ( A). Tllret' pi{!1'S of.Joo mm. 200 111m mill 300 mm dialllelers Iw,'c (engll,s of 400 m.
200 III. ,md 300 III re~peclil'l.<l)', They liTe COllnected ill series 10 make (l compOlmd pipe. Tile ends of
Ihis compound pipe UTe connected wilh Iwo tanks whose differen ce of w(ller iel'e/J' is 16 m. If
co-efficient of/rictioll for Iliesc pipes is same and equililo OJJ05, de/ermine the disc/wrge 111rougll the
compOlmd pipe neg/llCIifl8 firSI the minor losses and Ihell including II,em.
Solution. Given:
Difference of water levels, H= 16m
Length and d ia. of pip.:: I. LI ",400 m and d l '" 400 mm '" 0.4 m
Length and di a. of pip.: 2. L 2 '" 200 m and d 2 '" 200 mm '" 0.2 m
Length and di a. of pipe J. L 1 ", 300 m and d) '" 300 mm '" 0.3 m
Also 11"'12"'13=0.005
(i ) Disc harge thro ugh th e comllo und pipe fi rst neglec ting minor losses.
Let VI' V2 and V3 are the velocities in the lst. 2nd and 3rd pipe respectively.
From continuity. we have AIV I '" A 2 V2 '" AJVJ
, ,
AV = -
4 dl
V1 ", - ' -'
dl1, VI = (00
- X VI '" - -
4)' VI'" 4V I
Al d;
7r d; 0.2
4 .
and
1
V l ( 4 x 0.005 x 400 4 x 0.005 x 200 x 16 c4CXCO
coOO
"""cX
"3"OO
,,,-,X
C3coO"c' .)
'" 2 x9.81 0.4
+ 0.2
+- OJ
~' V,'
16= I (20+320 + 63.14)= I x403.14
2x9.81 2x 9.81
16 x2 x9.81
'" 0.882 mfs
403.1 4
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Discharge. "
Q=A , X VI '" - (0.4) x 0.882 ", O. '108m Is. Ails. ,
4
( ri) Disc ha rge through th e compound ]Iipe co ns idering minor losses also.
Minor IOHes (lrt':
0.5 VI~
(a) At inl et. II : - -
, 2,
(b) Between 1st pipe ;lml2nd pipe. due to contraction.
h: _
05_V_,1 =,-O'.':..,;-(4-,
V,C')L
c 2, - 2g
=
°5x 16xV, =8x V,- ' '
2g 2g
(e) Between 2nd pipe and 3rd pipe. du e 10 sudden enl argeme nt.
/, '"
(V, - vS (4 VI _ 1.77V )l
I
= "'"--~'-".L
' 2, 28
V1 \.\ '
= (2.23)1)( _ ,_ '" 4.973 - '-
2g 28
=
4 x 0.005 x 400 x v/ + 4 x Q.()()5 x 200 x (4 VI) 1 + -,-4,-XCOC,OO:;;::5CX"300
:;:::OX,,(~,,-77CV,, ,--
)'
0.4x2x9.81 0.2x2x9.81 0.3 )(2x9.81
'" 4{)3.14 x
v'I
2 x 9.81
:. Sum of minor losses and major losses
2 2
: 05 -
- V/ +8x-+
VI VI ., V12]
4.973-+3.13_9 ~'
- + 403.14-
[ 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
v'
'" 4 19.746 - '-
2,
But tOlalloss IIll1st b<: equal 10 H (or 16 m)
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This is d~rlncd as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equa l 10 [he loss
of head and discharge of a compound pire consisting of several pipes of different lengthS and diam -
Ckrs. The uniform diameter of the equi va lent pipe is called equivalent size of lh e pipe. The length of
cqu;valcm pipe is equal to sum of lengths of the compound pir<: consisting uf different pipes.
u.l L [ '" le ngth of pipe 1 and ill'" diameter o f pipe I
L 2 ", le ngth of pipe 2 and ill" diameter of pipe 2
L3 = knglh of pipe 3 and d 3 = diameter of pipe 3
II '" 100ai head loss
L = length of equ ival ent pipe
d", diameter oflhe equivalent pipe
Then L=LI+L2+L3
Total head Joss in the compound pipe. neglecting minor losses
, , ,
11= 4JiL,V[- + 4fl. ~V; + 4 /l~ V) ... (11. 14A)
d l x2g d l x2g dJ x2g
Assuming II '"'Il'"'h==1
Discharge,
4Q 4Q 4Q
VI'" - -
, . V 2 ", - -
, 311d V 3 ", - -
,
red, red; redj
Substituting these values in equmioll (11.14A), we have
... ( 11.1 5)
l
Head loss in the equivalent pipe. H",
4/.L.V IT aking sallie value 0
ff as in compound pipe]
d x2g
Q Q 4Q
where V '"
"A'" ~d! '" rtd l
4
H= 4/.L. ( ;;if
4Q J' ,", 4 x,16Ql/[~1
... ( 11. 16)
dx2g re - x2g d~
Head loss in compound pipe and in equivalenl pip.: is same hellce equating equations (I 1.15) and
(11. 16),wchavc
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Equati o n ( I I 17) is kn ow n as Dupuit' scq u3t ion. In thi s equat ion L ", L ] + L2 + Ll and dl' 112 and d J
are kn ow n. He nce the equi val ent 5i].e of Ihe pipe. i.e .. value of II ca n be o bta in ed .
Pro blem 11 .31 Tilfee pipo of ":ngrl!.~ 800 m, 500 In ami 400 In allli of dialneter.! 500 min. 400 mm
and 300 mill respeCfil'ely are connecled ill serres. TilesI' pipes are 10 be replaced by a single pipe of
length 1700 m. Find Ihe diameter of Ihe single pipe.
Solullon. Given :
Len gth o f pipe I. LI '" 800!ll and dia.• III = 500 111m '" 0.5 III
L" nglh o f pipc 2. ~ '" 500 III and o ia .. d~ '" 4 00 mm '" 0.4 In
Le ngth o f pipe 3, L 3 ", 400 III and « ia .. d] '" 300 mm '" 0.3 In
Le ngth of singic pi pe . L = 1700 m
Le t the diame ter of eq ui va icnt sin g le pirc = d
L 1., L, L"
Appl ying c quuli on (I J 17), - , = - s +---t + - ,
d ii, <11 ill
1700 800 500 400
-,- = - , + - , + - s = 25600 + 48828.1 25 + 164609 == 239037
d .5 .4 0.3
Consider a ma in pi pe whic h di vides inlo two or more bran ches as s how n in Fi g. 11.1 7 and aga in join
toge ther dow nstream to form a s in g le pipe. the n Ihe bran ch pipes arc sa id 10 be conncclcd in paralle l.
The di scharge Ih ro ugh th e ma in is increa sed by co nn ecting pipes in parallel.
B R A N CH PtP E :2
B R A N C H PIPE 1
Fig. 11 .1 7
The rate of fl ow in Ih e main pipe is equ a l 10 th e s um of rale of flo w Ih roug h bra nch pipes. Hence
from l"' ig . 11. 17. we have
Q=Q I +Q 2 ...( 11.18)
In th is. arTang emcl11. the loss of head for each branch pipe is sa me.
:. Loss o f h" ad for bran c h pipe I = Loss of head for hrauc h pipe 2
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0'
V,
-
" = -Vi.· or V, 1 ", -V,',
1.0 0.8 0.8
Now
and
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L :750m.d :O.6m
' l m<---='''''''---='==
l___ T-~-_cQi;;ii'i~-~'
O:O.6m
~::-...;.
-
..........
0, C
Q, ,
L,"'750m.d,:O.6m
Fig. 11.18
1s t Ca se. Discharge for a sing le pipe of length 1500 III and dia. '" 0.6 m.
4JLy· 2
This head lost due to friction in singic pipe is "r=-'<~C-
dx2g
whereV" = veloc it y of flow for s ingle pipe
4x.OlxI500xY·
.,
0.3 =
"' 0.6 x2g
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Problem 11 .34 A I'umpili g pfali/ fvrces ,mler Ih rough a 600 mm di(/meler main. Ihe friClivn head
being 27 III. III order IV retlllce Ihe po,..", COII~'umplion . il is proposed 10 lay {mother main of "ppropri·
ale tli",ne/'" afOiIS Ihe "ide of Ille <'xiS/ins one. so Ilwl 1"'0 pipes may ,..ork ill parallel fo r Ihe enlire
Jeng/II (/lid reduce 111<' frie/ioll 11<'(ld 10 9.6 m ollly. Filld Ihe diameter of Ille lIeli' maill if. ,..ilh 111<'
e.(cepli011 of diameter, il i,~ simi/M 10 Ihe exiJlillg Ol1e in el'''')' respect.
Solution. G ivc n :
Dia. of si ng lc main pipe. d = 600 mm = 0.6 m
Frictio n head. hf = 27 m
Frictio n he ad for two parall el pipes "" 9.6 m
1s t Case.
For a sin g lc mai n [Fig. 11. I 9 (a) ]
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-1 0 --- n - - - - n n -I
(a) Single main
Om L, =L . V, '" .fl=~
A, A
d,,,,d=O.6
4c·~fc'"L= Q,'
,c-:c Al '" 0.6
0.6)(2)(9.81
4 jxL, XV,'
For the 2nd pipe, I,f, - • • == 9.6,
dl x 2g
4 / X LX Q =9.6
d,x2gx A;
i,
/ xLxQ; '" 9.6 x 2 x 9.81 '" 47.088
... (iii)
ill X A~ 4
Di vidi ng ~qualion (i) by equal io n (iiI, we gel
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QI+Q 2 :Q
Ql= Q- Q 1 = Q- .596 Q=O.404 Q
Dividing eqU3lion (ii) by cqumion (iii),
Bw
d/ '" 0.6 X
1
.36 x (::~r = 0.03537
32f·L.Q1
= rr. " xgxd '
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20 = "32""xc·Oc'c'o'c'cOOOccoxCiQ,--
) ' " 30985.01 Q-,
I( ' X9.8 I X(0.2)
,
~
o
Q == ,, 0.0254 m Is. An s.
309X5.07
2nd Case.
Lei Q 1 "diSl: hargc through pipe CD.
Q1 == di sch arge through pipe DE.
QJ = d isc harge through pi pe DF.
Le ngth of pipe CD. LI == 800 111 and its dia .• d l " 0.20 111
Length of pipe DE. L2 ", 1200 III and its dia., (/2 " 0.20 III
Length of pipe DF. L) = 1200 11\ and its dia .. d1 == 0.20 m.
Since the diam eters and leng th s o f th e pipes DE and DF arc equal. Hell ec Q2 will be equal 10 Ql'
Also for parallcl pipes. we have
Q 1 == Q! + QJ" Q1 + Q! = 2Q!
Q,=~
, 2
A
T
c 0,
;:-..;. ° 2
20m
• ,
800"" 20ciii ~ -----
'200",03
. 20c", FL----'
Fig. 11.20
Apply in g Bernoulli' s equati on (0 points A and B and tak i ng th e fl ow throu gh CDE. we ha l'e
20 =
4/ .t.. v/ + 4/ .L,. V/
d t x2g d 2 x2g
, ,
- 4x.015x800 , ( -4Q,
- - )" + 4 x.015xl200 x( ---
lQ, )'
0.2x2 x 9 .81 Ifx.04 0.2x2x9.81 /tx.04
'" 12394 01 1 + 46470/ '" 1704 1 Qi l
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d = 0 and f is conSlant
2
ht Case. Whell pipes are connected to parallel
Q'" Q , + Q2 ... ( i)
Loss of head in each pipe = II
d, =0
co
Fig. ]1.2]
4JL x [ nO'
4Q~)' 32fLQ,!
---,"'-";'--'-- = " or n 10 ) xg '" " ... (ii)
Dx2g
32jf·Qi
['or pipe AC. = II ...(iii)
n ! d ) x8
1
32jLQ , '" 32fLQi
n 1 D )g n l d )g
[':0=2d[
'" 2) '" 32
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Fig. 11.22
II =
4J. LX (-,:-;-ZY 4fL (~~r
---;;-cC2'-"- + -;=:-:"-
Dx2 g dxlg
32fl_Q ! 32JLQ!
11 = + S '
"' Dn "
S'
x g d n· xJ\
1 Il ! II Q'
H = Q x - , +Q X- , =-,11 +-,11 ="
Q1 [Q
-1
,+ -Q,l]
Q,- Qi Q,- Qi 0, Ol
11 Q2 Q2
- = - , +- ,
II 0, Qi
But from equa tio ns (il') a nd (v). 0, = .85 Q and 0, = 0. 15 Q
Ii
-= 1.384 + 44.444 = 4S.H2H. Ans.
h
Problem 11 .36 (A). Tlm·e piJll·s of the same /ength L, diameter D. WId friction faCiO r f Me
connec/ed in p"",IIe1. Determine l/ie diwneter of Ille pipe of length L GIld friction filClor f ...lIich ...iII
carry ti,e SlIIlIe discharge for the .tame Ilead loss. Use ti,e form ulllilf '" f x Lx V"'/2g D.
I I Ii
~ I IL
f xLx V~
Then hI "" IIf, == Il f , == 1If, or II! '" '-'';,O',"D
'-'-- ...(il
Let Q1 '" Discharge through IS! pipe. Q2 '" Discharge Th rough 2nd pipe.
Q3 = Discharge throug h 3rd pipe. and Q = Total discharge.
When th e three pipes arc con nected in parallel. Ihen
Q = 0, + Q1 + QJ = 3 X Q,
=)xA , xV t
For a si ng le pipe (or leng th L: friction facior j) wtJ ich will carry same discharge as lhe lh ree pipes in
parallel
LeI d = dia. of lhe sing le pipe
,. = ve loc ily through si ngle piP<'
Equatillg the two values of discharge. given by equations (ii) and (iii). we get
If ! If ,
3x - D xV= - <l" XI' or 3x - .! = -
D' ,· ... (i\')
4 4 If V
The head loss for the si llg le pipe is also equal to lhe lotal head loss for three pipes when lhey arc in
l)ara ll ~ 1.
But head loss for lhe sing le pipe of lengt h L, dia. <I, friclion factor f and I'e loc il y "is give n hy
If y.!
- = -,
D V'
Substituting the va lu e o f "IV in eq uation (i,'). we gel
I I Ii
~ I IL
3 , -D',= -
d- D
(dJ'" ur 3 = -
D
(d J'" (dJ' (<f J'"
x -
D
,, -
D
4/ X L XV,!
The n loss of head du e 10 fri<:ti on in parallel pipes = ...(ii)
J. x 2g
Equatillg Ihe two losses g ive n by equil ti o ns (i) ~Ild (ii). we ha ve
4 /. L.V l 4/ xL x V.!
0.4x 2g d. x 2g
Cance ll ing 4 f L .
2,
v'
0.4 . -,v.! "' - ,' -
d.
V"
V.-
0.4
d.
... (iii)
From continuit y
TOl al no w i n sin gle mai n :: SUIll of fl ow in two parallel pi pes
Of Ve loc ity of ma in x Are a :: 2 X Veloc ity in each paralle l pi pe x Area
II , 1( , V
2x!!.-d:
4 u}
V x - (0.4)-:: 2 x V.)( - d-.or - :: .~-;-
4 4 V. ~ (O .4 ) l 0. 16
4
I I Ii
~ I IL
JX LX[ It
Q
X 0.25 '
J'
= 4
0.25 x 2 x 9.81 [.: V = A~a = : ~l )
= f x tX (4Q )1
... (iii}
0.25 x 2 x 9.81 x( It x 0.25')"
IlJi = Head loss in IS! parallel pipe
JX Lx (~i
" (": Dia. of parallel pipe" II and VI is the velocity
II x2 g
in lSI parallel pipe)
= I x LX [ 2X~d'
dx2g
r
I I Ii
~ I IL
! XLX
C (4Q)'
= -d-,--:-,_,L9".8 ", X:-;(2"'X""CX-d~'~)"
[X Lx(4Ql f X L X (4Q)!
2 ' == ,
0.25x2x9.81 x(n x 0.25 r d x 2 ><9.8 1>«2x Itxd l
4 fL V1 -4,-
10= - - + - f"XC~"'c:''-"'V'_
'
dx2g <II )(2g
2
'" 4 x.O 15 x 2000 x V + :4C',-;;.O~,,,5"X:;-'"OOO
::;C;X;-:VL
"
0.4)(2x9.81 0.3)(2)(9.8 1
...(i)
,
----.--- T
A
("2000
.om
-'- ,
0"04 m L -1 000-:n.<l
. Ill. \I
----,,---------
<0j" ~ C
;>,,0.3 °
1
Fig. 11.23
I I Ii
~ I IL
"'
13m il, '" il2 and also the len gth s of pi pes Be and BD arc equ al and he nce discharge throug h Be and
lJD wi ll be sallie. Tll is mea ns VI '" til also
v=~ 21325
10 = 0.654 I11ls
Discharge = Vx Area
i
.om
L
Fig. 11 .24
I I Ii
~ I IL
When the pipes arc connected in parallel. llie loss of head will be same in both the pipes.
For tlie fir.>i pipe. loss of head is given as
/f: -
-4fL"X"~~Xc"",'_ . 0.32 x 100 x V/ ("; 4/" .32)
dl x2g 0.05x2x9.81
1
10" 32.619 VI
'" .5536 x ~ (O.OS)! '" '(MJ]087 11I ]/s '" 1.087 litresls. A ilS.
4
For the 2nd pipe. loss of head is given by.
, ,
'" "4 (. 1)- x .783 " 0.006 15 111
,Is'" 6. 15 lilres/s. Ans.
D" diameter of a single pipe which is substituted for the twO original pipes
L" length ursinglc pipe '" ]00 III
V = velocity through pipe
The discharge ItJrough single pipe.
Q = Q 1 + Q1 = 1.087 + 6. 15 = 7.237 ]itrests = .007237 11I 3/s
v= -.JL = .007237 4 x.007237 .009214 Illfs
Area 11: 0 " 11:0 " 0:
4
Loss of head through sing le pi pe is
4 /X LXV 1
O.32XIOOX(·()()D9~_ [4 )'
H" -'-~DCxC20g- " 0 x 2 x 9.8 [
I I Ii
~ I IL
E
- =o.::~:i":--- t
A:- "'m
C ~ >
. --
l."4Qoo -
1
~ --
OOOrn rn. <1'<0.6""
,
Fi g. ]1.25
I I Ii
~ I IL
( WhiCh is equ al to ~; + Zn ) is mOre than the piezometric lIead at B (i.e .• ZIJ). Let us consi der that flow
is from D to reservoir B.
~ I I~
~ I IL
---:-: -.--
r
~ ~~
,
I
--=::
::::::::- ,
~
~ '>-
,
L" a,. 't,
'. "
"
'" , ". ,~
.-:.-
c
~
1 '.
'"
Fig. 11 .26
For flow from A to D from Bernoulli's equation
Po
ZO+ pg= ZB+ /If I ... (r i)
I I Ii
~ I IL
Fig. 11 .27
l
where Ii" '" 4. f· ~ . Vi . where VI '" ~ '" 0.06 '" 0.M8 mlsec
til x 2g Area IT (.3)2
4
[
ZD +.E.L] = 40.0 - 3.518 = 36.482 J1\
P8
~!cncc picwlllclric head at D = 36.482. But ZB'" 38 m. ]'[enee water Oow s from B w D.
Apply ing Bernoulli's equmion to points lJ and D
Om
V2 = ,I~1.~'~I8~'~O~.2~'~2~X~9~.8~
4 x.OO6 x 600
1 = 0.643 m/s .
1( , It ,
Dischilrgc, Q2 = V 2 X "4 (d 2t = 0.643 x "2 x (.2)"
3
= 0.0202 111 1s '" 20.2 lil resls. A ilS.
I I Ii
~ I IL
- I'D
ZD '~=Zc
pg +hl,
"'
Bu! from continuity Q 1 + Q2 '" QJ
Q3 = Q 1 + Q!" 0.06 + 0.0202 = 0.0802 m3 /s
V =~ = 0.0802 = 1.I34m/s
3 /t , /t
4 (·3t "4(.09)
[z. . - ~ -
d x2g l
0.3x2x9.&1
l
( "oJ -
Z,, + ~
pg
= 28 + Il f = 40+
,
4f xL.,xV,~
- -
d 2 x2 g
= ..-v.,.
.,,, , c4cX~.OCOC;::X~IOC;COOCXCV~
!! = 40.0 + 5.09 V11
0.2x2x9.81
I I Ii
~ I IL
I·":··,
80m 'o;<>o~ @ ~,,~~
' T
':0>:' ...".,..
l T'10m
_____ ~~~~N.: ___ '.:a~~ ____ L
Apply ing BcmooJ!i's equation to poillts D and C
Fig. 11.28
-vr" a C 30m
ZD+POJ=4: +h OO
=30 + 4jxL.,xV/ :: 30+ -,4C ""5CX"8COO 'C·
",,',,,,V,C'
[ pg J, ilJ x2g O.l5x2x9.81
20 2.7 18 v/
Now from (il'), ... ( vii)
5.09
30 - 2.7 18Vll
And from (v) , ... (I'iii)
5.4 36
Substituting the value of V" and VJ in (I'i), we gel
x .0225 X \1,~20,--~
2~7~18~"CLll "v
5.09
I I Ii
~ I IL
VI == J~.O~
' g08~7~ '" 1.0&6 mls
.009207
Substituting this value o f VI in (1·;1) and (I'iii)
V =
2
,lo20,--~c2".7~'~8cXC~"-ll = Jo2<l,--~c2c.70'~8~Xc'c.Oc86,--1 = 1.816m/s
5.09 5.09
2
30 2.718x 1.086 -222
_. InI S
5.436
Fig. 11.29
Let Q I = Rate o f now in bwncb pipe J.
Q1 = Rat~ of now in branch pipe 2.
Q = Rate of flow in rnain pipe.
Now rate of flow in main pipe is equal to the surn o f rate of flow in branch piP<'s.
Q=QI+Q 1 ...( i)
But Q2 = Area of branch pipe 2 x Velocity in branch pipe 2
I I Ii
~ I IL
,
",A,x V,: - D ,'x V,=
,
'4~ (0.3) ! x 7.5 "" 0.53 m Is
3
• • 4 ' •
Substituting the va lues Df 0 and Q! in equation (i) , we ge t
1.5 :Q 1 +0.53
0 1 = 1.5 - 0.53 = 0.97 Ill/s. AilS.
PlOwer is tran smill cd through pipes by flowing waler or mhcr liq uid s /lowing through Ilwm. The
power Ira nsmillcu depends upon (i) the weight of liquid flowing through the pipe and (ii) the total head
available at the end of the p ipe. Consider a pipe A B conncclcd to a tank as s hu wn in Fi g. 11.30. The
]lOwer ava ilable at the end B of th e pipe and t he condition for max i mullllransmi ssio n o f power w ill be
obtained as lllc rl tioncd belDW :
....-.-.-.-.
1'=...ELX !!.. d 2 XV ( H _ 4 fL V
1000 4 dx2 g
2
),w ...{ II.2I )
I I Ii
~ I IL
Thus ..!!.....(P)=O
<IV
4jL V l
11 - 3)( - - - =0 or fI - 3xll/ =O
"' d x2 g
...( 1 1.23)
Equaling ( 11.23) is the cond ition for maximulIl tran smi ssio n or power. It states tlla! power transmi t-
ted throug h a pipe is maximum wile n the loss of head due to friction is one-third of the total head at
inlet.
I 1. 11 . 2 Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power. Effilciency of power transmis-
sion lhrough piJ}t' is given by eq uation ( 11.22) as
H - hI
I] : fI
For maximum power transmission through piJ}t' the cond ition is given by eq uati on (11.23) as
H
", : 3
Subst ilUl ing the va lue of hf in emciency. we get maximum "1].
H - H I3 I 2
1]" ... : H =' - 3"="3 0r66.7%. ...( 1 1.24)
Problem 11.45 A pipe of diameter 300 ""Il aml/ength 3500 '" is u~·ed for tile trallsmissioll of power
by waler. The Iota/ "eat! at Ihe illiel of the pip'· i~· 500 Ill. Fi",llhe m(lxim,,," po,,·er a!"ai/ah/e at lile
=
ouliet of Ihe pipe. if lile ,",,/lle off .006.
Solution. Given:
Diame ter of the pipe. t! = 300 mm = 0.30 III
I I Ii
~ I IL
Discharge. Q= VXArea
It , 1t > J
= 3.4 11 x - (dt = 3.417 x - (.3t = 0.24 15 m Is
4 4
Head available alth e end of th e pipe
= H- h =
j
I/ - !!... '" 2 11 "" 2x500 '" 333.33 111
3 3 3
pg x Q x head a1 the end of pipe
M a~ imum power ava ilable = kW
1000
= 1000x9.8 1 x .241 5 x 333.33 kW = 689.7 kW . Ah S.
1000
Problem 11 .46 A pipe /i1le 0/ /enstll 2000 m is used for power /rtlllsm iiiJ'iOI1. If 110.3625 kW power
is 10 be {"",smilIe" through ti,e pipc iii wilie" ,w,'er hlll'ing a pressure of 490.5 N/cm l al ;lllel is
flowing. Find Ille "iameler 0/ Ille pipe and e/ficie'lcy O/lfllrlsmil·siOIl If the pressure drop orer tile
Jength a/pipe is 98.1 Nkm ". Take/: .0065.
Solution. Given:
Len gth o f pipe. L= 2000 m
Powe r lransmineo : 11 0.3625 kW
Pressure al in let. p = 490.5 Nfcm-, = 490.5 x 10 N/m" "
:. Pressure head at inl el. II ='!!"": 490.5 x 10 ' : 500 m [.: P'" 1000J
pg 1(00)(9.8 1 .
Pressure drop = 98. 1 Nlcm 2 : 98. 1 )( 10· N/m 2
98.1 x 1O~
:. Loss of head. : 100m
pg 1000)(9.8 1
Co"efficien t of fric tion. / '" .0065
He <ld avail<lblc Jt th e end of the pipe: H - h, : 500 - 100 '" 400 m
Let the diameler of th e pipe '" d
I I Ii
~ I IL
pgXQX ( H- hj )
Now power transll1iucd is g i ve n by. P " kW
1000
IOOOx9.8 1 xQx 400
110.3625 "
1()()()
1103625 x lOOl = 0.02812
lOOOx9.8lx 400
~ d' x V: .028 12
4
V"" .28 12)( 4 " 0.0358 ...(i)
rrd ' d"
4/XLxV
The IIc ad lost do~ to fricti on, "1" -"-';:";C:-'-'
d x2 g
Bm Ill "" 100 m
d=
.003396)'"
[00 ""
8 '
.1_77 III = 127.7 mm . An s.
[
Efficiency of power tran sm i.<;sioll is give n by equali on (1 1.22).
T]
~HC-i'h'L = 500 - 100 = 0.80 '" 80%. An s.
= -
H 500
Problem 11 .47 For Problem /1.46. find : (i) rhe diameter of the pipe correIponding 10 maximum
efficiency of lrilll5l11issiOll . (ii) diameter of the pipe corresponding /0 90% efficiency of
Irallwni.~,~ioll.
Solution. 0) Diamctcr of pipe co rrespondin g to max imum e fficie ncy.
Le t th e dia. of pipe for 1]m., "" d
I I Ii
~ I IL
pg XQX ( H - h/)
p==-~~-",
1()()()
= ~
4
Ir x V {where V = velocity o f no w }
, ,
0.03375= "4 d x V
4jLV l
Now Ihe head lost duc \0 fricti on. h/ = - - -
d x2g
"1=166.7 III
166.7= -.4C'C·~Ooe5
O6 CC'c20()()()~C'CV~'
IIx2x9.8 1
BOI H,,500 m
I I Ii
~ I IL
pgXQX (H - h,)
Using relation fo r power trans mi ssion. P = '-'--'c;;;';;-~'-'
1000
Q= :-CCICI~O=.3"
62,,5,-,7c:'OOO
"",c"c =. 0'_S m-fs
'
[000 x9.8 1 x (500 - SO)
rr ,
Bo< Q= - d' xV
4
, , 4 fLV 1
Now the head 10SI duc to fnC\lon. hi = - - -
d x2g
dS = .002685 = .00Cl0537
50
If = (.OOOO537)l ll = . 1399 III = 140 mm. AIlS .
Fig. 11.31 shows a nozz le fitted a1 th e e nd o f a long pipe. The 100al e nergy at [h e e nd o flhe pipe
consists of pressure energy and kin etic ene rgy. By rUling the nozz le at the end of the pipe. 111e \olal
energy is conve ned into kin etic energy. T hu s nozzles are use d. where higher ve lociti es of now arc
required. Th e exam pl es are :
---" 'c{}f
--rr-'
H OIA=O BASE OF
, ~E
__ l __ -~ - -1+ --
! PIPE NOZZLE
1• L ·1
f ig. lUI Nozzle [imd to a pipe.
I I Ii
~ I IL
L In case of Pe lton turbin e. the nozz ic is fmed at the end of the pi pe (callcd penstock) to increase
ve loc ity.
2. In case oflhe ex tinguishing nrc. a nozzle is fined at th e end oflhe hose pipe to increase velocity.
Lei D", diameter of tile pipe, L = le ngth of the pipe.
= H- hf = (H_4JLV2]
2g xD
Neglecting minor losses a nd also assumi ng losses in th e nozzle neglig ibl e. we have
Tota l Itead at inkt of pipe == totalltead (energy) at tlte ou tk t of nozzle + losses
1,2
But total Itead at o utlet of noa l" == kinetic h ~ad == -
2,
,.'
H= - , - - ,
4 fL (,n.)'
- "( 1< -
- 4DA'
fU
-.']
2g 2gD A 2g
2gH
I' = ... ( I 1.25)
(I 4fL
+ -- , ~
D
" ]
A'
I I Ii
~ I IL
= 2gH
" = [ 1 4 fL1 III
+- , -
1 ... ( 11.26)
() Al
[
... F,"m,q"",;O" (ll '25)'~:[ 2g11
1
1+ _4 /_1. _" _.
' 11
D A'
I 1. 12.2 Condition for Maximum Power Transmitted Through Nozzle. We know Ihal,
Ihe lo[al head at inlet of pipe = total head at the olllle! of Ihe noale + losses
1 + C4~.f~.L,,'''V_'
: _v
2g D x2g
;; =(11 _4.~~~~Vl)
!
- pav
3 I
- pa v [ (
But power transmiucd through nozzle = - ' - - : -'-- X 1, 1=_'__ 2g H
1000
I
- pm'
1000 1000
-
4
.
f •L.
lJ x 28
V'l]-
I I Ii
~ I IL
'" Plla)' [H _ 4/
1000
LV1
D x2g
l ...( 1 1.27)
v=~
A
Substituting tile value o f V in equation (11.27). we get
pgm'
Power transmitted through nozzle" - 4 fLa
- [ II - -
lOOO
-- ' -v-
D x 2g A
,
1
1
. .
The power (P) will be maXllllum, when - - " 0
d(P)
ill'
"'
4 /L
- -V-
D x2g
· '" II == licad loss in pi pe
!
1
... { 11 .28)
"'
Equatioll (11.28) gives the condition for maximum power transrnillcd through nozzle. II states 1hat
power transmitted through nozzle is maximum when tlie head lost due to friction in pipe is one-third
the total head supplied at the inle t or pipe.
11. 12.l Diameter of Nozzle for Maximum Transmission of Power Through Nozzle . For
/I
rna.<imum lransmi.'l sion of power. the condition i~ gi wn by equation (I 1.28) as, h! = -
3
= 4! .L .V'
Bo< /,/
D x2g
1 1
4fLV H 4!t V
---= - orH=3x - - -
Dx2g 3 D x2g
Bu( H is also = (Olal head at outlet of nozzle + losses
I I Ii
IS34 Fluid Mechanics
Equaling the two values o f H, we get
4jLV 1 v 2 4fLV! 12jLY' 4jLY'
3x = -+ or =-
O x 2g 2g O x 2g D x2g D x 2g 2g
8jLV 2 v2
or =- ... (i )
O x2g 2g
8jL 0' _ 1
-x-:-z - ( Divide by ;: ) ... (ii)
o A
or _ x
_8 jL -:(~",,-d_'-7)" = 1 or 8jL x d: = lord' = 0'
o (~o' r 0 0 ~
8jL A'
From equation (ii). - o =-,
0
~o =rjL
0
... ( 11.30)
Equation ( 11 .30) gives the ratio of the area of the supply pipe to the area of the nozzle and hence
from this equation. the diameter of the nozzle can be obtained.
Problem 11 .48 A nozzie is jilted 01 the end of a pi~ of lenglh 300 m and of diameter 100 mm. For
the ma;cimllm transmission of poKIer through the noWe, find the diameter a/nozzle. Take f = .009.
Solution. Given :
Length of pipe. L=300m
Diameter of pipe. D= I00mm=O. lm
Co-efficient of friction. /= .009
Let the diameter of nozzle =d
For rnuimum trolnsmission of power. the diameter of nozzle is given by relation ( 11 .29) as
d = ( 0'
8jL
)1'.=(8 x.OO9
OJ!
x 300
)1'. = 0.02608 m = 26.08 mm. ADS.
Problem 11.49 The hl!ad of watl!r al thl! inlet of a pip#! Z(J(X) m long and 500 mm dial1ll!rl!r is
60 m. A nOWI! of diaml!tl!r 100 mm at iu outll!t is fitted to thl! pi~. Find (hI! l'l!locity ofwall!r at thl!
ourll!t of rhl! nOWI! iff = .01 for thl! pipl!.
SOlution. Given :
Head of water at inlet of pipe. H = 60 m
~ I IL
(I AIL
+- "' )
- ' CT
D A
/t,/t , ,
Area allh e nozz le. (I" - d-" - (.0254,-" .0005067 m-.
4 A
The nozz le allhe oU IIet. discharges waler into almosphere and hence the 10lal head availabl e allhe
nou le is converted inlO kinetic he ad.
Head available at outlet " 1,1'2g ur 90" 1,212g
I I Ii
~ I IL
Consider a long pipe All as shown in Fig. 11.32 conncclcd at one end lO a lank cOlUaining water at
a he ight of H from the CCnlrc of the pipe. At the other end of the pipe. a valve 10 rcgulalc thc n ow of
water is providcd. When the valvc is complctcly open. the water is nowing wit h a veloci ty. V in the
pipe. If now the vJlve is suddenly dosed. the momentum of th c flowing wJler will be destroycd ~nd
("()nsequcntly ~ wave of high pressure will be sc t up. This wave of high pressure will be translllillcd
along the pipe with a velocity eq ual to the ve locity of sound wav e and may creale noise called knock -
ing. Also this wa,'e of high pressure has lhe effect of hamme ring action on the wa ll s of the pipe and
hence il is also known as water hammer.
, VALVE
I I Ii
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I I Ii
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p=
,
~PKV- = V.,JKP=V
JKp!
P ... ( I 1.35)
I I Ii
~ I IL
= _'2£!
_ [t:1 + f}, _ 2fi X fc] m
2, pD , PO ]
, [( PD)' [PD)'
'" 2£ 4r + 2r
41
m
21
Taking -
m
= -
4
(i.e., Poisson ratio '" ~)
, [ p1 lJ
1
pl /) l / 1)1 1 1 pl D l pl D "
'" 2£ 16/ " +"""'4T - 4/ " x4 = 2£ x----:1T'" 8EI l
Total volume of pipe material", rt f) x I X L.
TOl al strain energy stored in pipe material
'" Strain energy per unil vulume x total volume
P"01
= - -
plnD'L
, x itO X IX L '" '-c~-'
8Er 8£1
Then. loss of kinetic energy o f waler = Gain of strain energy in wale r + Suain energy stored in pipe
111<11crial.
..!...PAl. x
2
Vl= .2!. . (L]
K
xAL+ p l AXDL
2EI
p =
,
K
pv'
~+.!::
EI
Of P=
/f.'iV'
~+.!:: '"
K £1
Vx
JH
~+~
K B
... ( 11 .37)
I I Ii
~ I IL
Problem 11 .52 Tile w(l/er isf/owing wilh (l "e/oCil)' of 1.5 ",Is ill (1 pipe oJ/eng/h 2500 m (wd of
diameter 500 mm. AI/he end of Ihe pipe. " \'GI,''! i~' prorided. Find Iile rise i"pressure if the ,"u/,"e is
closed ill 25 seCOllds. Take Ille ..a/"e olC = 1-160 mls.
Solution. Gil'i.:n :
Ve locity of water. V=l.5m/s
Length of pipe. L ", 2S00 III
Diameter of pipe. D = 500 111111 = O.S III
Time to close the \'alve. T", 25 seconds
Value of. C = 1460 m/s
Let the rise in pressure :p
From equation ( 11.33). we have if T> 2L. the closure of valve is said to be gradual.
C
150000 N N
'" '" 15.0 - - ,' An s .
[0' em 1 ern
Problem 11 .53 If itl Problem 11.52. lit e mire is c1o ,~ed in 2 ICC. Jiml lite rise itl pre.l$ure behind
the I'oll'e. Assume lite pipe 10 be rigid one (lnd /(Ike Bulk modulus of ",mer.
i.e" K = 19.62 x 1(1 N/cm~.
Solullon. Given:
v = l.5mfs. L =2500 m
f) = 500 mm '" 0.5 1ll
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The ratio.
lL 2x25oo '
7 < -
n .
C '" 1400 '" 3.57 C
:. From cq u:lli on ( I 1.34). ifT<. 2 L. va lve iscJoscd sudde nl y. For s udde n closure o f va lve . when
C
pipe is rigid. the risc in pressure is g iven by equatio n ( 11 .35) o r (I [.36) as
P'" V.[KP '" 1.5 ~19.62 x 109 x WOO ("; P'" [(00)
1000
( ~:~)
p = Vx
[ 1x lOR+ 05)
= 1.5 x
K Et 19.62 19.62 X 1010 x .0 1
1000
'" 1.5 x
(S.Cl9XIO 1O +2.54xlO 10 )
: 17 15510 Nlm 1 '" 171.55 N/cm !. AilS.
Circu mferential stress ife) is given by
'" pxD = 17 1.55 x 0.5 = 4286.9 Nlm l
2, 2 x .OI
.. . . p xD 171.55xO.5 2
wngltudlnal stress tS given by,/, = - - = = 2 143.45 N/m • AilS.
4r 4 x.Ol
Problem 11 .55 A ,·,d..e is provided al rile end of a casr iron pipe of dialllerer 150 111111 m,d of
rllid:lless 10 mm. Tile warer is [lowing rllrougll rile pipe, which is suddenly sropped by closing Ille
\"a/l·t'. Pind rile maximum I"t'locify of Wafer. wilen rile rise of pre.~surc due 10 slIddeli clO.lllre of
\"all"e is 196 .2 Nlcm J• Take K for wmcr as 19.62 x 104 Nkm ' allil E for casr irOiI pipe as
11. 772 x ul Nkml.
Solution. Givcn :
Diameter of pipe. D", 150 111111 '" 0. 15 m
Thic kn ess of pipe. I '" 10 111111 '" .0 1 III
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FlowThroughPipeS 5471
Risc of pressure . p= 196.2 Nlc rn 2 : 196.2 x 104 Nfm ~
Bulk modulu s. K = 19.62 x t o'! N/cm 2 '" \9.62 x 10 8 N/m 2
Modulus of elastic ity. E" 11.772 X 106 Nlcm 2 " 11.772 x 10 10 N/m 2
For sudden c losure of va lve and when pipe is clastic. the pressure risc is given by equation (11.37) as
1000
P" Vx p
(-'K- +,,)
'" Vx
I 0.15
( 19.62xlO! + 1 1.772 X 10 10 x.OI
1
"
196.2 10
X
4
", Vx J:;::=:;::~I ~OOO
~;;::=:;::~
"' 5,(19 x 10 10 + 1.274 x 10 10
=Vx .Ir;:;;I~OOO
~;:;;:
6.364 x to
w =VxI2S.27xI04
4
v= 196.2 X 10
= I 566 mls
125.27 x 1 0~
Ma!<imuill vdoc hy = 1.566 m/s. An s .
A pipe network: is an imc rcon nCl1cd system o f pipes funning several loops or cin: ui[s. T he pipe
netwurk is s hown in Fig. 11.33. The examp les of suell networks of pipes arc the municipal wa ter
distribution systems in cities and labormury suppl y syste m. In such syste m, it is requin-d to determine
the distribution of flow through the various pipes of th e network. The follow in g are the necessary
cond itions for any network of pipes:
(,) The flow into eac h junction must be equa l to the flow o ut of th e junction. This is due to
con tinui ty eq uati on.
(ii) The a lgeb ra ic sum of head losses round each loop must be zero. This mea ns that in each loop.
the loss of head due to flow in cloc kwise direction must be equa l to the loss of he ad due 10 flow in
anticlockwisc direction.
(iii) T he head loss in each pipe is expressed as hJ ==rQ". The value of r d~pends upon th~ leng th of
pipe. diam eter of pipe and co-cfficient of fri ction o f pipe. The va lue of II for turbulent fl ow is 2. We
know that.
== 4f xLxQ'
2gX(~r xD l
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• if.' Row Through Pipes 5431
•
...( 11.39)
This head loss will be positive. when the pipe is a part of loop and the now in the pipe is clockwise.
Generally. the pipe network problems arc: difficult to solve analytically. Hence the methods of
successive approximations are used. ' Hardy Cross Method' is one such method which is common ly
used.
I 1. 14. 1 Hardy Cross Method. The procedure for Hardy Cross Method is as follows :
I . In this method a trial diSiribution of disc harges is made arbitrarily but in such a way that
conti nuity equation is satisfi ed at each function (or node).
2. With the assumed values orQ, me head loss in each pipe is calculated according to equation ( 11 .39).
3. Now consider any loop (or circuits). The algebraic sum of head losses round each loop must be
zero. Th is means that in each loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal
10 the loss of head due to fl ow in anliclockwise direction .
4 . Now calculate the nel head loss around each loop considering the head loss to be positive in
clockwise fl ow Ilnd to be negative in anticlockwise flow .
If the net head loss due to a.'isumed values of Q round the loop is zero, then the assumed values
or Q in that loop is correct. But if the nel head loss due to assu med "alues of Q is not zero. then the
assumed values of Q are corrected by introducing It correction 6Q for the flows. till thc circuit is
balanced.
The correction factor 6Q· is obtained by
• L.e:t for any pipe Qo = assumw discharge and Q = correct discharge. then
Q=Qo+dQ
: . Head loSJ forthr pipe. h,- nr=r(Qo+tJ.Q)2.
For complete circui!. the net head loss. IiI, = t (~) = II' (Qo + dQ)l = &(~ + 2Qo.1.Q + dQl)
= !r (Q02 + 2Qo dQ) As dQ is small compared wilh Qo and hence dQl can be neilect~.
.. I ref '"' I rQ02 +!r x 2QoAQ
f.h,-
For the conttl distributton. the net head loss for Il circuit should be uro (i.r .• I (rtf) '" 0)
:. IrQJ +!r X 2QoAQ=O
or IrQJ + 4Q II' x 2Qo " 0 (As AQ is same for one circuit. hence it can be taken 001 of the summationJ
AQ=
-}; , ot .
); 2, a.
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~-~--I "
Fig.I1.33 Pipellei1J}Qrk.
[Loops arc, ABCGFA- FEGf'. GEHG. GHDG "III) GCDG]
Problem 11 .56 C('/cll/ale Ihe diIchllrge ill each 1';1'1' of IIII' Ildwork SilO"''' ill Fig. '/.3-1. Th e pipe
network f Oll sis/S of Spires. The head loss "f ill a pipe is g;,'en by hI = ..Q2. The l'alw:s of r fOT "Mious
pipes ami {,Iso IiiI' inflow or UifljIOWS at "odes are silo,.." ill Ihe figure.
,.,
, '"
.. ,. , ,. ,
• ,. ,
Fi g . 11.34
Solution. Given:
Inflow at node A '" 90. outflow at B "" 30. at C '" 40 and at D '" 20.
Values of rfor AB = 2. forBC = 1. for CD", 2. forAD = 4 and for liD = 1.
Por the first trial. the discharges arc a.%umc(/ as sliown in Fig. 11.34 (a) so that continuity is satisfied
at each node (i.e .. flow into a node == flow out of the node). rOT this distribution of diSl:hargc. the
corrediuns IlQ for the loops ABD and BCD are calculated.
'~----~----~~
90 60 8 30
Fig . 11.34(a)
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2><1><10 ., 20.
'" r." d = - 3700. l:2rQo = .500, t2 f(!;= .500 !2rQo= 140
AQ~ -I,o,; ..
-(-3700)
. 7A aQ .. - I rQi' -500 __ 3.57
= - 3.6.
:l: 2r o.o 500 1: 2r<4;. 140
[n the loop AIlR. the head loss h, is Jl/:8~li\'e in pipes DR The head loss in pipe Be for loop OCR;s negat;ve
nnd All as the direction of dischargu in lh~<c pipes is ,,. pipe BC
un(iciockwisc.
,", d irection
nnlidockwise . " di.< d'a'g"
'" '"
As toQ is positive for loop ADIl. hence it soould be lId<kd As lIQ is negative for loop VCR. hence ;1 should be
10 the now in (he dockwise di"'Clioo and sublracle</from subtracted from the flow ;n {he dock"'i"" direchon
the flow in {he lli11idockwise din."Clioo. lIenee the correcled a"d added 10 Ihe flow in lhe illllic1""~wise dirrelion.
flow for second trial for loop ADn will be as follows: li enee correeled flow for second lrial for loop ocn
will be as follows:
Pipe AD = 30 + 7.4 = 37.4 (flow is doc~ wi..,) Pi pe DC = 20 - 3.6 = 16.4
Pipe All = 60 - 7.4 = 52.6 (flow is amic10dwisel Pi pe Ile = 20 + 3.6 = 23.6
Pipe nD .. 10 - 7.4 .2.6 (flow is an1icloc~wisc) Pipe BO· .. 26 - 3.6. - I
N"I ~. 11lc pipe IlD is (."Qmm<>n 10 (wo loops (i.e .. loop ADn and loop (>e8). Hence Ihis pipe will gel Iwo corm:li'ms.
Afler Ihe Iwo corm:li{ms. lhe r"sul!;.",( flow in pipe 80 is ncgali"e in I(JOp OC8. Ik nce Ihe di ....i:I;on of flnw will be
anlidockwisc in pipe nD for loop DCn.
37.4
,. ,
The di<lribulion of discbarges in ,'arlo", pipe' for second lrial is shown in Fi g. 11.34 (bl. For second lrial Ihe
correclion t.Q for loop. AD8 and DC8 are cakulalcd as follow.:
~ I I~
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",I.'IQ "
- I, rQJ
L 2r<?o
62j~
,,- - -
-5 \ 1.6
-~> a;
,'.<.\Q" L/ 2rQ
- (_20)
.~
o
=-0.122"'-0,1 =....!£.... =0,174
11 4.8
::: 0.2
A. AQ is ""gati"~, hence;1 should be subtracted from lhe As dQ is I"'siti\·e. heoce i1 should be added 10 1he
flow in (he doclwis<- dirtttion and added to the flow in the flow in the clock",i ... direction and subtracted from
""tidockw;", di=tion the flow in the antidockwise direction.
As the correction \l!.Q) i. small (i. ~ .. "'Q = - 0 . 1). this As the correction ("Q ) is small (i.e .• t.Q = 0.2). this
rorrcclion is applied and further trial, are discontinued. """"'tion is applied and further trials"", discontinued.
lIeoce colTCCled I10w for li enee COlTCCtoo flow
loop ADB will be as follows: for loop DCB ,,"'ill be as follows:
For pipe AD. 0 0 = 37,4 - 0. 1 = 37.3 (as flow is clockwise) For pipe DC. Qo = 16,4 + 0.2 = 16.6 (clockwi ... flow)
For pipe /)B. Qo = I - 0.1 ~ 0,9 (as flow is clockwise) For pipe eB. 0" = 23.6 - 0,2 = 23,4 (amiclockwise
flow)
For pipe All. QQ'" 526 + 0.1 '"' 52 ,7 (as flow is anti- For pipe 1m. QQ'" 09 - 0.2 .. 0.7 (antidockwise
clockwisc ) flow)
ok-"'____",;.,___-..:;c, ,,
37.3
23.4
90 52,7 B 30
Fig. 11 .34 (el
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HIGHLIGHTS
1. The energy loss in pipe is classified as major energy loss and minor energy losses. Major energy loss
is due \0 friction whi le minor energy losses are duc to sudden expansion of pipe. sudden C01\lr~Cl;on
of pipe. bend in pipe and an obstruction in pipe.
_ _ . _ 4/ LV'
2. Energy loss duc to fflcllOn IS gtven by Darcy Formula.it _ - - - .
l <I x 28
J. The head loss due to friction in pipe can also be calculated by Chczy"s fonnula.
V ~ c..r;;li Che~y's fonnula
wh~rc C. Ch~lis Constant
m _ Hydruali, mcan depth ~~ (for pipe running full)
4
V ", Velocity of flow
h
i_Loss of he'ld per unit length.. ;
hi '" L )( i. where i is oblai ned from Chezy's fonnula.
(V, _ V,j2
4 . Loss of head due to sudden expansion of pipe. he " -
2,
where V, ,. Velocity in small pipe. VI = Velocity in large pipe.
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1548 Fluid Mechanics
pgXQ X(H - h, )
In SI. unJlS. po",er transmitted is ai,en by. Power'" kW.
1000
H-h,
11. Efficiency of po~er transmISsion through pipes. 11 '" H .
H
18. Condition for maximum transmission of power through Pipe. hl :ll' and maximum efficiency
3
",66.61Q
2gH
19. The , 'clocIIY of water at the outlet of the noule is v =
4JL . '
[ 1+ o-)( • 2
where H "" head at the inlet of the pipe. L = length of the pipe.
D • dmmetcr of the pipe. a = area of the nOlzle outlet.
A = arra of the pipe.
j
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22 . Diameter of !lou;]e for maximuill power transmission through nOlzle is. II .. (;~ )".
where" z diameter of (he nozzle at oUlict, D .. diameter of Ihe pipe.
L .. IcnJ!lh of (lie pipe., ~ co-efficicn! of friclion for pip<:.
23 . When a liquid js flowing through <I long pipe fitled Wilh a valve ~l the end of the pip" and the va lve is
closed suddenly, a pressure waVe of high imcnsily is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of
high intensity is having Ihe effect of hammering action on (he walls of Ihe pipe. This phenomenon is
known as waler hammer.
24. The inlcnsity of pressure rise due to watcr hammer is given by
pLV
P • T '" when valve is closed gradually .
'" v.JKP ... when '-alve is closed suddenly and pipe is assumed rigi"
cv xJ<1J ... when ,'al,·c is closcd suddenly and pipe is ciaslic.
K £1
where L = L<:ngth of pipe, V,. Velocity of flow.
T " Time required to close the '·al"c. K .. Bulk modu lus of water.
D • Diameter of the pipe. E. Mod ulus of ciasticity for pipe material.
I '" Thickness of the pipe wall.
25. If the time required to close the VJh'c:
EXERCISE
of a pipe.
(b) Obtain expression for head loss in a sudden expansion in the pipe. List all lhe a!isumptions made in
the derh·ation.
4. Define and explain tile tenTls: (I) Hydraulic gradient line and (iI) Total energy line.
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2gH
II . Prove that Ihc velocity through nozzle is gj"en by \' ~
,.--"-,
,i
4fL
D ,.
where a" Area of nozzle a1 outlet. A '" Area of the pipe.
12. Show that the diameter ofthc noule for maximum tran,mission of power is gi"en by d '" (~:)"~
where /) Diameter of pipe. L Leng th of pipe.
E E
13. Find an expression for the rat;o of the oUllet area of the nO'-1.1e 10 the area of the pipe for maximum
transmission of power.
14. Explain thc phenomenon of Watcr Hammer. Obtain an expression for the risc of press ure when the flowing
water in a pipe is bmught to rest by closing the valve gradually.
'
IS. Show that the pressure risc due to suddcn closure of a "al\,c at the cnd of a pipe. through which water is
JH
~
K
+!2
E<
where V. Velocity of flow, 0 .. Diameter of pipe. E z Young's Modulus. K .. Bulk Modulus and
I .. Thickness of pipe.
16. Three pipes of different diameters and di ffcrent lengths are connected in series to make a compound
pipe. The ends of this compound pipe arc eonn«led with IWO tan ks whose difference of waler le"cl is
H. If co--efficicnt of friction for these pipes is S:lme. then deri>'c the formula for the total head loss.
ncgl«ting first the minor losses and then including them.
17, For the two c"ses of flow in a sudden contruction in a pipeline and flow in a sudden cxp.1nsion in a pipe
linc. draw the flow p.1ltCm. piclomctric gr~dc line and total energy line.
III, What do yo u mean by "l"<juivalent pipc" and "flow through paral lcl pipcs"?
19. (a) Define and explain the tcnns: (I) Hydraulic gradicnt line and Ui) tOlal energy line.
(b) What do yo u mcan by equivalent pipe? Obtain an expression for cquivalent pipe
(Delhi U" iwrsi/),. December 2(02)
1. fi nd the head loss due to friction in a pipe of diameter 250 mm and length 60 tn. Ihrough which watcr is
llowing at a "~Iocity of 3.0 mls using (i) Darcy formula and (ii) Chny"s I'onnuia for which
C. 55. Take v for wafer" .01 sfokc. IAn s. (I) 1.182. (ii) 2.8561
2. Find fhe diameter of a pipe of lenllth 2500 m when the rute of flow ofwafcr through the pipe is 0.25 mJls and
head loss duc to fricfion is 5 m. Take C z 50 in Chezy's fomlU la. I,\ os. 605 mml
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h • 4 flyl
IAn •. 0101 m'/sl
f d x 2g
5. The discharge through a pipe is 200 lilres/s. Find Ihc loss of head when Ihe pipe is suddenly enlarged from
150 mm to 300 mm diameter. [A ilS. 3.672 Inl
6. The ralc of flow of waler through a horizontal pipe is 0 .3 mJ/s. The diameter of thc pipe is suddenly
enlarged from 250 mm to 500 mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 13.734 N/Clnl. Determine:
(.) loss of head due to sudden enlargement. (ii) pressure intensity in the large pipe and (iii) power lost due
10 enlargement. [Ans. (i) 1.07 m, (ii) 14.43 Nfcml. (iii) 3.15 kWI
7. A horizonl~1 pipe of <liameter 400 mm is su<l<lenly eonlraele<ltu a diamder of 200 mm . The pres;wre
in1ensities in the large and smaller pipe is given as 14.715 Nlcm" and 12.753 Nfcm '! re'ipeclivcly. If
C, " 0.62. find Ihe loss of head due 10 conlraclion. Also dctenninc Ihc rale of flow of waler.
[Ans. {Il 0 571 m, (;0 171. 71ilreslsl
8. Waler is flowing Ihrough a horizontal pipe of diameler 300 mm al a w locily of 4 m/s. A circular solid plale
of diameter 200 mm is placed in the pipe to obSlructthe flow. If C< '" 0.62. find Ihc loss of head d ue 10
obmuction in Ihc pipe. [Ans. 2.953 ml
9. Detemline Ihc rate of flow of water Ihruugh a pipe of di~meter 10 em an<llength 60 em when one end of
Ihe pipe is ~'Onnccted to a tank and olher end of the pipe is open to the atmosphere. Thc height of water in
Ihe lanl.: from Ihc centre of the pipe i, 5 em. Pipe i, gi"en as horizontal and value of! .01. Conside r minor
E
los>cs. IAns.15.41ilre>lsl
Ill. A horizontal pipe -line 50 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and diseharges freely into the
atmosphere at the othcr cnd f or the first 30 m of its length from the tank. the pipe is 200 mm diameter and
its diameter is su<l<lenly enlarged to 400 mm. The height of water le"el in Ihe tanl.: is 10 m above the centre
of Ihc pipe. Considering all minor losses_ delcnnine Ihe r~te of flow. Take! ~ .01 for bolh -"eetions of the
pipe. [Ans_ 164.l.1litre>lsl
II . !)etenninc the difference in the elevations between the waler .urface, in the two tanks which are con-
necled by a h"riwnlal pipe of diameter 400 Illm and lenglh 500 Ill. The rale of flow of waler through the
pipe is 200 litres/s. Cons ider alllo'i"'s and takc Ihc value of!= .009. [Ans_ 11.79 ml
12. For the problems 9. 10 and II draw the hydraulic gradient lines (H.GL) and tO(a1 energy lines (TEL )
13. A syphon of <liameter 150 n1ln connects two reservoirs h,wing a differencc in elevation of 15 nt. The
lenglh of Ihc syphon is 400 m and summil is 4.0 m above the water levcl in lhe upper reseTvoir. The length
of Ihe pipe fro111 up!"'r rc>crvoir to Ihc .um",it i. SO ",. !)clenlline the discharge Ihrough Ihe syphon and
also pre"ure at the ~Ulnl11i1. Neglect minor losses. The co-efficient of friction_! '" .005.
[Ans. 41 .52 lim:>I•. - 7.281 m of walerl
14. A syphon of diamNer 200 mm connects two re<;ervoirs having a difference in elevalion a., 20 m. The lotal
length of Ihe syphon i, ROO m and Ihc sUlmnil is 5 m above Ihc waler le,'cl in Ihe upper reservoir. If the
scparation takes place at 2.8 m of water absolulC find thc maximum length of syphon from upper reservoir
to Ihc summit. Ta~e f",.OO4 and almospheric pressure = 10.3 m of water. [,\ns. 87.52 IllI
IS. Three pipes of lengths ROO Tn. 600 m and 300 III an<l of dintneters 400 mm. 300 nun and 200 mm respec-
tively are connected in <;eries. The ends of the compound pipe is con necled to two tanks, whose water
surface Ic"cls are mainlained al a difference of 15 m. DClennine thc Me offlow of waler Ihrough the pipes
iff" .OOS . What will be diameter of a singlc pipe of length 1700 Tn and! _ .OOS, which replaces the three
pipes? IAns. 0.0848 m!/s. 266.5 mml
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• Flow Through Pipes 5531
neglecting friction loss between P and Q but (:oRsidering the lou due to sudden enlargement. What
will be the pressure al Q if the same discharge flows upwards assuming that the pressure P remains the
, .,
same ? Consider the lou due 10 contraction with C~ _ 0.60 but neglect friction loss bet.....een P and Q.
lAos. 21 .36 N/cm . 23.4 N/cm J (A.M.I .E.. Summer, 1985)
30. Two tanks are connected with the help of two pipes in series. The lengths of the: pipes are 1000 m and
800 m whereu the diameters are 400 mm and 200 rom respectively. The c~flicicnt of friction for both
the pipe5 i. 0.008. 1be difference of water level in the two tanks il 15 m. Find the rJte of flow of water
througb the pipes. considering aU losses. Also draw the total energy line and hydraulic gradient lines
for the system. (Delhi University. May /998) (AM. 0.0464 ml /s1
[Hint. L, = 1000 m : Lz = 800 m :d1:: 400 mm = 0.4 m ;d1 = 200 mm =0.2 m,f= 0.008 : H - 15 m.
Now H =h/ +hfl+hc+hJ2+ho.
H _ O.SV,2 + 4/xL,X \.jl + O.5Vl + 4/ 'Xl:;zxVl +::L
2g d)(2g 28 d z x2g 2g
1 1
or IS = 0.5l'J + 4xO.OO8XI(XlO.xV. + o.svl + 4 xO.OO8x800xvl +Y1..
2x9.81 OAx2x9.81 2x9.81 O.2x2x9.SI 28
AI",
31 . A pipe of diameter 25 ern and length 2000 rn conneclS two reservoirs, having difference of water level
2!i m. Det~nnine the di5Charg~ throuSh the pipe. If an additional pipe of diamct~r 2S em and length
1000 m is auached lO the last 1000 m length of the existing pipe, find the increase in discharge. Tale!
= O.OI!i. Neglect minor losscs. (IHlhi Univu.fity. lkcem~r 2(02) lAD&. (1149.62 I/s, (m 13.14I1sl