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en ro 1 converter2 Mems ource Mems ource

ID # Source Target Comment

While the acts of authoritarian regimes fighting for

their political lives may seem extreme to many in the
Western world, what these episodes demonstrate is
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1 that the very interconnectedness that people around
the globe enjoy because of improvements in ICT can be
swiftly denied, and that freedom of communication and
political freedom are clearly linked.
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2 1.6.
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3 CONCLUSION
Addressing a nation’s cyber security needs is no easy
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4
task.
Indeed, it is not even always apparent what those
needs exactly are, or what protecting (or not
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5
protecting) a nation’s cyber environment actually
entails.
Quite often there are different and competing
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6
considerations within each nation’s approach.
Yet each nation is faced with a steadily increasing level
of cyber threat, and thus requires the nation’s
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7
leadership to recognise the strategic problem and set
forth goals and strategies to address it.
In this section we have defined NCS as ‘the focused
application of specific governmental levers (which
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8 includes both incentives and regulation) and
information assurance principles to public, private, and
relevant international
Hillary R. Clinton, ‘Internet Freedom [Speech at
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9 Newseum in Washington, DC],’ Foreign Policy, 21
January 2010.
Amrutha Gayathri, ‘Iran To Shut Down Internet
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10 Permanently; ‘Clean’ National Intranet In Pipeline,’
International Business Times, 9 April 2012.
Christopher Williams, ‘How Egypt shut down the
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11
internet,’ The Telegraph, 28 January 2011.
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12 {1}{2}{3}43
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13 Preliminary Considerations:
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14 On National Cyber Security
ICT systems, and their associated content, where these
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15
systems directly pertain to national security.’
As nations and intergovernmental organisations set
about developing and implementing measures to
establish NCS strategies, they must balance the
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16
economic and social importance of free flow of
information to the security needs of government,
industry, and citizens.
The conceptual prism set forth in this section is
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17
designed to assist in this development and debate.
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18 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES & CONSIDERATIONS
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19 Eric Luiijf, Jason Healey
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20 Section 4:
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21 Principal Findings
Essentially, national cyber security (NCS) can be split
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22
into five distinct subject areas or mandates.
These ‘Five Mandates’ are Military Cyber, Counter
Cyber Crime, Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) &
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23
Crisis Management, Intelligence/Counter-Intelligence,
and Cyber Diplomacy & Internet Governance.
These mandates can be mapped along all stages of a
cyber incident, as well as all four levels of government:
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24
the political/policy, strategic, operational, and
tactical/technical levels.
Further, these Mandates connect with ‘cross-
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25
mandates’:
Information Exchange & Data Protection, Coordination,
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26
as well as Research & Development and Education.
While it is important to understand the uniqueness of
each of the five mandates, it is even more important to
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27
understand their commonalities, and their need for
close coordination.
A wide range of organisations engage in international
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28
cyber security activities.
The most relevant of these are often not state but non-
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29
state groups.
A lack of understanding of the mandates can lead to
stovepiped app-roaches resulting in conflicting legal
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30
requirements and friction bet-ween cyber security
functions, organisations and capabilities.
Assigning resources without a policy can be as
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31 dangerous as drafting a policy without assigning the
resources.
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32 {1}{2}{3}109
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33 Organisational Structures & Considerations
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34 4.1.
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35 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to review specific types of
national cyber security (NCS) areas (also called
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36
‘mandates’) and examine the organisational and
collaborative models associated with them.
Before discussing the wide variety of organisational
structures at the national and international levels, a
decomposition model will be presented that delineates
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37
both common and specific cyber security functions,
capabilities, and responsibilities along three different
axes (Section 4.2).
On the one hand we will distinguish between five NCS
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38
mandates.
This section expands Klimburg’s{1>351<1}
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39 segmentation and supplements it by three additional
cross-mandates.
Other axes are the cyber security incident response
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40
cycle and the various levels of decision-making.
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41 This decomposition model shall assist the reader in
 understanding the rationale behind the functions,
responsibilities, and capabilities of organisations
involved in cyber security as entities which, over the
years, have been shaped by the specific division of
tasks between the government, its agencies, public
organisations, associations, and private companies.
Section 4.3 provides an overview of the stakeholders
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42
involved in the provision of cyber security.
Taking the decomposition model as the point of
departure, Section 4.4 strives to determine the main
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43
focus of analysis along the five mandates mentioned in
Section 1 and three cross-mandates.
Building upon this framework, Sections 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7
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44 introduce the common set of national and international
organisations.
It is important to note that these sections also pay due
attention to the special tasks which may be recognised
by, and assigned to, various organisational subunits or
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45 organisations all belonging to one and the same
mandate, or to a single service organisation in one of
the mandates with the aim of supporting the other
mandates.
Finally, Section 4.8 will discuss some organisational
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46 pitfalls and lessons identified when addressing cyber
security at the national level.
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47 4.2.
DELINEATING ORGANISATIONAL FUNCTIONS,
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48
CAPABILITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
To position the many cyber security functions,
capabilities and responsibilities at the national and
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49
international levels, an analytical framework can be
useful for further discussion.
While there are certainly a number of methods that can
be employed, the approach applied here focuses on
three closely connected building blocks: the NCS
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50
mandates and cross-mandates; a generalised tool to
analyse organi-sational conduct at large, and the
incident management cycle.
See Klimburg in Klimburg and Mirtl, Cyberspace and
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51
Governance – A Primer (Working Paper 65).
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52 15-9.
{1}{2}{3}{4>Delineating Organisational Functions,
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53
Capabilities and Responsibilities<4}
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54 {6>110<6}
A first decomposition is to split the functions across the
five perspectives (called mandates) as described at
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55
more length elsewhere{1>352<1} and in Section
1.{2>353<2} These mandates include:
(1) Internet Governance and Cyber Diplomacy, (2)
Cyber Crisis Management and Critical Infrastructure
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56 Protection (CIP), (3) Military Cyber Operations, (4)
Intelligence/Counter-Intelligence, and (5) Counter
Cyber Crime.
This approach is supplemented by three additional
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57 cross-mandates that work across all the mandates
equally.
They include (1) Coordination, (2) Information
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58 Exchange and Data Protection, and (3) Research and
Education.
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59 4.2.1.
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60 Across the Levels of Government
An obvious, second way of decomposition is a vertical
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61 one, perpendicular to each of the mandates and cross-
mandates.
Along four distinct levels of analysis, this approach
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62 combines both a military and a political understanding
of war.
The two probably most succinct (and opposing) notions
on the nature of war equally address the most
important relationship between the act of war and the
political sphere: either ‘[w]ar is a mere continuation of
policy’,{1>354<1} or ‘[p]olitics is the continuation of
war’.{2>355<2} It is long understood that it is necessary
to combine the military and the political perspective
into a more comprehensive approach of understanding
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63
conflict, such as was done in the US military construct
of state-conflict.{3>356<3} By adding a ‘political’ or
‘policy’{4>357<4} level on top of the traditional war-
fighting triangle (which is composed of the
strategic,{5>358<5} operational{6>359<6} and
tactical{7>360<7} levels),{8>361<8} this model goes
beyond a purely military understanding of military
operations.
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64 See ibid.
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65 See Klimburg in Section 1.5.4.
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66 Carl von Clausewitz, On War (London:
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67 Penguin Books, 1982 [1832]).
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68 119.
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69 Michel Foucault, ‘Society must be defended’:
Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976 (New
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70
York:
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71 Pan Books Limited, 2003).
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72 15.
David W Barno, ‘Challenges in Fighting a Global
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73
Insurgency,’ Parameters 36, no. 2 (2006).
Defined as: ‘principle or course of action’ (see Policy,
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74 Oxford English Dictionary Online (Oxford University
Press, 2012)).
Defined as: ‘the art of projecting and directing’ (see
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75 Strategy, Oxford English Dictionary Online (Oxford
University Press, 2012)).
Defined as: ‘a planned and coordinated activity
involving a number of people’ (See Operation, Oxford
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76
English Dictionary Online (Oxford University Press,
2012)).
Defined as: ‘skilful in devising means to ends’ (See
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77 Tactical, Oxford English Dictionary Online (Oxford
University Press, 2012)).
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78 In the civil context, the operational and tactical levels of
 decision-taking are often reversed.
In this section, however, we will use the military
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79
naming order: strategic, operational and tactical.
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80 {1}{2}{3}111
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81 Organisational Structures & Considerations