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Chapter
9
Elasticity
Interatomic Forces (5) When the distance between the two atoms
further decreased, the interatomic force becomes
The forces between the atoms due to electrostatic repulsive in nature and increases very rapidly with
interaction between the charges of the atoms are called decrease in distance between two atoms.
interatomic forces. These forces are electrical in nature
(6) The potential energy U is related with the
and these are active if the distance between the two
interatomic force F by the following relation.
atoms is of the order of atomic size i.e. 10–10 metre.
(1) Every atom is electrically neutral, the number dU
F
of electrons (negative charge) orbiting around the dr
nucleus is equal to the number of protons (positive (i) When two atoms are at very large distance, the
charge) in the nucleus. So if two atoms are placed at a potential energy is negative and becomes more
very large distance from each other then there will be a negative as r is decreased.
very small (negligible) interatomic force working (ii) When the distance between the two atoms
between them. becomes r0, the potential energy of the system of two
(2) When two atoms are brought closer to each atoms becomes minimum (i.e. attains maximum
other to a distance of the order of 10–10 m, the distances negative value). As the state of minimum potential
between their positive nuclei and negative electron energy is the state of equilibrium, hence the two atoms
clouds get disturbed, and due to this, attractive at separation r0 will be in a state of equilibrium.
interatomic force is produced between two atoms.
( U 0 7.2 1019 Joule for hydrogen).
(3) This attractive force increases continuously
with decrease in r and becomes maximum for one value (iii) When the distance between the two atoms is
of r called critical distance, further decreased (i.e. r < r0) the negative value of
Repulsion
Fig. 9.1
191 Elasticity
(1) It is found that the force of attraction between So potential energy can be expressed as
molecules varies inversely as seventh power of the
A B
distance between them i.e. U 12
6
r r
1 a
Fatt or Frep Comparison Between Interatomic and
r7 r7
The negative sign indicates that the force is
Intermolecular Forces
attractive in nature. (1) Similarities
(2) When the distance between molecules (i) Both the forces are electrical in origin.
becomes less than r0, the forces becomes repulsive in (ii) Both the forces are active over short distances.
nature and is found to vary inversely as ninth power of
(iii) General shape of force-distance graph is
the distance between them i.e.
similar for both the forces.
1 b (iv) Both the forces are attractive up to certain
Frep or Frep .
r 9
r9 distance between atoms/molecules and become
repulsive when the distance between them become less
Therefore force between two molecules is given by than that value.
F Fatt Frep
a b (2) Dissimilarities
r7 r 9 (i) Interatomic force depends upon the distance
between the two atoms, whereas the intermolecular
The value of constants a and b depend upon the
force depends upon the distance between the two
structure and nature of molecules.
molecules as well as their relative orientation.
(3) Intermolecular forces between two molecules (ii) Interatomic forces are about 50 to100 times
has the same general nature as shown in the figure for stronger than intermolecular forces.
interatomic forces.
(iii) The value of r0 for two atoms is smaller than
(4) Potential Energy : Potential energy can be the corresponding value for the molecules. Therefore
A B one molecule is not restricted to attract only one
approximately expressed by the formula U n
molecule, but can attract many molecule. It is not so
r rm incase of atoms, since the atoms of one molecule
cannot bind the atoms of other molecules.
A
where the term represents repulsive States of Matter
rn
B
contribution and term represents the attractive The three states of matter differ from each other
rm due to the following two factors.
contribution. Constants A, B and numbers m and n are (1) The different magnitudes of the interatomic
different for different molecules. and intermolecular forces.
For majority of solids n = 12 and m = 6. (2) The extent of random thermal motion of atoms
and molecules of a substance (which depends upon
temperature).
Elastic limit is the property of a body whereas (a) It occurs only in solids and comes in to picture
elasticity is the property of material of the body. when one of the three dimensions viz. length, breadth,
height is much greater than other two.
(7) Elastic fatigue : The temporary loss of elastic
properties because of the action of repeated alternating (b) Deforming force is applied parallel to the
deforming force is called elastic fatigue. length and causes increase in length.
Due to elastic fatigue : (c) Area taken for calculation of stress is the area
(i) Bridges are declared unsafe after a long time of of cross section.
their use.
(d) Longitudinal stress produced due to increase in
(ii) Spring balances show wrong readings after length of a body under a deforming force is called
they have been used for a long time.
tensile stress.
(iii) We are able to break the wire by repeated
(e) Longitudinal stress produced due to decrease
bending.
in length of a body under a deforming force is called
(8) Elastic after effect : The time delay in which compressive stress.
the substance regains its original condition after the
removal of deforming force is called elastic after effect. (ii) Bulk or Volume stress
It is the time for which restoring forces are present after
(a) It occurs in solids, liquids or gases.
the removal of the deforming force, it is negligible for
perfectly elastic substance, like quartz, phosphor bronze (b) In case of fluids only bulk stress can be found.
and large for glass fibre.
(c) It produces change in volume and density,
Stress shape remaining same.
When a force is applied on a body, there will be
(d) Deforming force is applied normal to surface at
relative displacement of the particles and due to
property of elasticity, an internal restoring force is all points.
developed which tends to restore the body to its original (e) Area for calculation of stress is the complete
state. surface area perpendicular to the applied forces.
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of
(f) It is equal to change in pressure because
cross section of the deformed body is called stress.
change in pressure is responsible for change in volume.
At equilibrium, restoring force is equal in
magnitude to external force, stress can therefore also (2) Shear or tangential stress : It comes into
be defined as external force per unit area on a body that picture when successive layers of solid move on each
tends to cause it to deform. other i.e. when there is a relative displacement between
various layers of solid.
If external force F is applied on the area A of a
body then, (i) Here deforming force is applied tangential to one of
the faces.
Force F (ii) Area for F
Stress A
Area A calculation is the area of
the face on which force is
Unit : N /m2 (S.I.) , dyne/ cm2 (C.G.S.) applied.
Fixed
(iii) It produces face
Dimension : [ML1T 2 ]
change in shape, Fig. 9.3
Stress developed in a body depends upon how the volume remaining the
external forces are applied over it. same.
On this basis there are two types of stresses : Difference between Pressure and Stress
Normal and Shear or tangential stress Pressure Stress
(1) Normal stress : Here the force is applied Pressure is always Stress can be normal or
normal to the surface. normal to the area. tangential.
Elasticity 194
Always compressive in
nature.
May be compressive or
tensile in nature.
Note : When a beam is bent both
compression strain as well as an extension strain is
produced.
Strain
The ratio of change in configuration to the original
configuration is called strain. Fig. 9.7
Stress-strain Curve
Being the ratio of two like quantities, it has no
dimensions and units. If by gradually increasing the load on a vertically
Strain are of three types : suspended metal wire, a graph is plotted between stress
(or load) and longitudinal strain (or elongation) we get
(1) Linear strain : If the deforming force
the curve as shown in figure. From this curve it is clear
produces a change in length alone, the
strain produced in the body is called linear that :
Elastic
l Breaking region Plastic region
strain or tensile strain. strength
Elastic
B
A C
limit P E
Stress
l
F
Fig. 9.4
O Strain
l)
Changein length( Fig. 9.8
Linearstrain
Originallength(
l) (1) When the strain is small (< 2%) (i.e., in region
OP) stress is proportional to strain. This is the region
Linear strain in the direction of deforming force is called where the so called Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point P
longitudinal strain and in a direction perpendicular to is called limit of proportionality and slope of line OP
force is called lateral strain. gives the Young’s modulus Y of the material of the wire.
(2) Volumetric strain : If the If is the angle of OP from strain axis then Y = tan .
deforming force produces a change in
volume alone the strain produced in (2) If the strain is increased a little bit, i.e., in the
the body is called volumetric strain. (V – V) region PE, the stress is not proportional to strain.
However, the wire still regains its original length after
the removal of stretching force. This behaviour is shown
up to point E known as elastic limit or yield-point. The
Fig. 9.5
region OPE represents the elastic behaviour of the
V)
Changein volume( material of wire.
strain
Volumetric
Original olume(
v V) (3) If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit
E, i.e., between EA, the strain increases much more
(3) Shearing strain : If the deforming force rapidly and if the stretching force is removed the wire
produces a change in the does not come back to its natural length. Some
x permanent increase in length takes place.
shape of the body without F
changing its volume, strain (4) If the stress is increased further, by a very
small increase in it a very large increase in strain is
produced is called shearing
L produced (region AB) and after reaching point B, the
strain.
strain increases even if the wire is unloaded and
It is defined as angle in Fixed
face
ruptures at C. In the region BC the wire literally flows.
radians through which a Fig. 9.6 The maximum stress corresponding to B after which the
plane perpendicular to the fixed surface of the cubical wire begins to flow and breaks is called breaking or
body gets turned under the effect of tangential force. ultimate tensile strength. The region EABC represents
the plastic behaviour of the material of wire.
x
(5) Stress-strain curve for different materials are
L as follows :
Stress
Stress
Stress
C
E C E C
P P
FL
(1) It’s value depends upon the (ii) Increment in the length of wire l
nature of material of the body and
r 2Y
the manner in which the body is
deformed. O Strain FL
As Y Al
(2) It's value depends upon the Fig. 9.9
temperature of the body. So if same stretching force is applied to different
(3) It’s value is independent of the dimensions
L
(length, volume etc.) of the body. wires of same material, l [As F and Y are
r2
There are three modulii of elasticity namely constant]
Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K) and modulus of
rigidity () corresponding to three types of the strain. L
i.e., greater the ratio , greater will be the
r2
Young's Modulus (Y)
elongation in the wire.
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to (iii) Elongation in a wire by its own weight : The
longitudinal strain within limit of proportionality. weight of the wire Mg act at the centre of gravity of the
wire so that length of wire which is stretched will be L/2.
Normalstress F / A FL FL Mg(L / 2) MgL
Y Elongation l =
longitudin
al strain l / L Al AY AY 2AY
If force is applied on a wire of radius r by hanging L2dg
a weight of mass M, then [As mass (M) = volume (AL) ×
2Y
density (d)]
MgL
Y (iv) Thermal stress : If a rod is fixed between two
r 2l rigid supports, due to change in temperature its length
(i) If the length of a wire is doubled, will change and so it will exert a normal stress
(compressive if temperature increases and tensile if
Then longitudinal strain = temperature decreases) on the supports. This stress is
called thermal stress.
change in length(l) L
F F
initial
length(L)
Fig.
9.10
Elasticity 196
F
k …(i)
As by definition, coefficient of linear expansion l
l but from the definition of young’s modulus
L F YA
…(ii)
l l L
thermal strain
L YA
from (i) and (ii) k
So thermal stress = Y [As Y = L
stress/strain]
It is clear that the value of force constant depends upon
And tensile or compressive force produced in the the dimension (length and area of cross section) and
body = YA material of a substance.
Note : In case of volume expansion (vii) Actual length of the wire : If the actual length
of the wire is L, then under the tension T1, its length
Thermal stress = K
becomes L1 and under the tension T2, its length
Where K = Bulk modulus, = coefficient of cubical becomes L2.
expansion
T1
(v) Force between the two rods : Two rods of L1 L l1 L1 L …(i)
different metals, having the same area of cross section k
L1
A, are placed end to end L T2
between two massive 1 2 and L 2 L l 2 L2 L …(ii)
walls as shown in figure. 2 k
Y1 Y2
The first rod has a length
L1T2 L 2T1
L1, coefficient of linear Fig. From (i) and (ii) we get L
expansion 1 and young’s 9.11 T2 T1
modulus Y1. The corresponding quantities for second rod
are L2, 2 and Y2. If the temperature of both the rods is
Work Done in Stretching a Wire
now raised by T degrees. In stretching a wire work is done against internal
Increase in length of the composite rod (due to restoring forces. This work is stored in the wire as
heating) will be equal to elastic potential energy or strain energy.
If a force F acts along the length L of the wire of
l1 l2 [L11 L 2 2]T [As l = L
cross-section A and stretches it by x then
]
stress F / A FL YA
and due to compressive force F from the walls due Y F x
strain x / L Ax L
to elasticity, decrease in length of the composite rod will
be equal to So the work done for an additional small increase
YA
L1 L2 F FL dx in length, dW Fdx x . dx
As l AY L
Y1 Y2 A
Hence the total work done in increasing the length
as the length of the composite rod remains by l,
unchanged the increase in length due to heating must l l l YA 1 YA
2
be equal to decrease in length due to compression i.e. W 0 dW 0 Fdx 0 L .x dx 2 L l
F L1 L 2 This work done is stored in the wire.
[L1 1 L 2 2]T
A Y1 Y2
1 YAl 2 1
Energy stored in wire U Fl
A[L1 1 L2 2]T 2 L 2
F
or L1 L 2 YAl
As F L
Y Y2
1
Dividing both sides by volume of the wire we get
(vi) Force constant of wire : Force required to
energy stored in unit volume of wire.
produce unit elongation in a wire is called force constant
of material of wire. It is denoted by k.
197 Elasticity
1 F l (iii) If a wire of length L is cut into two or more
UV parts, then again it's each part can hold the same
2 A L
weight. Since breaking force is independent of the
1 1 length of wire.
stress )2
strain Y (strain
2 2 (iv) If a wire can bear maximum force F, then wire
of same material but double thickness can bear
1
)2 [As AL = volume of wire]
(stress maximum force 4F
2Y
(v) The working stress is always kept lower than
Total energy stored Energy stored in per that of a breaking stress.
in wire (U) unit volume of wire
breaking
stress
(UV) So that safety factor = , may have
workingstress
1 1 Fl
Fl large value.
2 2 volume
(vi) Breaking of wire under its own weight.
1 1 Breaking force = Breaking stress Area of cross
stress
strain volume stress
strain
2 2 section
1 1 Weight of wire = Mg = ALdg = PA [P =Breaking
)2 volume
Y (strain )2
Y (strain stress] [As mass = volume
2 2
density = ALd]
1 2 1
(stress) volume )2
(stress P
2Y 2Y Ldg P L dg
This is the length of wire if it breaks by its own
Note : If the force on the wire is weight.
increased from F1 to F2 and the elongation in wire is l
Bulk Modulus
1 (F1 F2 )
then energy stored in the wire U l When a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is subjected to
2 2 a uniform pressure all over the surface, such that the
Thermal energy density = Thermal energy per shape remains the same, then there is a change in
volume.
1
unit volume = Thermal stress strain Then the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric
2 strain within the elastic limits is called as Bulk modulus.
1F l 1 1 This is denoted by K.
= = (Y )( ) = Y 2( )2
2A L 2 2 Normalstress
K
Breaking of Wire volumetric
strain (V – V)
When the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit, then F/A pV
K
strain increases much more rapidly. The maximum V / V V
Fig.
stress corresponding to B (see stress-strain curve) after 9.13
which the wire begin to flow and breaks, is called
where p = increase in pressure; V = original
breaking stress or tensile strength and the force by
volume; V = change in volume
application of which the wire breaks is called the
breaking force. The negative sign shows that with increase in
pressure p, the volume decreases by V i.e. if p is
(i) Breaking force depends upon the
positive, V is negative. The reciprocal of bulk modulus
area of cross-section of the wire i.e.,
is called compressibility.
Breaking force A
1 V
Breaking force = P × A C = compressibility =
A K pV
Here P is a constant of
F S.I. unit of compressibility is N–1m2 and C.G.S. unit is
proportionality and known as breaking Fig. dyne cm2.
–1
stress. 9.12
(ii) Breaking stress is a constant for a given Gases have two bulk moduli, namely isothermal
material and it does not depend upon the dimension elasticity E and adiabatic elasticity E .
(length or thickness) of wire.
Elasticity 198
(1) Isothermal elasticity (E) : Elasticity possess by P
or 1 [1 CP ]
K
a gas in isothermal condition is defined as isothermal
elasticity.
For isothermal process, PV = constant (Boyle’s 1
As K C
law)
Differentiating both sides Fractional Change in the Radius of Sphere
PdV + VdP = 0 PdV = – VdP A solid sphere of radius R made of a material of
bulk modulus K is surrounded by a liquid in a cylindrical
dP stress
P E E = P container.
(dV / V) strain
A massless piston of area A floats on the surface
i.e., Isothermal elasticity is equal to pressure. of the liquid.
(2) Adiabatic elasticity (E) : Elasticity possess by a 4 m
gas in adiabatic condition is defined as adiabatic Volume of the spherical body V R 3
3
elasticity.
V R
For adiabatic process, PV = constant 3
V R
(Poisson’s law)
Differentiating both sides, R 1 V Fig.
…(i)
R 3 V 9.14
P V dV V dP 0 PdV VdP 0
1
P
dP stress Bulk modulus K V
P V
dV strain E
V P mg
V …..(ii)
V K AK
E = P
mg
i.e., adiabatic elasticity is equal to times As P A
Cp
pressure. [Where ] V
Cv Substituting the value of from equation (ii)
V
Note : Ratio of adiabatic to isothermal
in equation (i) we get
R 1 mg
elasticity R 3 AK
E P Modulus of Rigidity
1 E > E
E P Within limits of proportionality, the ratio of
tangential stress to the shearing strain is called
i.e., adiabatic elasticity is always more than
modulus of rigidity of the material of the body and is
isothermal elasticity.
Shearingstress
Density of Compressed Liquid denoted by , i.e.
Shearingstrain
If a liquid of density , volume V and bulk
In this case the shape of x
modulus K is compressed, then its density increases. A F
a body changes but its Q '
Q
R
m V volume remains unchanged.
As density so
V L
V Consider a cube of
…(i) material fixed at its lower face Fixed
P face S
But by definition of bulk modulus and acted upon by a
Fig.
tangential force F at its upper 9.15
VP V P surface having area A. The
K
V V K shearing stress, then, will be
…(ii)
F
P Shearing stress
From (i) and (ii) [As A
K
=–]
199 Elasticity
This shearing force causes the consecutive Volumetric strain = longitudinal strain +
horizontal layers of the cube to be slightly displaced or 2(lateral strain)
sheared relative to one another, each line such as PQ or
RS in the cube is rotated through an angle by this dV dL dL dL
2 (1 2 )
shear. The shearing strain is defined as the angle in V L L L
radians through which a line normal to a fixed surface
has turned. For small values of angle,
dr / r dr dL
QQ' x As dL / L r L
Shearing strain
PQ L
1 dV
shearstress F / A F or 1
So 2 AdL
shearstrain A
[where A = cross-section of bar]
Only solids can exhibit a shearing as these have
definite shape. (i) If a material having = – 0.5 then
Poisson’s Ratio dV dL
[1 2 ] =0
V L
When a long bar is stretched by a force along its
length then its length increases and the radius Volume = constant or K = i.e. the material is
decreases as shown in the figure. incompressible.
Lateral strain : The ratio of
(ii) If a material having = 0, then lateral strain is
change in radius or diameter to r r – dr
L zero i.e. when a substance is stretched its length
the original radius or diameter
is called lateral strain. L + dL increases without any decrease in diameter e.g. cork. In
this case change in volume is maximum.
Longitudinal strain : The
ratio of change in length to the F (iii) Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio
Fig.
original length is called 9.16 1 0.5 .
longitudinal strain.
(iv) Practical value of Poisson’s ratio 0 0.5
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is
called Poisson’s ratio (). Relation between Y, k, and
Lateralstrain Moduli of elasticity are three, viz. Y, K and while
i.e.
Longitudin
al strain elastic constants are four, viz, Y, K, and . Poisson’s
ratio is not modulus of elasticity as it is the ratio of
dr / r
two strains and not of stress to strain. Elastic constants
dL / L are found to depend on each other through the relations
Negative sign indicates that the radius of the bar :
decreases when it is stretched. Y 3K (1 2 )
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless and a unitless …(i)
quantity.
Y 2(1 ) …(ii)
Relation Between Volumetric Strain, Lateral
Eliminating or Y between these, we get
Strain and Poisson’s Ratio
9K
Y …(iii)
If a long bar have a length L and radius r then 3K
volume V r 2 L
3K 2
…(iv)
Differentiating both the sides 6K 2
dV r 2dL 2rL dr Torsion of Cylinder
Dividing both the sides by volume of bar If the upper end of a cylinder is clamped and a
torque is applied at the lower end the cylinder gets
dV r 2dL 2rL dr dL dr
2 r P
Q
V 2
r L 2
r L L r
l
O
A B
Fig.
9.17
Elasticity 200
twisted by angle . Simultaneously shearing strain is different while increasing the load and while decreasing
produced in the cylinder. the load.
(i) The angle of twist is directly proportional to Hysteresis loop : The area of the stress-strain
the distance from the fixed end of the cylinder. curve is called the hysteresis loop and it is numerically
equal to the work done in loading the material and then
At fixed end 0o and at free end = unloading it.
maximum.
(ii) The value of angle of shear is directly
Stress
Stress
For A For B
proportional to the radius of the cylindrical shell.
At the axis of cylinder = 0 and at the outermost
shell = maximum.
(iii) Relation between angle of twist () and angle of
O O
shear () Strain Strain
Fig. 9.18
r
AB = r = l
l If we have two tyres of rubber having different
hysteresis loop then rubber B should be used for making
(iv) Twisting couple per unit twist or torsional
the car tyres. It is because of the reason that area under
rigidity or torque required to produce unit twist.
the curve i.e. work done in case of rubber B is lesser
r 4 and hence the car tyre will not get excessively heated
C C r 4 A2 and rubber A should be used to absorb vibration of the
2l
machinery because of the large area of the curve, a
(v) Work done in twisting the cylinder through an large amount of vibrational energy can be dissipated.
angle is
Factors Affecting Elasticity
1 r 4 2
W C 2 (1) Hammering and rolling : Crystal grains break
2 4l up into smaller units by hammering and rolling. This
Interatomic Force Constant results in increase in the elasticity of material.
Behaviour of solids with respect to external forces (2) Annealing : The metals are annealed by
is such that if their atoms are connected to springs. heating and then cooling them slowly. Annealing results
When an external force is applied on a solid, this in decrease in the elasticity of material.
distance between its atoms changes and interatomic (3) Temperature : Intermolecular forces decreases
force works to restore the original dimension. with rise in temperature. Hence the elasticity decreases
The ratio of interatomic force to that of change in with rise in temperature but the elasticity of invar steel
interatomic distance is defined as the interatomic force (alloy) does not change with change of temperature.
F (4) Impurities : Due to impurities in a material,
constant. K
r elasticity can increase or decrease. The type of effect
depends upon the nature of impurities present in the
It is also given by K Y r0 [Where Y = material.
Young's modulus, r0 = Normal distance between the Important Facts About Elasticity
atoms of wire]
(1) The body which requires greater deforming
Unit of interatomic force constant is N/m and
force to produce a certain change in dimension is more
Dimension MT–2
elastic.
Note : The number of atoms having Example : Ivory and steel balls are more elastic
interatomic distance r0 in length l of a wire, N = l/r0. than rubber.
The number of atoms in area A of wire having (2) When equal deforming force is applied on
interatomic separation r0 is N A / r02 . different bodies then the body which shows less
deformation is more elastic.
Elastic Hysteresis
Example : (i) For same load, more elongation is
When a deforming force is applied on a body then produced in rubber wire than in steel wire hence steel is
the strain does not change simultaneously with stress more elastic than rubber.
rather it lags behind the stress. The lagging of strain
(ii) Water is more elastic than air as volume
behind the stress is defined as elastic hysteresis. This is
change in water is less for same applied pressure.
the reason why the values of strain for same stress are
201 Elasticity
(iii) Four identical balls of different materials are (3) The value of moduli of elasticity is independent
dropped from the same height then after collision, balls of the magnitude of the stress and strain. It depends
rises upto different heights. only on the nature of material of the body.
The order of their height can be given by hivory > (4) For a given material there can be different
hsteel > hrubber > hclay because Yivory > Ysteel > Yrubber > Yclay. moduli of elasticity depending on the type of stress
applied and resulting strain.
Name of substance Young’s modulus (Y) Bulk modulus (K) Modulus of rigidity ( )
1010N/m2 10
10 N/m 2 1010N/m2
(5) The moduli of elasticity has same dimensional (12) In transmitting power, an automobile shaft is
formula and units as that of stress since strain is sheared as it rotates, so shearing strain is set up, hence
modulus of rigidity is involved.
dimensionless. Dimensional formula is [ ML1T 2 ]
while units dyne/cm2 or Newton/m2. (13) The shape of rubber heels changes under
stress, so modulus of rigidity is involved.
(6) Greater the value of moduli of elasticity more
Practical Applications of Elasticity
elastic is the material. But as Y (1/l), K (1/V) and
(1/) for a constant stress, so smaller change in shape (i) The metallic parts of machinery are never
or size for a given stress corresponds to greater subjected to a stress beyond elastic limit, otherwise
elasticity. they will get permanently deformed.
(7) The moduli of elasticity Y and exist only for (ii) The thickness of the metallic rope used in the
solids as liquids and gases cannot be deformed along crane in order to lift a given load is decided from the
one dimension only and also cannot sustain shear knowledge of elastic limit of the material of the rope
strain. However K exist for all states of matter viz. solid, and the factor of safety.
liquid or gas. (iii) The bridges are declared unsafe after long use
because during its long use, a bridge under goes quick
(8) Gases being most compressible are least
alternating strains continuously. It results in the loss of
elastic while solids are most i.e. the bulk modulus of gas
elastic strength.
is very low while that for liquids and solids is very high.
Ksolid > Kliquid > Kgas (iv) Maximum height of a mountain on earth can
be estimated from the elastic behaviour of earth.
(9) For a rigid body l, V or = 0 so Y, K or will
be , i.e. elasticity of a rigid body is infinite. At the base of the mountain, the pressure is given
by P = hg and it must be less than elastic limit (K) of
Diamond and carborundum are nearest approach earth’s supporting material.
to rigid bodies.
K K
(10) In a suspension bridge there is a stretch in K > P > hg h or hmax
g g
the ropes by the load of the bridge. Due to which length
of rope changes. Hence Young’s modulus of elasticity is (v) In designing a beam for its use to support a
involved. load (in construction of roofs and bridges), it is
(11) In an automobile tyre as the air is advantageous to increase its depth rather than the
compressed, volume of the air in tyre changes, hence breadth of the beam because the depression in
rectangular beam. b l
the bulk modulus of elasticity is involved.
d
W
Fig.
9.19
Elasticity 202
Metals are polycrystalline materials. Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between –
1 and +1/2 but practical value lies between zero and
Metals are elastic for small strains and for large +1/2.
strains, metals become plastic.
Negative value of poisson’s ratio means that if
The substances having large molecular structure length increases then radius decreases.
(formed by the union of two to several thousand
simple molecules) are called polymers.
Stress and pressure have the same units and
dimensions, but the pressure is always normal to the
Rubber is a polymer. surface but the stress may be parallel or
203 Elasticity
perpendicular to the surface. (a) Increase in length is inversely proportional to its
length L
Normal stress is also called tensile stress when
(b) Increase in length is proportional to area of
the length of the body tends to increase.
cross-section A
Normal stress is also called compressive stress (c) Increase in length is inversely proportional to
when length of the body tends to decrease. A
Tangential stress is also called shearing stress. (d) Increase in length is proportional to Young's
When the deforming force is inclined to the modulus
surface, both the tangential as well as normal stress 2. The increase in length is l of a wire of length L by
are produced. the longitudinal stress. Then the stress is
proportional to
When a body is sheared, two mutually
[MP PET 1986]
perpendicular strains are produced. They are called
longitudinal strain and compressional strain. Both are (a) L/l (b) l/L
equal in magnitude. (c) l L (d) l 2 L
When a beam is bent, both extensional as well as 3. The dimensions of four wires of the same material
compressional strain is produced. are given below. In which wire the increase in
The energy stored by an elastic material is the length will be maximum when the same tension is
area under the force-extension graph. The area under applied
the stress-strain graph gives the energy stored per [IIT 1981; NCERT 1976; MP PET/PMT 1998;
CPMT 1983, 90; MP PMT 1992, 94, 97; MP PET 1989, 90,
unit volume.
99]
Thermal stress in a rod Y . It is
(a) Length 100 cm, Diameter 1 mm
independent of the area of cross section or length of (b) Length 200 cm, Diameter 2 mm
the wire.
(c) Length 300 cm, Diameter 3 mm
Breaking stress for a wire of unit cross-section is (d) Length 50 cm, Diameter 0.5 mm
called tensile strength.
Breaking stress does not depend on the length or
area of cross section of the wire. However it depends
on the material of the wire.
Breaking force depends on the area of cross
section. Breaking stress of a wire is called tensile
strength.
If we double the radius of rope its breaking force
becomes four times. But the breaking stress remains
unchanged.
If a beam of rectangular cross-section is loaded its
depression at the beam is inversely proportional to
the cube of thickness.
If a beam of circular cross-section is loaded, its
depression is inversely proportional to the fourth
1
power of radius. i.e.
r4