81 " Structure of scientific articles

THEMATIC ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

lntroduction

Purpose: To supply sufficient background information to allow the reader to

understand and evaluate the results of the paper without having to
read previous publications, and to present the rationale of the
research on which the paper is base.

Materials & Methods

Purpose: To provide enough detail for a competent researcher to be able to

repeat experiments, so that results can be scrutinized and
confirmed.

Resu!ts

Purpose: To present the experimental data of the research briefly, simply

and clearly. The data is the source of the new knowledge from the
research - the paper stands or falls on the results-

Discussion

Purpose: To show relationships among observed facts and to discuss whai

theY mean.

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 OUTLINE OF A SC|EI{T|FlC PAP=R (After Treiease, 1958}

TITN-= The title shculd consisi preferably of few words, indicating the contents of the
paper thai are most significant. LJse words that cover the meaning and allow
easy and accuaate lndsxing, and yet are as simple as possible.

ABSTRACT The abstract is a short {maxirnum 250 words} condensation sf ihe whole
paper.

lntroduction

- Nature of the p:'oblem; lts siaie at the beginning of the investigation.

Aim, scope and strategy of the rnvestigaticn.
- Relaiion to pievious wotk.
- Reference to important liieiature.

Materials & Methods

Precise descripiion of the equipment and materials employed.

Give theoretical approach or experimental design: state premises and assumptions.
Refer where appropriate to established methods describeci in literature; do siate principles
in your text, however.
Explain how the work was done. (Give sufficient cietail to enable a competent researcher
tc repeat your experiments. Emphasize the features that are new).

Results

Give a general overview of the experiments; indicate purDose, significance and lelevance
to your line of approach.
Present the resuits. Give represe*taiive data. Use tables tc show data. flgures to show
trenCs.
Describe any negative effects and conditions under which ihey occuri'ec!.
Use statistlcal techniques wisely - when in doubt, consult a staiistician-

Discussion {of results!i

Give rnain principles, causai relations, or generalizations that are shown by the results.
{Choose one cr mote main conciusions that your evidence suoports).
Give evidence (as shown by the ciata) for each of the main conclusions.
Mention exceptions and opposing theories, and explanations of these. Call attention to
any lack of correlation. contrary results oi- other Coubtful points"
Compei-e your resulis and isterpretaiions lvilh ihose of other researchers.
Point out thecreiical and practical irnplications of irour work.
Point to significance of your wcrk.
lndicate new lines of researcl^.

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EETA^I LEB STRT' CT[.,' RE O F' SC I E NTI FI C ARTIC I-ES

Ffre "Jnfsoducfion "

Your introduction shouid contain tkee main sections:

1. Whar led up to the study or report
2. The purpose ofyour study or your document
3. Fiow, in bdef, you answered youi scien:!fic question or gathered infonaation for your document

I . Whol led up to the sludy or repori

Give the bia picturc

The fiist paragraphs of lhe Introducllorr usually present the "big pictute" which everyone-including
iay persons-can understani. It is written in the present sirnpie tense. Some exampies of topic
sentences are:
Malaria is still the number one kiiler of al] diseases.
Another exampie is:
Substance )OG is o{len used to treat paiients suffering from ...

Tell its historv and what is known

.Afrer presenting the big picture, narlo\\'the topic dox'n to your specific topic in subsequent paragraphs
wnich state \r'hat is knou'n. For example:
Malaria epirienics a!:e known to be related to rveather conditions.
Substance XXX causes unriesirable side effects when used over a period of several years
(ref).

Notice that "$'hat is known" is in the present simple tense. You can then point out some ofthe
n:iiestones which 1ed up to the present state olwhat is knom. Because this is history-before your
stndy-$,die in tlie past tense or present perfect tense. Repori the specific results ofpast sturiies in
past si ple tense. Ifyou wanr tc emphasize that €he pasi results are still true use present perfeci tense.
l{ere are some additional exa:nples:
IIan5,- investigarols (ref.) have shc$'n that maia{a epidemrcs are related specificaily to ..'
{results are still irue)
Smith (i995) detec;eti minute quantities of some unknora'n impurity in substance KX.
(resuit of pasi siudy)
Work by Aiar,:s (1968) led tc rhe forrnulation cf XXX, tire standard ccmpcrnd stilJ used
today.

Use me preseni periect tense io inlrociuce sL:dies *'hici: have led to general lruths or indicate ihe
preseni levei of iesearch aei!r'lty in a field.
Jordan (1989) has shown thai malaia epirier'ics occur shcrtll' afier.-.
A number cf researchers have shov,'ir...
leq' researchers have studied...
ts 1-3
Use present simple ierss oniy ifyou mertion general iruths.
The rate of most ciremical :eactions increases with irrcleasing temperature. (generally
accepied knowiedge)
The boiJ.ing temperature of water d.epends on lhe pressure.

Use the past simple iense to discuss the procedures in sh:dies you cite.
Schmidt (1993) used a singie bli:id experimeniai design.

Tell 'luhatis unknplvr" and "whv it is impoftant"

After telling q'hat is known, you narrow the topic dou'n even rnore by specifically stating what is
unknown. R&at is unknown is, ofcourse, iire specific topic that you investigaied and are repofiing oE.
Fuithermore, and mcst imporiant, teli your reader why it is important to know more about this.
Doii't let your readei ask the question "Sc what?" An effective topic sentence for this paragmph
combines the "uni<lrowlr" $'ith the "so what" as for exampie:
We do not uncierstand how malaria epidemics depend cn variations in weather conditions
but i-f we could determine this dependency then we might be able to predict malaria
epidemics and rhereby effectiveiy mobilize medical care services.

Anotlier exarnple is:

We do not know if the side effecis of X)C( are caused by the reported unknown impurities
but determination of what those inpurities are, could lead ro an improvement in ihe
product.

Notice that "what is unkaoun" is in present simple tense and the "so what" in future tense. Other
examples are:
Although attempts have been made io expiain )CC(, few detaiis of the relationship
between )HX aud YYY are known. Understanding this relationship will allow us to ...

Your Introduction has nou'prepared ihe reader for the most important sentence in your entire anicle:
youi ou:pose siatement.

2" Stole lhe purpose of your stLldy or your docun'lent

Every u,el1-written introdtiction contains a cleai and concise purpose sta:emenl. The purpose
statement is the single most important sentence in your report. It is the glue which holds
everything together for you, *4rile writing, as u'ell as for the reader. The entire aiticie revolves around
this stalerneni. Alihough ii will not be the firs: senience in your introduction, it is the first sentence you
$'lite.

Most scientific anicles repofi on an experime*tal investigation or study- In tiris case tire purpose
sie.teinent clearly states yoi.rr scienfific question. However- some scientific articies describe the staie-
of{ite-art, descdbe a phenornenon or a stn:cture or give geaeral information or inslr'ictions. In lhis
case the purpose staternent tells the reader what the docurnent itself is to be used for-
Make a distinction betweer the purpose statements otthese fi\'o Srpes oi articies-they are expressed
very dr fflerenti".u. In both cases the purpose staiement is a single sentence but noie the dilferences in the
loiiowing examples.

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Furpose of vaur studv

}.fter cleariy staring x'hat is unkno',1,n anci why i; is irnpo*ant, your purpose statement states your
scientific quesiion or your hypothesis. For example:
The pur:pose cl our ilvestigation w&s to deiernine if local merecroiogical conditions car be
used to predicl occurrences of malaria epidemics in Ethiopia.

Liotice that the purpose statenent for a study, experimenl or investigation is in past simple tense
because at the time the reader reads your article tlle investigation and its purpose are aii over. Other
examples are:

The purpose of this studl' was tc test the hypothesis: An increase in the concentration of
X)O{ in ihe blcori of hunans causes a decrease in lYY.
In study our objeclive was to answer the question: Does the growth hornone )OG ir-
+,his
adolesceni boys cause YYY.
In continuaiion cf tire *'ork reported in (reference), $'e undertook to test the hypothesis:
X)O{ is directly rela;ed to YYY-

Ifthe study had several purposes cleariy list them

The purposes of this investigarion were to: identify the impurities causing the 2
extraneous peaks on the chromatogram of XXX and quantify ihose impurities.

Dc not state the purpose with:

"This investigation siudied ..."
"This paper demonstrates ..."

It was you who studied or demonstrated something and not the investigation or the paper.

Avoid the "hurrrble" approach. Phrases such as:

In this experiment we tried to investigate...

In this studrv a]} attempt \ras nade to...

suggest you faiiedl

PurDase af vaui document

If ;rour aiticie cioes not report on an investigation bui describes the slate-of-the-art" gives general
iniormation or insh.actions, teli the reader rvhat the document is to be used for. In this case write
your putpose statenent as a single statement in present simple tense because at the time the reader
reads the document the piirpose is still vaiici. Foi erarnple:

The purpose of this document is to estabiish tbe approved procedure for tire validario:r of
XXX.
The purpcse cf this report is ic summarize relevani research reiated tc XXX .

This mcnogram defines the ailowabie ranges of substances .XXX, YYY and ZZZ in
(produc aame).
This paper iescribes a proceCure for using the XXX methoi to deterniae YfY.

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3. Briefly tell how you onswered fhe quesiion or golhered the inforrnotion

Uniess your iavestigation was very simpie you should conclude you: Introduction with a shori
paragraph describing ho*'you approached your scieniific question(si. The purpose ofthis paragraph is
to give your reader sufhcient information to understand your Results and Discussion sections without
getting intc the detaiis ofyour methods. Sc do not pr€sent any details; leave the details for the
Matenals and Methoris section. For example:
In a retrospective stuCy we collected ;neteorological data as weil as data concerning
maleria epidemics for 10 local areas il Ethiopia. This daia covered the years 1963 to
1998. We analyzed the data by means of: correlation anaJi'sis, analysis of variance anri the
XXX rnethori to determine the predictive povrers of the vadous factors.

Noiice that the experitnental plan firr a study, exleriment or investigation is in past simple tense
beca'r:se at the time the reader reads your article the investigation an<i its plan are all over.

The "Materiols ond Methods"

1. Whoi you did to onswer your scienlific question

The Materials a,nd Methods section gives your reader enough detailed inlormation to ailow the reader
to evaluate your work. Furtftermore, it aliows a trained scientist to repeat your investigation, often rr.'ith
planned variations in approach or methods. in general include the following irrformation in the
Materiais and Methods section:

- what animals, humans or things did you stud1,

- what mateials or equipmenr did you used and why

- how did you do it in general: the exoerimenial design

- ho$, in detail, you obiained your rau ciata

- horv you derived resuits from youi ra\l,data

basic assuniptions 1ou rnade.

Nots that so;Ie stuiies are i,ased on a series of experiments, each *'ith its own specifrc question. ln
this case, the results of one experiment determrne what the next experiment x'il1 be. So, we make a
distinction bet$'een two lpes ofstudies:
.a^ srildy that rests a itpoihes;s

A studyr in which one experimena leads to the next.

2. A study thoi tests c hl/poihesis

Typically, the Materials and Methods section rs divided into severai subseciions. Each subsection has
i:s own purpose a;1d together they ieaC the reader to understanC how you acquired the data
necessary to anslver your scientific questions. DepenCing on the type of investigation you are
reporting on, you may have subsections entiiled:
Srud1, Design
lfatedais
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 Aninals cr Subjects SluCied
Preparalion of *nimals or subjects
Inren'entions
Measurement methods
Calculatioas
Data Analysis

You are fiee to arrange these subsections in an order which is most effective. As a rule of thumb
however, Caiculations and Data Analysis are always the iast subsections because they lead the reader
tc the Results section where you preseni the data. Furihermore, mosi authors begin with the Study
Design because it logicaily follows the brief description ofyour experimental approach at the end of
your Introduction.

Stqd{Pc€isc

Unless your experi ents were very simple and easy ro understand, descibe the overall experimental
pian. This subsection goes into the detaiis of ;vour brief description at the end ofyou Introduction
section. li cleariy identifies the independent and dependent variables.
An example ofa siudy design:
We separated and isolated slx groups of 20 one-day-old chickens. One group was used fol
conrrol and received no vaccination. Five groups were vacci.nated twice wiih one of the tesi
sirains: on the frrst riay and again afier two weeks. Two weeks after the second vaccination, 5
chickens from each of the 6 groups were killed and examined for before-challense abnomnlities,
abnormaiities resulting from the vaccinations . The remaining chickens from the 6 groups were then
given the challenge strain. One week later rve killed aird examined all animals for the presence ofdre
challenge strain and for a|ier c]rullenrp abnormalities. To detemine the effrcacy ofeach ofthe 5
vacciration snains r*,,e determined the dilference between before vqccination abnofilalities and arter
vacci otion 6b orlnaliii!:j using the criteria described by Smith (1989).

Notice that "efficacy," the dependent variable, is clearly defined as the difference between before
cinlienge abnorntalities and qfter challenee abnormalities, 2 rneasurable experimental variables.
These are key words that will be repeated throughout the article.

liyour experiment is based on assumpt;ons, inention them in this subsection. You may also lvant to
i:scusc ll"eii r alicir) in thc Discussio:. section.

f\4aterials

l; this subsection specify all ofthe relevani chenicais, drugs. culirlres. gasses etc thai you used
;vou
an<i. if necessary, their concentrations, an.)ounts, tiosages etc. ifyou er,aluated one or more oithe
substances cleariy define these as your independent r,,ariables- An example of thts is:

The chickens N'ere chailenged t'ith: Virulent challenge strain, )OC(, Class L

The 5 vaccine strains rl'ele:

STRAIN A: XXX At'.enuateci ivirh Y and Z xiutaticni
STRAIN B: Chemical rnutanr of STRAJN A lc make the strain less invasive
STRAI\ C:... Gereticaily modified STRAIIi A. Protol,?e vaccine stiain for vacciratio!'r agailst a pa:esitt.

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 STR-{I}I D: STRAIN A lacking the X gene {reg',riates galbon metaboiism) for fur"Lher a$enualiol.
STRAIN E: STRAIN A lacling the y gene.

iir this subsection you can also speciry your experinentai animals uniess they had specific
characiefistics in which case you pfesent them l;r a separate seclion.
Fifteen mongrei dogs weighing berween 18 ani 23 kg were useri. Alesthesia was induceC
with XXXX mlkg YYY and mainiained with ZZZ.

Cleariy descrtbe any special equipment you used. Yaur reader wiil appreciate clear drawings.
We constructed a welded steel frame to support the animai's weight (Fig. i).

Anlnlals Studied ar Subiects Studied

Ifyour experiments involve animals *'ith specific charactedstics then state the species, weights, sexes,
ages anC all other special characteristics that were importantin answering your scientific questions.
State that your experiments were approved by an appropriate committee or institution,
Ifyour involves human subjects give enough information to ensure that your data can be
"*O"n*rnt
compared to the data ofother studies. Factors which may be important, depending on ihe study, are:
sex, age, height and weight and other physical characteristics, state of health, disease and stages of
disease.

Measurement Methods

in tnis section you describe in detail how you measured ali relevant variables. in palricular, in this
section you again mention the dependent variables and specificaliy state how you measured them. For
exarnple:
The efficacy (depenrient variabie) of the vaccine strains was determined by comparing the
differences between the before and, efter chalienge ebnormalities. We examined the
spleen, Iiver, caecum for abnormabties and quantified thern foilowing the meihod
described by Smith and Jones (1995).

Nate that be-fore and arter challenge abnormalities will appear as data in your results section while
comparison ofrhe 5 "efficacies" q'ili be your results.

lfycr: dici a iot ofcalculations on ''ie raw daia, <iescribe those calculations here. Do not forget to teil
x.hy you made the caiculations. Examples are:
To deterrnine the relative amcunts of the impurities we iniegrated the exiraneous peaks
on the chromatograms u'hich yieided the areas under the ceaks. These areas, relaiive to
the tctai area, are a measure of ihe reiative anounis of impurities.

Data Anaivsis

Teil hor* you anallized ihe data to obtain results. An exan.rple:

Tc deierrrine if there were signrficant differences in both the be&re and q{ter yaccination
aarornaiitirls |:oih within groups aai between gr:ouns -!r e performed a trl,o-way anal! sis of
variance (:el.
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Notice here that the be.{are and qfter vaccination abnormaiities- are raw data and not results. The
analysis olvariance r*'as used to determine results-significant differences in the dependent variable
caused by the different vaccines (independent variable).

Usef{-,f pb€ses

Notice that Materials and Methods are reported inpcst simple tense because at the time of reading it is
history" Some additional erampies ofpbrases for this section are;
We investigated rnore than 5C0 ..., specifred in Table i-
The brand-narnes, chemical compositions and inain properties of the materials are listed
in Table 1.

The iollowing phrase sen'es as a model for mentioning assumptions.

We assumed that the experiences describeri by the patients were a re{lection of the truttr
(Chenitz & Swanson, 1986).

3. A study in which one experimenl led to lhe nexi

Ifyou are reporting on a study in which the outcome ofone experirnent led to another experiment then
your Methods section should contain only the Experimental design subsection and those subsections
which apply to all ofthe experiments. Report the cietails ofeacir individual experiment in the Results
section as described in the next chapter.

Ihe "Resurfs"

1 . Doto ore not resulis - reporl both!

ln tile resuits section you present tu,o distinctly different lypes of infonnation:
i. your raw data which gives other investigators the chance to compare
your data with their own
2. -rherelationships between the variables which ied to the answer to ]'our
scientific question. These relationships are your results -
relationships are what you were looking for.

in oihei words, date are not results. In many cases however. you can present your raw data and, at
ihe same time, the relationships that you found. In the following example the aEthor presents data but
nc results.
No extraneous eiuticn peaks were founri on the chromatograms cf sample 1 (figure i). Tx'c
extraneous elutiol peaks were found on the chrcma;ograms of Sau:ple 2.

ln the next example, hoq,ever, rhe author presenis {iata togeiher wiih the relationship he found between
two variables. He does this b.v iinking the "exiraneous peaks" to "iime". a relationship which he larer
:.:ses in his Discusslon seotion to ansner his scientific question.

17 L-J
 We found no extraireous eluiion peaks on the chrcmatcgtans of the in-itial sample
(Sample l) but after 24 hours (Sanpie 2) two extraneous ptraks were founei on the
chromatcgrams.

),,lodce ihat your r€sults are aiso history, so (once again) us€ past tense. Use preseni simple tense oniy
for indicating where data can be iound in your articie.

A.roiC any k,nd ofdiscussion or conclusion il this section-you &re presenting facts only. The
iollowing example illustrates hou' easy it is to faii inio the trap of inserting conciusions in your Results
section - save those kinds of iemarks for your Discussion section.

We found no extraneoris eiution peaks on the chromarograms of the initial sampie

(Sample 1) indicating that Sampie 1 was indeed very pure.

,Another exarnpie of a mispiaced conciusion u,hich belongs in Discussion section is:

Injection of X)Q( caused an increase in pulmonary arterial pressure.

The fbllowing revised staiement <ices belong in the Results section. Ii presents an obs€rved
reiaiionship and not an interpretation.
Injection ofX)G was immediateiy foliowed by an increase in pulmoeary arteriai pressure.

2. Phroses for reporiing dolo

As a generai rule, present your data in tables or figures rather than in the text. Use the present simple
tense to indicate the location of data in your repori.
Table 3 presents the stability data gathered over the frve-year period.
The relevant properries of xxx are given in Table 1-

Table 1 compares the properties of)O with YYY..

For the 3 experimental groups and the conrrol group the mean values and standard
deviations of )OC(, YYY and ZZZ dunng the experi:nent are plotted irr Fig. 1.
Cardiac ourput as a funciion of right atrial pressure is plotted ir. Fig.1.

3. Phroses for reporiing resulls

Use the past simple tense to report )'our specifrc findings and theix relaiionships.
The pressure increaseci with increasing temperature (Fig 1).
This effect increased with increasing molecular weight.
Our results ofihe tesis covering ihe frrst 100 days show that X)C( increased q'ith time.
During the second 100 days, however. iittle change was seen (Tabie 1) -
?he measurements presented in Table 1 show that XXX decreased with increasing dosage.
As illustrated in Fig.i. pressure ani temperatule increased togeiher.
The concentration of X)C{ in the anim.als' biood increased 'a'irh time. as can be seen from
Figure 3.

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4. It one experirnent leods io lhe next

Xfyou are repoding on a study in which the cutcome ofone experiment led to another experirnent then
your Results section has to:
ciearly state the specific purpose ofeach expeiment and the question to be auswered. (See the seclion oa
pur-Dcse staten, €nts in the chapter o$ Introductiors.)

- describe the specific detaiis ofhow you did it (See Chapter on Materials and Methods,/)

- report the relevant data and results. (See a'oove.)

- answer the ques:ion in such a *'ay that it leads to the next question. (See Answeing the Question in the
chapter on Discussions.)

Repeat this 4-part cycle fbr each ofthe experiments. In other *'ords, for each experiment you present a
"mini-article" within the Results section. Do not get side-tracked - inciude oniy the information.
data, resuits, etc., which are relevant to your main purpose as stated in your Int'oduction.

Ihe "Discussion"

1. Orgonize your discussion oround iopics

in the Discussion section you help your reader to understand the significance of your results. You are
free to give theoretical explanations, make connections to other findings, speculate on N'hat caused
what, sho*.the importance olyour rvork, evaluate u,eaknesses in your methods and discuss many
other topics depenriing on your study. Most important, however, is to begin each new topic with a nex'
paragraph starting with a topic sentence.

2. Your firsi porogroph

Answer vcur selqntific auestian

in the first paragraph of your ciscussion ansu,er your st-ientific question using exactly the same u'ords
and slyle cfthe question as you stated it in your Intro<iuction. Suppose your purpose statement reads:

The purpose of our investigation was to determire if iocal meteorological condiiions can be
used to predict occurrences of malaria epidearics in Ethiopia.

Then your Disoussion might begin with:

ln thisstudy we shot that locai meteorologicai ccndirions can tre used to predict
occurrerces of maiaria epidemics ln Ethiopia.

Suppose your -ourpcse siatement reads:

The p.*rpose of ihis srudy was to iesr tle lrypothesis: An increase in the concentration of
XXX in the biood of humans causes a decrease in YYY-

The;: your Discussion n.right begin with:

 Our study shows that an increase in the conceniration of )C(X in the blood cf humans
causes a dec:ease in YYY"

Suppose your pap€r is a surnaary ofthe state-oi-affairs and your purpose statement reads:
The purpose of this report is to sumnarize relevant research related to )O ( .

In this case your Discussion seciion might begin with:

In this report we summarize relevani research related to gX .

Suppose you had more than one question and your pulpose statement reads:

The purposes of this iavestigation were lo: identify the irnpurities causing the 2
extraneous peaks on the chromatogram of iC(X and quanti$, those impuriiies.

You couiti begin your Discussicn with:

This investigation identifies and quantfies the impurities caushg the 2 extraneous pea&s
on the chromatogram of XXX.

Suppott that answer

Afcer answering the question, continue in the same paragraph with the major findings which support
that answer. By adding support to our example above our first paragraph now reads:
In this study we show that local meteorological conditions can be used to predict
occurrences of malaria epidemics in Ethiopia. This is evidenced by the high correlations
we found between the occurrence of a malaria epidemics with the meteorological variables
)ofi (0.91, Y1{Y (0.89) and ZZZ (A.88).

lntroduce and support unexpected results

Unexpected results are those results which you did not anticipate in your purpose statement. ln the first
paragraph introduce and support important unexpected results, For example:
This investigation identifies and quantifies the impudties causing the 2 exiraneous peaks
on the chrcma'Logram of XXX to be YYY andZZ, having concentrations of 0.1 PPM and
0.3 PPi\4 respectively. This is evidenced by ihe ... resuits presented in Table 2.
Surpassingiy, YYY and ZZZ form cnly after a period of storage as shown by the fact that
we found no extraneous elution peaks on the chronatograms of the initial sample (Sample
i) but only after 2.i hours (Sample 2).

Some useful u,ords to introduce unexpected resuits are:

"Surprisingly", "{-Inexpectedly" or "l'Ioreover".

Iiyoi: had severai scieltific questions, and if the ans\4'ers to the questions are compiex, your first
paragraph could become too long. ln this case answer each question in as separate paragraph but begin
each paragraph *,ilh the ansq'er using the saFle words you useC to state the question.

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3. Subsequeniporcgrcphs

Depending on your study, mention tooics x'hich are impo*ant to discuss in subsequent paragraphs.
The ioliou,ing paragraphs present possible issues io discuss.

Defe\dl1gvaur answer

Ifyour results are differeni from those of other investigators ycu m.ay wani to explain
why your results are valid. Some examples oftcpic sentences are:
Our value for YYY is about 3596 higher than that found by Smith (1928). His ... method,
was, of course, much less accurate ihan our .., method, and we believe that our value is
wirhin 2o'" of t-re true val ue.
Because our experirnental group was 10 times Larger than ihat of Jones (1989) our results
more reliably reflect the irue values of X)C{ and 11-Y.

Disqusslnq unexBeeiledlresu/f s

Linexpected resuits open our eyes to new possibilities. They aiways have something to iell. it could be
that you have stumbled on to sornething very exciting. In this case discuss your results fiom as many
difierent aspects as you can think of, each aspect in a different paragraph. Begin each paragraph u'ith a
topic sentence.
Topic sentences could:
- relate your unexpecied results to the resuits of others-why did you find it and they didn't

- relate them to theory

- introduce their consequences or value. One example is:

The fact thai the impurities YYY and ZZZ {orm after the product XXX is manufactured and
hemretically seaied iI':rpjies that all viais ofXXX contain these impurities.

Son.:etirnes, hou'ever, unexpected results point to a q'eakness in your methoti. iit this case point out the
limitations ofthe rnethod so that other investigators wiii no fail into the same trap.

P !'e se nti ng thea reti ca! expl a n ation s

You rnay \\'ant to explain vour results on the basis ol existing theory. A topic sentence might be:
Our results are clearl;' explained by ihe ',.}reory of ... (Adams et al, (1978)

Pre sentina Limitations

lf youi results are based

on assun.lptions. you should explicitiy state this. Furthennore, let the reader
know why you beiiele your assumrtions tc be vaiid. You might iefer to other investigations which
suppoG your assunptions.

ilyour methods had weak*esses or iimirations, point them out. You rnigh: wart to speculale on hon'
the nethod could be irnlroved to alioq' more far-reaching results
B1-13
4. Your fincl porogroph

This is the section tirat is often ofmost imporlance to the reader because it states the consequences of
the study.

Show haw vaur answer chanqes the 'biq picture"

Report your conclusions in such a *'ay that they relate back to "the big picture" you described at the
beginning ofyour Inh'oduction. Use the same words and state your conciusion in active voice. Use
present simple tense because the conclusions represent a new sate-of-affairs which you assume to be
tr':e in general. ,4n example is:
In summary, we conclude that substance )GX slowiy degrades to produce minute
quantities afYYY and ZZZ. This fact has not been established before and it clearly offers
an explanation of the undesirabie side effects caused by )OG after a prolonged period of
ireatment.

Another example is:

From the results obtained we conclude ihat the rate of ce1l reproduction is higher in a
medium of ... as compared to a mediur.r of ... .This fact points toward a faster, more
economical method of preparing cultures in the iaboratory and, thereby, reducing the
rurn-around time anci costs oflaboratorv results.

'f hinas to avoid in vour conclusion

Avoid passive statements containing the modai verbs can, mq) and could, which weaken your
conciusions. Notice in the folio*,ing examples that the auihors conciude nothing!
Tbe general conclusion may be drawn that ...
It can be concluded rhat ...

Summarizing the experirnenial resuits, it can be stated ihat...

Avoid promisEs of rhings ;rou will do in the future-tcmorow never comes and your
reader knows ihat. Some examples to avoid are:
This rn'ili be reported on in a fbrthcoming sumrrary.
Further wcrk is in ha*d.
A further study of ihe properLies of X)C( is in progress.
The res';its of this work. q'hich is st;ll in progress, wiii be repcrred iater.
This icvesrigaticn is still ia an early stage, but i-r is hoperi thai ...

Ei -14
In summary, the discussion section of your scientific paper should:
- Answer the research question(s)
- Support answers with your results & others (literature)
- Explanation ofhow your new finding fits with existing knowledge
- Defend yow answer (pros-cons)
- Unexpected outcome(s) & explanation
- Indicate newnesVimportance of answer ifnecessary
- Explain discrepancies with published results
- State and explain limitations/weaknesses of study
- Discuss validity ofany assumptions methods are based on
- Implications, applications, speculations.

Background information and references to ttre Results section may be included anywhere in the
Discussion section provided it is relevant to the argument being discussed.

Bl-15
Ihe T?tle ond Absfrocl

The title

The purposes of the titie are to :

- identify your topic

- atkact the reader's attention.

Furthermore, a good title is:

- accurate

- simple

- clear

- and it starts with *'hat is importanr.

Tips on how to do this

ldentifu vour topic

Your topic is a combination of information. To be accurate, clear and simple, formulate your title,
depending on your specific study, with the following information:
L the dependent variable(s)
2. the independent variable(s)
3. the animal or human poPulation
4. the condition ofthe animals or subjects
5. the device, material or method investigated
5 . the purpose of the device, method or material studied.

Combine the information relevant to your article to forrn a concise phmse or statement. Here are some
examples of various combinations:

1 ,2,3 ua 4 : Effect of XXX on YYY in patients with acute ZZZ

l, 5, 6 and 2 = Ef{icacy of strains A, B C and D for protecting chickens against virulent

challenge strain XXX

in the following example 5, 6,3 and 4 are combined. Notice that the purpose of a device or method is
introduced with "for."

Comparative evaluation of XXX (method/device) ior measwing Yl-Y in clinical screening for
ZZZ in elderly patients

ts1-i6
Compare vour title with vour scientific question and its answer-alf three should
cantain exactlv the sarne words!

Once again, your purpose siatement is your "qualiry assurance" standar<i. Your scientific question, as
presented ir, your purpose statemeni in the Introduction, ses certail key $,ords. You rephrased the
question as an answer in vour Discussion using the same -*'ords. Now you use the same key words to
fornrulate your title. Fore example, suppose your purpose statemen! is:
The pulpose of our investigation was to determine if local meteorologicai conditions can be
used to predict occuriences of maiaria epidemics in Ethiopia-

And suppose your ansu'er is:

?hese results demonsiraie that locai rreteorological coniiiions carr be used to predici
occurrences of malaria epidemics in Ethiopia.

Your trtle might be:

Predioing malaria epidemics in Eihiopia fron iocai meteorological conditions

Attract the reade{'s attention

Sometimes a result is a clear ans'*'er to a "hot" topic. In that case you can formulate your title as the
ansu'er to your scientific question. For example:

Drug XXX causes blood pressure to increase in normai subjects

Formulate your title by puiting u'hat your reader finds important hrst. The following example would
be interesting to a phamacologist:

Drug XXX causes blood pressure to increase in normal subjects

However, a cardiologist wouid be more attracted to:

Blocd pressure in normai subjects is increased by drug XXX

Thinqs ta avoid

Dc not use "empty" and unnecessary words such as those underlined in the iollowing example.
Studv to determine the effecls of X)C( on YYY. ...:

More concise is:

Effects of XXX on YYY

Do not be "hun.rble" as in:

An atteilpt *'o transplant ...

Avoii the words "cheracteristics,'propeniesrelements" as in:

Characieristics of . ..
Replace "characieris"icslpropertieslelements" with ihe specific
characteristicsl'properties/elements yo1; are reporting on.

l:t-l t
 nouns iater on'
Do noi use "ihe" as the frrst wcrd in !'o,rr title but do use it before specific singular:

i|'rang:
![q effects cf X)ff on heari rate.

Correct:
Effects cf XXX on the heari rate

a more specific
Note in ihe above exampies that the word "effbcts" can someiimes be repiaced try
word as fclio$'s:
XXX increases ne arl xate.

The abstract

The purposes ofthe abstract are ro:

the details
- organize the entire articie for the reader and thereby guide him or her through
your work'
- summarize your articie for those v'ho are only interested in the highlights of

help the traveller find his way.

see your abstract as a map-it gives an oven,iew ofthe land features to
i" i.'riri, your abstract must gir. u,r"ry clear overvieu, ofthe structure ofyour article. So organize it
clearly.

The abstract tells vour storv in a nutshPll in an.orderlv manner

Longer absfacts are often not acceptabie and some
G@ four essential topics:
data bases f'Jncate abstracrs at 250 u'ords. Your abstract must include
"r,"'r*ti"
1. your scientific question
2. how you answered it
3. \\'hat your resuits u'ere
-1. rhe an,uer il Youi queslion

this in ihe example abstlact

Cleariy signal to youi reader the beginntng of each neu' topic. To iliustrate
each new
b"io*,. *".-huu" marked tire beginning oleach totic and un<ierlined the *'ords whrch sigrral
i0pic.
(2)ry9
(1)To rietermine if Y1Y is effecteC by drug )Q(X and if the effect is dose dependent'
Yl'Y over a 48 hour period in 36 subjects divided into 4 groups of 9 each' The
-;;*t"d
j"-"t_"in uu"n group received either 10, 20, 40 or g0 rcicrogram XXX/kg boCy-weight.
(3)Wefoundthat-YY.linc."as"dtc7iao/a}2ao/c,125o/aandl27giofbaseiineinthe4
times 'oetween a<iministralion of the drug
,lfr. ."-.p""ti""iy.. Furtherrcore, ihe elapsed 3.8
aad onset of the rncrease ia YYY were 2.5,2.7, and 6.3 hr respectively Lilern'ise' the
elapsei times betrn'een adrninislration arrd peak value of YIY were 3 7' 5'1' ?' 2 and
9-3 h:'

respectiveiy. In ali groups YY.ll- returned to normal rYiihin 36 hrs after administration.
(4)we conciude thai administration of drug X)o( causes an increase in YJY and that r,he
Cegree of increase is directly related tc the dose'

Furthern]cre, ihe patieni reaction iine to drug XXX is shoner ra'ith increasing dose.

R1-]R
if. a{ter w:iting these 4 topics, you stiii have space for more information, add the foliox,ing 2 topics:

5. E&y you asked the question which led to your speciic study-the "big
piciure". This belcngs at the 'neginaing of your abstract.
6" Tile consequences or inplications of your study-how the "big picture" has
changed as result of your study. This belongs at the end of your abstract.

Our example abstract above con@ins only 159 *'ords, giving us ihe chance to add more information.
Let's develop it by adding these 2 exr"ra topics. Once again, notice where they appear and how they are
signalled.
(5) Patients with ZZZ are often susceptible to fluctuations in their biood-level of YYY.
XXX is a reiativelv new dnlg for the treatment of ZZZ brtt its effeci on YYY is not known .
(i)To deiermine if YYY is effected by drug X)O{ and il the effect is dose depencient, (2)wc
measured YY!- over a 48 hour period in 36 normal volunteer subjects divided into 4
groups of 9 each. T'he subjects in each group :eceir.ed 1, 2, < or 8 mg )C(X,kg body-weight.
(3)We founri that YYY increased to i7a% ,iza%. I25'/o ana i27% of baseline in the +
groups respectively.. Furthermore, the elapsed times between adninistration of the drug
and onset of the increase in YYY were 2.5,2.7,3.8 and' 6.8 hr respectively. Likewise, the
elapsed iimes between administration and peak value of YYY were 3-7 , 5,1, 7 ,2 and 9.3 hr
respectively. In all groups YlY returned to normal within 36 hrs after administration.
(a)We esnclrlde ihai administration of drug )OC( causes a dose dependent increase in YYY
and that patient reaction time to drug X)O{ is shorter wit}r increasing dose. (6)This studv
suggests that drug XXX can cause undesirabie fluctuations in YYY, furiher complicating
treatmeni of ZZZ .

The abstract is now 202 wor<is long- a short, weil organized map ofthe article.

{Jse slona/ phrases

Topic to sigral Signaiing phrases

(1) your Present simpie
scientfic tense
questicn
To determine
i9whether ...
To test or
hypothesis that .. "

(2) how ycu Past sinapie tense

answered your
We measured...
scieirtifrc
we assessed ..,
quesilon
(3) Your results Past simpie tense
We found ...
(4) Your aaswer Present simple
to ]'our
scienti-flc
question.
We conclurie ihat

(5) Wly you .t'fesen: slmpie

askeC r,he tense
question
B1-19
 )fiX is known to ...
)O{X is often
caused by ...
X)o( s ,,'
(6) The Present simple
consequences or tense
imolications of 'lhese
vour studv
results/6ndings
suggest that ...
These
results/findings
demonstrate that

Thinos to avoid

- Do not use any abbrevialions in your abstract except those commonly used for ulits etc. lfyou
need to abbreviate to prevent repetition of long terms, first clearly defrne the abbreviation
- Do not write in telegram style-include necessary words such as: a./an, the, these/those etc.
- Do not include too many details----only the highlights.
- Do not include references unless they are absolutely essential for understanding.
- Do not discuss your results.
- Do not include an1'thing that is not in the main body ofyour article.

B1-20
Writi-rg for clruge - rnin nEm lnrp ://www.fahanuorg/WFCEng/sitenrap. hn:nl

Jkfswww

Effective writing : core

skills Writirig for science Writing for advocacy
INTR,ODUCTION INTRODUCTION UNDERST,ANDING ADVOCACY
Principles of effective writing A different form of writing Who you are writing for
What we will cover What to write for whom
CREATING A FI ESSAGE Constructing a message
Defining your purpose DEVELOPING THE CONCEPT Hearts and minds
Analysing your readership Why publish Pa ra digms

Writing a message sentence What to publish

Checking your message Your main message MEDIA FOR ADVOCACY
Your readership Articles
ORGANISING YOt.IR IDEAS Where to publish Leaflets
Creating a structure Newsletters
Colledanq evidence PREPARING AN OUTI-INE Pamphlets
Writing an outline Types of papers Press releases
Main message Posters

WRTTING A FIRST DRAFT Principal objective and hypothesis

Functions of prose lYaterials and methods
$Eesource €entre
Explanation techniques Principal findings
RESOT.'RCES
Summary and introduction Conclusions
Recommended reading
Navigation a ids Introduction
Useful journals and magazines
Resource materials Useful websites
using graphics WRTTING TFIE FIRST DRAFT
Elements of layout Deepening the outline
HELP
Introdudion
A quide for trainers
EFFECTlVE €DTTING Materials and methods
How to navigate
General p.inciples Results
Frequently asked questions
Constructing effective paragrdphs Discussion
Improvan9 your sentences Writing a first draft
W riting style
,rAa',rr rT r rc
Choosing your words
Fa ha mu
Authors
TOPPING ANf) TAII.ING
Acknowledge ments
Ti e
IDRC
Ethics of authorship
Abstrd ct
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
Editing your manuscript

PI.'BLISHING
Submitting the manuscript
Responding to editors
Correcting proofs
Marl<eting the publication

T-6"--l
FiXHImlNiIs:lii'If'l
This wod< is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Llcense

l of 1 t3/1,1,/2008 22..0:
CHECKLISTS

CHECKLIST FOR REVISION,]

The following guidelines are adapted lrom Advanced W ting in English. A

Guide for Dutch Authors by Sanders, Tingloo and Verhulst.

First make sure that the report is logically structured, then use the following
checklist to check style and correctness of expression.

Title
1 ls the title concise? Does it accurately represent the content?

Abstract
2 ls the abstract an accurate summary of the entire paper?
3 Have you included the main points from each major section of the report?

Introduction
4 Has the background been clearly established?
5 ls the purpose and assumptions clear?

6 ls the place of the study in the general frame of reference clear?

7 Have you anticipated the major valid criticism?

Methods/Procedures
8 Has enough detail been given? Would it be possible to replicate the study?
9 Have any unnecessary details been included?

Resu/ts
1O Have you summarised the data clearly in figures and tables?

1 1 ls your written description easy to understand?

12 Make sure you have not included too much discussion in this section.
Comments should be kept to a minimum unless the Results and Discussion
are being presented tog ether.

Discussions and Conclusions

13 Are the conclusions clearly stated? Can the reader quickly extract them
from the text?

14 Are the conclusions clearly related to the material, and in particular to the
question (hypothesis) in the introduction?

15 Have you mentioned ihe major limitations?

1 From Advanced Writing in Engtish, A Gutde for Dutch Authors Marianne Sanders,
And16e Tingloo and Hans Verhulst, published by Garant, 1992.
Some common problems - checklist
Checklist of common problems

P roblem Comment

A common complaint of lecturers is that

students in general tend to describe
rather than analyse in their writing. lt is
usually not enough simply to outline what
Too much description, not
you have read. You need to evaluate the
enough analysis
ideas, compare them with those of other
writers, and examine issues and
perspectives critically.

What helps:

linking words
transition sentences
careful paragraphing
Poor structure
'signpost' expressions
sub-headings
consistency between introductions and
conclusions

Do not use contractions.

Use academic written, not spoken
Wrong register (language too English.
informal) Avoid slang or colloquial language and
id iom.

Avoid'patchwork paraphrasing'.
lneffective paraphrasing

Whilst it is important to refer to other

writers in academic writing, it is also
important not to rely too heavily on their
Too many quotes
words. Try to paraphrase much more
than you quote.

Only use a direct quote if it is

particularly well-expressed or the ideas
Poor choice of quotes
are particularly significant. Appropraate
quotes used sparingly can greatly
 improve your writing, but using too many
quotes, particularly if they are not well
chosen, will detract from your writing.

Quantity of your references

lnsuffi cient or inadequate
Quality of your references
sources

Ensure you understand the style required

lncorrect referencing for the particular assignment.

Failure to acknowledge the source of all

ideas is a serious matter. Copying
Plagiarism directly from another text without
acknowledgement is even more serious.
'I'he'rnoves' cotnnlon to the ilrtroduction o[ an acadcntic paper:r

(l) Estrblish r problem (A-but B).

Mlke sure your reader will unclerstand what the problenl is, and why it is inlporlanl
(inportance can tre deirned in many wayst persoral interest, impact on some sociai
groip ot field of study, toPical interest relaled ro current events, through logically
extending sonte current research and showing llrat solving your Problem is the next
Iogical step, etc.)
lndicate missing information.
Summarize previous rescarch, showing that a 8ap exists which, if filled, could help
'solve'the problem.
(3) Prepare the way for your prcsenl researcll
Raise questiolts (about rvhat night be in tlie grp, rnd ways to find out)'
(4) lntroduce presettt research.
Describe how the paper will address one or rnore ol these questions, in order to fill
the knorvledgc gap you have identified

example/exercise: (l-l . White & L. Woestman ( 199'1) ''lhe Quality of Aid: Measuring Trends ln
Donor Performance', Dere[opn]enl and C]nnge,25(3) 521 54)

nrove (1)r There are uany indicators which can be used to judge the quality
of aid. Some are llot casy to nreasure (e.g, the degree of popular
larticipatron and, to a lesser excnt. poveny orienration) While we
consider these aspects inlpoilant. we do nol deal with them in this
paper. Rathcr, we concentrate on lour aspects of a donor's aid
progrlrrlnre wirich are readily quantiliable: (l) volume--
; (2) concessionality

move (2) ata on these four measures are published regularly by the
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) There has been some
academic attcntion to describing trends in the allocation of aid
(e.g. McCillivray, 1989; White and McGillivray, 1992)
tAl

;uesrions of the terrrs under which aid is qiven. E!rry9!!r.-!i!I$e

exceptton 0tMoslev'S(1985)aidqu tBl
In
rnoYe (3)
particuler there is no analysis of trends in these indicators over time, ot an
assessment of achievements againsi the historical evolution ol DAC targets.
move (tl) This paper iills this gaP.

l The origillal source on rhesc rnoves is J. Srvales (1981)llPccl-\ oIt\rttcle ltrroductions,

University ofAston
Research Reporl, Aslon, England.

2. in this cxample, moves (2) and (3) ovcrlap; also note thal
dellncd for a multidisciplinary audicnce (sladFd r,te'{l); ard
- terms have been are of lhe lroblem sli]lemenl hi]vp hcpn lrni:lerlinetl'
- lh€ (A-b!LB) lerms
The sqme introduction (revised qfter the test
reodings)

in developing countries lack access to

I hree quarrers ol.thc estimared three billion pcople living
'fhosc who livc in cities' wherc supplying
facilities
adequatc potablc water supplies and saniration
infrastrlrclure' nusl cope with supplies that are
water n]ay require complex lechnology and expensive
were water is
distributecl Thc majority' who live in rural areas
olten inefficiently used and inequitably
sources that may be pollutec.l with disease-carrying
rrvailabie. olien must carry water fiom c.listant

organisms.Theirneecisareaddressedbyruralwatersupplyprogranrnles'
are ditflcult to inlplement Onc of-the mosL
However, such rural water supply programmes
no1 designed lirr
rate of convenlional manual pumps' which are
important problems is the high lailure
cost and
rcceive in developing countries. Another is the
thc lcvel of stress and abuse they routinely
arc not
locally because the Dcccssary casi it on and steel
scarciry of spare pdrts, which cannot be made
in their
programmes generally lose out lo urban intercsts
readily available locally And finally' such

struggle to gain financial support'

and easily maintained handpump that can
supply
We have developed and tested an inexpensive
pumps are made oi polyvinyl ct oride (PVC) and
villages rvith clean water close to home. The
available in developing countries lhis means
the pumPS
polyethylene (PE), both of which are readily
Pumps were constructed in Malaysia
the Philippines' Sri
can be produced and nlaintained localiy

Lanka'.I.lrailand,Eth.iopiaandMahwi,aselectionofcountriesthatcoversavarietyol.environlnental
conditions.
the tcst o1'rr
'l'his paper provides the desigl speciiicalions lor the basic purlp lt then dcscribes
('n tllc pumP
tests' and the lour tle'igns h;rsctJ 'rriLlinxl
prololypc puurp. lhe rcsults o{ six-month field
qualitl' rviLs
1'or Irthiopia' irectusc PV(l ol srriilcicrrt
rhut resultcd: (a) a rrctal purrrp designcd
designed {br Malawi' bccause thc
whiteness ol'thc PVC
unavtilablc: (h) a rliftbrently-coloured pump
lttractcdhYclusthatcllcwedlhcpulnpS:(c;apurnpusingpistulrllllg\li-Li]Jeol-l'llll|1.,1''li!:|'!:!tatlr...r
scal
of locrlly-available pipc preventcd a gooci
dcsigned lbr Sri La*ka^ wherc the rough inside surface
was designcd tor Malal'sia
Lisittg conventiot.url tutterials: 'rnd (cl) a punlp Lrsing imprortccl naterial

llccauscthcsoiidl)Vf]nccdedttlnrakctirepiStollslvltsunavailablclocalll,''lhescrcsultsilpenthctr'al
lbrlhenextphaseol.lieldtesting,rvhicltwillr:onsiJcrrhcr.leill.cullLrralitndccotttltlliccl.Itctstllc
pumps could llrve trrl rural lilc'

. .1,.: i. .r. t. ,:,t ,:rr lrLiL:rilrrr i tl

, , )),- .')rtlrrr ;li 'lil .lllrir
Examples of thnee-move intnoductions

from development economicsl

(M 1 : orientation to topic): There are many indicators which can be used to judge the quality of aid

Some are not easy to measure (e.9. the degree of popular participation and, io a lesser extent, povedy
orienlailon) While we consider these aspects important, we do not deal with them in this paper.
(While A,B has been used to narrow the topic) Rather, we concenlrate on four aspects of a donor's
aid programme which are readily quanlifiable: (1) volume - the amount of aid given, (2)
concessionaiity - the financial terms and corlditions under which it is given, (3) tying -- the extent to
which a recipient country is required to use aid to purchase goods from the donor country; and (4)
allocation -- its geographical allocation lo recipients.
(M2a: what's already known)i Data on these four measures are published regularly by the
Developrnent Assistance cornmtttee (DAc). There has been son'te academic attention io describing
trends rn the allocation of aid (e.g. McGiilivray, 1989; White and ['4ccillivray '1992) Discussion on aid
tying began with the seminal work of Bhagwati ('1967) and has been recently analysed in detail by
Jepma (1991) Schrnldt (1964) and Leipziger (1983) inter alia have addressed questions of the terms
under which aid is given. (M2b begins) However, with the exception of N'4osley's (1985) aid quality
index, there have been few attempts to produce an overall picture of these quantiilable aspects. In
padicular there is no analysis of trends in these indicators over time, or an assessment of
achievements againsl the historical evolulion of DAC targets
(M3) This paper fills this gap. We deal, in parts 2 to 5, with volume concessionality' tying and
geographical allocation in turn. Trends... [l have not reproduced the remainder of the paragraph,
which outlines, section by section, the main argument of the paperl

from petroleum einginee?ingz

(M1: orientation to topic): Formation damage is a very cornrnon problem encountered in almost jn
presenl
every phase of reservoir development from drilling to production The fine particles always
the jeiroleum-bearing forrnatjon contribute a great deal to this. During driliing and completion, fluids
particu latj suspensions enter the formation. Chemical reactions can also generate particles
coniaining
within the-formation Fine particles loosely attached to sedimentary can be released when injection
fluids are incompatible with these minerais These particles migrate through the porous media' deposlt
porositY and permeability
on pore surfaces an.l becorne trapped at pore constrictions, reducing rock
(M2a: what's been done prevlously): l!4ost oi the previous studies of formation damage
focused primarily on single-phase fiow of inleciion fluids or fllirates. Several modelsl are available in
the literaiure thai describe formation damage due 10 particulate processes in singie-phase flow (M2b:
Although A,B is used to focus on the gap): AlthoLrgh Inultrphase flow ls more commonly
encOunt-ereO in p.lt-oieum teservoits, lhe i foimAitoit:''abcul fcrmaltcn darnage
ln mLllliphase flow is
lirnited, because ihe equipnrenl anC experimental selup required to study formation damage in
rather
(M3): Simulation studies such as the one
multiphase llow are more expensive and iime consuming
presentedherecanprovideapractiCalandIeSSexpensi\/ealternaliveforlhisploblem'jnthiSstudy'a
parlicle reLease and
sinrplified model based on mass conservation and late equalions representing
retention rs fits1 developed to describe formation damage in single and two phase flow The model is
then verifled and calibrated uslnq published laboratory core data

L Ilorvard Whitc.!nd I-ors woestman (M9'l) ' I he Quality oi'Aid: McasLtring Ttcnds in Donor
l)crlbrmance'
Dct c loD nent a ttd Clarr,qe. 35(3):527-54
.1. Rascd on Xinghui l-iu and Frrrrk Civan (199(r)'l'ormation Damageancl FilterClke Buildup il l-aboralor)'
ilr)rc Tcsts: mocl"ling a rtlodel-assisted lnalysis'. S1'./l -lior atlon Evol dliotl ll(1): 16-10
proficien t writ e rs: less experi cn ced writers:

have a purpose internal to the text, and lack a clear puryose and/or are
keep it in mind distracted by details while writing
look for structure and theme allow the 'need' to incorporate external
sources to structure their wrlring
check sources to veriry the accurary of check sources to make sure they've
their memory of the meaning ol a text 'covered'concepts
read critically read passively
record both the content of readings and take notes on the content of readings,
personal reactions/though ts inspired by and reread these as preparation for
the readings; may revise or look for writing,
themes and overall structures in their
notes before using them, so that parts of
the notes may be expanded to become
parts of a paper
spend relatively more time with spend relatively more time with
argument definition
use information from readings to use information lrom readings to
provide context for their own argument provide content for definitions
document sources in detail are uncertain about whicb sources
should be documented
have authoriry: feel'in control' of the feel dominated by the background
background reading they have done - readings because these are not easily
able to draw appropraite in-formatjon accessed in memory, assigning authority
from rnemory and using these to 10 the readings but nor to the self
contextualize or strengthen the authors'
-
either avoiding or over-relying on
points reierebces to others'workl ciring too
seldom and copying too much
use their conscious processing capacity use their conscious processing capaciry
for focus, style, etc.; it is possible that for rerding. rereeding and trying to
relyrng on purpose, theme and structure re call unsorted and unciustered
frees processing capaciry to generate information from background texts,
ideas not specifically presenl in leaving little capaciry fiee to generate
background links original ideas. Having found usabie
information in readings, this becomes
the focus of the writer's text, rvith the
writer responding to lhe source text.
This summarizes the findings and notes some of the implications of a study on the use
ol source texts: Cherry Carnpbell (1987) Wnting With Otlrcrs'Wards: The LIse of
Information from a Background Rectding Tert tn the lliting of Ncttive and Non-Natit,e
University Composition Students. unpublished PhD disserration, Universiry of
California, Los A:.rgeles CA USA.
Useful phrases for building effective arguments:

draw a distinction between / make a comparison between

raise important questions take into consideration

make a case for / put greater emphasis on / . .. fall into two categories

many studies have attempted to assess the significance of...

lend support to the theory that ... / draw an analogy

draw attention to new research which suggests ... /

present the case for ... / put forward the argument that ...

draw the conclusion that / briefly summarize ...

Weak argument:

Offer a tentative explanation / supporting evidence

The data broadly supports the view that .. ,

Medium strength argument:

Provide evidence to support the claim that . ..

Establish a connection between ...

Strong argument:

This is a clear illustration of. ..

The data does OR does not show a significant trend

We would like to offer proof that .. .

We challenge the theory that ...

Govering letter (1st submission)

"Sell" your paper to the journal editor

1. Describe your work in a few sentences + indicate why it is important (answer to ,'so
what")
2. Explain how your work matches the journal's scope & aims, and why it wourd be of
interest to the journal's readers
3. Specify the journal section or format you want your work to be published in
4. state clearly that your paper describes original work that has not been published
elsewhere, nor is it being considered elsewhere for publication.
5. complete the covering letter by including all administrative and ethical demands
made by the journal * see lnstructions fo aufhors.
6. State how correspondence should be handled.

Covering letter (response to editor's decision/ reviewers, comments)

Lay the foundations for a dralogue with the editor (and indirectty, the referees)

1. Acknowledge
- the care and attention demonstrated by the reviewers
- ihat the comments have been useful and that all have been considered
- the consiructive effect of the review on the quality of your paper

2. Point out things you have put right in your paper & what you are maintaining. Keep
your discussions professional, logical and to the point
- discuss (agreemenVd isagreement) maior themes that have been raised by the
reviewers; suppo( your arguments with literature and/or data

.- deal point for point with items in your paper what you will change, what not, and
why, etc.
3. Make changes to youT manuscript (use <track changes> to make the change easrly
visible)
Choosing a journal to publish in

The journal you choose to publish in witt affect:

. Readers reached (target audience)
. Chances of acceptance
. Variety of publishing formats available (e.g. full research paper, clinical report,
short communication)
. How long you may have to wait for a publishing decision ( = submission,
acceptance span)
. How long you may have to wait for publication (lead time = acceptance *
publication span)
. Publication media used (= electronic, paper, or both)
o Accessibility to articles through the Web
. How your work is presented (copy-editing available - yesi no)
. Visual appearance of your work (house style, etc.)
. How your work is perceived (Journal repuiation, impact factor, ranking)

Steps towards selecting a journal to publish in

1. ldentify key target audience(s) (discipline, theme, region, specialization)

2. Scan library shelves, internet, references in related papers to create,,long list"
3. Match scope & aims of interesting journals against your work - do they fit?
4. Check instructions for authors = any restrictions? Formats available?
5. Scan recent issues = confirm suitability ofjournal, themes, hot topics, etc.
6. Decjde on the importance for you of the following factors:

- speed of publication (review, acceptance, lead time)

acceptance rates

- journal reputation (impact factor)

publication medla (web, print, other)

- accessibility (indexing, open access, non-subscriber access)

7. Draw up journal shortlist

B. Review strengths/ weaknesses to select 2 journals ("Plan A" & "Plan B")
Choose to be a player, not the ball!

Authors can feei over-awed at the prospect of making demands of a journal's editor
when they need help to deal effectively with the acceptance and publishing systems
used by the journal.

Generally these systems are based on transparent and commonly accepted

procedures that seem to run themselves. However, there are moments in the process
when authors can assed their "player" status to maximize their chances of getiing
their research published.

Moments for authors fo assed their "playef' status are;

. When choosing a journal - authors may ask editors about the suitability
of a topic for their particular journal.

. When preparing the article follow the instructions to authors

-
meticulously. Demonstrate that your article "belongs" in the journal.

. When submitting an article (1) * authors should briefly describe the

importance of their paper and explain why they are submitting to the
journal.

. When submitting an article (2) - authors may suggest the names of

potential referees or the names of people that should not be approached
as reviewers (give plausible reasons).

. When waiting for the editor's decision(s) - authors should not wait
more than 6-8 weeks during the review process without asking the editor
about the status of their paper. For follow-up stages, make enquiries no
later than 4 weeks after returning a revised paper.

. When receiving contradictory or confusing comments from

reviewers - authors may and should ask the editor for guidance.

. When responding to reviewers' criticisms - authors should respond to

the editor in a way that encourages a dialoque about the merits of their
ideas vs. those of the reviewers- The system aims to be obiective and
impaftial. Act as if it is. Dare it to be otheruise!

o ccs, 2008