icsbe.: ISTEcS ISBN 978-602-98397-4-6 a EXPERIENCES WITH RIVERBANK FILTRATION IN JORDAN AND INDIA Thomas BOVING'’, Pamela CADY*, B.S, CHOUDRI”, Kavita PATIL* ABSTRACT: In many countries, ie Jordan and India, access to clean water is a major factor limiting economic development. Environmentally and financially sustainable water treatment solutions are needed to provide clean water - especially in mostly underserved rural farming communities or a8 @ response to natural disasters that have disrupted conventional water treatment systems. A versatile and resilient water treatment technology known as a Riverbank Filtration (RBF) system can turn heavily polluted surface water into clean irrigation water or, possibly, drinking water. Thus, RBF can permit the reuse of surface water resources that otherwise should not be used for irigation or domestic purposes. While RBF technology is already widely utilized in many developed countries, itis only recently that this technology has attracted the attention of water treatment professionals in the developing world. This paper provides an overview of two REF projects carried out in Jordan and India, respectively. The principal goal of these projects was to determine the feasibilty of a small- scale RBF system under environmental and economic conditions typical for many developing regions. In Jordan, it was demonstrated that water can be improved by RBF - even if the main source of surface water is @ river heavily contaminated with sewage water. Tracer tests in the RBF catchment area showed thatthe treatment is predicable, which is a major prerequisite for implementing additional RBF systems within the same watershed. At the Indian site, extensive hydrogeological and geochemical investigations were carried out together with household surveys conducted before and after introduction of RBF. These surveys gauged the acceptance of RBF technology by the community ‘and provided insights into financial support of RBF systems. The hydrogeological and geochemical investigations demonstrated that REF systems can be engineered to meet water quality standards while also satisfying local water quantity requirements KEYWORDS: Riverbank fitration, water treatment, sustainable technology, water quality. 4. INTRODUCTION Riverbank Filtration (REF) technology offers an inexpensive, widely applicable means to remove large amounts of contaminants (including pathogens) without the use of chemicals. This is possible because RBF relies on natural fitration processes, such as biotransformation and predadation, in combination with smart hydrogeological engineering. There are many advantages of using REF for water treatment (Schubert, 2004), including removal of particles and turbidity, removal of bacteria, viruses, parasites, biodegradation of micro-pollutants, avoidance of mutagenic disinfection byproducts as well as smoothing out variations in temperature and concentration, particularly compensation for peaks and shock loads. In RBF systems (Figure 1), water is withdrawn from one or more wells near a river. Wells may either be vertical or horizontal and ideally are installed more than 50 meters away from the river. By pumping an RBF well, the river water (together with some groundwater) is forced to flow through porous riverbed (alluvial) sediments. As raw surface water travels towards the RBF well, pathogens and dissolved/suspended chemicals are removed or * Professor, University of Rhode Island, Dept. of Geosciences, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Woodward Hall Rm. 314, Kingston, Ri, 02881 (USA). PH: (401) 874 7053, FAX: 401) 874 2190, Email bovina@uriedu, Webpage: hia /sveb uri edugeothomas-bovingl 2 Master Student, University of Rhode Island, Dept. of Geosciences, Woodward Hall Kingston, Rl, 02881 (USA). ° Conte ox Environmental Studies and Research (CESAR), Suan Qaboos University, PO. Box 17, P.C.128, _, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. “The Energy and Resources Insitute (TER), Coastal Ecology and Marine Resources Centre, Southern Regional Centre, Vasucha Housing Colony, Alto Santa Cruz, Goa-403 202, Indiaicsbe.: ISTEcS ISBN 978-602-98397-4-6 seeenmertenes | ener significantly reduced via a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes. These natural treatment processes are auto-regenerative so that a properly engineered RBF system can essentially remain effective indefinitely (Schubert, 2002). By relying on natural treatment processes and without using chemicals, pathogen and heavy metal concentrations as well as toxic organic chemical levels are reduced or eliminated. Furthermore, by abstracting from surface water, stressed local groundwater resources are protected. From the RBF well, water flows in metered pipes towards the end-user or storage tanks. By implementing gravity flow to the degree possible, energy costs can be saved and continuous service can be maintained should the power grid fail RBF Well Figure 1. Cross section of a Riverbank Filtration (RBF) system. RBF has been used in Europe for over a hundred years and is now a widely accepted pre- treatment technology preceding more advanced treatment operations (e.g. Schmidt et al., 2003; Ray et al., 2002). For example, REF provides 75% of the water supply of the German capital Berlin (Hiscock, 2005). In the Netherlands, RBF contributes ca. 7% (80 Mm*/a) of the national drinking water supply, through a total of 26 well fields (Stuyfzand et al., 2004). ‘Compared to Europe, the United States has adopted RBF only much more recently. In the US, it is estimated that 67 million people can potentially be served by riverbank filtration (Hubbs et al., 2004). Current regulations pertaining to RF systems, such as the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR) (US EPA 2003), focus primarily on the removal of microbial pathogens. ‘There are a number of reasons why RBF technology is well suited for use in both developing and industrial countries (Boving et al., 2014). For instance, RBF can be i) implemented along most rivers and even lakes; ii) is a mechanically simple, easily understood technology that can be inexpensively designed and built; and ii) is scalable so it can meet the needs of small farms, rural villages or even larger urban areas. In fact, RBF might be the only viable option for many remote villages that cannot afford more complex and expensive water treatment technologies, such a reverse osmosis. Additionally, given favorable hydrogeological conditions, installing RBF systems might be an appropriate first response to natural disasters that disrupted conventional water treatment systems.ISBN 978-602-98397-4-6 2, DESCRIPTION OF FIELD SITES AND METHODS: 2.1. JORDAN Approximately 90% of Jordan is arid or semi-arid. This climate severely limits the amount of available water resources, particularly groundwater. The study area was located in the Amman-Zarga River Basin (3,918 km’). This is the most important basin in Jordan because it covers the transitional areas between high lands in the west and deserts in the east. This transition reflects not only the climatological changes, but also changes in habitat and land use patterns. The major hydrologic problems in this basin are declining groundwater levels due to over-pumping and resultant increasing total dissolved solids (TDS) (> 2,500 ppm at present). The Zarqa River water quality has deteriorated to the extent that it is no longer Suitable for unrestricted irrigation ‘The REF well and five monitoring wells were installed in unconsolidated alluvial deposits with depths ranging from 16.7 m to 21.6 m below ground surface (bgs). Depth to bedrock was approximately 21 m bgs. All wells were completed with 10 inch steel casing. Welded holes served as screen from the bedrock to top of the aquifer located approximately 4 m bgs. Each wellhead was encased in concrete and capped for protection. A 4 inch, 5 horsepower electrical pump (Grundfos brand mode! 8550) and a certified, calibrated flow meter was installed. The pump produced water at a steady flow rate of 10 to 15 m’/hr. Aquifer and tracer tests were conducted to characterize the well field and the amount of water pulled in from the river. Water quality samples were collected periodically, including for fecal indicator microorganisms (Escherichia coli and Enterococci) and bacteriophages [somatic coliphages (SOMCPH), F-specific bacteriophages (FPH) and somatic salmonella phages (SOMSPH)]. ‘The results were used to rate the removal performance of the RBF well field. Details about the mirobiological and hydrogeological studies are summarized by Boving et al. (2010). 2.2. INDIA ‘The RBF study was conducted in a rural area alongside the perennial Kali River in northwestern Karnataka, India. The Kali River flows 185 km from the Western Ghats to the Arabian Sea. Its average annual discharge rate is 197 m° per second at its lower reaches (Radhakrishna and Vaidyanadhan, 1997). At the study site, the river’s maximum depth was about 8 meters and, according to local fishermen, varies by 4 meters or more during the seasons. The RBF well field was installed approximately 5 km downstream from the town of Dandeli (population 46,760) and near the small village of Kariyampalli (population ~1,000) Industrial and municipal effluents released upstream cause water pollution throughout the year. Due to lack of other options and weak enforcement of existing water quality tegulations, contaminated river water serves many uses here, including drinking and flood irrigation of rice paddies (Boving et al, 2014), Four wells were drilled approximately perpendicular to the river with the farthest well (MW) 79 m away from the riverbank. An existing open well (KOW) is located 125 m away from the river. Although one RBF well would have been sufficient, multiple wells were installed to ‘systematically study the well field hydraulics and changes in RBF water quality with distance from the river. The well depths ranged from 20 m to 25 m bgs. The static water levels were ‘approximately 4 m bgs in all wells. The pumping rate at principal RBF well (MW3; 52 m from the river) was 8 m'/hr on average. Aquifer and tracer tests were conducted to describe the hydraulics of the well field. More technical and hydrogeological information is provided by Boving et al. (2014). Water quality samples were collected for one year, covering both wet (Monsoon) and dry seasons. Microbial test parameters included fecal indicatorISBN 978-602-98397-4-6 microorganisms Escherichia coll (E.coll) and total coliform. Details about these studies are summarized in Cady et al. (2013). 3. RESULTS AND SUSTAINABILITY Both, in Jordan and India, the RF well fields yielded sufficient water to meet the needs of the local communities. In Jordan, most of the water was utilized by a nursery for irrigation of crops and plants. In India, the RBF substituted for the existing open well and primarily served domestic needs. ‘The results from Jordan indicate a very good hydraulic connection between the RBF well and the nearby Zarga River. The comparison of REF well water and the Zarqa River showed that fecal indicator bacteria and bacteriophages were removed by 3.4 — 4.2 logis and 2.7 - 3.3. logis, respectively. The removal was accomplished within 5 meters from the river’s edge. ‘The data set indicates that a substantial reduction of microbial matter can be achieved even over short distances and short travel times between the RBF well and the river (Boving et al., 2010), In India, the hydraulic testing and hydrogeochemical investigations demonstrated that the RBF water quality and quantity meets and exceeds most local water quality standards. RBF water fecal bacteria concentrations were orders of magnitude lower than in the river water. The removal of heavy metals and improved water turbidity produced water that complied with theindian drinking water standards (Cady et al., 2013). The yield of the principal RBF well was sufficient to supply at least 4,000 people with 55 L/day/capita as required by the Indian government. Between 27% and 73% of the RBF water originated from the river. This is similar to results found in other RBF studies (Grischeck et al., 2010; Hoppe-Jones et al.; 2010, Kelly and Rydlund, 2006; Schmidt et al., 2003; Schubert, J., 2002). A fraction of the RBF well water was drawn in from nearby rice paddies that were irrigated with river water (Boving et al., 2014). 3.1. TECHNICAL SUSTAINABILITY RBF technology is sustainable and protects water resources because treatment by RBF permit re-use of surface water that otherwise cannot be used without risking human health. Also, when RBF water substitutes for groundwater, it helps relieve stress on aquifers due to ‘over-pumping groundwater. For the management of RBF systems, the catchment and infiltration zone, mixing proportions in the raw pump water, flowpaths, and flow velocities of the bank filtrate need to be known (Hiscock, 2005). Many of these factors and processes are well understood, but there are a umber of site specific parameters that must be investigated at each potential REF site. For example, an important factor affecting the performance of an REF system is the formation of a schmutzdecke (colmation layer) at the interface between ground- and surface water. This layer can reduce hydraulic conductivity due to clogging from the input of sediment particles, microbial matter, or geochemical reactions within the aquifeririverbed interface. This process of riverbed clogging can be offset by the regenerative process of streambed scouring (Schubert, 2002). Or, biomass growth can affect the performance of a Riverbank Filtration system (eg. von Gunten and Zobrist, 1993; Baveye et al, 1998; Kildsgaard and Engesgaard, 2002; Ray, 2002; Engesgaard et al., 2004). All these processes can impact the dynamic and static hydraulic forces and may vary significantly in space and time. Together, they affect the amount and quality of water that can be produced. Therefore, the identification of a proper RBF site and the design and installation of an RBF well needs to be supervised by an experienced hydrogeologist or engineer.icsbe.; ISTEcS ISBN 978-602-98397-4-6 Smack ee 3.2. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY For a single small-scale farmer in India or Jordan, installing an individual RBF system typically does not make economic sense. However, if communities pool their financial resources, RBF technology is within reach. Based on our studies, we project that rural Indian villages of at least 500 households present a financially viable market for RBF technology. Our project demonstrated that revenue can be generated by fee-based access to the RBF water distribution system. Further, while more applicable to larger RBF systems, water fees can be set up as alternative increasing block tariffs (AIBT) ~ “use more, pay more”. Such a fee structure is likely to encourage the efficient use of water, which is an environmental benefit. We investigated the wilingness to pay for RBF water. The vast majority of interviewed villagers agree to support a water fee system if the collection and handling of the fees is fully transparent and multiple trusted people are in charge (Water User Association) (Boving et al., 2012) Direct effects of switching to RBF water instead of relying on polluted river water are (1) crops grown with high quality irrigation water can demand higher prices in the market and (2) clean water improves the health of people. Higher income together with improved health lifts living standards. Another benefit is job creation, i.e. to operate and maintain an RBF system, technicians and water quality controllers need to be hired. This diversifies job opportunities in the mostly agricultural communities investigated in our study areas. Also, we postulate that ‘women are likely to benefit indirectly from RBF because when clean water is delivered closer to their homes, women spent less time collecting water from the river or other sources. This frees them up to spend more time to seek paid work or supervise the schooling of their children. 4, CONCLUDING REMARKS, Many different water treatment technologies exist but most are not available or cannot be utilized by communities in developing or emerging economies. In many cases, this is due to a lack of understanding of the end users’ needs or simply because of high cost and technological complexity of the treatment methods. Implementing low-cost, low-tech RBF systems ~ especially small scale ones ~ in countries like India or Jordan may help to alleviate these problems such as financing and maintaining water treatment systems. Our studies showed that REF treatment can turn polluted rivers into useful water resources. Also, an RBF system can be effectively managed by a local community if trained appropriately in matters of quality control, budgeting, and management. But, more research is needed to test the sustainability of small, community operated RBF systems in developing countries. In this context, we encourage an investigation of RBF systems in the Circuit Rider Model, in which a small group of qualified water technicians rotate through a circuit of RBF ‘communities, sharing resources (testing equipment etc.) and providing advice and training to local operators on issues of sustainability, governance, treatment technologies, operations and maintenance. Finally, RBF is a mechanically simple, easily understood technology that can be inexpensively and quickly built along most rivers and even lakes. This can make RBF technology a viable option for remote villages that cannot afford more complex and expensive water treatment or groundwater access technologies. For the same reasons, installing RBF systems might be an appropriate first response to natural disasters where the conventional water treatment systems have been destroyed.icsbe>: ISTE’S ISBN 978-602-98397-4.6 Mena 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Jordanian project was funded by NATO — Science for Peace Programme. The REF project in India was made possible by the World Bank - Developing Marketplace program. We would like to thank the following team member for their contributions: Dr. Ismail ‘Saadoun, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan; Dr. J. Schijven, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), The Netherlands; Dr. M. Shawaqfah, Mu'tah University, Jordan, Dr. Ziad AlGhazawi, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan; Mr. Jamal Al-Rashdan, Water Authority of Jordan, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Jordan; Mr. V. Reddy, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI, India); Ms. A. Cording, University of Vermont, USA; and Dr. W. 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