Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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This publication was made possible by the kind support of
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TALL WOOD BUILDINGS
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE
MICHAEL GREEN
JIM TAGGART
Birkhuser
Basel
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Layout, cover design and typography Miriam Bussmann, Berlin
Editor Ria Stein, Berlin
Production Katja Jaeger, Berlin
Project management for MGA | Michael Green Achitecture
Stuart Lodge, Vancouver
Paper135g/m2 Hello Fat matt 1.1
Printing Grafisches Centrum Cuno GmbH & Co. KG, Calbe
Cover Wood Innovation and Design Centre, Prince George, Canada
Cover photograph Ed White, Vancouver
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases.
For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.
Printed in Germany
ISBN 978-3-0356-0475-7
987654321
www.birkhauser.com
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CONTENTS
Fire Safety 39
PREFACE: WOOD, A MATERIAL FOR OUR TIME 8 Acoustic Performance 43
Thermal Performance 48
Conclusion 51
1 INTRODUCTION: WOOD, SUSTAINABILITY
AND CLIMATE CHANGE 12
6
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 52
Forests Today 12.
Off-Site and On-Site Construction 52
Sustainable Forest Management 13
Integrated Design 54
The Role of Forests in the Carbon Cycle 15
Conclusion 57
Carbon Storage, Wood Substitution and
Embodied Energy 17
7 TECHNOLOGY 58
CNC Manufacturing 58
Connection Systems 59
PRINCIPLES OF TALL WOOD BUILDINGS
Load Transfer 60
Conclusion 61
2 BUILDING TALLER WITH WOOD 20
hy Not Wood? 20
W
Building Codes 21
CASE STUDIES
Government Policies and Market Incentives 22
Conclusion 24
8 PANEL SYSTEMS 62
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9 FRAME SYSTEMS 100
ullitt Center
B
Seattle, USA 118
LCT One
Dornbirn, Austria 142
Acknowledgments 174
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FOREWORD
We are living in an age which will come to be dominated by our relationship with the planet. As the
changes to our climate become ever more apparent, the way we live and inhabit the earth will, by
necessity, be transformed.
A fundamental change in the way in which we build our cities is imperative, re-learning how to build
in timber and how to build tall with the new engineered timbers that the 21st century technologies
allow will be fundamental to our future. This new age of architecture takes us beyond the notions of
modernism and concrete construction to a new timber age.
Timber is the only construction material that can be grown and as it grows it consumes carbon.
Using timber not only reduces our impact on the planet but will also help to reverse some of the ef-
fects of 20th century industrialization. Timber construction is not only healthy for our planet but is
also healthy for humans. Living and working in timber buildings is good for the soul and good for
health. The time has come again to leave behind inhospitable concrete caves and embrace the tim-
ber age.
A new architecture will emerge as we learn how to build in timber. We are the very beginning of this
new and exciting era, this book marks the beginning of this new age and will help to provide the in-
spiration and momentum for the exciting new architecture to come.
Andrew Waugh
Waugh Thistleton Architects, London
August 2016
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WOOD, A MATERIAL FOR OUR TIME
As the 21st century unfolds, architecture stands at a the Earths climate system had reached a significant
crossroads. Until now there has been no reason to and disturbing milestone. For the first time since the
challenge the supremacy of concrete and steel as the NOAA began measuring the concentration of carbon
materialsof choice for high-rise buildings, but in the dioxide in the atmosphere at 40 sites around the
past decade our evaluation criteria have become more globe, the average of those monthly measurements
complex. The core tenets of commodity, firmness and exceeded 400 parts per million (ppm).
delight, first proposed by the Roman architect Vitru According to the NOAA, this represents an increase of
vius 2000 years ago as the prerequisites for a fine approximately 120ppm since industrialization began
building, now fall within a framework of pressing glob- about 200 years ago. As we know, the rapid rise in CO2
al imperatives that are daunting in both scale and emissions has been driven by technological develop-
scope. The practice of architecture must now encom- ment, population growth and the commensurate in-
pass the issues of climate change, population growth, crease in fossil fuel consumption. However, the accu-
and a global housing shortage. mulation of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the
In the spring of 2015, the National Oceanic and Atmo- atmosphere has not been linear, as 60ppm of the in-
spheric Administration (NOAA), a scientific agency crease has occurred in the last 50 years, and 7.5ppm
based in Washington, DC, announced that changes in in the last three years alone.
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a Material for our Time | 9
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10|PREFACE Authenticated | ecoronel@uazuay.edu.ec
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between 5% and 8% of global GHG Greenhouse emis- The expansion of wood construction at this scale must
sions. We produce approximately 3 tonnes of concrete be predicated on the exclusive use of material harvest-
per year for every person on the planet. Although this ed from independently certified, sustainably managed
figure also includes concrete used in a variety of infra- forests.Only third-party certification provides the
structure applications, it nonetheless represents a sig- necessary guarantee that the rate of wood harvest
nificant proportion of the emissions attributable to the does not exceed the rate of forest regeneration, and
construction and operation of buildings. As for steel, will therefore not result in deforestation and further
while it is less carbon-intensive than concrete, and is contribute to climate change.
relatively efficient to recycle, the production of steel The purpose of this book is to present the arguments
accounts for about 4% of global energy use.5 in favour of Tall Wood buildings and to showcase
To address the housing shortage, construction activity completed projects that demonstrate the applicability
in the developing world will have to increase exponen- of this technology to construction across a wide range
tially, yet our current materials and technologies can- of building types, and in a variety of physical and cul-
not deliver this increased volume of construction with- tural contexts.
out grave negative consequences for the environment. While Tall Wood construction can only ever be part of
If we were to proceed with business as usual, the in- the solution to the social and environmental challeng-
crease in construction activity would generate incalcu- es we face, its adoption around the world would repre-
lable quantities of greenhouse gases, and a potentially sent the kind of transformational thinking and cooper-
catastrophic acceleration of climate change. ative action that will be essential if we are to restore
While reducing the operating energy required to heat equilibrium to the worlds climate system, and elimi-
and cool buildings is dependent on regionally based nate the inequities that have contributed to our cur-
solutions that respond to the particularities of local rent problems.
climate, reducing the energy intensity of building con-
struction can be achieved using a universal approach. Michael Green and Jim Taggart
The typologies of mid- and high-rise urban housing Vancouver, Canada
are essentially the same everywhere, and currently re- May 2016
alized using a combination of load-bearing concrete
masonry and concrete or steel frame systems. The
only material we have available to us that could deliver
REFERENCES
housing solutions on the scale required and at the
same time reduce the GHG emissions associated with 1 NASA (2014). Global Climate Change Vital Signs of the Planet.
construction is wood. Retrieved from NASA scientists react to 400 ppm carbon
milestone. http://climate.nasa.gov/400ppmquotes/
New massive wood products such as cross-laminated
2 UN Habitat (2014). World Habitat Day Background Paper. Retrieved
timber (CLT), together with computerized design and from http://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/
fabrication techniques, have accelerated the develop- WHD-2014-Background-Paper.pdf
ment of new approaches to building with wood. Calcu- 3 Ross, A. (2011). Bird on Fire: Lessons from the Worlds Least
Sustainable City. Oxford University Press.
lations have indicated that some of these approaches
4 United Nations Environmental Program (2013). Buildings and
may be applied to structures in excess of 40 storeys. Climate Change: Summary for Decision Makers. Retrieved from http://
Although research and development of these new ap- capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/unep/document/buildings-and-climate-
change-summary-decision-makers
proaches is concentrated in Europe and North Ameri-
5 UN IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007 Mitigation of Climate
ca, the implications for the global construction indus- Change. Retrieved from http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/
try are profound. ar4/wg3/ar4_wg3_full_report.pdf
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Wood, a Material for our Time | 11
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WOOD, SUSTAINABILITY AND
CLIMATE CHANGE
At least in theory, wood is the ultimate sustainable major wood-producing countries of the developed
building material. It is strong, durable, renewable and, world. Thus the focus of this book is on those regions;
above all, manufactured by the sun. In practice, how continental Europe, Scandinavia, North America and
ever, what remains at issue, is whether we can manage Australasia.
our forest resources in a way that meets our needs
without reducing their area, or compromising the eco- FORESTS TODAY
logical services they provide as reservoirs of carbon, As long ago as 2001, the United Nations Food and
purifiers of air and water, sanctuaries of biodiversity griculture Organization (UNFAO) determined that,
A
and providers of animal habitat. inthese regions at least, loss of forest cover is no
These concerns are legitimate, as deforestation and longer a quantitative issue. In parts of Europe, the
itsnegative effects remain a significant problem in United States and Canada, the area of forests is actu-
some regions of the developing world. While forest ally increasing, with North America now approaching
certification organizations continue to work with the level of forest cover it had when the first European
governments and industry in these areas to establish settlers arrived in the early 17th century.1
sustainable forest management (SFM) practices and The nature and make-up of contemporary forests var-
protocols, these are already in place throughout the ies significantly from country to country according to
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World map depicting overall forest cover
m3/hectare
<50 150200
50100 >200
100150 no data
>500 250500
250500 50250
50250 >500
800
400
200
0
Africa Asia Europe North Oceania South
Central America
America
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ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
CO
CO CO2
2 2
ROT
ROT
ROT BURN
BURN
BURN However, the capacity of this system has been com-
Carbon cycle for a natural forest promised by deforestation, population growth and by
the increased per capita impact of human activity de-
pendent on fossil fuel. This process has accelerated
ATMOSPHERIC CO2 rapidly in the last 200 years and we are now entering a
period of unprecedented climate instability.
not diminish overall forest carbon stocks or contribute annual growth rate. This annual increase in wood fibre
to climate change. volume is known as the stem wood increment. Over
time, harvesting at a rate less than the stem wood in-
Carbon Sequestration crement will result in an overmature forest, just as
In addition to measuring forest carbon stocks, sustain- surely as harvesting at a rate greater than the stem
able forest management techniques can also enable wood increment will ultimately result in deforestation.
us to optimize the relationship between forest growth While ongoing monitoring through SFM protocols is
and wood production. The rate at which trees absorb required, there is a potential benefit to climate change
CO2 varies with species, but in all cases is directly pro- mitigation if we harvest at a rate equal (or close) to
portional to the rate of growth. Saplings and young the stem wood increment. By optimizing the volume
trees grow very rapidly, but as trees mature their rate of wood fibre harvested from our forests in this way,
of growth slows, and consequently their rate of CO2 we can also optimize carbon sequestration.
absorption. In overmature trees CO2 absorption stops
altogether. When trees die and start to decay, they be- CARBON STORAGE, WOOD SUBSTITUTION
gin to release the CO2 they contain. Without continu- AND EMBODIED ENERGY
ous regeneration, forests can actually become net When we transform wood into building products or
emitters of CO2. other durable items (although not pulp and paper),
SFM can optimize the carbon sequestration rate of the benefits of carbon storage become longlasting.
forests through a managed process of harvesting and The carbon in the products made from harvested trees
regeneration. For every climate, region and forest type, remains encapsulated, while the new trees planted in
there is an optimal amount of harvest based on the their place begin to bind new carbon, ensuring that
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6
Wood
5 Steel
Concrete
normalized to wood value = 0.75
0
Fossil Resource Global Acidification Eutrophication Ozone Smog
energy use warming depletion potential
impact
the cycle continues. The amount of carbon stored in same functions (whether beams or columns, floors or
wood varies with tree species, but for most softwoods walls), so the most meaningful method for presenting
used in construction, the rate of storage is approxi- data is in the form of a whole structure or whole build-
mately 1 tonne of CO2 per cubic metre. ing comparison. Embodied energy and related GHG
The environmental benefits of wood are further en- emissions can then be calculated for identical build-
hanced when one takes into account that an increase ings constructed in each material or combination of
in the use of wood results in a commensurate reduc- materials.
tion in the use of other more carbon-intensive mate In the last ten years, analysis of wood structures, such
rials. Furthermore, the processing of harvested trees as the structure and cladding of the Eugene Kruger
into sawn lumber or engineered wood products also Building in Quebec City, Canada [ill.p.17 left] and
takes considerably less input energy than that re- many others since, have consistently demonstrated
quired to process other common construction materi- reductions in embodied energy and GHG emissions of
als such as steel and concrete [ill.p.18 above]. 5090% when compared to steel or concrete systems.
When used in reference to building construction, the One advantage for wood products is that many saw-
term embodied energy means the amount of energy mills and manufacturing plants now generate their
required to extract, process, fabricate, transport and electricity using wood waste bio-fuel, which is a car-
install a particular material or product. The amount bon-neutral energy source.
of embodied energy will be influenced by the energy With respect to the embodied energy due to transpor-
intensity of the processes used for extraction and tation, distance is only part of the equation. In the
production, the distance that raw materials and fabri- United Kingdom, which does not have sufficient locally
cated components must travel, and the mode of trans- grown timber, nor the infrastructure to manufacture
portation used. In regard to extraction and production massive wood products, cross-laminated timber panels
processes, there is an assumed relationship between fabricated in Germany and Austria and transported by
embodied energy and GHG emissions, although this road are calculated to have a lower carbon footprint
will vary according to the source of energy used (the sum of the GHG emissions related to embodied
whether hydro-electricity, coal or another fuel. Pub- energy) than locally manufactured concrete. Similarly,
lished data can be confusing, as comparisons of GHG and more surprisingly, Australias Lend Lease Corpora-
emissions are sometimes presented by volume and tion determined that significant carbon savings are
sometimes by weight. possible with massive timber even when procuring
Materials such as wood, steel and concrete require non-local materials. CLT imported from Austria was
different cross sections or dimensions to perform the used in the construction of its Forte Building, a ten-
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Sustainability and Climate Change | 19
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BUILDING TALLER WITH WOOD
The transformation of societies throughout the world, asonry or steel. With its compelling environmental
m
from predominantly rural ones to predominantly urban benefits relative to these other materials, it is impera-
ones, continues to gain momentum. Seen as centres tive that wood takes its place in the construction of
of opportunity, creativity and innovation, cities are cities. To do so will mean changing the rules, the tech-
being tasked with accommodating an ever-increasing niques, the perception and the economics of building
number of people. To do so economically and effi- Tall Wood structures.
ciently, without exacerbating the negative effects of
urban sprawl, it is essential that cities build upward WHY NOT WOOD?
rather than outward. For this form of development to The current impediments to the construction of Tall
be environmentally sustainable, we must build as Wood buildings are both legislative and perceptual.
many of these new structures as possible using Inmany jurisdictions, building codes have historically
low-energy, low-carbon solutions. prescribed height and area limits for wood buildings
However, almost everywhere in the world, current due to concerns about their performance when ex-
building codes require that tall buildings be built ex- posed to fire. Such concerns are deep-rooted and,
clusively using non-combustible construction, that without exception, have emerged quite reasonably as
isto say, with load-bearing structures of concrete, aresponse to catastrophic fire events.
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Building Taller with Wood | 21
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Badenerstrasse
Badenerstrasse
Bridport
Bridport
Earth Science
Earth Sciences
LCT ONE
LCT One
Strandparken
Strandparken
Woodcube
Woodcube
Tamedia
Tamedia
2010
Mixed-Use Building
2011
House
2012
Building
2012
2012
2012
Hus B
2013
2013
2013
Head Office
2010 2011 2012 2012 2013
A comparison of the heights of the 13 contemporary Tall Wood buildings documented in the case study section of this book next to
a large Douglas fir tree
The Process of Change restrictive building codes, largely because these regu-
Since the publication of EN1955 Eurocode 5 Design lations are by nature conservative, and rightly rely on
of Timber Structures, in 2004, most European coun- an exhaustive consultation process before any changes
tries have moved incrementally to harmonize their are approved. Codes are also complex instruments,
regional and national building codes with this new regulating a suite of often inter-related building per
European standard. As a result, most now have (or will formance criteria, including structural integrity, fire
soon have) objective-based building codes, and North safety, thermal performance and noise control. In
America is moving slowly but steadily in that direction. addition, all new materials, products and assemblies
These changes will ultimately create a framework that referenced in building codes must be tested and cer
will support the construction of taller wood buildings, tified in accordance with the appropriate national or
although the translation of theory into practice re- international standards.
mains a work in progress. The aggregated effect of these parameters is to make
While changes to building codes restricting the use the introduction and approval of new approaches to
of wood generally happened quickly in response to building a considerable challenge. In regard to the use
fire-related disasters, reversing these changes to of wood, the ways in which this challenge has been
reflect our emerging understanding of the material, addressed have varied in detail from one regional or
itsproperties, performance and potential, is no easy national jurisdiction to another. This diversity is re-
matter. flected in the 13case studies in the portfolio section,
As an example, Canadas first National Building Code chapters 8, 9 and 10 of this book [ill.p.2223 above].
(which was based on US precedents and published Most of the buildings have been preceded by extensive
in1941) permitted heavy timber structures up to industry research, experimental prototypes and (in
22.5metres (seven storeys) in height. However, the some cases) legislative tools that encourage or man-
introduction of a risk assessment approach to code date the use of wood in publicly funded buildings.
development, related to fire load, building volume, and
construction type, reduced this height to four storeys GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND
in 1953. The height limit was supported by local fire MARKET INCENTIVES
authorities on the basis that it represented the tallest Recognizing that changing building codes can be a
structure in which a fire could realistically be con- slow and exacting process, a number of local, regional
trolled and extinguished given the firefighting equip- and national governments have recently introduced
ment of the day.2 Only now, with the widespread appli- policies to encourage the use of wood. Such policies
cation and acceptance of fire simulation modelling, is generally require responsibly sourced wood to be
the height restriction on wood buildings being lifted considered as the primary construction and finishing
from four to six storeys in Canada. material in all public buildings. While the overall objec-
Although some are further along in this process, most tives are similar, the legislative tools vary from one ju-
countries have faced similar challenges in amending risdiction to another.
In 2006, the Swedish city of Vxj, long known for its open to interpretation. During the design of the
progressive environmental policies, declared its inten- nine-storey Murray Grove apartment building in Lon-
tion to accelerate the adoption of Eurocode 5 by de- don, England, architects Waugh Thistleton argued
veloping a new subdivision that would become the that, if the building were to be constructed of massive
Modern Wooden City. Here, developers and design wood panels, the carbon stored in the structure would
teams would be asked to consider wood as the prima- have a greater environmental benefit than providing
ry building material. After successful trials with small- 10% renewable energy to operate a building made of
er-scale massive wood buildings, the city initiated the concrete. An equivalency to the Merton Rule was
Limnologen project. Designed by Ola Malm, Arkitekt- granted, and in 2009 Murray Grove became the
bolaget, the project comprises four eight-storey apart- worlds first modern Tall Wood building [ill.p.24 left].
ment buildings constructed using CLT and glulam and
was completed in 2009 [ill.p.24 right]. Through a Harnessing Market Forces
comprehensive monitoring program, Limnologen has In addition to legislative tools and incentives, some of
demonstrated that industry concerns, such as struc- the impetus for change has come from the recognition
tural integrity, fire protection, construction complexity of the unique sustainable attributes of wood, and the
and durability could be successfully addressed. contribution it can make toward compliance with in-
In 2009, the government of British Columbia, Canada, creasingly influential voluntary green building
passed the Wood First Act, requiring that all newly standards.
constructed publicly funded buildings such as schools, The first such program was Passive House, developed
libraries or sports complexes, consider wood as the in Germany in the late 1980s. It was designed to pro-
primary building material. In France, the national leg- mote the creation of low-energy buildings that would
islation is prescriptive and requires all new public require approximately 90% less input energy for space
buildings to include 0.2 cubic metres of wood for ev- heating and cooling than a conventionally designed
ery square metre of building floor area. equivalent. As a voluntary standard, Passive House
In the Netherlands, legislation makes it compulsory to was the first significant attempt to reduce the ecologi-
provide environmental impact information for all new cal footprint of buildings through non-regulatory mar-
buildings, a requirement that tends to favour wood ket incentives. Like many others that have followed,
products. In the United Kingdom, the so-called Mer- the Passive House standard implicitly (though not ex-
tonRule (which began as a municipal bylaw in 2008, plicitly) promotes the use of wood.
and is now embedded in national regulations) requires For Passive House, the first objective is the creation of
all new commercial buildings over 1000 square metres a highly insulated building envelope that minimizes
to meet 10% of their operating energy needs from re- heat loss through thermal bridging. The low thermal
newable sources. While this may seem a straightfor- conductivity of structural wood elements, makes wood
ward requirement that encourages solar panels and an advantageous choice of material for Passive House
wind turbines, this rule, like objective-based codes, is structures, including Tall Wood buildings such as LCT
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Building Taller with Wood | 23
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Waugh Thistleton, the architects of the Murray Grove apart- The Limnologen housing project, by Arkitektbolaget, 2009, in Vxj, Sweden, is
ments in London, England were able to demonstrate that a solid part of the Modern Wooden City, a new suburb that encouraged the early
wood building would have a lower life cycle carbon footprint adoption of Eurocode 5 Design of Timber Buildings.
than a concrete building in which 10% of the operating energy
was generated from renewable sources.
One in Dornbirn, Austria [pp.142151] and Treet in codes, introduce legislation supporting or mandating
Bergen, Norway [pp.158163]. low-carbon construction, and to capitalize on market-
For its part, the US-based Living Building Challenge based incentive programs.
(LBC) promotes wood implicitly because of its ability While the newly developed range of engineered wood
to sequester and store carbon. LBC was launched in products and computerized manufacturing techniques
2006 by the non-profit International Living Future that will be described in subsequent chapters, have
Institute (ILFI). According to ILFI, Living Buildings are transformed the capabilities and potential of the wood
designed to operate as cleanly, beautifully and effi- industry, empirical evidence in the form of completed
ciently as natures architecture.3 Among the prerequi- Tall Wood structures is what will ultimately transform
sites that a building must meet to achieve certifica- the marketplace.
tion, is carbon-neutral construction.
Although this may theoretically be achieved through
various forms of carbon offset, most projects certified
so far, including the Bullitt Center in Seattle, USA
[pp.118123], have chosen to use substantial quanti-
REFERENCES
ties of wood.
1 Sereca Consulting Inc. (2015). The Historical Development of
Building Size Limits in the National Building Code of Canada.
CONCLUSION
Retrieved from http://cwc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/
In the face of increasing urbanization, and the densifi- HistoricalDevelopment-BldgSizeLimits-NBCC-2015-s.pdf
cation of our cities, Tall Wood buildings represent the 2 Seneca Consulting Inc. (2015). Historical Development of Building
most practical, effective and environmentally respons Size Limits in the National Building Code of Canada. Retrieved from
http://cwc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/
ible solution to the global housing shortage. To enable
HistoricalDevelopment-BldgSizeLimits-NBCC-2015-s.pdf
the widespread implementation of Tall Wood build- 3 International Living Future Institute (2006). The Living Building
ings, it is necessary to adopt objective-based building Challenge. Retrieved from http://living-future.org/lbc
The barriers to building taller with wood have been and parallel strand lumber (PSL), are now available
both legislative and perceptual. Even as prescriptive alongside glue-laminated timber (glulam), and are
building codes give way to objective-based ones, con- stronger, more consistent and more dimensionally sta-
cerns about the strength and durability of wood re- ble than traditional solid sawn material. However, even
main if not with architects and engineers, then with with these modified properties, an understanding of
approving authorities, developers and the public. After the intrinsic characteristics of wood remains critical to
all, the wood with which they are familiar is a soft, the successful design of Tall Wood buildings.
organic material, susceptible both to physical damage
by fire and to decay if allowed to remain wet for a pro- PROPERTIES OF WOOD
longed period of time. Most important among the properties of wood is the
While this may be true for solid sawn material in its fact that, as an organic material with a cellular struc-
natural state, the properties and performance of wood ture, its strength and stability vary with orientation
can be modified to a significant degree by modern of grain and moisture content. Controlling these two
processing methods. Engineered massive wood prod- variables is key to creating components and structures
ucts, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), laminated that are precise, dimensionally stable, strong and ulti-
veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL) mately more durable.
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3 Materials | 25
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Bound and Free Moisture of a problem 23mm when a 100mm thick member
Wood contains two types of moisture in liquid form: dries from an MC of 25% to its installed EMC but
free moisture and bound moisture. The structure of cumulatively, the effect can be significant. Even in
wood fibre is often compared to a cluster of drinking small buildings, it is preferable to specify lumber that
straws, and this analogy can assist us to understand has been surfaced dry (that is, allowed to air-dry to a
the difference. Bound moisture is the moisture that is lower moisture content before being planed to its final
naturally contained within the cell walls (or within the size), as this reduces the amount of shrinkage that
casing of the straw itself) and is chemically bonded to will be experienced in service.
the wood. Free (or capillary) moisture is the moisture In Tall Wood buildings, even more attention must be
that is contained between the cell walls (or within the paid to the specification of materials and products,
tubular centre of the straw) and is held in the wood and to designing a structural system that will mini-
only by capillary forces. It constitutes the greater part mize the effects of moisture movement and shrinkage.
of the moisture present in green wood from newly Therefore almost all material used in Tall Wood build-
felled trees. ings is kiln-dried.
The moisture content (MC) for a given sample of wood
is defined as the weight of water in the wood ex- Kiln Drying
pressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the Kiln drying is done using specially designed ovens in
wood itself. This dry weight is considered to be the which the wood is stacked on racks that permit air
weight of the sample after oven drying under stan- circulation around each member. The temperature is
dardized conditions of temperature and time. For ref- carefully controlled to ensure that drying does not
erence purposes, a living tree or freshly cut log may occur too quickly and potentially causes warping or
have a moisture content in excess of 50%, air drying uneven shrinkage. Kiln drying can be used to reduce
may bring this down to less than 20% and kiln drying the moisture content of wood to any desired value,
to as little as 8%. with a target of 12% being typical. In addition to re-
Wood is hygroscopic, and will absorb or release mois- ducing the volume of material through shrinkage, dry-
ture to maintain a state of balance with the surround- ing also increases the strength of wood members.
ing environment. If green lumber is installed into the
controlled temperature and humidity conditions of a Strength
building, the wood will release moisture until it re-es- Different species of wood have different characteristics
tablishes a state of equilibrium with this new environ- of strength, dimensional stability and weather
ment. Typically, this will happen at a moisture content resistance, making the choice of species an important
of between 8 and 12% depending on the climate of one. In North America, Alaskan yellow cedar (Cupres-
the region and the season of the year. At this point, sus nootkatensis) and western red cedar (Thuja plicata)
the wood is said to have reached its equilibrium mois- are typically used for exterior applications, and Doug-
ture content (EMC). las fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and southern yellow pine
species are chosen when superior strength is required.
Moisture Movement In Central Europe, Norway spruce (Picea abies) and
As moisture is released, the wood shrinks. That shrink- Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) are the most common spe-
age is approximately 1% for every 5% reduction in cies for structural applications, while European larch
moisture content perpendicular to grain, and approxi- (Larix decidua) is generally used for exterior cladding.
mately one tenth of this value parallel to grain. For a The strength of a building material is a measure of
single wood member, this may not seem to be much that materials ability to withstand a given load with-
out failure. The different types of load to which a centage of the tree to be used than would be possible
structural component may be subjected are: compres- with solid sawn lumber. In addition, because the wood
sion, tension, bending, shear and torsion. The strength or wood fibre used in the manufacturing process is kiln-
of wood varies according to the direction in which a dried, engineered wood products, are dimensionally
force is applied to it. The material is strongest in ten- stable and can be fabricated to precise specifications.
sion and compression parallel to grain (that is when The two most familiar EWPs are plywood and glulam,
the force is applied along the fibres), and much weak- both of which have been in common use since the
er (typically by a factor of ten) when the force is ap- early 1900s. In the last three decades, they have been
plied perpendicular or tangential to grain. joined by a range of new massive wood products,
The strength of wood varies between species: western which (like glulams) lend themselves to the construc-
red cedar may have a compressive strength of around tion of Tall Wood buildings.
1100kPa (kilo Pascals), Douglas fir a strength of Accordingly, the descriptions that follow relate to the
around 1800kPa and mahogany a strength of around massive panel and beam products used in Tall Wood
3600kPa. In addition, the natural variability of wood construction. Because these products are manufac-
(which may include tighter or more open grain, as well tured under controlled conditions using a variety of
as the presence of minor defects such as splits, bonding and pressing techniques, they can typically
checks and knots) means that for solid sawn wood be produced in a range of standard thicknesses, in
products there can be considerable variation in these widths up to 2.5 or 3.0 metres, and in lengths limited
figures. Since this inconsistency of natural wood only by the constraints of road transportation.
makes the predictability of performance difficult,
wood industry researchers around the world have Glue-Laminated Timber
spent decades on the development of engineered Glulam [ill.p.27 above) is manufactured by gluing to-
wood products (EWPs), with the aim of increasing the gether individual pieces of dimension lumber under
strength of wood and reducing variation. controlled conditions to form larger linear elements. In
Tall Wood buildings glulam is used for columns,
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS beams, headers, and in the case of Treet [pp.158
EWPs are manufactured by bonding together wood 163] both vertical and horizontal trusses were fabri-
strands, veneers, small sections of solid lumber or cated from glulam.
other forms of wood fibre to produce a larger and in- While the process of glulam fabrication remains fun-
tegral composite unit that is stronger and stiffer than damentally the same as when first introduced in
the sum of its parts. Germany in 1906, the lumber used today is a select
The material that makes up engineered wood products high-strength grade, known as lamstock. Lamstock is
can generally be obtained from smaller trees, and the available in three grades, the highest being L1 and the
manufacturing process enables a much greater per- lowest being L3.
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In North America, glulam has traditionally been made
from Douglas fir, SPF (spruce/pine/fir), larch (Larix
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is fabricated by laminating
and gluing multiple veneers together in the same orienta- decidua) or southern yellow pine. However for exterior
tion. This enables long elements to be produced that have applications it is now possible to obtain glulam made
high strength in one direction. from Alaskan yellow cedar. In Northern Europe and
Russia, red pine (Pinus resinosa) and white spruce are
the most common species used for the manufacture
of glulam.
Lamstock is typically supplied in nominal thicknesses
of 25 or 34mm and (according to species and country
of origin) widths of 80 to 170mm. Lengths are typical-
ly 3metres or longer, with pieces being finger-jointed
and glued together as necessary. The lamstock is kiln-
dried to a moisture content of between 10 and 14%,
then end-glued together to attain the required length.
The multiple laminations are then face-glued together
under pressure in a jig that (if required) gives the final
product the desired camber, curvature or taper.
Glulams can be fabricated to any length, enabling
Laminated strand lumber (LSL) is fabricated from flaked
wood strands glued together in large billets. The length is them to be used for long free spans, or continuous
limited only by standard shipping and trucking dimensi- spans over multiple points of support. They can also
ons. LSL can be used for floors, walls and vertical mem- be used for columns that extend over multiple floors.
bers where large floor-to-floor heights are required. Glulam beams are normally laid up so that they are in
the vertical orientation when loaded (i.e. the load is
applied perpendicular to the long face of the lamina-
tions).In such cases, the upper and lower laminations
may be specified to have a higher strength class than
the centre laminations, as these are the parts of the
beam where compressive and tensile forces are
greatest.
Nordic, an engineered wood products manufacturer
innorthern Quebec makes glue-laminated products
using small-dimension square sections cut from the
tips of black spruce trees. The sections are then glued
together both horizontally and vertically to make
glulam beams, columns and panels that have a dis-
tinctive checkerboard cross section. This material was
Parallel strand lumber (PSL) is fabricated from used for the columns, beams and floor panels of the
long strands of veneer pressed and glued into standard
six-storey Fondaction CSN Building in Quebec City,
dimensions and lengths. It has very consistent
designedby GHA Gilles Huot Architecte and com-
properties and high strength.
pleted in 2010 [ill.p.34]. Glulam can be supplied in a
variety of appearance grades for concealed or exposed
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PSL is manufactured in Canada from Douglas fir and CLT panels are fabricated with an odd number of lay-
in the United States from southern pine. Because the ers (typically three to seven) so that the outermost
growth imperfections have been removed from the layers have the same orientation of grain. For situa-
wood strands prior to fabrication, PSL products have tions in which special load-carrying capabilities are
consistent properties and high load-carrying capacity. required, adjacent layers may be placed in the same
In Tall Wood buildings, PSL can be used for posts and direction typically resulting in a double layer at the
beams, particularly where high bending strength is faces or core of the panel.
required, as well as for incidental beams, headers and The lumber used is kiln-dried; thicknesses of indivi
lintels in load-bearing panel construction. dual pieces may vary from 16mm to 51mm, and
PSL readily accepts preservative treatment and there- thewidth from 60mm to 240mm. Panel sizes vary by
fore protection from moisture damage is possible. manufacturer; typical widths being 0.6 metres,
Treated PSL should be specified for members that will 1.2metres, 2.4 metres and 3.0 metres. The outer lay-
be directly exposed to high humidity conditions. Visu- ers of CLT wall panels are usually oriented with the
ally, PSL is attractive, so it is suited to applications grain running vertically in the direction of the applied
where finished appearance is important. loads. Similarly, the grain in the upper and lower lay-
ers of floor and roof panels is usually oriented parallel
Cross-Laminated Timber to the longer span. As with glulam, CLT may be sup-
Cross-laminated timber [ill.p.31 top left] is comprised plied in either an architectural grade (with outer layers
of multiple layers of boards stacked together, with al- selected for their appearance) or a structural grade
ternating layers at right angles to one another. Layers (designed to be concealed behind a surface finish).
are bonded to form a composite panel, most often us-
ing glue. The glue may be applied either on the faces Nail-Laminated Timber
of each board or on both the faces and edges. Boards Nail-laminated timber panels [ill.p.31 right] are made
may also be finger-jointed and glued in the longitudi- up of regular solid sawn framing members (2 4,
nal direction. 26 inches, etc.) arranged side by side on edge, and
CLT panels can also be fabricated using mechanical fastened together with nails or lag screws. They can be
fasteners rather than adhesives. Nails driven at oppos- made from a variety of species including Douglas fir
ing angles through multiple layers can achieve the and SPF. Specification is based on the grade of solid
required structural performance, as can wooden dow- sawn material used, and there are no applicable stan-
els inserted into pre-drilled holes. In the latter case, dards for the fabricated panels themselves.
the dowels are of a different species (often beech) and Unlike other massive timber products, NLT does not
dried to a lower moisture content than the panel. need capital investment in specialized manufacturing
When the dowels expand to achieve their equilibrium facilities and can be fabricated by experienced carpen-
moisture content, they create an ultra-tight fit capable ters in a conventional wood shop. NLT panels require
of holding the panel layers together under load. What- plywood or other sheathing for lateral resistance and,
ever the fastening method, the result is a product that because they have no continuous glue layers, they use
has good dimensional stability and (in case of five lay- additional sealing on site to prevent the passage of
ers or more in thickness) two-way spanning capability. smoke or other fumes through the floor assembly. NLT
is more vulnerable to mould and other water-related wood products described above varies from 1% in glu-
damage than engineered wood equivalents, and con- lam beams and GLT panels, to 6 or 7% in LSL and
siderable care must be taken to protect the end grain PSL. As a general rule, the dimensional stability and
in particular from prolonged exposure to moisture. moisture resistance of products increases with the
percentage of glue by weight.
ADHESIVES
With the exception of mechanically fastened CLT and CONCLUSION
NLT panels, the engineered massive wood products Architects and structural engineers have a wide range
listed above are bonded using formaldehyde-based of mass panel and beam products at their disposal
glues. The type of glue depends on the temperature of that can meet the specific performance requirements
the process, on whether the product is for interior or of Tall Wood buildings. It is crucial to understand the
exterior use and on whether the finished appearance different properties of each material or product to op-
of the product is important (some glues are clear, oth- timize its use for a specific application. Furthermore,
ers dark in colour). while engineered products reduce the variability asso-
Most structural adhesives contain formaldehyde. ciated with solid sawn lumber, they do not eliminate it
Formaldehyde is a naturally occurring organic com- entirely. It remains of critical importance to under-
pound that is present in wood and wood products. stand the characteristics of moisture movement and
Environmental standards related to indoor air quality shrinkage, which must still be addressed to ensure
are aimed at limiting the outgassing of formaldehyde that a Tall Wood building performs as designed.
and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as at
higher concentrations they can be harmful to health.
Different adhesive formulations contain different con-
centrations of formaldehyde and research is ongoing
to develop low- and no-formaldehyde glues. The per-
centage of glue by weight in the glue-bonded massive
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STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Structural design is concerned with the strength, rigid- lateral or vertical. Other external forces to which build-
ity and stability of structures. Whatever the materials ings may be subjected include hydrostatic pressure
employed, the fundamental objective is to create a from soils and/or groundwater, and uplift from wind.
structure capable of resisting all the loads, and meet-
ing the other functional requirements to which it will LOAD PATHS
be subjected during its service life, without suffering These external forces, and the others applied by the
premature deterioration or failure. live (occupant and equipment) loads within the build-
Loads may be vertical (as with the self-weight of the ing, may result in individual structural members or
building, the imposed load of snow on the roof, or the building elements being subjected to compression,
weight of furniture, fittings and building occupants); tension, bending, torsion or shear. The structure must
or lateral (as with wind loads, which may result in pos- be designed so that all these forces can be resolved
itive or negative pressure on opposing faces of the and transmitted, through the horizontal and vertical
building). In earthquake-prone areas, seismic forces elements of structure, to the ground.
must also be taken into consideration. Seismic waves One of the most important considerations in the de-
travel either in the body of the Earth or at the surface, sign of Tall Wood buildings is to account for shrink-
and the forces they apply to buildings may be either age. This is particularly important when detailing the
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The vertical posts in the Fondaction CSN Building in Quebec
City, 2010, designed by GHA Gilles Huot Architecte, are
notched to create bearing surfaces for its twinned beams.
and glulam floor panels are bolted together to form earthquake events however, these same connections
adiaphragm, which is connected by steel brackets to are designed to perform plasticly, absorbing the
a concrete stair and elevator core. applied forces through deformation, permitting minor
From a structural point of view, stair and elevator damage to the structure but preventing the cata-
cores need not necessarily be constructed of concrete. strophic collapse of the building.
Indeed, a CLT core was used at the Wood Innovation
and Design Centre [pp.124133], where the panels SELF-CENTERING STRUCTURES
were fabricated with a half-lap profile that enabled A new and innovative approach to the seismic design
them to be lag screwed together. This created continu- of Tall Wood buildings is that of self-centering struc-
ous vertical shear walls, with the lag screw and hold tures. Developed by a team of engineers at the Univer-
down connections providing the necessary ductility sity of Canterbury, New Zealand, Pres-Lam is a propri-
(see section on ductility below). etary post-and-beam system in which post-tensioned
The choice of a wood or concrete core will depend on rods passing through hollow LVL beams are anchored
a number of factors, including economy, efficiency, to steel plates that are attached to LVL posts, creating
preference of the structural engineer and in some a rocker connection. These connections [ill.p.36] are
cases the requirements of local fire codes. Where con- designed to deflect elastically under moderate seismic
crete cores are used, consideration must be given to loads, but to return to their original configuration
the potential for differential movement between the when the loads are removed. This system, which has
wood and concrete elements of the structure. This been used successfully in the Nelson Marlborough
may require the use of slip joints to accommodate Institute of Technology in Nelson, New Zealand (de-
vertical movement and adjustable thresholds at stair signed by Irving Smith Jack Architects and completed
and elevator doors. in 2010), and in the Te Ara Hihiko/College of Creative
Arts in Wellington, New Zealand (designed by Athfield
DUCTILITY Architects and completed in 2012), greatly reduces
Ductility (the ability of a material to deform under the likelihood of structural failure. Because the ten-
stress, thus absorbing and dissipating energy) is an sion rods are readily accessible, the Pres-Lam system
important aspect of structural design. In Tall Wood also makes the evaluation and repair of damaged
buildings, in which the structural elements are inher- structures much easier. In 2015, an exclusive license
ently rigid, it is the connections that must perform was granted to Canadas FP Innovations for the use of
this function. Under normal conditions, these connec- the Pres-Lam system in North America. Its first appli-
tions are designed to behave elastically, absorbing cationwill be in MGA | Michael Green Architectures
moderate wind or seismic forces without permanent OSU Forest Science Complex in Corvallis, Oregon,
deformation. In the case of major windstorms or scheduled for completion in 2018.
UPLIFT FORCES these wind forces the truss on the windward side of
Being light, and thus having a relatively low mass of the building being subject to tension, and the truss on
inertia, wood structures can accelerate quickly under the leeward side being subject to compression. The
wind gusts that can be uncomfortable to occupants. whole system is anchored by steel brackets to a con-
This behaviour, and the uplift forces it can generate, crete podium structure that accommodates the park-
must also be considered in the design of Tall Wood ing garage.
structures. Strategies to cope with uplift forces vary Using a system pioneered in the Limnologen project in
according to structural system, budget and local con- 2009, uplift forces at Strandparken Hus B [pp.7075]
struction practice. are resisted by continuous steel anchor rods that run
The exterior trusses at Treet [pp.158163] are supple- within the walls from the concrete roof of the parking
mented by lateral storey-height trusses and precast garage to the top of the building.
concrete floors at the fifth and tenth storeys. These For the Wood Innovation and Design Centre [pp.124
floors form a diaphragm that distributes the lateral 133] an alternative approach was taken in which the
loads evenly between the various vertical structural vertical CLT panels of the service cores resist the up-
elements, and also provides a horizontal fire separa- lift forces. These panels are connected to the concrete
tion between the light frame prefabricated units. foundations using a combination of shear brackets
The concrete floors, also improve the dynamic perfor- and hold-down anchors. The shear brackets are con-
mance of the building under strong wind conditions. nected using self-tapping screws, while the hold-down
The vertical truss structure, combined with the added anchors are epoxy-glued using the ductile HSK
weight of the concrete floors, is sufficient to resist system.
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The Pres-Lam system was developed in New Zealand to improve the seismic performance of heavy timber post-and-beam structu-
res. Steel tendons pass through hollow LVL beams and are post-tensioned to anchor plates on the LVL posts. This enables the
structure to rock when subjected to moderate seismic forces, then centre itself again when the forces are removed.
Wagramerstrasse apartment complex, typical upper floor plan. The compartmentalized structure visible in the plan
is a result of the regular layout of the structural CLT walls.
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The E3 mixed-use building in Berlin, Germany, 1721 Wenlock Road Mixed-Use Building in
2008, by Kaden Klingbeil Architekten, has a hybrid London, England, 2015, by Hawkins\Brown,
concrete, steel and wood structure, in which the has a primary structure of steel columns and
wall panels are site-built from multiple lamina- beams supporting a secondary structure of
tions of solid timber members. CLT floor, wall and roof panels.
Sometimes hybrid structures arise in response to a hybrid wood-concrete system. Exit stairs are contained
regulatory requirement, particular architectural ambi- within concrete shafts that stand free of the building
tions, or local practice conventions. For example, a and are connected to it by bridges.
local code (or the fire authority charged with interpret- By contrast, the Wood Innovation and Design Centre
ing it) may require non-combustible construction to be [pp.124133] took a philosophical approach, the in-
used for stair and elevator shafts, as was the case in tent being to showcase the versatility of wood, as well
LCT One [pp.142151]. as to create a building with the lowest possible envi-
Elsewhere, the demands of the architecture may pre- ronmental impact. However, there was also the very
vail, leading to a hybrid solution. A part frame, part practical consideration of avoiding non-wood materi-
load-bearing structure was used at 1721 Wenlock als in order to minimize the time-consuming interfaces
Road in London, England [ill.p.38 right; see also between different structural trades on site, and so
pp.152157], where the steel frame supports offsets meet the very tight construction schedule.
and cantilevers on successive floors, and for the Wood-
cube [pp.8293], where steel was used to stiffen the CONCLUSION
beams extending from the central core to support the As architects, engineers, building and fire authorities
exterior balconies. become more familiar with Tall Wood construction,
Another example of hybrid construction is E3, a seven- theapproaches described above will be supplemented
storey mixed-use commercial and residential building by others yet to be imagined. Because of the variety
in Berlin, Germany, designed by Kaden Klingbeil Ar- and versatility of hybrid wood and steel, or wood and
chitekten and completed in 2008 [ill.p.38 left]. E3 in- concrete systems, it is most likely that these will con-
cludes office space on the ground floor and residential stitute the majority of structures to be built in the
units above. future.
The structure comprises a glulam post-and-beam However, as the Wood Innovation and Design Centre
frame connected with heavy steel fasteners, and two reminds us, it is important not to lose sight of the
large concrete beams that span the length of the considerable environmental advantages of wood, and
building. Structural infill walls are solid edge-lami to promote its use wherever functionally appropriate
nated dowelled wood panels, and floor panels are a and permitted by code.
In theory, the transition from prescriptive building wood frame structures, as opposed to those of heavy
codes to objective-based ones will enable designers to timber or engineered massive timber construction (of-
choose materials and propose solutions that meet the ten shortened to mass timber). Prescriptive building
performance criteria of the relevant code, and to codes consider both these systems as combustible
demonstrate compliance by calculation and simula- construction although in reality they behave very
tion.In practice, most approving authorities still have differently when exposed to fire.
perceptual barriers they must overcome before Tall
Wood buildings can fulfil their potential. This chapter Prescriptive and Performance-Based Codes
addresses these concerns in relation to fire safety, A prescriptive building code stipulates how a building
acoustic performance and building enclosure design. must be built, rather than how it should perform, the
implicit assumption being that there is only one way to
FIRE SAFETY meet the required standard. For decades clients, archi-
Misconceptions about fire performance remain the tects, engineers, insurance companies and authorities
most significant impediment to the more widespread having jurisdiction found it expedient for reasons of
adoption of Tall Wood technology. These misconcep- economy, familiarity or liability, to simply build in
tions are often based on experience with fires in light- accordance with the methods prescribed in the code.
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However, such codes do generally have their basis in fire that develops inside the building (a so-called
performance requirements, though these might not be compartment fire) rather than from a fire that occurs
immediately apparent. For example, the reason for pre- outside. In building code parlance, the word compart-
scribing a particular level of structural fire resistance ment carries a specific meaning; that of an interior
is to ensure that the structure will remain stable and space or series of connected spaces that is separated
carry the loads for which it was designed, long enough from other such compartments in the building by
to enable building occupants to escape, and firefight- fire-rated floors and walls. To appreciate the strategies
ers to access the building without fear of it collapsing. that are needed to minimize the impacts of a com-
Beyond the paramount concern for stability of the partment fire on the building and its occupants, it is
structure, other important performance goals, ex- helpful to understand how such a fire typically begins,
pressed as functional statements, include restricting and how it behaves as it develops.
the spread of fire, reducing exposure to occupants and Building codes can only regulate the materials used
limiting damage to property. Whether the philosophi- for the structure and finishes of a building, and not
cal approach of the code is prescriptive or perfor- those that may be present in the furniture and fittings.
mance-based, the functional demands (especially Generally, it is the furnishings or contents that pres-
those relating to structural fire resistance) increase ent the greatest risk, and are the starting points for
according to the size, occupancy and height of the building fires. To start a fire, three things must be
building. In most jurisdictions the threshold for tall present simultaneously: fuel, oxygen and a source of
buildings is six to eight storeys, at which point the ignition. Fire is an exothermic reaction in which oxygen
structural fire resistance requirement generally dou- and fuel are consumed, and heat (together with
bles from one hour to two hours. A prescriptive code by-products such as smoke) is produced.
will always specify such a building to be of non-com- A fire will begin as an isolated phenomenon, but will
bustible construction. grow in intensity and spread as it consumes the
combustible contents and any exposed combustible
Alternative Solutions structural elements of the compartment. Smoke will
Under these circumstances, the only recourse for a rise and spread across the ceiling, then down the walls
designer wishing to use wood is to propose an alter- while the temperature continues to rise. When the
native solution. The first step in this process is to temperature of the smoke layer reaches approximately
unpack the prescriptive code requirements in order 600C, the radiant heat emanating from it will cause
touncover the underlying intentions and objectives, most of the combustible objects below it to ignite.
and understand the risks to life safety and building This almost instantaneous transition of the fire from
integrity that they are designed to address. In coun- localized to all-engulfing is called flashover. In gener-
tries where prescriptive codes are still in force, this al, it is the availability of fuel that governs the develop-
unpacking process creates an objective framework ment of a fire in the early stages and the supply of
and establishes a baseline for the assessment of alter- oxygen that determines its behaviour after the
native solutions. From this point on, the process is flashover.
similar to that required by performance-based codes.
Objectives of Fire Design
Fire Behaviour The most fundamental objective of fire design is to
When considering issues of structural stability and life maintain structural stability and support the required
safety, it is important to understand that the greatest loads during a fire event, such that the building will
risk to the structure and its occupants comes from a not collapse prematurely either during egress or
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The Forte Building in Melbourne, Australia, 2012, by Andrew Nieland/Lend Lease
Corporation, is an example of encapsulated construction in which the required
fire resistance is achieved by covering the CLT structural elements with gypsum
wallboard.
By following the same strategy for all other aspects tens (in the case of a wall) or suspended (in the case
of fire protection, it is possible to design a Tall Wood of a ceiling) to create a void for service runs. In either
building that meets all the requirements for a non- case, additional measures such as mineral wool in
combustible building of the same height the only sulation or sprinklers may be required in the void to
difference being that the structure itself is made from protect against the spread of fire or smoke.
massive timber. This is the approach taken for projects
such as Murray Grove in England [ill.p.24] and Via Non-Encapsulated Construction
Cenni in Italy [pp.7681]. The third approach to fire protection is to leave as
much wood as possible exposed, and to use fire simu-
Partial Encapsulation lation modelling and calculations to demonstrate com-
A less conservative approach is that of partial encap- pliance with all relevant performance criteria. This was
sulation, where some of the massive timber elements the approach used on the Wood Innovation and Design
are left exposed within the building. In terms of the Centre in Canada [ill.p.43 and pp.124133] and the
hierarchy of risk, the structure itself is considered to Woodcube in Germany [pp.8293].
be the most critical aspect of the fire protection ef- Rather than protecting the wood structure from expo-
fort, so in a partially encapsulated situation the struc- sure to fire by covering it with non-combustible mate
ture would most likely remain concealed. Ceilings are rial, the wood is left exposed and fire resistance is
the next most critical element, as this is where the achieved by calculating the depth of the sacrificial
smoke layer accumulates and heat builds up. Walls layer of wood required to protect the structural sec-
represent the area of least risk and are the most likely tion from fire damage. This thickness is based on the
to remain exposed. charring rate of around 40mm per hour, which varies
These general rules are open to interpretation and somewhat depending on the wood species. For one-
negotiation on a case by case basis, as seen in the hour fire resistance all exposed surfaces of structural
Earth Sciences Building in Vancouver, Canada members would require an additional 40mm of timber
[ill.p.44; see also pp.102107]. Here the glulam post- that is allowed to char and so protects the structural
and-beam frame is exposed, but the soffits of the section from damage.
LSLcomposite floors are encapsulated in gypsum In non-encapsulated construction, the most vulnerable
wallboard. part of the system in case of a fire is in fact the steel
One secondary consideration of encapsulation is connectors between massive timber elements. All con-
whether the fireproof material is installed tight to the nectors must therefore be set into and covered by the
structural elements, or whether it is secured to bat- timber, or protected from fire in some other way.
Changing Attitudes to Fire Protection performance spaces, but in residential and commer-
While testing and simulation have confirmed that mas- cial environments as well.
sive wood elements behave in a consistent and pre- In general, the acoustic performance of a space is de-
dictable manner when exposed to fire, it is worth re- termined by the level of background noise, the degree
membering that we are still in the first phase of of sound isolation between adjacent spaces and from
development for Tall Wood buildings. Research proj- the exterior, and the acoustics of the room itself
ects conducted in both North America and Europe (which determines reverberation time and the intelligi-
have indicated that buildings in excess of 40 storeys bility of speech). These acoustic parameters are con-
are structurally feasible, but it is likely that these trolled by the design and construction of enclosing
heights will be reached incrementally. However, as fa- elements, the sound attenuation of unwanted noise
miliarity with Tall Wood construction increases, we will sources from outside the space and the appropriate
see the development of taller buildings, guided by specification and location of room finishes.
greater confidence in non-traditional methods of fire In contemporary high-performance buildings, passive
protection. design strategies can potentially conflict with the re-
quirements of acoustic design. Multi-storey volumes
ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE that promote passive ventilation, or open plan spaces
The acoustic performance of buildings has a signifi- that improve the penetration of daylight can greatly
cant role to play in occupant satisfaction, not just in increase the level of ambient noise, while the exposure
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5 Building Performance | 43
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The Earth Sciences Building, in Vancouver, British Columbia, is an example of partial encapsulation in which the underside of the floors are protec-
ted with gypsum wallboard, while the posts and beams are left exposed.
of hard, dense materials for radiant heating and cool- The range of hearing for a healthy child is approxi-
ing can increase reverberation times and compromise mately 2020,000Hz, but may diminish in middle age
speech intelligibility. These more qualitative aspects of to 7014,000Hz. Human sensitivity to the frequency of
acoustic design are not regulated by building codes sound is not consistent throughout this range, being
that concern themselves mainly with sound isolation. greatest around 2500Hz. For the purposes of noise
For this reason, although important to occupant com- control, acousticians divide the sound spectrum into
fort, they are not dealt with in detail in this book. 16 equal intervals of one third octave each, and noise
control standards focus on a range of 1003150Hz
Characteristics of Sound (Europe) or 1254000Hz (North America).
Sound is a form of mechanical energy transmitted by
vibration of the molecules of whatever medium the Sound Transmission in Buildings
sound is passing through, air, water or building ele- In buildings sound is transmitted either through the air
mentsfor example. A particular sound is defined by its: (airborne sound) or through the solid components of a
spatial enclosure or building element (structure-borne
Frequency or pitch (measured in cycles per second sound). Airborne sound includes speech, music and
or Hertz) other ambient noise from within or outside the build-
Wavelength (measured in metres) and ing and is transmitted through the main partitions that
Amplitude or loudness (measured in decibels). separate spaces. Structure-borne sound (most critical-
ly transferred through floors or ceilings) can be the re- side are given a weighting according to their impor-
sult of footsteps, the dropping of objects or the vibra- tance on the human auditory spectrum. These figures
tion of mechanical equipment in direct contact with are then averaged and a single SRI rating calculated.
the floor. Structure-borne sound is the result of vibrat- This rating is expressed in decibels (dB).
ing surfaces radiating sound and, in many cases, can Since the ratings are based on laboratory testing
travel very efficiently in a structure. where ideal conditions exist, actual in-field tested val-
In addition to these two modes of direct sound trans- ues typically range between 35dB lower than those
mission, flanking sound is sound that is transmitted listed from lab testing. Such differences are a result of
from one space to another by an indirect route, in non-ideal conditions, potential construction deficien-
much the same way as water will seep through the cies and other flanking paths that may limit the sound
smallest of cracks in an otherwise sealed container. isolation performance of a partition.
Flanking sound can travel via both airborne and struc-
ture-borne transmission paths. Measuring Impact Sound Transmission
As with airborne sound, Europe and North America
Measuring Airborne Sound Transmission use different terms to quantify the transmission of im-
Although the methods of measurement are similar in pact sound. The term used in europe is impact sound
Europe and North America, different terms are used insulation (ISI), whereas in North America, the equiva-
to quantify the reduction in intensity of airborne lent rating is referred to as impact insulation class
sound from one side of a building element to the oth- (IIC). Impact sound transmission is an important
er. In Europe, the term used is Sound Reduction Index consideration in multi-storey buildings, as it quantifies
(SRI), whereas in North America the term used is the ability of a floor/ceiling assembly to reduce the
Sound Transmission Class (STC). transmission of impact noise from footsteps or the
Testing of the element is carried out in a laboratory. dropping of objects.
Sound measurements are taken on both sides of the Both ISI and IIC ratings are based on test data ob-
building element at a number of standard frequencies tained in accordance with the appropriate standard
as noted above. The relative differences in sound pres- using a tapping machine. This is a device consisting
sure level between the source side and the receiving of a series of five hammers that deliver blows of a
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5 Building Performance | 45
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given force at a prescribed rate. As with airborne French Institute of Technology for Forest-Based and
sound transmission tests, measurements are taken Furniture Sectors (FCBA) located in Bordeaux. Testing
on both sides of the building element being tested, undertaken by FCBA in collaboration with FP Innova-
and thus a value for impact sound transmission can tions established that a standard five-layer CLT panel
be determined. has an STC rating of 39 and an IIC rating of 24. For
floor/ceiling assemblies, the introduction of a sus-
Sound Isolation Options pended (or independently supported) ceiling, together
For optimal acoustic performance, it is important that with other measures, can bring these values up to STC
both airborne sound and impact sound transmission 60 and IIC 59 both exceeding the standards required
are addressed in the design of floor/ceiling and wall by the North American code1.
assemblies. However, the strategies used to address
these two forms of sound transmission can be quite Wall Assemblies
different. The mass of a floor/ceiling or wall plays a For wall assemblies, some Tall Wood buildings use CLT
significant role in the control of both airborne and im- or other massive timber panels for exterior walls, but
pact sound. Beyond this common factor, however, revert to light wood framing for partitions between
noise reduction strategies diverge. apartment units where maximum sound attenuation is
Airborne sound can be further attenuated by the provi- required. Most often, two frame walls are used in par-
sion of acoustic insulation most often in the form of allel with a small gap left between them to break the
fibreglass or mineral fibre matting located in the cavi- physical continuity of the assembly and hence reduce
ty between finish and structure, or inside a stud cavity sound transmission. The outside face of each wall is
in frame construction. The structure of the matting is typically lined with two layers of gypsum wallboard to
like a labyrinth, and sound waves bounce repeatedly increase the mass of the partition, and the interior
off the fibres, converting their acoustic energy into cavities are filled with fibreglass or other acoustic in-
heat energy. sulation. In some situations, a discontinuity can also
On the other hand, the reduction of impact sound is be introduced between floor panels at this point, fur-
achieved by breaking the physical continuity of the ther enhancing acoustic performance if the gap is
assembly that would otherwise provide a direct path filled with fire-resistant caulking. This approach was
for the transmission of vibration from one side to the first taken in a Tall Wood building at the previously
other. Control of flanking sound relies on careful de- noted Limnologen project in Sweden [ill.p.24 right].
tailing of the junctions between the different elements Other common partition designs include single-panel
of the enclosure, and at penetrations (such as ducts, CLT walls with gypsum wallboard fastened either to
pipes and wires) through these elements. furring strips or resilient channels on one or both
In multi-family residential buildings most North Ameri- sides. The voids can be filled with acoustic insulation
can codes require an STC rating of 50 and only pro- to further improve sound attenuation, and can also be
vide a recommendation for IIC ratings of 55 corre- used to run conduit or other services. This is the
sponding to a speech sound reduction of method that was used at Bridport House in London
approximately 5055dB from one side of the floor/ [pp. 64 69].
ceiling or wall assembly to the other. Partitions can also be constructed using two thinner
Testing for massive wood floor/ceiling and wall sys- CLT panels separated by a gap filled with acoustic insu-
tems is most advanced in Europe, where CLT-based lation, and either left exposed or finished with gypsum
systems in particular have been in use for a decade or wallboard as appropriate. However, the size of the air
more. The most comprehensive data comes from the gap can also play a significant role in determining the
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5 Building Performance | 47
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THERMAL PERFORMANCE moisture and air movement, and to avoid condensa-
The building enclosure acts as an environmental sep- tion and mould growth.
arator between inside and outside. Its primary function
is to mitigate or harness the environmental forces act- Insulation
ing upon it, and to maintain a comfortable thermal, Insulation is only one of many components that make
visual and acoustic environment within the building. up the building envelope, although arguably it is the
The factors that most affect the performance of a most important in terms of energy conservation and
building enclosure, and ultimately the durability of the thermal comfort. The effectiveness of insulation to
building itself are: the selection of materials, which resist the flow of heat from one face of the material to
must be designed for the required service life as well the other is referred to as its thermal resistance, ex-
as be compatible with one another when incorporated pressed as R-value. The higher the R-value, the better
into an assembly; the detailing of those assemblies to the level of insulation provided. The reciprocal of an
control thermal bridging, air, vapour and moisture R-value is a U-factor, which is a measurement not of
movement; and quality control over fabrication and thermal resistance, but of thermal conductance. Thus,
construction processes to ensure that the integrity of the more effective the insulation, the lower its U-factor
the enclosure is maintained over the service life of the will be. When assessing the thermal performance of
building. building envelope components, it is more common in
North America to refer to R-values while in Europe the
Building Enclosures for Tall Wood Structures reference to U-factors is typical.
For Tall Wood structures, the design of the building Without exception, thermal insulation has a positive
enclosure must also take into consideration the unique environmental impact because it reduces the amount
properties of the material. This chiefly concerns its of operating energy a building will require over its ser-
potential for damage from prolonged exposure to wa- vice life. However, the ecological footprint of the mate-
ter, and the short- and long-term shrinkage that may rial itself is also a consideration, although this may be
occur as a result of structural loads or changes in hard to define. This impact will depend on a variety of
moisture content. factors, including its method of extraction, processing
While the building structure will be designed to mini- and fabrication.
mize shrinkage and differential movement, the detail- The most environmentally benign insulation materials
ing of the enclosure must nonetheless accommodate in common use are fibreglass, mineral wool (based on
any anticipated movement (which may vary consider- rock, glass, ceramic or steel slag, which are often
ably from the bottom to the top of the building), and chosen for their fire resistance), and wood fibre or cel-
also facilitate the drying of any moisture that might lulose fibre, which are available as rigid boards or in
infiltrate the assembly. Weather protection of wood loose and spray-applied form.
elements during construction is a critical component Thermal insulation can also perform other functions
in quality assurance. such as fire resistance, humidity control and/or noise
By definition, low-energy buildings must include high reduction. All insulation materials have their own
levels of insulation throughout the building enclosure. strengths and weaknesses, and these should be evalu-
This results in an exceptionally steep temperature ated against the design criteria. Both wood fibre and
gradient across the roof or wall section between in- cellulose fibre insulation are more sensitive to water
side and outside. This in turn requires rigorous design exposure than their mineral fibre counterparts. How
and precise construction of the building enclosure to ever, if this exposure can be closely controlled, the
provide sufficient insulation, control thermal bridging, hygroscopic nature of these materials can contribute
to humidity stabilization, making them particularly enclosure, in order to successfully design vapour-open
suited to vapour-open construction. assemblies. The sequence of insulation layers should
Thermal resistance values for equivalent thicknesses be increasingly more vapour-permeable as one moves
of insulation vary somewhat from one material to an- from the inside to the outside of the building
other, with mineral wool and fibreglass typically being enclosure.
slightly better insulators than cellulose fibre and wood European practice, as seen in the Woodcube [ill.p.49
fibre. However, this minor difference in thermal perfor- above; see also pp.8293], is to choose a layer at or
mance may be outweighed by other design consider- close to the interior face of the primary wall assembly,
ations, such as greater thermal mass (which can con- to act as a vapour retarder. This could be a layer of
tribute to temperature stabilization), fire resistance or painted gypsum wallboard, plywood, OSB (oriented
acoustic performance. strand board) or an exposed CLT (or other massive
timber) panel. Working outward from this interior face,
Vapour Retarders the wall includes additional layers of insulating mate-
Vapour retarders are used to control the diffusion of rial that have incrementally greater vapour permeance.
water vapour through the building envelope, and pre- In the event that moisture penetrates the interior of
vent vapour from condensing on colder surfaces as it the wall assembly, or interstitial condensation occurs,
migrates through an assembly. Vapour retarders are this enables it to dry out naturally, with the moisture
most important in cold climates in which the need for migrating from inside to outside
heating (rather than cooling) predominates. They are
installed on the warm (interior) side of the insulation Air Barriers
in most wall and roof assemblies, and typically con- Air barriers can be used anywhere in a building enve-
sist of a coating, a membrane, boards or other rigid lope assembly to stop the movement of air into` or out
materials. of the conditioned space and hence control heat loss
The rate at which vapour diffuses through a material is or gain as well as moisture transfer. The rate at which
referred to as permeance, and is measured in perms. air will pass through an air barrier will depend on the
The values of a metric perm and a US perm are differ- pressure difference from one side to the other. In ser-
ent,2 but the principles of design remain the same. vice, this will be affected by mechanical pressure with-
The relative vapour permeance of materials is general- in the building, wind direction and speed (which can
ly classified by the descriptors: vapour-impermeable, create high- or low-pressure areas adjacent to the exte-
vapour-semi permeable and vapour-permeable. It is rior surface of the building), and the temperature dif-
important to understand the relative vapour perme- ference between the inside and outside of the
ance of all the material layers making up the building building.
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5 Building Performance | 49
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Whereas air permeance is the amount of air that plastic or self-adhered membranes. As with air barri-
permeates through an air barrier or other material, ers, the detailing of water barriers and their various
airleakage is the quantity of air that passes through flashings, caps and seals is of particular importance
holes or gaps. Even small openings can severely in wood construction, because prolonged exposure to
compromise the performance of an air barrier, so moisture may cause fungus or mould, or create condi-
achieving and maintaining continuity in the barrier is tions conducive to insect attack.
crucial. Water vapour can also be transported by air
movement. Moisture Control
Air barriers can be mechanically fastened building Ensuring that the presence of moisture in the building
wraps, self-adhered membranes, fluidly or spray- envelope remains at an acceptable level begins with
applied materials, rigid sheathing products such as the protection of materials during transportation,
plywood or gypsum wallboard, or any other layer that storage and installation. The moisture content of the
resists the passage of air. (Note that materials such as wood components should not exceed 19%. Testing
synthetic building wraps are vapour-permeable, even may be required to confirm that moisture content is at
though they may function as an air barrier.) an acceptable level prior to the installation of interior
An air barrier can be positioned at any point in the as- finishes.
sembly, whether at the inside face, outside face or Control of moisture in roof assemblies prior to and
somewhere in between. The key concern is that it during installation is of critical importance, as once a
must be continuous, with lapped joints if it is a film roof assembly gets wet, it is extremely difficult and
or membrane, sealed joints if it is of panel construc- time-consuming to dry it out. In Scandinavia, protec-
tion and all penetrations (whether pipes, ducts, tion of the wood structure during construction is a
windows or doors) must also be sealed to prevent air standard practice, using either a tent mounted on
leakage. self-extending scaffolding, as was the case at Limno
logen [ill.p. 24 right] and Strandparken Hus B [pp.70
Water-Resistive Barriers 75], or a temporary removable roof, as at the Puukuo-
A water-resistive barrier is a layer positioned within kka Housing Block [pp.94 99]. In Britain and North
the wall assembly to protect vulnerable components America, weather protection (beyond the factory in-
from damage caused by water penetrating the assem- stallation of membranes on roof panels and the wrap-
bly from the outside. In conjunction with surface water ping of components during transportation) tends to
control, water shedding surfaces, flashings and other be in response to adverse weather conditions, rather
details, water-resistive barriers redirect water to the than a pre-emptive preventative measure.
outside, and away from the building. Maintaining the desired moisture content in service
The first line of defence is often a rainscreen cladding depends on the effectiveness of the design and detail-
system, in which the cladding is fastened to vertical ing strategies in controlling air, water and vapour
battens mounted on the exterior face of the wall as- movement. With a carefully detailed enclosure, the
sembly. The battens create a series of vertical cavities equilibrium moisture content of wood within the build-
that are vented top and bottom (or at every floor lev- ing will remain below 19% and in most situations
el). Any water that finds its way past the cladding and will remain between 8 and 12%.
into the cavity, runs down the water barrier to the next
flashing where it is redirected to the outside. Thermal Bridging
Water-resistive barriers can be mechanically fastened The thermal performance of a building envelope de-
building wraps, fluidly applied membranes, cellular pends not only on the continuity of the air barrier, but
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5 Building Performance | 51
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Speaking at the Third International Congress on Con- demonstrated its advantages in delivering precise,
struction History in 2009, Professor Ryan E. Smith, high-quality components and assemblies that meet de-
Director of the Center for Integrated Design and Con- sign expectations and promise an extended service life.
struction at the University of Utah, observed that This is no surprise in Europe, where off-site construc-
technology is an outgrowth of social needs and de- tion has been associated with both economy and qual-
sires, not the other way around.1 This statement goes ity, dating back to the much admired prefabricated
some way to explaining why approaches to the con- social housing projects of Ernst May in 1920s Germa-
struction of buildings have varied considerably from ny. By contrast, North America is only now beginning
region to region around the world, a phenomenon due to recognize the virtues of prefabrication, this ap-
in part to differences in geography, demographics, proach to construction having long been associated
economics and the availability of materials and labour. with the sub-standard modular homes that dominate
However, the global trend towards higher-quality, higher- the continents many trailer parks.
performance buildings that last longer and consume
less energy is catalyzing a cultural convergence. This is OFF-SITE AND ON-SITE CONSTRUCTION
particularly evident in the design and construction of When the majority of the building work takes place
Tall Wood buildings, where off-site construction has inthe controlled environment of a factory or produc-
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Design and Construction | 53
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The Ammerwald Hotel, located near Reutte, Austria, 2009, by Oskar Leo Kaufmann and Albert
Rf, was designed using a modular system that enabled each hotel suite to be fully prefabricated
and finished in a workshop (including bathroom fixtures) before being shipped to site.
constructed as a load-bearing platform structure us- tural concern, as maximizing daylight and minimizing
ing CLT wall and floor panels. The repetitive wood unwanted solar gain clearly have an impact on the
structure was erected in only 12 weeks, including in- design of electrical and mechanical systems.
stallation of modular bathrooms for each unit Bringing the required consultants together from the
[ill.p.56]. outset of a project maximizes the synergies that can
be achieved in the design of a building, and minimizes
Market Transformation the potential conflicts that might otherwise occur.
In many developed countries, where the shortage of Involving fabricators and contractors helps ensure that
quality affordable housing has become more acute solutions are economical and readily constructible.
over the last two decades, modular prefabrication of- This Integrated Design Process (IDP) enables alterna-
fers hope of a solution. In the United Kingdom, where tive approaches to be evaluated at the schematic de-
the increase in house prices has far outstripped the sign stage, and allows for conflicts to be resolved
increase in household incomes, it is estimated that by during design development and for contract docu-
2025, one quarter of 2049 year olds will require ments to reflect a building that has been proven in vir-
affordable rental housing. tual models before any fabrication or construction be-
As currently structured, the UK housing industry is gins. Such an approach is increasingly important to
only capable of delivering half of the 250,000 new the success of any project, but even more so in the
housing units required each year. However in 2016, design of Tall Wood buildings.
Legal & General, a major London-based financial ser- Wood elements in a building can perform multiple
vices company, announced its intention to enter the functions and the input of numerous design consul-
rental housing market, and plans to open the coun- tants may be required to ensure that these potential
trys largest modular housing factory. The factory will synergies are capitalized upon. Among the more
fabricate volumetric CLT townhouse and apartment common examples of multi-functional elements that
units, the latter to be used for buildings of up to 20 will require collaboration between disciplines are:
storeys. The focus will be suburban and urban densifi- structural wood members that, if sized appropriately,
cation, with 3000 units in outer London currently in may provide structural fire resistance in addition to
the planning phase. their basic load-carrying function; wood or wood fibre
elements that may contribute to both thermal and
INTEGRATED DESIGN acoustic performance; or engineered wood panels that
The design of todays sustainable buildings requires may serve simultaneously as an architectural finish
integral thinking, involving a spectrum of disciplines and part of the lateral system of the building. Among
that, traditionally, were engaged individually or se- the less common examples to be found in this book is
quentially. Increasingly the areas of design expertise the detailed design of the wood rainscreen cladding
overlap, and the systems within a building perform on the Woodcube [pp.8293], where the coffered de-
multiple functions. For example, the size and place- sign and horizontal fire stopping combine to meet the
ment of windows is no longer exclusively an architec- intent of the local fire code.
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Design and Construction | 55
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The highly repetitive CLT structure of the eight-storey student residence at the University of East Anglia, in Norwich, England, by LSI Architects,
was completed in 2013 in just 12 weeks.
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Design and Construction | 57
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TECHNOLOGY
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7 Technology | 59
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designed into connections, usually through the intro-
duction of steel.
high-strength stainless steel screws inserted at oppos- mesh strips epoxy-glued into saw kerfs at the points
ing angles of 45 to the vertical not unlike the where the panels intersect.
toe-nailing technique used in light wood framing. The
close spacing and inherent ductility of these propri- CONCLUSION
etary screws is designed to dissipate While the vertical, lateral and other forces to which
seismicforces evenly throughout the structure. At Tall Wood buildings are subjected are similar in char-
Strandparken Hus B [pp.7075] steel rods running acter whatever their location, the methods used to re-
vertically through the CLT walls, tie the building from sist these forces may well differ from region to region.
the uppermost floor to the slab of the concrete park- The choice of connections forms part of an integrated
ing garage. Used in conjunction with shear walls, these approach to structural design that is influenced by
tie rods improve lateral stability and resist uplift due material selection, performance requirements, the
to wind. constraints of program, local construction practice
Floor diaphragms for lateral resistance can be created and economics. From a technical perspective, realizing
by connecting CLT or LVL panels together using lap the full potential of Tall Wood structures depends to a
joints or splines, or by adding plywood in a staggered great extent on the precision of digital design and fab-
pattern. Alternatively, a reinforced concrete topping rication, and the use of high-efficiency connection sys-
cast on top of CLT or other floor panels can also cre- tems. As confidence grows among architects, engi-
ate a diaphragm. Cree developed its own proprietary neers and most importantly clients and municipal
system to bolt together the precast wood/concrete authorities, a new generation of Tall Wood buildings is
composite panels in LCT One [pp.142151]. A wood/ already being imagined.
concrete composite floor system was used in the
Earth Sciences Building [pp.102107]. Here strips of
metal mesh are glued into saw cuts in the LSL floor
panels, then cast into a concrete slab that is poured
on top. In this system, the reinforced concrete topping
and LSL panels act together to form a diaphragm.
Asimilar epoxy-based system is employed in the all-
wood floor structure of the Wood Innovation and De-
sign Centre [pp.124133]. Here, the upper and lower
panels of the double-layer CLT floor system (which run
perpendicular to one another), are joined by metal
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PANEL SYSTEMS
Panel systems are those in which vertical and horizon- floor apartments to be superimposed on the larger
tal loads are carried by a series of regularly spaced structural grid of the ground floor maisonettes.
solid wall panels arranged in two directions in plan. Strandparken Hus B is constructed using wall panels
Most often made from CLT, these panels ideally have with a CLT core, but which are factory-fitted with
the same configuration and spacing on each floor of doors and windows, insulation and exterior and interi-
the building. or finishes before being shipped to site.
Because panel systems tend to result in cellular plan Via Cenni, built to stringent seismic codes, has a
arrangements with limited flexibility for reconfigura- rigorous cellular construction with floor and wall
tion over the life of the building, they are generally panels stitched together with a large number of ex-
better suited to residential programs, where occupant tra-long screws.
needs are fixed. The Woodcube increases interior spans with steel
Nonetheless, architects and structural engineers can reinforcing beams, providing greater flexibility for
adapt these basic principles in various ways, some of internal reconfiguration.
which are illustrated in the following portfolio of proj- The Puukuokka Housing Block incorporates its
ects: load-bearing CLT panels into volumetric prefabricated
Bridport House uses CLT panels as transfer beams units that are then stacked vertically on site.
that enable the smaller structural grid of the upper
Completed in 2011, this social housing project was construction, and a site with poor soil conditions tra-
commissioned by the London Borough of Hackney, a versed by a 2.5 metre diameter Victorian-era storm
leading public sector advocate for Tall Wood construc- sewer presented another challenge.
tion in the United Kingdom. It is the first of five This latter constraint dictated that any replacement
phases in the redevelopment of the 1960s-era Colville building must not increase foundation loads by more
Estate, a poorly planned and inward-looking estate than 15%. The solution was an eight-storey all-CLT
consisting chiefly of medium-height linear blocks. structure with a concrete ground floor slab, supported
Light in weight, quick and easy to erect, Bridport on pile foundations. The 41-unit, 4020-square metre
House illustrates many of the advantages prefabricat- building includes two-storey ground level maisonettes,
ed massive timber construction can offer in the densi- with individual access and internal staircases, and six
fication of existing urban areas. storeys of one- to three-bedroom apartment units
above. The upper floors are accessed via two dou-
CONCEPT ble-height entrance lobbies.
Bridport House was the winning entry in a design The dark brick cladding gives the building a dignified
competition for a housing project, to replace existing character, unusual for a social housing project of this
five-storey, 20-unit apartment buildings with one more type, while the projecting balconies, suspended by tie
than twice the size. The brief specified a tight two-year rods directly from the CLT panels, animate the street
schedule from the start of design to the completion of faade.
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Bridport House | 65
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3
7 2 7 7 7 2 7 7 7
Section AA
A A 1 Outdoor area
2 Entrance area
3 Apartment
6 6
4 Personal outdoor area
5 Stairwell
6 Balcony
3 7 Two-storey residence
4 3 3
6 3 6
5 5
3 6 3 3 6
3
6
1
3
3
6 6
2
5
5
3
3
3 6
A A
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Bridport House | 67
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Exterior view of two-storey unit on the ground floor
The lateral system for the building is a combination of sand and cement screed topping and two layers of
cross walls in one direction, and a floor diaphragm gypsum wallboard fastened to the soffit. In addition,
that transfers loads into the CLT stair and elevator there is a suspended ceiling with one layer of gypsum
shafts in the other direction. This gives flexibility to wallboard and 50mm of acoustic insulation. These
the interior layout of apartments, permitting the inte- measures provide approximately 60dB of sound re-
rior walls to be of light metal stud construction, easily duction, considerably more than that required by
deconstructed and reconfigured if needed. code.
Demising walls between suites are CLT panels with Fire protection of the structure is provided through
battens, 50mm of acoustic insulation and two layers encapsulation, with the building requiring no sprin-
of gypsum wallboard on both sides. The floors have a klers, but being fitted with a smoke alarm system for
Detail section
1 Brickwork finish to external wall
2 CLT structural wall
3 Brickwork setback for shadow gap
4 High-performance double-glazing composite timber/
9 aluminum door system
5 Flat steel galvanized and pre-coated balustrade
6 Thermal insulation
7 Main structure of cross-laminated timber
8 High-performance double-glazing composite timber/
aluminum window system
9 Level access/brickwork
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Bridport House | 69
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STRANDPARKEN HUS B
Sundbyberg, Sweden [Wingrdh Arkitektkontor]
2012 Year
Folkhem Client
Martinsons Structural Engineer
Martinsons Engineered Wood Fabricator
Folkhem Produktion AB Contractor
Residential Program
With an area of only 8.8 square kilometres and more precedent in terms of scale for both the developer and
than 44,000 inhabitants, Sundbyberg is Swedens the municipality.
smallest and most densely populated municipality. It The pitched roof and cedar shingle cladding of Strand-
lies within the Stockholm metropolitan area, to the parken Hus B represent a departure from the rectilin-
north of the city centre. Sundbyberg is integrated into ear geometry and hard exterior finishes typical of
Stockholms multi-modal transit system, but in other most other CLT apartment buildings completed to
respects is quite self-contained. With numerous parks date. The form echoes that of many similar structures
and forested areas as well as its own retail and com- built during Swedens post-World War II housing
mercial centre, Sundbyberg has become a highly de- boom, while the large balconies and the use of natural
sirable place to live. materials speak to contemporary market aspirations.
CONCEPT CONSTRUCTION
Strandparken is part of a broader initiative of brown- For Folkhem, a developer with past experience only in
field redevelopment taking place across the metropoli- small residential projects, the decision to embark on a
tan area of Stockholm. The site borders Lake Mlaren, prefabricated CLT building of this scale was a coura-
and as such was recognized as having great potential geous one. The project team drew on the experience
for a more exclusive kind of residential development. of Martinsons, the fabricator and installer of the CLT
To this end, the architects proposed a series of nar- panels used on the precedent-setting Limnologen proj-
row-plan buildings, with generous apartments taking ect in Vxj in 2009. To familiarize its own workers
advantage of the views across the water. The archi- with some of the site procedures and finishing details
tects also proposed that the buildings, including two that would be different on a project of this scale, Folk-
eight-storey towers, be constructed of wood, setting a hem used two existing barracks buildings on the site
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Strandparken Hus B | 71
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6
5
3
1 2
8
1 Entrance
2 Lobby
3 Apartment
4 Bathroom
5 Balcony
Section AA 6 Attic space
7 Stair and elevator core
8 Parking
4
tent. The prefabricated CLT wall panels were supplied complete
4 4
with door and window openings, insulation and exterior and
3 3
interior finishes. A crane lifted the prefabricated panels into
place.
3 3
7 7
3
4
4
2 1
7 7
4 4
3 3
for training purposes. This included test installations wall panels are of a consistent 450mm thickness
of the proposed western red cedar shingle cladding. throughout the height of the building, comprising a
The eight-storey Hus B building has a gross floor area 120mm thick CLT panel, three layers of 70mm thick
of 4060 square metres, and includes 31 apartments insulation, sheathing paper, battens and cedar shin-
ranging in size from 55 to 150 square metres. Con- gles. The interior faces of the panels are lined with
struction is of the platform type, in which CLT interior 15mm gypsum wallboard. Panels are factory-cut and
and exterior walls support the CLT floor panels for the shipped to site with doors, windows and cladding in-
next storey, and these in turn create a platform for the stalled as appropriate. On this project, the exterior
following set of walls. In some locations, glulam wall panels were fabricated complete with the western
beams are used to create longer spans over balcony red cedar shingle cladding. All panels are light enough
openings or larger unobstructed interior spaces. to be off-loaded using only a truck-mounted crane.
Since starting CLT production in 2003, Martinsons has Erection took place beneath a tent, designed to pro-
developed a standardized approach to component de- tect both the workers and the wood from exposure to
sign for exterior walls, demising walls between suites, weather. As construction proceeded, this tent was
and interior partitions. At Strandparken, the exterior raised using a self-stabilizing traveling structure. A
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Strandparken Hus B | 73
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The interiors feature pine panels that were The exterior of the building is finished in western red cedar shingles, a naturally durable
delivered to the site as prefabricated units. material that will weather over time to a silver grey colour.
bridge crane (spanning between towers at either end exceeded that of a conventional concrete building by
of the building) permitted free movement of materials approximately 12%. As the other phases are imple-
beneath the tent. mented, it is anticipated that manufacturing and as-
For the Strandparken Hus B project, the timber struc- sembly efficiencies will reduce the construction time
ture was erected on top of a semi-basement concrete and ultimately eliminate this cost premium.
parking garage, which not only protects the wood from The success of the Strandparken Hus B project con-
exposure to surface water or physical damage, but firms the acceptance of Tall Wood construction within
also anchors the lightweight superstructure to the a competitive and discerning residential market. It is
ground. Continuous steel tie rods extend from the con- also a breakthrough project for Swedens largest
crete slab to the attic storey, resisting uplift due to metropolitan area, which, despite the lifting of the
wind. The lateral resistance for the structure is provid- two-storey maximum height for wood buildings in the
ed by a combination of CLT stair and elevator shafts, national building code in 1996, had been reluctant to
and the multiple CLT partitions that perform as shear permit taller wood structures.
walls.
Fire protection is provided by sprinklers in each unit
and a fire-retardant treatment on the cedar shingles at
ground floor level. Impact sound transmission through
the floors is minimized with the installation of acous-
tic ceilings below the structural floors that are inde-
pendently supported by a ledger attached to the walls.
Heating is via a hydronic system concealed within a
shallow raised floor. Thermal bridging through the wall
assemblies is minimized by designing the balconies as
separate structures suspended from the outside of the
building.
CONCLUSION
With this first building being very much a prototype for
the developer, it was estimated that the overall cost
3 Detail section
1 19mm roof shingles concealing EPDM roofing
membrane
2 Titan zinc channel for water and snow
3 Exterior patio glazing (sliding door)
4 19mm western red cedar shingles on battens
5 Plywood
14 4
6 Galvanized steel support bracket
7 Steel suspension rod
8 Weather-resistant thermowood 92mm 21mm
10 11 12 15 14 13
10 11 10 9 8
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Strandparken Hus B | 75
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VIA CENNI SOCIAL HOUSING
Milan, Italy [Rossiprodi Associati]
2013 Year
Polaris Real Estate SGR SpA Client
Borlini & Zanini SA Structural Engineer
Carron General Contractor
MAK Holz Wood Consultant
Stora Enso Engineered Wood Fabricator
Service Legno Engineered Wood Installer
Residential Program
Located in Italys most expensive city and in a highly
seismic zone, the most important goals of this 124-unit
residential project were affordability and safety.
1 Interior courtyard
3 2 Commercial space
2 3 Residence
1 4 Parking
4
5 Balcony
Section AA
Via Cenni includes a large communal courtyard for the four CLT towers.
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Via Cenni Social Housing | 77
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A
A
5
5
4 4
1 Green space
2 Interior courtyard
Typical floor plan 3 Commercial space
4 Residence
5 Pedestrian bridge
6 Parking
7
4
A
2
1
4
3
farmhouses of the region, in which long, linear build- design team was required to present its design pro-
ings have a direct relationship with the adjacent open posals to the Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport
space. At the heart of the complex, a grand courtyard for peer review and approval.
is animated by the retail and commercial activities Although connected in plan, the four towers are struc-
dispersed around its perimeter. turally independent of the lower buildings that sur-
round them. This was done to standardize the struc-
CONSTRUCTION tural design and simplify the analysis of seismic
In April 2009, an earthquake centred on the Italian performance. Sitting on a concrete basement struc-
town of LAquila resulted in the death of more than ture, the towers measure 13.5 19.0 metres in plan
300 people. Although almost 500 kilometres south of and are constructed using load-bearing CLT wall and
Milan, the reaction from regulators was to require all floor panels in a platform arrangement.
new buildings to conform to the countrys most strin- The five-ply CLT floor panels are stitched together to
gent seismic design criteria. In addition, while several create continuous diaphragms of consistent thickness,
CLT structures had been constructed for the winter either 200 or 230mm in depth. The interior walls are
Olympic Games in Turin in 2006 (and many other low- regularly spaced, and where possible, superimposed
rise residential buildings since), Italian building regu- one on top of another through all nine floors of the
lations still limited the height of wood structures to building. This creates three continuous shear walls
three storeys for reasons of fire safety. As a result, the inone direction and four in the other direction. The
The large scale of the site created logistical challenges. A crane was used to lift and manoeuvre CLT
panels into position.
exterior walls are designed with a highly regular pat- equivalent, which greatly reduces the magnitude of
tern of punched window openings. A few larger open- any seismic forces acting upon it.
ings are spanned by glulam lintels, but this does not Two types of connection were developed to join the
alter the overall cellular character of the system, CLT wall and floor panels. The first type is used on the
which is designed to distribute and dissipate seismic first three floors, and also to anchor the CLT wall pan-
and other forces evenly throughout the structure. els on the ground floor to the concrete basement
The five-ply CLT wall panels reduce in thickness (and structure. It consists of steel T-plates located at the
hence stiffness) from 200mm on the lowest floor to top and bottom of the wall panels and fastened to
120mm on the top floor. Stair and elevator cores are them using 7mm dowels. The flanges of the T-plates
also constructed of CLT. Overall, the CLT structure is are connected together by 16mm bolts passing
approximately one sixth the weight of a concrete through the floor panels.
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Structural connection systems
Screw connection (left)1 CLT wall panel2 ASSY
screws drilled at a diagonal to CLT wall panel
1 1
through to floor panel3 ASSY screws connect CLT
2 floor panel to CLT wall panel4 CLT floor panel
5
Bolt connection (right)5 Bolt connects bracket and
CLT wall panel6 Bolts attach CLT floor panel to
wall panel7 Metal knife plate secures CLT wall to
6 floor8 Bolts are secured by washers and nuts
3
7
4
4
8
1
A B C D
Volumetric organization The second type is used on the upper floors of the
A Outdoor sports courts, walkways, communal areas tower and relies solely on self-tapping screws. Pairs of
and parking surround the four main buildings. B Shear
screws are inserted at an angle of 45 in opposing di-
walls are connected to form a continuous network of
rections from either side of the panel. Closely spaced,
structural support. C A lower podium building with
common areas links the four towers. D The towers these screws essentially stitch the CLT panels together,
accommodate affordable housing. creating a continuous connection with high stiffness
that transfers loads efficiently and evenly from one
panel to another. The site installation of this connec-
tion is very straightforward, and permits the correction
of minor inconsistencies in alignment of the panels.
The result is a unified three-dimensional structural
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Via Cenni Social Housing | 81
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WOODCUBE
Hamburg, Germany [Architekturagentur Stuttgart]
2013 Year
DeepGreen Development Client
Isenmann Ingenieure Structural Engineer
Thoma Holz 100 GmbH Engineered Wood Fabricator
Residential Program
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Woodcube|83
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The building is part of the Wilhelmsburg Central Integrated Energy Network, which provides heat from renewable sources.
1 Entrance
2 Residence
3 Balcony
2 2
3
2
2
4
2
2
3
1 2
Schnitt AA
4 2 4
2 2 2
3
3 3 3
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Woodcube|85
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Wall and floor assembly
The Woodcube uses no glue or adhesives, instead the dry fit CLT wall and floor panels are connected with high-strength
ASSY screws to form the connection points. 1 ASSY screws inserted at a diagonal into both roof and wall CLT2 CLT roof
panel with edge grooves for form fitting of assemblies 3 CLT dry fit wall panel4 ASSY screws connect the walls, the
ends of the walls have grooves to connect the corners.
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Woodcube|87
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Connection to central core
A central concrete core houses the stairs and resists lateral loads on the structure.
1 Roof panels connect to one another2 Concrete core with stairs3 Metal C-brackets connect the CLT panels to the concrete core. 4 Roof panels are
cut to fit around the concrete core.5 After installation the floor receives insulating boards, sound insulation and a wooden floor system.
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Woodcube|89
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A
8
Detail section
1 Wood beam
2 CLT wall assembly
3 Internal wall cladding
4 Exterior wall cladding
5 Sliding door system
6 Triple pane glazing
7 Wooden flooring
2
8 CLT floor assembly
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Woodcube|91
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The exterior is clad in unfinished, horizontal larch siding; note the exhaust vents and metal lines indicating the fire compartments.
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Woodcube|93
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PUUKUOKKA HOUSING BLOCK
Jyvskyl, Finland [OOPEAA]
2015 Year
Lakea and City of Jyvskyl Client
Stora Enso Structural Engineer
Stora Enso Engineered Wood Fabricator
Keski-Suomen Rakennuslinja Contractor
Residential Program
Situated on the north shore of Lake Pijnne amid the Restrictive building codes, a shortage of skilled car-
hills and forests of central Finland, Jyvskyl is a penters, and a development industry used to design/
fast-growing city of about 140,000 inhabitants. It has build project delivery, meant that the introduction of
long been known for the quality of its higher education locally produced CLT to the market could not by itself
institutions, which underpin an economy now based be a catalyst for change. Rather, it was necessary for
on healthcare services, IT and renewable energy tech- industry stakeholders to integrate the material into a
nology. Architecturally, the city is best known for its new and holistic approach to building that would repo-
unrivalled collection of works by the great Finnish sition wood as an appropriate and desirable material
Modernist Alvar Aalto. for larger projects.
This culture of innovation makes Jyvskyl an appro-
priate setting for the realization of Finlands first CONCEPT
eight-storey CLT apartment building. Puukuokka Hous- Completed in 2015, the Puukuokka Housing Block is
ing Block capitalizes on recent changes to the coun- the first phase in a proposed three-building complex
trys building codes, and also implements new ap- designed by architects OOPEAA in collaboration with
proaches to project delivery that emerged from a developer Lakea and the Jyvskyl City Planning
critical self-examination by Finlands wood products Department. When completed, the complex will com-
and construction industries. Previously fragmented prise 150apartments with a net floor area of approxi-
and focused on individual products, industry stake- mately 10,000 square metres.
holders realized they could not capitalize on the op- The Puukuokka project explores the potential of mod-
portunities presented by new materials such as CLT, or ular prefabricated CLT construction to meet the mu-
new technologies such as digital fabrication, without a nicipalitys goal of providing high-quality, environmen-
shared vision. tally responsible and affordable housing for its
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Puukuokka Housing Block | 95
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1 Landscaped entrance
A
5
A
5
2
1
3 1 3 5 3
5
A 4
6
citizens. Phase 1 includes apartments that range in CLT manufacturer Stora Enso to develop a system of
size from 54 square metres for one-bedroom units to load-bearing modules that could capitalize on the ben-
76 square metres for three-bedroom units. efits of factory production without compromising the
With a strong social and environmental mandate, du- architectural ambitions of the project. The stacked
rable, cost-effective, low-carbon construction was also modules are capable of carrying the required vertical
seen as a prerequisite for the introduction of an inno- loads up to the eight-storey maximum height permit-
vative lease-to-own financing strategy. This concept ted by code.
supports social sustainability by promoting stable In northern climates in particular, with their long and
communities. A 7% down payment on the purchase harsh winters, prefabrication offers many advantages
price of an apartment enables a purchaser to secure a both in terms of quality and cost control. For Puukuo-
state-guaranteed loan and, after a rental period of kka, each apartment consists of two prefabricated
20years, assume freehold ownership of the unit. modules one wet and one dry. The dry module
includes the living room, the balcony and the bed-
CONSTRUCTION room, while the wet module houses the bathroom, the
The building follows the contours of the site in order kitchen and the foyer area. To ensure the most effi-
to minimize disturbance to the underlying bedrock cient use of material, OOPEAA carefully controlled
and existing vegetation. Above the cast-in-place con- module dimensions to minimize waste.
crete basement parking level, the building consists of Completed modules, including floor and wall finishes,
volumetric prefabricated apartment modules made up kitchen and bathroom fixtures, were transported to
from spruce CLT panels. OOPEAA worked closely with the site on a just-in-time basis, to be stacked like Lego
A Balcony (cold) 3 Air gap bricks on either side of a central void that would be-
B Apartment (warm) 4 Concrete screed layer and
come the circulation spine. Wall thicknesses decrease
C Balcony (semi-warm) integrated underfloor heating
5 Insulation 100mm
from the bottom to the top of the building, reflecting
D Apartment (warm)
1 CLT structural panel 6 Sliding glass door system the lighter loads carried by the upper storeys.
2 Roof of balcony 7 Insulation 50mm The roof was prefabricated on site in sections. The
size of the site made it possible to fabricate a tem
1 2 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 7
porary roof structure that could be lifted from the
ground and placed on top of each completed storey of
modules as construction progressed. Prior to the ar-
rival of the next set of modules, the roof would be re-
moved and placed back on the ground. This approach
A B
to weather protection was justifiable because of the
high value and vulnerability of the fully finished pre-
fabricated modules.
All central services, including electricity and piping
forheat and water, are installed in vertical risers inte
C D grated into the hallway walls. This enables apartment
modules to be easily plugged in, and facilitates
access for ongoing maintenance and repairs. The cor-
Balcony section ridors are formed by CLT bridge panels that span
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Puukuokka Housing Block | 97
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Housing block under construction. Modular units are delivered by truck and lifted into place by crane.
Construction sequences
1 The faade is applied to the modular system once the structure is complete.2 Dry pre-made modules come to the site complete
with interior fittings.3 Wet modules come to the site with toilet and sink installed.4 Vertical service ducts are integrated between
the prefabricated modules and the site-built interior hallway.5 Railing system6 Built on site, the atria at either end of the building
extend the full height of the building and admit abundant natural light and air to both sides of the units.7 CLT stairs connect the
floors.8 Once assembled, the frame system together with the wall and floor panels becomes structurally rigid.9 The walls of the
interior hallways provide bracing against shear and lateral movements.
4 5 6
1 2 7
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Puukuokka Housing Block | 99
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FRAME SYSTEMS
Frame systems, in which vertical loads are carried by The Earth Sciences Building combines a traditional
an interconnected system of beams and columns, lend post-and-beam frame with contemporary approaches
themselves naturally to building programs that require to connection design and wood/concrete composite
larger and more flexible interior spaces, typically com- construction.
mercial, institutional and assembly occupancies. The Tamedia Head Office exploits the potential of
Frame systems provide the opportunity for larger ar- digital fabrication to create a structure inspired by
eas of glazing and therefore a different architectural traditional Japanese joinery techniques.
expression than that associated with residential build- The Bullitt Center has a glulam post-and-beam struc-
ings. They also require additional measures, such as ture and nail-laminated floor panel construction that
cross bracing or shear walls, to address issues of lat- closely resembles that of late 19th and early 20th
eral stability. century commercial buildings.
Different approaches to the design of frame systems At the Wood Innovation and Design Centre lateral
are illustrated in the following portfolio of projects: stability for the glulam post-and-beam frame is pro-
vided by the CLT elevator shaft and stair cores.
Located on the main campus of the University of Brit- the emergence of modern massive timber construc-
ish Columbia (UBC), the five-storey, 15,800 square tion in Europe, and the recent arrival of the technolo-
metre Earth Sciences Building (ESB) was completed gy in North America, UBC (which had two smaller
in August 2012. It consolidates teaching, laboratory mass timber projects already commissioned at the
and administrative spaces for several related depart- time) was open to exploring its potential further on the
ments previously dispersed around the campus. Earth Sciences Building.
The chosen site is in a prominent position, across the
central thoroughfare of Main Mall from the existing CONSTRUCTION
Beatty Biodiversity Museum. As such the project of- The form of the building was driven by site constraints
fered the opportunity to complete a gateway to a new and opportunities, programmatic needs and the desire
science and engineering precinct. With this role in to maximize the use of passive environmental design
mind, the enhancement of the public realm and con- strategies. The L-shaped plan comprises two wings,
nectivity with the rest of the campus became import- separated by a five-storey atrium upon which the ex-
ant drivers of the design. ternal and internal circulation routes converge. A
sculptural wood stair rises through the space, its
CONCEPT unique cantilevered design made possible by the supe-
These urban design ambitions informed an architec- rior strength and increased stiffness of engineered
tural approach based on external transparency, and an wood products and advanced connection systems.
internal arrangement that would encourage the infor- The higher-hazard occupancies (with their heavy
mal use of the building by others on campus. To this equipment and complex servicing requirements) are
end, the design sought to provide not only state-of-the- located in the south wing, which has a concrete frame
art-formal academic space, but also flexible informal structure. Here, the majority of the program compris-
learning spaces conducive to collaboration and future es laboratories and their related classroom and sup-
adaptation. port spaces. The lower-hazard occupancies were ac-
The strategic location of the project, together with its commodated in the north wing, which has a glulam
progressive research program, supported the idea of post-and-beam frame structure with wood/concrete
a high-profile, technologically advanced building that composite floors. Here the program comprises offices
could further the Universitys sustainability goals. With and three lecture theatres.
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Earth Sciences Building | 103
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A
A
5
2
2
6
A
A
1
1
7
4
1 Atrium
2 Lecture theatre
3 High-head laboratories The main public areas of the project, including the
4 Cafe
atrium, cafe, museum and informal learning spaces,
5 Classroom
are located on the ground floor, which is fully glazed
6 Computer labs
7 Shared space
toprovide visual as well as physical connection to
8 Labs the surrounding campus. The 6.4 metre square struc-
tural grid was chosen to match that of the Beatty
Biodiversity Museum opposite, as was the height of
the horizontal canopy that wraps the east and south
sides of the building. The canopy extends over the
forecourt to engage the adjacent Fairview Commons,
one of UBCs most important public open spaces.
The Earth Sciences Building was one of the first proj-
5 ectsin North America to incorporate advanced pre
fabrication methods, wood/concrete composite com-
5
ponents and proprietary connection systems into a
precisely engineered and detailed version of tradition-
al heavy timber post-and-beam construction.
7 5 5 The north wing employs a glulam post-and-beam
frame structure, a modified version of the balloon
frame system. The glulam columns extend the full
height of the building, and beams are connected
2
into the face of the columns using proprietary Sherpa
connectors. These steel connectors consist of two
parts that are attached to the beam and column in the
factory. Brought together on site, they form a contem-
porary steel version of the traditional wooden dovetail
Section AA connection. The final appearance is very neat, with the
1 2 3 4 5 6
connectors concealed and protected from fire by the installation of the HBV system required lengths of
wood elements. End grain-to-end grain bearing col- steel mesh to be inserted and epoxy-glued into kerfs
umns were employed to minimize shrinkage. cut into the LSL panels. A grid of rebar was then laid
Another innovative component of the project is the on chairs and the concrete slab was poured to create
system of storey-height glulam chevron braces, which a floor system with composite action. In addition to
are left exposed on the interior of the building and are increased strength, the weight of the concrete reduces
visible through the glazing of the south elevation. To- vibration and improves acoustic performance.
gether with a concrete stair shaft and the floor and This was the first time that the HBV system had been
roof diaphragms, they form the lateral system for the used with LSL (chosen because the availability of CLT
building. The braces themselves are rigid because of was uncertain at the time). Full-scale testing was car-
their triangular configuration, so that the dissipation ried out by FP Innovations, a Canadian forest products
of seismic forces takes place through the deformation research organization, to confirm that performance of
of the multiple steel knife plate connectors. the floor would meet the design criteria.
Composite laminated strand lumber and concrete The glulam frame for the entire building was erected
floors connected by the proprietary HBV system im- and the LSL floors and roof were installed before
ported from Germany form the floor system. The con- pouring of the concrete slabs began. Concrete work
struction of this floor system began with the installa- started at the top of the building, providing a measure
tion of LSL panels spanning the 6.4 metres between of weather protection for the lower levels as work pro-
beams. Once this structural subfloor was in place, the gressed.
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Earth Sciences Building | 105
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Detail of glulam beam and column during Detail of chevron bracing system during const-
construction, forming a hidden connection. ruction. Metal knife plates extend into the
glulam beams to provide an angled connection.
As the height of the Earth Sciences Building exceeded results in a continuous flat soffit that creates a seam-
that permitted by code for heavy timber construction less connection between inside and outside space.
for an institutional occupancy, an alternative solution
was required to demonstrate that the wood structure CONCLUSION
provided a level of fire safety equivalent to that of a The Earth Sciences Building represents a pivotal mo-
non-combustible building. ment in the evolution of massive timber construction
The alternative solution included the following special in North America (mostly called mass timber there).
measures: the separation of the program into high After the successful completion of several smaller-
and low-hazard areas (with the high-hazard labora scale, mostly residential CLT buildings, it has demon-
tories accommodated in the concrete south wing); the strated that contemporary massive timber technology
use of concealed connections for the timber structure, can be successfully applied at a larger scale and to
with steel components protected by wood; the under- high-performance buildings of different occupancies.
side of the LSL floor slabs being protected by sus-
pended ceilings with a low flame spread rating; the
installation of a sprinkler system; and the atrium stair
not being used as a designated fire escape route.
The building is wrapped on two sides by an exterior
canopy. Because the canopy was not a critical compo-
nent in the overall project schedule, it was possible to
construct it using prefabricated CLT panels fastened to
the underside of glulam beams using lag screws. This
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Earth Sciences Building | 107
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TAMEDIA HEAD OFFICE
Zurich, Switzerland [Shigeru Ban Architects]
2013 Year
Tamedia AG Client
Creation Holz GmbH Structural Engineer
Blumer-Lehmann AG Engineered Wood Fabricator
HRS Real Estate AG Contractor
Office Program
Located in the centre of Zurich, this project provides traditional Japanese joinery techniques gives the inte-
office accommodation for 500 employees of the Swiss rior the atmosphere of a domestic living room. The
media group Tamedia, consolidating its operations low embodied energy and the sequestered carbon of
into a single urban campus. The new building replaces the 2000 cubic metres of spruce glulam incorporated
an existing structure, occupying the original footprint, in the wood structure, also contributes to Tamedias
but extending its two uppermost storeys over an corporate sustainability goals. The building has a low
adjacent structure to create a continuous street front- construction carbon footprint and, with its energy-effi-
age of almost 50 metres facing the Sihl canal. The cient high-performance envelope and geo-exchange
main axis of the building extends to the junction of heating and cooling system, is carbon-neutral in its
Werdstrasse and Stauffacherquai, creating a new main operations.
entry for the entire Tamedia complex. The most Accommodating the required program for a new and
striking feature of the building is its exposed wood contemporary building within strict urban design
structure, visible not only on the interior, but through guidelines, and constructing it on a restricted site ad-
the fully glazed double faade. jacent to other fully operational buildings, presented
both architectural and logistical challenges. The
CONCEPT choice of a mansard roof form, and its extension over
As a creative company, Tamedia wanted to provide its the adjacent building, maximized the program area
employees with a relaxing yet inspiring work environ- within the permitted building height, while the choice
ment that would support informal interaction and col- of a prefabricated wood structure reduced the con-
laboration. The choice of an exposed timber structure struction time and minimized noise and other forms
wrapped in an envelope of glass supported these am- of disruption to the occupants of surrounding
bitions, and the use of connection details inspired by buildings.
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3
4 5
4 5
4 3
Site plan
8 8
STQ8
8 8
(Existing Building) (
Section AA
7 7
A
1 Entrance
2 Front desk Typical floor plan
3 Multi-purpose space
4 Atrium
5 Office space
6 Meeting rooms
7 Open/closed lounge
8 Technical room
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The structural timber frames were assembled on site. Once the frames were
lifted into place, installation of floors and walls could begin.
Detail section
6 7 8 9
1 External shading (fabric)
2 Steel square tube 140mm 140mm
3 Laminated timber (spruce)
4 Wood joist 200mm 267mm
5 Triple glazing
6 Three-layer wood board 45mm and mineral
wool 60160mm
7 Steel support for raised floor
8 Carpet and raised floor
9 Equipment installing space
4 10 11 12 10 Cooling/heating panel
11 Sand 80mm
12 Wood joist
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Details of precision CNC-milled components
CNC manufacturing: The CNC machine at Blumer-Lehmann AG enabled the production of a precise kit of parts.
1 Glulam panel2 3D model of each piece is sent to CNC machine.3 Large-scale CNC machine4 Precise oval holes for the columns
ensure an interlocking connection.5 CNC machine is capable of five-axis rotation to produce angles.6 Due to the diameter of the
pieces a long milling bit was used.7 Finished pieces are checked by hand before being shipped to the construction site.8 Speciali-
zed undercut and high detail finishing is done by hand.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6
Joint assembly
1 CNC milled secondary oval beam2 CNC milled primary beam3 Interlocking column system4 The column is locked
into position by the beam grid5 Primary beams distribute loads from the building6 Oval beams lock the system in
place and brace against shear forces.
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Design concept
1 Existing Tamedia building2 The mansard roof responds to the form of adjacent
historic buildings.3 Faade for extension over neighbouring building4 Structural
heavy timber frame5 Faade for new construction6 The entrance faade responds to
the existing urban scale.
4
3
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BULLITT CENTER
Seattle, USA [The Miller Hull Partnership]
2013 Year
The Bullitt Foundation/Point 32 Client
DCI Engineers Structural Engineer
Calvert Engineered Wood Fabricator
Schuchart Contractor
Office Program
The Bullitt Foundation was established in Seattle, erformance imperatives, including the selection of a
p
Washington, in 1952 by Dorothy Bullitt, a leading busi- previously developed brownfield site, 100% on-site
nesswoman and philanthropist, whose family had a renewable energy generation, 100% of water needs
long history in the establishment of civic and cultural provided by harvested rainwater and on-site waste
institutions. In the 21st century, the Foundations mis- management.
sion reflects the belief that in future, Sustainable hu-
man institutions and enterprises will be based on the CONCEPT
same ecological principles that govern all ecosys- With a low surface-to-volume ratio, a high-performance
tems.1 building envelope, energy-efficient equipment and sys-
This new building houses the Bullitt Foundation offices tems, and advanced daylighting strategies, the aim of
on half of one floor, while the rest of the space is the Bullitt Center was to reduce its operating energy
leased as office space to other tenants. With the goal demand by 80% relative to that of a traditionally con-
of creating the worlds greenest commercial building, structed commercial building of the same size. This
the Foundation chose to follow the principles of the makes it possible for the building to be powered by a
Living Building Challenge (LBC), North Americas most photovoltaic array that covers the full extent of the
advanced green building rating system. To achieve overhanging roof. In addition the building recycles its
LBC certification, buildings must meet a series of water and treats its own waste on site, and is con-
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A A
5 8 5 8 5
5
6
4 3
3
2
7
A A
1 Entrance
2 Lobby
3 Apartment
4 Bathroom
5 Balcony
6 Attic space
7 Stair and elevator core
8 Parking
structed using durable, non-toxic materials that result ments for the desired 250-year service life, reduce the
in superior life cycle performance and interior environ- need for potentially harmful interior finishes; and as-
mental quality. sist in meeting the carbon-neutral objectives of the
project.
CONSTRUCTION The wood structure comprises a glulam post-and-
The six-storey, 4830 square metre podium structure beam frame, with the floors and roof constructed of
includes two lower floors of concrete construction with solid nail-laminated timber. This kind of wood struc-
four floors of heavy timber above. The choice of wood ture was in common use for commercial buildings
was not an immediate one; the architects initially be- until the 1920s, but the Bullitt Center was the first to
lieved the thermal mass of a concrete structure would be built in Downtown Seattle for almost a century.
be necessary to achieve the required energy perfor- The Douglas fir glulam columns and beams range in
mance. However, life cycle comparisons of various size from 130mm 380mm to 310mm 534mm.
structural options concluded that timber would not Thenail-laminated timber decking is 2 6 inches
compromise the goal of net zero energy, and at the (38mm 140mm) for the floors and 2 4 inches
same time offer additional aesthetic and environmen- (38mm 89mm) for the roof. In accordance with the
tal benefits. Wood could meet the durability require- requirements of LBC, all the wood is sourced from
within a 1000 kilometer radius, and is Forest Steward- stalled between the top of one column and the bottom
ship Council (FSC) certified. of the column above. This detail isolates the effects of
For reasons of economy, it was necessary to specify cross grain shrinkage in the floor beams at any given
industrial (rather than architectural) grade glulams, level to that individual storey.
and to design simple connections that would be inex- The steel spacers also permit each floor beam to have
pensive to manufacture and quick to install. Rather approximately 75mm of direct bearing surface on the
than concealed knife plates, the design team devised columns. Testing demonstrated that this approach
abucket connection that could be attached to the offered an adequate measure of safety against struc-
columns, and would eliminate the need for temporary tural collapse in case of fire, and it was therefore not
shoring of beams during erection. necessary to protect the exposed steel connectors
Each glulam beam was cut to length on site, lifted by with intumescent paint. The structure is otherwise de-
crane, set into the buckets and secured by screws. The signed to provide the required resistance through the
choice of screws (rather than larger-diameter bolts) oversizing of members and the calculation of charring
eliminated the need for pre-drilling and permitted the rate.
connection to be closer to the beam end, thus re The City of Seattle supported the project, and offered
ducing the size of the buckets. flexibility in the interpretation of its own bylaws to as-
To avoid the effects of cumulative shrinkage that could sist in meeting the project goals. In one instance, the
result if the storey-height columns were allowed to municipality agreed to relax the height limit for
bear on the floor beams, a steel tube spacer was in- six-storey buildings to permit the floor-to-floor heights
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Axonometric drawings of steel connections
Steel connection points within the structure resist seismic forces and reduced
the construction time.1 Glulam posts and beams are the main structural system
on the top four floors.2 Metal connection points join the columns and beams.
The steel connectors bridge the small differences in the length of the beams.
3Steel I-column4 Steel I-beam5 Chevron braces stiffen the building against
lateral and seismic forces.
3 4 5 2 1 2
to be raised to 4.7 metres. This was done to increase The goal of the Bullitt Center is to change the way
daylight penetration and reduce the energy required buildings are designed, built and operated; to improve
for artificial illumination, benefits that were further long-term environmental performance; and to promote
increased by the choice of a nail-laminated floor sys- broader implementation of energy efficiency, renew-
tem. Much shallower than a conventional joisted floor, able energy and other green building technologies.2
it also eliminated the need for perimeter beams, per- While the Foundations focus is the Pacific Northwest
mitting the glazing to extend the full floor-to-ceiling region of North America, the lessons learned from this
height. project could have global implications.
CONCLUSION
In its desire to catalyze market transformation, the
REFERENCES
Bullitt Foundation bore the cost of extensive research
and development of this prototype urban commercial 1 Denis Hayes, President and CEO, Bullitt Foundation, 2008.
building. As the Foundation states: 2 The Bullitt Center: Retrieved from http://www.bullittcenter.org
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Bullitt Center | 123
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WOOD INNOVATION AND DESIGN CENTRE
Prince George, Canada [MGA | Michael Green Architecture]
2014 Year
MJTST Client
Equilibrium Consulting Structural Engineer
Structurlam Engineered Wood Fabricator
PCL Contractor
Institutional/Office Program
The Wood Innovation and Design Centre (WIDC) was used above the ground floor slab, with the exception
completed in October 2014. It is located in the centre of a concrete topping in the mechanical penthouse on
of Prince George, the largest city in northern British the roof.
Columbia, and an important centre for the provinces WIDCs main tenant will be the University of Northern
forestry industry. The six-storey plus mechanical pent- British Columbia (UNBC), which will house its Masters
house, 29.5 metre high structure was funded by the degree programs in wood engineering and science on
provincial government to demonstrate the immediate the first two and a half floors, accommodating re-
application and future potential of massive wood con- searchfacilities, a lecture theatre and classrooms
struction, serving as a showcase for local wood prod- spaces. Offices of public and private sector organiza-
ucts and manufacturing processes. tions involved in the forestry industry will be located
on the upper floors. Thus WIDC will serve as a gather-
CONCEPT ing place for researchers, academics, design profes-
The Wood Innovation and Design Centre is the first Tall sionals and others interested in generating ideas for
Wood building in Canada built beyond the area and innovative uses of wood.
height limitations of current building codes. With a The form of the building is simple and elegant, allow-
mandate to push the limits of the material, WIDC in- ing the beauty of wood to shine through. The exterior
corporates wood wherever the building code and is inspired by bark peeling away from the trunk of a
site-specific building regulation permit. This includes tree; thick and protective on the north side, thin and
an innovative structural system using a range of local- open on the south where the faade becomes more
ly manufactured, solid engineered wood products as transparent to welcome passive solar heat gain. To the
well as a variety of interior and exterior wood finishes. east and west, the wood columns supporting the cur-
The post-and-beam structural system creates long tain wall glazing cut the low angle of the rising and
spans and flexible floor plates without the use of steel setting sun. The summer sun is controlled with wood
or concrete members. In fact, there is no concrete slat blinds.
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11
14
10
7 8
4
9
4
1
5 3 2
A A A A
1 Vestibule
2 Demonstration area
3 Cafe
4 Elevator lobby
14 5 Lecture theatre
6 Research lab below
7 Technicians office
14 8 Electrical services
9 Mechanical services
10 Garbage and recycling
14
11 Bike storage
12 Projection room
16 13 Mezzanine
14 Tenant space
15 Classroom
16 Office
15 15 15
12 13
5
2 1
3
Section AA
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Construction sequence
WIDC had a tight time schedule. The elevator core was built from CLT panels and was assembled first, followed by the floor system. An innovative slab
system allows for mechanical, electrical and water systems to be hidden with the floor slab. The chase system enables reconfiguration when needed
by the client.
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1 2 3 Diagram and section of floor construction
1 LVL curtain wall mullion
2 9mm carpet
3 Glulam column
4 7mm acoustic underlay
5 Two layers 13mm plywood
6 Sprinklers and services in ceiling trough
7 99mm three-layer CLT
4 5 8 Acoustic insulation
9 19mm 38mm @ 75mm spacing wood, slats ceiling,
black fabric, acoustic insulation
10 Glulam beam
11 Suspended light fixture
12 169mm five-layer CLT
13 Services in floor trough
7
8 14 Wood slat blinds
6 15 Service chase
9
16 50mm semi-rigid fibreglass board insulation
10 17 Sprinkler pipe, acoustic seal around penetration
18 Two layers 16mm gypsum wallboard
19 Two layers 25mm semi-rigid fibreglass board insulation
20 Curtain wall, aluminum veneer, LVL mullion, triple glazing
13 12
11
14
A B
C D E
A The lateral load resistance is primarily provided by the elevator and stair core walls, which consist of CLT panels. These shear walls are anchored to
the foundations using a combination of shear brackets and hold-down anchors.B Concealed proprietary aluminum dovetail. Pitzl connectors are used
to join the beams and columns of the glulam frame.C Staggered CLT floor panels are installed. Upper floor columns bear directly on columns from the
floor below. LVL wind columns and SIPs were then used on each floor.D The building envelope with curtain wall glazing and wood cladding is set in
place, and the building is then topped by the roof with a mechanical penthouse. Services and interior partitions are installed.E The structural system
used for WIDC has been proven as a structural concept for commercial buildings up to 30 storeys.
15
14
2 4 7 5 6 8
18
16 19 17 13 9 12
20
The HSK connection system allows for concealed services in floor and ceiling assemblies. It also enables acoustic separation and flexibility for
fitting out for future tenant finishes and services.
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View of east elevation. LVL columns support the curtain wall glazing.
suppression systems are run in the ceiling recesses, bly: in its potential impact on global warming (88%
concealed with a simple, removable wood-slat finish. improvement); non-renewable energy consumption
The acoustic performance of the floor assembly is fur- (43% improvement); acidification (47% improvement);
ther improved by a noise-barrier system lining the un- and ozone depletion (54% improvement).1
derside of the top CLT within the ceiling chase. The This project has set many precedents in the North
service chases inherent in the structural system offer American building context through the extensive engi-
flexibility for future reconfiguration. Therefore, the neering research and testing undertaken by the proj-
need for secondary ceiling finishes to conceal service ect team to prove the safety and reliability of massive
runs is significantly reduced. Additional acoustic mea- timber construction. As the example of WIDC is fol-
sures were required to increase the acoustic perfor- lowed elsewhere on the continent, North American
mance of the lecture theatre, both in terms of sound building codes will no doubt respond, and recognize
isolation from adjacent spaces and for speech intelligi- Tall Wood construction as a standard, safe practice.
bility within the room.
Rather than protecting the wood structure from expo-
sure to fire by covering it with non-combustible materi-
al, the wood is left exposed, and fire resistance was
demonstrated through computer modelling and calcu-
lations. The massive timber will char slowly enough to
provide the required fire protection. The most vulnera-
ble parts of the system in a fire are in fact the steel
connectors between massive timber elements. All con-
nectors are therefore set into and protected by the
timber.
CONCLUSION
The Wood Innovation and Design Centre was the sub- REFERENCES
ject of a detailed life cycle impact analysis comparing
the wood solution with a hypothetical alternative built 1 Athena Sustainable Materials Institute (2015) New Environmental
Building Declaration for WIDC. Retrieved from http://www.
in concrete. The environmental performance of the athenasmi.org/news-item/new-environmental-building-declaration-
wood building was superior in all respects, most nota- for-widc/
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HYBRID SYSTEMS
In addition to satisfying the requirements of program, LCT One uses a simple system of wood/concrete com-
structural design is also concerned with efficiency posite floor panels, and prefabricated wall panels in-
and economy of means. In some cases, a pure wood corporating glulam columns, a combination that
frame or panel structure may not provide the optimal speeds up the erection process and minimizes use of
solution. material.
Hybrid systems, in which different materials and The Wenlock Mixed-Use Building has a concrete
structural solutions are used in combination, are com- ground floor and circulation core, with a steel frame
mon. The choice may be made for architectural, struc- superstructure creating cantilevers that articulate the
tural, environmental or economic reasons, or because faade, and CLT panels for walls and floors.
of local construction practices or code requirements. The Treet Apartment Building has a perimeter struc-
The examples documented in this section opted for ture of glulam trusses, CLT stair and elevator cores
the following solutions: and hybrid glulam and concrete power floors that
The floor system for the Badenerstrasse Mixed-Use support stacked modular apartment units.
Building consists of prefabricated LVL panels, whereas
the walls use closely spaced green timber posts, a
solution designed to minimize carbon footprint and
ensure recyclability.
Section AA
Located in central Zurich, this project is the first in to the immediate neighbourhood and animating the
Switzerland to meet the requirements of new energy public realm.
regulations based on the criteria of the 2000 Watt So- The faade is clad in fibre cement panels, which give
ciety.1 The building extends the full depth of the prop- the building an impression of massiveness appropri-
erty between Badenerstrasse and the new Hardau city ate to its city centre setting. As such, it sits comfort-
park. The mixed-use program includes retail space oc- ably among its historic neighbours, most of which
cupying a single-storey concrete podium, above which have stucco or stone faades.
are 54 apartments spread over six storeys, and con-
structed using field-assembled massive timber panels. CONSTRUCTION
The six apartment storeys are constructed using a
CONCEPT simple cross wall structure that remains consistent
Above the podium, the residential accommodation is throughout the height of the building. Wood construc-
divided into six contiguous rectangles, alternately tion offered numerous advantages. In addition to the
pushed forward toward the park, or back toward Bade- shortened construction schedule that results from the
nerstrasse. The result is that both main faades are use of prefabricated and modular elements, wood of-
strongly articulated as a series of vertical volumes fered reduced weight and environmental attributes
separated by courtyards. consistent with the project goals.
All units are arranged in linear fashion and extend the Badenerstrasse is the first project to use the Top
full depth of the building. This allows for through ven- Wall system developed by the Swiss engineer and car-
tilation, natural light from multiple directions and the penter Hermann Blumer as the main structural sup-
opportunity to create a more closed elevation toward port system. The system is based on standardized
the busy street, and a more open one toward the park. 100mm 200mm spruce wood vertical supports that
Balconies on the park side further articulate the verti- do not need to be kiln-dried to perform effectively. The
cal massing and connect the building and its occu- elements are not factory-prefabricated into wall panel
pants visually to the surroundings. Building entrances units (as is usual in contemporary massive timber
are located on both sides, strengthening connections construction), but instead positioned and fixed in
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2
1 Supermarket
2 Stairwell
3 Balcony
3 4 4 Elevator shaft
A A
A A
place on sleepers, using 20mm diameter beech wood rial are accepted and incorporated into the system.
dowels or plug anchors inserted into pre-drilled holes. Two aspects are of particular interest.
The floors are a prefabricated panelized construction, Firstly, the vertical elements are configured with a
consisting of 40mm upper and lower skins of laminat- 10mm gap between them, which allows the wood to
ed veneer lumber with 160mm deep joists, the voids shrink, swell or warp perpendicular to grain. While the
being filled with a 50mm layer of gravel. Above the elements are precise in the vertical dimension, this
panel is a 30mm layer of sound insulation, covered configuration allows for a 5% change in the size of the
with 70mm of concrete screed (including in-floor radi- cross section. It is not necessary to process the mate-
ant heating), and a finish floor. Below the panel resil- rial to avoid knots and splits, as these do not affect
ient channels are mounted, with a gypsum fibreboard the overall performance of the system.
finish. Secondly, because the wood used is not processed,
With the introduction of digital fabrication, building glued or nailed, it can be easily dismantled and re-
with massive timber has become a high-tech, high-pre- claimed at full structural value, when it reaches the
cision method of construction. In contrast, the ap- end of its initial service life. Thus the material can be
proach taken in this project (particularly with respect incorporated into other high-quality wooden products,
to the walls) is intentionally low-tech. Here, the natural as was common practice with reclaimed timbers well
properties and variability of wood as an organic mate- into the first half of the 20th century.
1 Detail section
2 1 Breathable cement cladding
2 Solid spruce Top Wall system
3
3 Insulation cavity on both
4 sides of the solid wood posts
4 Ventilated cavity
5
5 Double layer of gypsum fibreboard
6 Acoustic spacer
7 Utility cavity
8 OSB panel
9 Beech wood Rawl plug
6
10 Acoustic insulation
7
11 Acoustic ceiling hanger
8 12 Gypsum ceiling
9
4
10
11
6
12
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Non-load-bearing walls within the building consist of wood Wall prior to application of gypsum board. Notice the metal brackets used to stabil
and metal elements depending on the service systems ize and connect sections of the wall to the floor beneath.
running through them.
With the wood posts at its core, the exterior wall con- CONCLUSION
struction includes 80mm of mineral fibre insulation, The Badenerstrasse project not only expands our un-
30mm strapping, felt and gypsum fibreboard to the derstanding of contemporary approaches to sustain-
inside; and house wrap, 160mm mineral fibre insula- able building, questioning some current assumptions
tion, 30mm battens and 70mm fibre cement rain- and preconceptions, but also anticipates a future in
screen cladding to the outside. which resource shortages will make the recycling and
With respect to Zurichs new energy performance re- reuse of buildings and building materials an industry
quirements, the norms stipulated by SIA Effizienzpfad imperative.
Energie (Path toward Energy Efficiency)2 were the ba-
sis for the calculation of the operational and embod-
ied energy to optimize both the construction methods
REFERENCES
and the performance of the building. The choice of a
construction system based on solid sawn lumber sig- 1 The 2000 Watt Society is a model, first developed by ETH Zurich,
nificantly reduced the embodied energy of the build- that aims to reduce energy consumption to a continuous 2000
Watts per capita, the level it believes is necessary to achieve
ing. Energy for building operation is supplied by a heat long-term stabilization of the Earths climate.
pump, solar panels and the recycling of heat produced 2 Merkblatt SIA Effizienzpfad Energie (SIA 2040), 2011. http://
by the supermarket on the ground floor. www.sia.ch/de/themen/energie/effizienzpfad-energie/
6 7
1 2 3
8 9 10
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LCT ONE
Dornbirn, Austria [Architekten Hermann Kaufmann]
2012 Year
Cree GmbH, a division of the Rhomberg Group Client
Merz Kley Partner Zt GmbH Structural Engineer
Sohm HolzBautechnik GmbH Engineered Wood Fabricator
Cree GmbH, a division of the Rhomberg Group Contractor
Office Program
Located in the Austrian federal state of Vorarlberg and and Energy Efficiency (Cree), a division of the
completed in 2012, Life Cycle Tower (LCT) One draws Rhomberg Group. Phase 1 (known as 8+ and conduc
on the architectural tradition of the region. Isolated ted in collaboration with architect Michael Schluder)
for centuries by mountainous topography, Vorarlberg confirmed the technical viability of high-rise construc-
developed a craft-based approach to wood building tion in wood; Phase 2 refined the initial concept into a
that combined efficiency, economy and elegance. Up- hybrid solution that could compete with standard
dated to embrace high-precision digital manufactur- concrete construction for buildings up to 30 storeys.
ing, the careful detailing of wood structures remains a Designed as a commercial office, LCT One uses a high-
central driver of contemporary design. ly systematized, yet highly flexible hybrid solid wood
and concrete post, beam and panel system. Before
CONCEPT embarking on the detailed design of LCT One, the
With a gross floor area of 2300 square metres and a project team made a conceptual application to the ap-
height of eight storeys, LCT One was conceived as a proving authority. Permission for the project was
prototype for a new approach to building that could granted in principle, subject to the design meeting
greatly reduce the carbon footprint and environmental certain provisions, specifically in regard to structural
impact of urban development and redevelopment fire protection. With the exception of the cast-in-place
around the world. Supported by Regionalentwicklung concrete stair tower (required by the approving author-
Vorarlberg, an association of municipalities, profes- ity), the building is made entirely from factory-prefab-
sional and technical organizations, the building is the ricated wall and floor components, which reduced on-
result of a two-phase study led by Creative Resource site construction time to only eight days.
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CONSTRUCTION
The carefully proportioned wall panel system gives the building a Conceptually, LCT One is constructed from a kit of
simple and elegant appearance.
only three parts: load-bearing exterior columns, floor
panels that span between the columns and the con-
crete stair core, and exterior wall panels to enclose the
building. In practice, the system was reduced to two
1 Entrance
2 Demonstration area
parts, with the columns being built into the exterior
3 Office areas wall panels.
3 4
4 Concrete core The choice of a glulam frame rather than a load-bear-
5 Concrete pad ing CLT panel system for the vertical structure was
3 4 driven by the desire to optimize material use. Unlike
CLT, where alternate laminations are perpendicular to
one another, the grain in glulam is all oriented in a
3 4
single direction. This makes it highly efficient for car-
rying vertical loads and, with end grain bearing, elimi-
3 4 nates the issue of moisture-related shrinkage.
LCT One uses paired glulam columns, each 240mm
240mm, separated by a 10mm gap. The columns are
3 4
sized to achieve 90-minute fire resistance, and the
column pairs are spaced at 2.7 metres centres. The
3 4 floor-to-floor height in LCT One is 3.3 metres, but the
system can be adapted to any required floor height.
The wood/concrete composite floor panels measure
2
4 2.7 8.1 metres and consist of four 240mm
280mm glulam beams with an 80mm thick concrete
1
slab, cast as a coffer with down-stands on the short
4
5 sides. The choice of concrete increased the thermal
mass of the building, improved acoustic performance
4 3
1 Entrance
2 Demonstration area
3 Storage and WC
7 7 7 7
4 Stairs
5 Elevator
6 Storage
7 Office areas
6 4 3
A
Ground floor plan
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Installation of panels
1 Hybrid floor panel placed on top of wall panel.2 A full wall panel is lowered into place using the steel tubes as guides.3 Once the
panel is in place, it is temporarily secured.4 A non-shrink grout is placed around the steel tube and allowed to dry, creating a secure and
fireproof assembly.5 A crane is used to place the next hybrid floor panel, using the holes in the four corners.6 Once the floor panel is in
place, the workers can move to the next storey and repeat the process. Each floor requires approximately one day to complete.
A B C D E F
LCT One uses prefabricated panels that allow construction to move at a rate of one floor per day. The construction sequence shows the installation
of panels.
1 3 4
5 6
13
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Hybrid floor system
1 The panels went through rigourous fire-proofing tests. The concrete top layer shields
the upper floors from fire, thus allowing occupants time to escape. 2 Digital fabri
cation techniques for wall panels and the hybrid floor system resulted in a high
degree of precision.3 Services can be accommodated beside the beams and are then
hidden by heating and cooling panels (chilled beams) that fit in between the beams.
The floor panels have holes cut out in each one of the corners
to facilitate each panel to be slipped into place; the floor and
wall system can be joined with a high degree of precision.
1 2
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Interior with all panels installed. The space is free from columns or obstructions, services are run through floor and wall panels and the floor can be
customized for the individual occupant.
and provided the fire separation between storeys that panels together. This creates a diaphragm that trans-
was required by the approving authority. fers lateral loads to the concrete stair core. All interior
The slabs were cast in the prefabrication shop, re partitions are non-load-bearing.
ducing tolerances from the 12mm required for site The coffers created by the floor system run from the
concrete work, to less than 1mm. This technique also perimeter of the building to the stair core. These cof-
eliminated wet trades from the building site, reducing fers accommodate prefabricated service units that
construction time and minimizing the possibility of contain electrical, mechanical, fire suppression and
moisture damage to the wood components. other systems that connect into vertical service risers
The slabs have circular holes cast into each corner, in the core. The concrete slab and down-stand beams
which engage steel tubes that are factory-fitted to the create a non-combustible lining for the concealed ser-
tops of the glulam posts. The resulting connection is vice spaces. Raised floors accommodate additional
filled with non-shrink grout. By creating a non-com- services and reduce the transfer of structure-borne
bustible platform between each storey-height column noise from one floor to another.
and the next, the design meets the approving authori- Because the external walls are non-load-bearing, they
tys requirement for fire separation between floors. could have been fully glazed. However in LCT One,
Steel plates and bolts connect the beam ends to the these walls are framed and sheathed, using engi-
supporting columns, and the edge beams of adjacent neered wood studs and OSB panels, and have punched
window openings. This enabled the glulam posts to be resource use and a 90% reduction in carbon emis-
built into the walls, a technique that simplified site sions compared to standard concrete frame construc-
assembly and further reduced construction time. tion. Carbon-neutral construction would have been
The panels were supplied to site fully insulated to Pas- theoretically possible if the concrete stair core had
sive House standard and with exterior sheathing al- been replaced with a CLT core. Aesthetically, the pre-
ready attached. However, to minimize the possibility cise detailing of components and their careful assem-
of damage during transportation, the aluminum clad- bly into a coherent structural system gives LCT One a
ding was installed on site. Each storey consists of five rational yet elegant architectural language.
wall panels and nine floor panels, with each taking
only a few minutes to install. As a result, each floor
took only five hours to complete, including the grout-
ing of connections and the sealing of the exterior
envelope.
CONCLUSION
Through the optimization of materials, the design and
construction of LCT One achieved a 50% reduction in
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1721 WENLOCK ROAD MIXED-USE BUILDING
London, England [Hawkins\Brown]
2015 Year
Regal Homes Client
Pringuer-James Consulting Engineers (concrete);
Engenuity (timber and steel) Structural Engineer
Binderholz Engineered Wood Fabricator
B&K Structures Contractor
Residential/Commercial Program
A hybrid wood, concrete and steel construction was
the most efficient solution for the offset geometry of
this structure, in which the cruciform plan ensures
good daylight and cross ventilation for each apartment.
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
1 Entrance 3 1
4 Apartment
Section AA
This ten-storey mixed-use building, includes ground opposing blocks of apartments facing a linear court-
floor commercial space with 50 apartment units yard. This configuration is rarely optimal for natural
above. The project is located next to the historic Re- light and ventilation, responds poorly to the immedi-
gents Canal in the London Borough of Hackney. The ate urban context and provides only undifferentiated
borough has been an early supporter of massive tim- communal outdoor space.
ber construction, having been the approving authority The project team wanted to address all these short-
for both the Murray Grove (2009) and Bridport House comings and devised a cruciform plan by which each
(2012) projects. apartment could be assured of dual exposure that
Long one of Londons poorest boroughs, Hackney is would afford better access to daylight and cross venti-
now in the process of renewal, as a new generation of lation. The arms of the plan would in turn define four
residents choose it for its proximity to central London smaller courtyards, with different orientations and
and the recreational amenities offered by the canal, different characters. To emphasize views up and down
itstowpath and the nearby Olympic legacy park. With the canal and to individualize the apartments, the plan
its mix of social and market housing, the project at is rotated on the rectangular site, and successive
1721 Wenlock Road can be seen as emblematic of floors are offset from one another, creating generous
this transition. balconies.
CONCEPT CONSTRUCTION
In London, medium-density housing projects such as When the London Borough of Hackney granted plan-
this have tended toward a standard typology, with two ning permission in 2012, it set a precedent by requir-
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2 1 2
5
1
8
9
4
8
3
A A A A
8 8 9
6
9 9
7
1 Entrance 3 Elevator and 5 Car lift to 7 Wenlock basin
2 Retail space stair core underg round 8 Apartment
4 Bike storage parking 9 Balcony
6 Amenity space
The western red cedar faade provides a durable and longlasting finish for the building. The
geometry of the building creates four courtyards, each with a different character.
ing that the project be constructed using CLT. While beams. At the perimeter of the building, where the
this requirement was in keeping with the Boroughs frame must carry the loads of the external walls, uni-
own environmental philosophy and anticipatory of versal (I-section) columns and beams are used. This
emerging market demand, it nonetheless posed some outer frame is capable of transferring the vertical load
technical challenges. of the exterior walls and supporting the necessary
The architects had previously used CLT in a large low- cantilevers for the balconies, enabling CLT panels to
rise school project, and recognized that the material be used as non-load-bearing infill.
lends itself best to load-bearing structural systems The floors are made from 200mm thick CLT panels, as
when walls are superimposed on one another and are the exterior and interior walls enclosing each suite.
hence load paths are straightforward. Given the offset Wood frame interior partitions reduce the overall
geometry of the proposed building, hybrid systems weight of the building and offer residents the possibili-
were investigated. The one that offered the greatest ty of reconfiguring their suite in future if desired. Lo-
economy and flexibility incorporated all three of the cal fire regulations made encapsulation the most
major construction materials concrete, steel and straightforward and predictable approach to achieve
wood. the 90-minute fire resistance required for a building of
The basement parking garage and ground floor com- this size and type. All CLT surfaces are therefore cov-
mercial space are constructed in reinforced concrete, ered with two layers of gypsum wallboard, and steel
above which extends a concrete stair and elevator core components are treated with intumescent paint.
that provides all the required resistance to lateral In the absence of well-developed noise abatement
loads. Around this core is a steel frame consisting of standards for CLT construction, a prototype apartment
hollow square section (HSS) interior columns and was built on the ground floor and testing was carried
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1
2
5
6
Building composition
1 Steel members brace and stabilize CLT panels. 2 Interior walls are
CLT panels.3 Floors and roofs are CLT panels.4 Floors and walls are
CLT panels.5 Tilt and turn windows6 Metal balustrades7 Insulation
with drainage runs hidden behind cladding.8 External rain screen:
timber cladding in western red cedar
3
2
5
6
Detail section
1 External balustrade
2 Untreated western red cedar cladding
2
3 HSS steel
4 Inward-opening tilt and turn composite window set
5 Internal flooring
1
6 Insulation
7 Joist hanger
8 Red cedar on raised pedestal system
8 9 CLT panel
9
3
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TREET APARTMENT BUILDING
Bergen, Norway [Artec Arkitekter]
2015 Year
Bergen og Omegn Boligbyggelag Client
Sweco Structural Engineer
Moelven; Kodumaja Engineered Wood Fabricator
Residential Program
Norway has a long and celebrated tradition of building and testing of the dynamic performance and fire resis-
in wood. Most famous are its elaborate 12th and 13th tance of the structure was carried out with the assis-
century stave churches, 28 of which still survive. Their tance of the Norwegian University of Science and
internal structure of tall timber posts and lateral cross Technology, and Innovation Norway.
bracing enabled some of these churches to attain The building is rectangular in plan, measuring approxi-
heights in excess of 20 metres. Nowadays, Norwegian mately 21 23 metres. Although contained within this
architects and engineers use glulams to create large rectangle, the CLT stair and elevator shafts are inde-
and long-span structures, including sports halls and pendent of the main structure. The entire building is
bridges with spans up to 100 metres. then enclosed in a weatherproof envelope, with fully
In 2012, Bergen og Omegn Boligbyggelag (BOB), a glazed faades on the north and south and opaque
large and influential Norwegian housing association, metal cladding on the east and west.
declared its intention to commission the worlds tall-
est timber residential building. Having identified a CONSTRUCTION
prominent site on the Bergen waterfront, BOB began Poor soil conditions dictated the requirement for an
to assemble a team capable of delivering such a proj- extensive piled foundation, which has been tied togeth-
ect. The result was Treet (Norwegian for The Tree), a er with a single-storey concrete parking garage struc-
14-storey tower containing 62 apartments, whose glu- ture that forms a podium for the building.
lam truss structure draws its inspiration from contem- A structure of this size is subject to substantial lateral
porary bridge design. forces, and the glulam truss and bracing elements are
connected using a system of embedded steel plates
CONCEPT and pins originally developed for the roof of the speed
The structural system for Treet mimics that used pre- skating oval constructed for the Olympic Winter
viously by Sweco on a five-storey building in Trond- Games in Lillehammer in 1994. In addition to diagonal
heim (2005), which had been further developed for an braces on the faades, the structure is stiffened by
unrealized 20-storey project in Kirkenes. The concept two power storeys (the shelves of the cabinet rack)
is analogous to that of a cabinet rack filled with draw- located at levels five and ten.
ers, in which the sides and shelves of the rack are These power storeys comprise a grid of storey-height
formed by large glulam trusses, and the drawers con- trusses that also serve to support precast concrete
sist of prefabricated residential modules. Research floors. The weight of the concrete improves the load
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Apartment Building | 159
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A A
5 5 5
3 3 3 3 3 3
6
2 2
4
1
3
3 3
5 5
A A
1 2
3 4
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Apartment Building | 161
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The glulam structure gives a unique character to this apartment interior.
Detail section
1 3mm Corten sheets
2 48mm 48mm battens
3 Laminated timber
4 Rockwool flex insulation
1 5 Power deck concrete floor
6 Ventilated cavity
7 Dimensional lumber
8 Membrane
9 Gypsum wallboard
2
3
Diagram of modules
Each apartment is composed of a wet and a dry volumetric 4
module that are first locked together and then locked in place. These
modules are stacked four storeys high and then the glulam structure 5
is built around them.
6
7
were then inserted between the trusses and connected rate as described in chapter 5, Building Performance,
to them (rather than resting on the modules below). pp. 41 42, in this book. Typical member sizes are
Precast concrete slabs were subsequently laid on 405mm 650mm and 495mm 495mm for the truss
top of the trusses to form a base for the next four sto- members, and 405mm 405mm for the cross braces.
reys. The process was then repeated for levels six All steel connections are concealed and protected by
through nine, and 1114, with a power storey again the wood. Exposed glulam and CLT surfaces were
at level ten. painted with a flame-retardant finish in the corridors
Enclosing the entire structure in metal and glass pro- and exit areas. To prevent the spread of fire, the cavity
tects the wood from moisture and ultraviolet degrada- between the apartment modules and the exterior wall
tion, and also permits the glulams to be specified for assembly is divided into compartments that follow the
interior rather than exterior use. The modules are de- diagonal geometry of the trusses.
signed to Passive House standard and, because each
has its own floors, wall and ceiling assemblies, when CONCLUSION
the modules are placed together on site, there are two Treet is the result of a highly pragmatic approach to
layers of construction both horizontally and vertically design that draws on tradition and local expertise in
between units. This arrangement meets the required glulam fabrication to create a uniquely Norwegian
acoustic standards without any additional measures structural solution. With the addition of CLT panels
being necessary. from Germany and Estonian apartment modules, the
The fully exposed glulam structure is required to have architecture is expressed as a mechanistic kit of
a fire resistance of 90 minutes, and this is achieved by parts that repositions wood as an unequivocally mod-
oversizing the members and calculating the charring ern construction material.
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Apartment Building | 163
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NEW VISIONS, NEW HEIGHTS
In the preceding chapters, we have profiled the com- technology, and opened the door to a new era of envi-
pleted works of more than 50 architectural and struc- ronmentally sustainable building practice.
tural engineering firms from 11 different countries However, this is just the beginning. Tall Wood has be-
who, together with their clients, must be considered gun to attract the attention of the mainstream media,
the true pioneers of Tall Wood architecture. Working and momentum continues to grow with the announce-
behind the scenes are wood industry researchers and ment of each new project. Some of these projects are
building code consultants who have helped address fully funded, approved and ready to break ground; oth-
some of the perceptual barriers and technical chal- ers are competition-winning entries or aspirational
lenges that must be faced when designing a Tall Wood designs by architects and structural engineers eager
building. to enter the Tall Wood arena with their own proof of
Whether the result is a five-storey structure, or a concept proposals. Following are descriptions of sev-
15-storey tower, each project has addressed the legis- eral of these projects, presented in alphabetical order.
lative requirements of fire and life safety and the phys-
ical considerations of movement control and moisture 475 WEST 18TH, NEW YORK, USA
protection. Collectively these projects have advanced Designed by SHoP Architects, this project was one of
our understanding of what is possible using this new two winners in the US Tall Wood Building Prize Com-
petition announced in September 2015. The competi- students with a mix of studio and quad units, as well
tion, sponsored by the US Department of Agriculture as social and study amenity spaces.
in partnership with the Softwood Lumber Board and The structure is a hybrid system comprised of CLT
the Binational Softwood Lumber Council, awarded a floor slabs, glulam columns, steel connectors and con-
total of $3 million in prize money to support projects crete cores. When completed in 2017, Brock Com-
that could advance the understanding and acceptance monswill stand 53 metres tall. The buildingwill con-
of Tall Wood buildings throughout the USA. nect to the UBC District Energy System and has been
A ten-storey residential condominium in Manhattans designed to target LEED Gold certification.
West Chelsea neighbourhood, 475 West 18th Street, is
located immediately opposite the iconic High Line FRAMEWORK, PORTLAND, USA
Park. The project will contain 15 two-, three-, and The second winner in the US Tall Wood Building Prize
four-bedroom apartments. The building will be the Competition, Framework is a 12-storey mixed-use
first in New York City to use modern massive wood building proposed by Lever Architecture for Portland,
systems, and willbe the tallest building in the city to Oregon. The grant will be used to fund research to de-
use structural timber, pending approvals from the New termine the viability of CLT and other engineered
York City Department of Buildings. wood products in high-rise construction in the United
To celebrate the unique nature of the project, the engi- States. This will include working with code, fire and
neered wood structure will be exposed wherever func- other authorities to ensure that current concerns can
tionally appropriate and permitted by code. In addition be addressed and regulatory compliance achieved.
to that, other wood materials and finishes will be used The building will consist of one level of ground floor
throughout the building to maximize the environmental retail, five levels of office, five levels of workforce
benefits of carbon sequestration and substitution. This housing and a rooftop amenity space. With a promi-
will be part of a broad sustainability strategy designed nent location and high public visibility, the building is
to minimize the impact of building construction and designed with a transparent glazed faade to better
operations. The project will target LEED Platinum certi- communicate its innovative use of wood products and
fication, but also pursue higher levels of sustainability construction technology at street level.
not captured by the LEED program.
HARBOURSIDE, NORTH VANCOUVER, CANADA
BROCK COMMONS, VANCOUVER, CANADA Harbourside is a 93,000 square metre mixed-use
In November 2015, construction began on the 18-sto- development to be located on the waterfront in North
rey Brock Commons student residence at the Univer Vancouver, British Columbia. Designed by MGA |
sity of British Columbia in Vancouver. Designed by Michael Green Architecture, Harbourside will be con-
Acton Ostry Architects and Architekten Hermann structed entirely of wood from the ground up. The
Kaufmann, the building will provide housing for 404 program is 80% residential and 20% commercial,
withthe tallest buildings reaching 11 storeys the edge. These floor panels are supported by a wooden
maximum height currently permitted by the official column system around the perimeter of the building.
community plan. This structure then supports prefabricated external
The structures will be a combination of load-bearing wall modules that combine solid wood panels with an
CLT and glulam post-and-beam construction, with CLT earth-tone concrete. The timber construction com-
elevator and stair cores. The project has the backing bines durability with good thermal performance. De-
of a private developer, and construction is scheduled sign calculations indicate that in total, approximately
to start in 2017. In scope and scale Harbourside has 75% of the material used in the 84 metre tall struc-
the potential to transform the way North America ture will be wood.
thinks about massive wood construction.
HSBC COMPETITION TOWER,
HOHO, VIENNA, AUSTRIA STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN
Designed by Arch. Rdiger Lainer, the proposal for This 34-storey residential tower is one of three short-
HoHo Wien, a 24-storey commercial building contain- listed proposals in a competition organized in 2013 by
ing a hotel, offices and wellness centre, was an- HSBC, Swedens largest building society. The intent of
nounced in March of 2015. The project combines the competition was to explore housing solutions that
wood and concrete in a hybrid construction designed could be realized using current and emerging technol-
to optimize the use of wood components and systems ogies and completed by 2023, HSBCs centennial year.
already available on the market, with a concrete podi- Designed by C.F. Mller, the project includes a ground
um, stair and elevator shafts that address the fire pro- floor cafe, childcare centre, and a glazed community
tection requirements of the Vienna building code. garden for use by residents, as well as a publicly ac-
Wood composite floors are secured to the central con- cessible market square, fitness facility and community
crete supporting cores, and extend out to the building centre. As proposed, the building has a central con-
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HSBC Competition Tower, Stockholm | 167
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Loudden Harbour Development. This proposal by Tham &
Videgrd will be a major component in the redevelopment of
this former commercial port in Stockholm, Sweden.
HoHo Wien. The 24-storey HoHo development in Vienna by Arch. Rdiger Lainer will introduce a new Tall Wood
typology to the Austrian capital.
BendingA force applied to a structural member that EWP engineered wood product A manufactured ma-
causes it to adopt a curved shape. The inside face of terial in which small wood pieces, veneers or wood
the curve will experience compression, while the out- fibres are combined through mechanical processing
side face will be subjected to tension. and chemical bonding, to form a composite material
Billet The extruded form in which an engineered wood with superior properties to those of natural wood.
product is produced. It may be a square section (as Fire separation A separation between adjacent spaces
with parallel strand lumber) or a flat panel (as with or compartments in a building that, by way of prior
laminated strand lumber). testing, will resist the passage of fire from one side to
Castellated Having a profile of alternating projections the other for a prescribed period of time.
and incisions, as with the battlements of a castle. Furring strips Small dimension wood sections (typi-
Compression Opposing forces applied in the same cally 25mm 50mm) used to create an air space
axis but in opposing directions that cause a material between a finish material such as gypsum wallboard,
to shorten in length or width. and the substrate to which it is being fastened.
CLT cross-laminated timber CLT is an engineered GHG greenhouse gas A gas that occurs naturally or
wood product in which layers of small section timber is released into the atmosphere, that is transparent to
form a panel product that can be used for floors, walls incident solar radiation, yet opaque to reflected heat
or roofs. The orientation of grain in any given layer is from the Earths surface, therefore causing heat to
perpendicular to that of the adjacent layers, giving build up in the atmosphere. The most common GHG is
CLT two-way spanning capability. carbon dioxide (CO2) and one of the most powerful is
CNC computerized numerical control The system by methane (CH4).
which machines can be programmed to cut, plane and GLT glue laminated timber An engineered wood
rout timber elements using instructions from a panel product made up from glued laminated sections
three-dimensional digital model. of solid sawn wood.
Dead load A load within a building that is fixed in Header A short beam of wood or other material used
magnitude, direction and position, as with the weight to span an opening and transfer the vertical loads to
of the structure itself. which it is subjected, to the supporting walls or posts
Diaphragm action The ability of a planar element (e.g. on either side.
a wall, floor or roof) to transfer loads both parallel and Hold-down anchor A hardware device designed to
perpendicular to its edges without permanent resist the uplift forces to which a building may be sub-
deformation. jected during wind or seismic events. Typically the
EBD environmental building declaration A document anchor is embedded in a concrete foundation or sub-
published by Athena Sustainable Materials Institute in structure. It may take the form of a bracket, or may be
Ottawa that tabulates and quantifies a standard set of a continuous rod that extends the full height of the
environmental impacts associated with the construc- building.
tion and operation of a building. It is sometimes seen HSS hollow square section A standard structural
as analogous to a nutrition label on a food package. steel profile that has four sides of equal dimension,
EMC equilibrium moisture content The point at encasing a void.
which the percentage moisture content in a piece of Hygroscopic The property of wood that makes it able
wood is equal to the moisture content of the environ- to absorb moisture from the air.
ment in which it is installed. Typically the EMC will be IIC impact insulation class A North American mea-
between 812% (varying with season) in a conditioned sure of the ability of a floor/ceiling or wall element to
building. attenuate the transmission of sound from a physical
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of Terms and Acronyms | 171
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PSL parallel strand lumber A proprietary > engi- that forest, nor deplete its overall stock of wood fibre
neered wood product in which elongated strands of over time.
wood fibre are glued together under pressure to form SRI Sound Reduction Index In Europe the Sound
a billet that is square in section. Typically cut into Reduction Index is used to measure the level of air-
standard lumber sizes, PSL is most often used for borne sound insulation provided by a structure such
posts, beams and lintels. as a wall, window or door. The unit of measurement is
Progressive collapse Most often used in relation to the decibel; the higher the SRI, the greater the level of
high-rise buildings, progressive collapse is the phe- sound insulation provided.
nomenon by which the failure in the structure of an STC Sound Transmission Class In North America,
upper floor adds to the load on the floor below it, the Sound Transmission Class is used to measure the
causing that floor (and successive lower floors) to level of airborne sound insulation provided by a struc-
collapse. ture such as a wall, window or door. The unit of mea-
Scarf joint A joint connecting two pieces of wood in surement is the decibel; the higher the STC, the great-
which the ends are beveled or notched so that they fit er the level of sound insulation provided.
over or into each other. Tension Opposing forces applied in the same axis but
Self-tapping screw A screw that can tap or drill its in opposing directions, that cause a material to in-
own hole as it is driven into a piece of wood. Such crease in length or width.
screws generally have a fluted point that acts in much Thermal conductivity The rate at which heat passes
the same way as a drill bit. through a specified material, expressed as the amount
Shear A force exerted when two opposing forces are of heat that flows per unit time through a unit area
offset slightly from one another as with the blades of with a temperature gradient of one degree per unit
a pair of scissors. distance.
Shear bracket A connection device that increases the Thermal mass The ability of a material to absorb and
ability of a wood member or assembly to resist shear store heat energy.
forces. Torsion The twisting of a structural element due to
Slip joint A joint designed to accommodate differen- the application of a force or forces that cause one end
tial movement between two adjacent elements of a of a beam, column or panel element to rotate relative
structure, while maintaining the integrity of the as- to the other end.
sembly. For example, a connection at the top of a UNFAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organi-
(non-load-bearing) curtain wall may include a slip joint zation UNFAO is an agency of the United Nations that
to accommodate deflection of the roof under snow leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving
load, while maintaining the ability of the curtain wall both developed and developing countries, UNFAO acts
to resist horizontal wind loads. as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to
Spline A type of connection in which two boards or negotiate agreements and debate policy.
panels are fitted with matching grooves along their VOC volatile organic compound In reference to the
meeting edges, and both are filled with a single thin paints, coatings, bonding agents and other com-
strip of wood (known as a spline). pounds used in building materials and products, VOCs
SFM sustainable forest management A system of include many carbon-based compounds that partici-
third party administered forest management practices pate in atmospheric chemical reactions, characterized
and protocols (including reforestation) that ensure by the evaporation or outgassing that is part of the
that the harvesting of wood from a given forest does curing process.
not compromise the ecological services provided by
ANDREW WAUGH
Andrew Waugh founded Waugh Thistleton Architects in
2000 in Shoreditch, London. Andrew was a pioneer
in the architectural quest for Tall Wood buildings with
Waugh Thistletons nine-storey timber Murray Grove
project in London in 2009. Waugh Thistleton continue
to build internationally in timber, with high-profile
projects such as Dalston Lane in Hackney, London.
This apartment complex is scheduled for completion
in 2017 and will be the worlds largest CLT structure.
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About the Authors | 173
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank our families, friends, the office In addition we would like to extend our personal
of MGA | Michael Green Architecture and Design Build thanks to those individuals who contributed to the
Research (DBR) for being a constant source of motiva- research and production of material:
tion, inspiration and support; and our students and
fellow practitioners whose eagerness to embrace the MGA design and production team lead
Tall Wood movement adds momentum to our search Stuart Lodge
for a more environmentally responsible and socially
just architecture. MGA team members
Kyla Leslie, Monika E. Lfvenmark, Dawn Melody,
We would also like to thank all the architects, contrac- Harry Olson, Amanda Reed
tors, building owners and professionals who contribut-
ed to the development of this book, and who continue BCIT student research team
to advance the theory and practice of Tall Wood Jordi Ashworth, Anthony Chen, Justin Deddens,
building across the world. In particular, a special Nicholas Dellai, Jivan Khera, Luca Luca Alessi,
thanks to Andrew Waugh, a true Tall Wood pioneer, Michael Nguyen, Kim Scharf, Navjot Singh, Gloria Wu,
who contributed the foreword, and to our technical Daria Zubkova
advisors:
Michael Green and Jim Taggart
Chapters 4 Structural Systems and 7 Technology
Eric Karsh, Principal
Equilibrium Consulting Inc., Vancouver, Canada
Fire Safety
Geoff Triggs, Principal
Evolution Building Science Ltd., Vancouver, Canada
Acoustic Performance
Tim Preager, Principal
Aercoustics Engineering Ltd., Toronto, Canada
Thermal Performance
Graham Finch, Principal
RDH Building Science Inc., Vancouver, Canada
1721 Wenlock Road Mixed-Use Forte Building 17, 18, 19, 42 Malm, Ola 23 Sohm HolzBautechnik GmbH
Building 38, 134, 152157 FP Innovations 34, 46, 105 Martinsons 70, 71, 73 142
2000 Watt Society 137 Framework 165 May, Ernst 52 SoHo Architects 164
475 West 18th building Gauthier Gallienne Moisan Archi- MGA | Michael Green Architec- Stockholm, Sweden 70, 71,
164165 tectes 17 ture34, 124, 165, 167 166, 168, 169
Acton Ostry Architects 165 GHA Gilles Huot Architecte 28, Melbourne, Australia 17, 19, 42 Stora Enso 76, 94, 96
AIR-INS 51 34 Merz Kley Partner 142 Strandparken Hus B 35, 36, 47,
Ammerwald Hotel 53, 54, 55 Hackney, London, England 64, Milan, Italy 33, 76, 77 50, 51, 61, 62, 7075, 169
Ammerwald, Austria 53, 54, 55 65, 153 MJTST 124 Structurlam 102, 124
Architekturagentur Stuttgart 82 Hamburg, Germany 49, 82 Moelven 158 Sundbyberg, Sweden 70, 71
Arkitektbolaget 23, 24 Harbourside (mixed-use devel- Murray Grove apartment build- Sweco 158, 159
Artec Arkitekter 158 opment) 165166, 167 ing 23, 24, 36, 42, 153 Tamedia 108, 109
Athena Sustainable Materials Hawkins\Brown 38, 152 NASA 9 Tamedia Head Office 36, 60, 61,
Institute 19, 170, 173 High Line Park 165 National Oceanic and Atmosphe 100, 108117
Athfield Architects 34 HoHo Wien 166, 168 ric Administration (NOAA) 8 Te Ara Hihiko/College of Cre-
B&K Structures 152 HRS Real Estate 108 Nelson Marlborough Institute of ative Arts 34
Badenerstrasse Mixed-Use HSBC Competition Tower 166, Technology 34 Tham & Videgrd 168, 169
Building 134, 136141 169 Nelson, New Zealand 34 The Landing 21
Baugenossenschaft Zurlinden 136 Hyprion housing and office New York, USA 164, 165 The Miller Hull Partnership 118
Bergen og Omegn Boligbyggelag complex 169 Nieland, Andrew 17, 42 Thoma Holz100 GmbH 82
(BOB) 158, 159 Innovation Norway 159 North Vancouver, Canada 165 Treet Apartment Building 24,
Bergen, Norway 24, 45, 158, 160 Institute of Technology for Norwegian University of Science 27, 35, 45, 47, 53, 60, 134,
Berlin, Germany 38 Forest-Based and Furniture and Technology 159 158163
Binderholz 152 Sectors (FCBA) 46 Norwich, England 53, 56 Trondheim, Norway 159
Bird Construction 102 Intergovernmental Panel on Oakwood Tower 169 Turin, Italy 78
Blumer-Lehmann 108, 114 Climate Change (IPCC) 9, 19 OOPEAA 94, 95, 96 UN Habitat 9
Blumer, Hermann 137 International Building Exhibition OSU Forest Science Complex 34 United Nations Food and Agri-
Bordeaux, France 169 (IBA) 83 PCL Constructors 124 culture Organization (UNFAO)
Borlini & Zanini 76 International Living Future Perkins + Will 102 12
Bridport House 33, 36, 46, 51, Institute (ILFI) 24 Perry House 21 University of British Columbia
60, 62, 6469, 153 Irving Smith Jack Architects 34 Peter Brett Associates 64 (UBC) 102, 103, 104, 165
Brisbane, Australia 21 Isenmann Ingenieure 82 PLP Architecture 169 University of Cambridge 169
Brock Commons (student resi- Jyvskyl, Finland 94, 95 Podest, Erika 9 University of East Anglia student
dence) 165 Kaden Klingbeil Architekten 38 Point 32 Developer 118 residence 53, 56
Bullitt Center 24, 33, 35, 36, Karakusevic Carson Architects 64 Polaris Real Estate 76 University of Northern British
60, 100, 118123 Kaufmann, Hermann 142, 165 Pool Architekten 136 Columbia (UNBC) 125
Bullitt Foundation 118, 119, 123 Kaufmann, Oskar Leo 53, 54, 55 Portland, Oregon, USA 165 US Green Building Council 15
Bullitt, Dorothy 119 Keski-Suomen Rakennuslinja 94 Prince George, Canada 19, 43, Vancouver, Canada 21, 42, 44,
C. F. Mller 166 Kirkenes, Norway 159 61, 124, 125 60, 102, 165
Calvert 118 Kodumaja 158 Pringuer-James Consulting Vxj, Sweden 23, 24, 71
Caretta Weidmann 136 Lainer, Rdiger 166, 168 Engineers 152 Via Cenni Social Housing 33, 36,
Caron 76 Lake Mlaren 71 Program for the Endorsement of 42, 60, 62, 7681
Center for Integrated Design and Lake Pijnne 95 Forest Certification (PEFC) 15 Vienna, Austria 36, 37, 166, 168
Construction, University of Lakea 94, 95 Puukuokka Housing Block 36, Viguier, Jean-Paul 169
Utah 52 Laval University 17 47, 50, 53, 57, 62, 9499 Vitruvius 8
Corvallis, Oregon 34 LCT One 24, 33, 36, 38, 57, 60, Quebec City, Canada 17, 18, 28, Wagramerstrasse apartment
Creation Holz 108 61, 134, 142151 33, 34 complex 36, 37
Creative Resource and Energy Leadership in Energy and Envi- Regal Homes 152 Waugh Thistleton Architects 23,
Efficiency (Cree) 61, 142, 143, ronmental Design (LEED) 15, Reutte, Austria 53, 54 24
150 165 Rhomberg Group 142, 143 Wellington, New Zealand 34
DCI Engineers 118 Legal & General 54 Ross, Andrew 9 Weyerhaeuser Company Ltd. 29
DeepGreen Development 82 Lend Lease Corporation 17, 18, Rossiprodi Associati 76 Wilhelmsburg, Hamburg,
Dornbirn, Austria 24, 33, 142 42 Royal Albert Hotel 21 Germany 83, 84
E3 mixed-use building 38 Lever Architecture 165 Rf, Albert 53, 54 Willmott Dixon 64
Earth Sciences Building 33, 36, Limnologen housing project 23, Schluder Architektur 36, 37 Wingrdh Arkitektkontor 70
42, 44, 60, 61, 100, 102107 24, 35, 46, 47, 50, 71 Schluder, Michael 143 Wood Innovation and Design
Engenuity 152 Living Building Challenge (LBC) Schuchart 118 Centre (WIDC) 19, 33, 34, 35,
Equilibrium Consulting 102, 124 24, 119, 120 Seattle, Washington, USA 24, 36, 38, 42, 43, 51, 57, 60, 61,
Eugene Kruger Building 17, 18 London, England 21, 23, 24, 38, 35, 60, 118, 119, 120, 121 100, 124133
Eurban 64 46, 54, 64, 65, 152, 153, 169 Service Legno 76 Woodcube 38, 42, 49, 51, 54,
Folkhem 70, 71, 169 Loudden Harbour Development Shigeru Ban Architects 108 57, 62, 8293
Fondaction CSN Building 28, 33, 168, 169 SIA 140 Zimmereigenossenschaft Zrich
34 LSI Architects 53, 56 SJB Kempter Fitze 136 136
Forest Stewardship Council MacMillan Bloedel 29 Smith and Wallwork 169 Zurich, Switzerland 36, 61, 108,
(FSC) 15, 121 MAK Holz 76 Smith, Ryan E. 52 109, 110, 136, 137, 140
Authenticated
Index | ecoronel@uazuay.edu.ec
of Buildings, Names and Locations | 175
Download Date | 8/14/17 6:44 PM
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Cover photograph Ed White; 8 Michael Green; 10 Asher DeGroot; 120 The Miller Hull Partnership/MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
12Michael Green; 14, 15 Food and Agriculture Organization of the 121 Brad Kahn; 122 left MGA | Michael Green Architecture
United Nations/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 16 MGA | (drawings); 122 John Stamets (photographs); 123 Brad Kahn;
Michael Green Architecture; 17 left Laurent Coulard; 17 right Emma 124Ema Peter; 125 Ed White; 126 MGA | Michael Green Architec-
Cross; 18 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/ ture; 127 Ema Peter; 128 top MGA | Michael Green Architecture
MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 20 W. J. Moore, City of Vancou- (drawings); 128 bottom Paul Alberts/Forestry Innovation Investment
ver Archives; 2324 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 24 left Ole (photographs); 129 top MGA | Michael Green Architecture (draw-
Jais; 24 right Will Pryce; 25MGA | Michael Green Architecture; ings); 129 bottom Paul Alberts/Forestry Innovation Investment
27MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 28 MGA | Michael Green (photographs); 130 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 131top
Architecture; 31 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 32 Leonard MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 131 bottom, 132, 133Ema Pe-
Frank, City of Vancouver Archives; 34 Gilles Huot; 35Brad Kahn; ter; 135 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 136 Giuseppe Miccich;
36MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 37 top Bruno Klomfar; 137, 138 Pool Architekten/MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
37bottom Schluder Architecture/MGA | Michael Green Architec- 139top left Giuseppe Miccich; 139 top right Pool Architekten;
ture; 38 left Brend Borchardt; 38 right Tim Crocker; 39Stuart 139bottom Pool Architekten/MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
Thomson, City of Vancouver Archives; 42 Lendlease; 43 Ed White; 140 Giuseppe Miccich; 141 top MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
44 Martin Tessler; 45 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 49 Wesley 141 bottom Pool Architekten; 142, 143, 144 top RADON photogra-
Wollin; 52 Major J. S. Matthews, City of Vancouver Archives; phy/Norman Radon; 144 bottom, 145 Architekten Hermann
54Oskar Leo Kaufmann; 55 Adolf Bereuter; 56Richard Osbourne; Kaufmann/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 146 top MGA |
58Jack Lindsay, City of Vancouver Archives; 60 MGA | Michael Michael Green Architecture (drawing); 146 bottom Norman A.
Green Architecture; 61 left Shigeru Ban Architects; 61 right Paul Mller (photographs); 147 top MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
Alberts/Forestry Innovation Investment; 63 MGA | Michael Green 147 bottom Architekten Hermann Kaufmann/MGA | Michael Green
Architecture; 64,65Ioana Marinescu; 66 Karakusevic Carson Architecture; 148 left Norman A. Mller (photographs); 148 right
Architects/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 67 top Karakusevic MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawing); 149 top Architekten
Carson Architects; 67 bottom MGA | Michael Green Architecture; Hermann Kaufmann (photographs); 149 bottom MGA | Michael
68Karakusevic Carson Architects; 69 Karakusevic Carson Archi- Green Architecture (drawing); 150, 151 RADON photography/
tects/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 70 Tord-Rikard Sder- Norman Radon; 152, 153 left Jack Hobhouse; 153 right, 154 top
strm; 71 left Wingrdh Arkitektkontor/MGA | Michael Green Hawkins\Brown/MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawings);
Architecture; 71 right Tord-Rikard Sderstrm; 72 left Wingrdh 154bottom Norman A. Mller; 155 Norman A. Mller; 156 MGA |
Arkitektkontor/MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawings); Michael Green Architecture; 157 top Norman A. Mller (photo-
72right top Wingrdh Arkitektkontor (photograph); 72 right bottom graphs); 157 bottom Hawkins\Brown/MGA | Michael Green Archi-
Johan Ardefors (photograph); 73 MGA | Michael Green Architec- tecture (drawing); 158Marina Trifkovic; 159 MGA | Michael Green
ture; 74 Tord-Rikard Sderstrm; 75 Wingrdh Arkitektkontor/MGA Architecture; 160Artec Arkitekter/MGA | Michael Green Architec-
| Michael Green Architecture; 76 Pietro Savorelli; 77 top Rossiprodi ture; 161 top Artec Arkitekter/MGA | Michael Green Architecture
Associati/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 77 bottom Pietro Sa- (photographs); 161 bottom MGA | Michael Green Architecture
vorelli; 78 top Rossiprodi Associati/MGA | Michael Green Architec- (drawings); 162 top Morten Pedersen, Inviso; 162 middle MGA |
ture; 79 Acrangelo Del Piai; 80 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; Michael Green Architecture; 162 bottom Artec Arkitekter/MGA |
81 Pietro Savorelli; 82, 83, 84 top Martin Kunze; 84 bottom Archi Michael Green Architecture; 163 Morten Pedersen, Inviso;
tekturagentur Stuttgart/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 85 top 164MGA| Michael Green Architecture; 165 Seagate Structures;
Bernadette Grimmenstein; 85 bottom Architekturagentur Stuttgart/ 166 C. F. Mller; 167 MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 168 top
MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 86 top Martin Kunze (photo- Tham & Videgrd; 168 bottom Arch. Rdiger Lainer;
graphs); 86bottom MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawing);
87, 88 top Martin Kunze (photographs); 88 bottom MGA | Michael Every reasonable attempt has been made to identify owners of
Green Architecture (drawing); 89 Martin Kunze; 90 MGA | Michael copyright. If unintentional mistakes or omissions occurred, we
Green Architecture; 91 Architekturagentur Stuttgart/MGA | Michael sincerely apologize and ask for notice. Such mistakes will be cor-
Green Architecture; 92 Martin Kunze; 94 Mikko Auerniitty; 95left rected in the next edition of this publication.
OOPEAA/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 95 right Mikko
Auerniitty; 96OOPEAA/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 97 top
Mikko Auerniitty (photographs); 97 bottom OOPEAA/MGA | Michael
Green Architecture; 98 top Jurha Pakkala; 98 bottom MGA | M ichael
Green Architecture; 99 Mikko Auerniitty; 101 MGA | Michael Green
Architecture; 102 Martin Tessler; 103 Latreille Delage Photography;
104 Perkins + Will/MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 105 top John
Boys (photographs); 105 bottom MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
106top MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawings); 106bottom
John Boys (photographs); 107 left Latreille Delage Photography;
107right Martin Tessler; 108, 109 Didier Boy de la Tour; 110,
111Shigeru Ban Architects/MGA | Michael Green Architecture;
112Shigeru Ban Architects; 113 Shigeru Ban Architects/MGA |
Michael Green Architecture; 114 top Shigeru Ban Architects (photo-
graphs); 114 bottom MGA | Michael Green Architecture (drawings);
115 Shigeru Ban Architects (photographs); 115 bottom MGA |
Michael Green Architecture (drawings); 116 Shigeru Ban Architects/
MGA | Michael Green Architecture; 117 Didier Boy de la Tour;
118Brad Kahn; 119 left The Miller Hull Partnership/MGA | Michael
Green Architecture (drawing); 119 right Brad Kahn (photographs);