1.

Trigonometric Identities
2
The Pythagorean Theorem, sin x + cos2 x = 1, has other forms, like
sin2 x cos2 x 1
(1) 2
+ 2
= tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
cos x cos x cos2 x
and
sin2 x cos2 x 1
(2) 2 + 2 = 2 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x.
sin x sin x sin x

Angle Addition:
(3) sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin

(4) cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin

The angle addition formulae give us the double angle formulae:

(5) sin(2) = 2 sin cos

(6) cos(2) = cos2 sin2

Because cos(2) = cos2 (1 cos2 ) = 2 cos2 1, we have the half-angle formula

1 + cos(2)
(7) cos2 = .
2
Similarly, because cos(2) = 1 sin2 sin2 , we find the other half-angle formula
1 cos(2)
(8) sin2 = .
2

2. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

We know the derivatives
d d
(9) sin x = cos x and cos x = sin x,
dx dx
which allow us to calculate
d cos x sin x cos2 x + sin2 x
(10) tan x = + sin x 2 = = sec2 x
dx cos x cos x cos2 x
d cos x
(11) csc x = = csc x cot x
dx sin2 x
d sin x
(12) sec x = = sec x tan x
dx cos2 x

d sin x cos x sin2 x cos2 x

(13) cot x = + cos x = = csc2 x
dx sin x sin2 x sin2 x

1
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3. Useful Integrals
R
To compute cos2 xdx, we use the half-angle formula for cosines:
Z Z
1 + cos(2x) x sin(2x)
(14) cos2 xdx = dx = + +C
2 2 4
R
Similarly, to compute sin2 xdx, we use the half-angle formula for sines:
Z Z
2 1 cos(2x) x sin(2x)
(15) sin xdx = dx = +C
2 2 4
R dx
To compute 1x2
,we use the method of partial fractions:
Z Z
dx 1 1 1 1
(16) 2
= + dx = [ln(1 + x) ln(1 x)] + C
1x 2 1+x 1x 2

4. Integrals using Trigonometric Substitutions

R dx
To compute 1+x2
, we substitute
(17) x = tan dx = sec2 d
to find
Z Z
dx sec2
(18) = d = + C = arctan x + C
1 + x2 sec2

R
To compute dx , we substitute
1x2
(19) x = sin dx = cos d
to find
Z Z
dx cos
(20) = p d = + C = arcsin x + C
1 x2 1 sin2

5. Integration by Parts
The Product Rule states that d(uv) = udv + vdu. Integrating, we find
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
(21) d(uv) = udv + vdu uv = udv + vdu udv = uv vdu.

For example, to integrate xex , we choose u = x and v = ex , so that du = dx and dv = ex , and

calculate
Z Z
0
(22) xex dx = xex + C ex dx = xex ex + C