CPL Atg

CPL
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
& GENERAL
CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL DOC 01
Revision : 1/1/2001 Version 08
INDEX
CPL ATG
1. Distribution of the 4 forces 01

2. Straight & Level 05
3. Stability 35
4. Climbing, Descending & Turning 51
5. Stalling 69
6. Lift augmentation 87
7. Flying Controls 93
8. Multi engine flight 111
9. High Speed Flight 117
10. Wing & Fuselage construction 125
11. Hydraulics 131
12. Landing gear 145
13. Ice removal systems 163
14. Pressurisation & Oxygen systems 171
15. Air conditioning systems 179
16. Fuel system 185
17. Electrics 195
18. Fire warning systems 275
19. The piston engine 281
20. Propellors 319
21. Basic Gas Turbines 329
Annex A Sample Exams 353

Annex B Answers to questions 365
Copyright 2001 Flight Training College of Africa

All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any
manner whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying,
facsimile, or stored in a retrieval system, without the prior permission of
Flight Training College of Africa.

CPL DOC 01
CHAPTER 1
DISTRIBUTION OF THE FORCES
THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT IN LEVEL FLIGHT
With reference to the diagram, the following forces act on an aircraft in level flight.
WEIGHT
Weight is the effect of gravity drawing the aircraft vertically downwards towards the centre
of the earth. Weight acts through the Centre of Gravity (C of G) of the aircraft.

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LIFT
Lift is the upward force produced by the wings of the aircraft. Lift acts through the Centre of
Pressure (C of P) of the aircraft and should be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction
to weight.
The two factors which are most commonly variable are angle of attack and speed. If the
speed of the aircraft is increased then the angle of attack is decreased and if the speed of
the aircraft is decreased, the angle of attack will have to be increased. This will achieve a
constant value of lift to balance weight.
THRUST
Thrust is the force produced by the engine. It acts along the thrust line and propels the
aircraft through the air.
DRAG
With reference to the Drag chapter, the drag experienced by an aircraft is the sum of:
Induced Drag
Induced drag is inversely proportional to speed and directly proportional to the angle of
attack.
The higher the speed, the lower the angle of attack and the less the downwash and thus
induced drag.
Profile Drag
Profile drag is the result of the motion of the aircraft through the air. The higher the speed
of the aircraft, the higher the profile drag.
Total Drag
Total drag is the sum of induced drag and profile drag.

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THE BALANCE OF FORCES IN LEVEL FLIGHT
It can be said that in Straight and Level flight (unaccelerated) :
Lift = Weight
& Thrust = Drag
Lift acts through the centre of pressure and is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction
to weight, which acts through the centre of gravity. Two opposite forces acting about a
common arm create a couple. The lift/weight couple imparts a nose down pitching moment
to the aircraft.
Thrust acts through the thrust line and is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to
drag which acts through the drag line. The thrust/drag couple imparts a nose up pitching
moment to the aircraft.
THE EFFECT OF THE TAILPLANE

For level flight to be achieved, not only must lift equal weight and thrust equal drag, but the
sum of the pitching moments caused by the lift/weight couple and the thrust/drag couple
must be zero.
On most aircraft, the magnitude of the lift/weight couple is far greater than that of the
thrust/drag couple, leaving the aircraft with a residual nose down pitching moment. To solve
this, the a tailplane is inclined at an angle of incidence to carry a down load at cruise speed.
This download on the tailplane causes a nose up pitching moment of the thrust/drag couple
and together balance the nose down pitching moment of the lift/weight couple.

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CHAPTER 2
STRAIGHT & LEVEL FLIGHT
Lets look at the major forces affecting straight and level flight:
LIFT
When considering how the local airflow is affected by the passage of a body through the air,
the following factors are of consequence:
i) The shape of the body.

ii) The attitude (profile) of the body.
iii) The size of the body.
iv) The density of the air.
v) The viscosity of the air.
vi) The speed of the air/body.
Factors (iii) to (vi) are collectively known as Reynolds Number.
AIRFLOW
In the study of the properties of the local airflow as it passes over a body, the classic
example used is the simple Venturi. The Venturi is a tube which constricts, or narrows, at a
point and then opens up to its original width again. The Equation of Continuity and
Bernoulli's Theory accurately describe the changing properties of the air as it flows through
the Venturi.
THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
The Equation of Continuity states that air mass flow is constant. This statement is
represented by the following formula:
A x V x = Constant
Where:
A = Area
V = Velocity
= Density
In subsonic aerodynamics, air is considered to be incompressible, therefore density may be

removed from the formula, which now reads:
Ax V = Constant
The significance of this equation is as follows:
As air flows through a Venturi, the cross-sectional area of the tube decrease and in order to
maintain a constant, the velocity of the airflow must increase. Once through the throat of
the
Venturi, the velocity of the airflow must decrease as it encounters a greater area, in order to
maintain a constant.
BERNOULLI'S THEORY
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Bernoulli's Theory states that in the streamline flow of an ideal fluid (one which is not
viscous), the sum of all energies will remain constant. A particle of air in a streamline flow
through a Venturi possesses the following energies:
Kinetic, or Dynamic pressure energy = pV
Static pressure energy = P
Because the particle of air undergoes no appreciable change of height as it passes through
a Venturi, Potential energy is not included in the formula.
Bernoulli's Theory is thus represented by the following formula:
pV + P = constant
The significance of Bernoulli's Theory is as follows:
As air passes through a Venturi, the area decreases and the velocity of the airflow
increases
(Equation of continuity). If the velocity of the airflow increases, the Dynamic pressure
energy
increases, and in order to maintain a constant energy level, the Static pressure energy must
increase (Bernoulli's Theory). The value of the Venturi in these principles becomes apparent
when related to an aircraft in flight. The bottom half of the Venturi corresponds to the top of
an aircraft's wing, horizontal stabiliser or vertical stabiliser. The top half of the Venturi
corresponds to the free stream flow of air (air unaffected by the passage of the aircraft).
Relating an aircraft wing to the Equation of Continuity and Bernoulli's Theory, as air flows
over the top surface of the wing, the velocity of the air increases and the static pressure
decreases.
If the bottom half of the wing is considered to be flat, there will be no appreciable change in
either the velocity or static pressure of the air. There now exists a pressure differential, with
normal pressure below the wing and relatively lower pressure above the wing. A body will
always move from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure and this force is
what
keeps an aircraft airborne. It is known as Lift and will now be discussed in detail .

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AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS
CHORD LINE
The straight line joining the centres of curvature of the leading edge and the trailing edge of
an aero-foil.
CHORD LENGTH
The distance between the leading edge of an aerofoil, measured along the chord line.
THE POINT OF MAXIMUM THICKNESS
That point where the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil section are furthest apart.
THE THICKNESS/CHORD RATIO
The ratio of the maximum thickness to the chord length of an aerofoil, usually expressed as
a percentage.
FINENESS RATIO = LENGTH

MAXIMUM THICKNESS

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RELATIVE AIRFLOW (ALSO KNOWN AS FREE STREAM FLOW)
The airflow that is parallel and opposite to the flight path of the aircraft. This airflow must be
unaffected by the passage of the aircraft.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle between the Chord Line and the Relative Airflow.
ATTITUDE
Body angle as viewed from inside the cockpit i.e. where the neutral horizon cuts the canopy
window or glare shield.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle formed between the Chord line and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. An aircraft
has positive incidence when the leading edge is above the longitudinal axis.
THE MEAN CAMBER LINE
The curved line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, which is equidistant
from the upper and lower surfaces.
CAMBER
A term used to describe the measure of curvature of an aerofoil. An aerofoil has positive
camber when the Mean Camber Line lies above the Chord Line.
ASPECT RATIO
The ratio of the span of a wing to its chord, expressed with the formula:
Aspect ratio = Span

Chord
WHERE : SPAN = distance from wing tip to wing tip
CHORD = Distance between leading edge and trailing

Edge for a rectangular wing. If wing is
Tapered, then an average chord length must
be obtained.
TOTAL REACTION
That net force representing the sum of all the forces of lift and drag acting on an aircraft in
flight.
THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE

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That point on the aerofoil through which the total reaction acts.
DRAG
That component of the Total Reaction which acts parallel to the Relative Airflow.
LIFT
That component of the Total Reaction which acts at 90 to the Relative Airflow.
STREAMLINE FLOW
If succeeding molecules follow the same steady path in a flow, then this path can be
represented by a streamline. There will be no flow across the streamlines, only along them.
At any fixed point on the streamline, each air molecule will experience the same velocity
and static pressure as the proceeding molecules when they passed that particular point.
These values of velocity and pressure may change from point to point along the streamline.
A reduction in the velocity of streamline flow is indicated by wider spacing on the
streamlines whilst increased velocity is indicated by decreasing spacing of the streamlines.
Any molecule following a streamline will experience the same velocity and pressures as the
proceeding molecules.
Streamline flow around an aircraft is very desirable.
TURBULENT FLOW
In turbulent flow, succeeding molecules do not follow a streamlined flow pattern.

Succeeding molecules may travel a path quite different to the proceeding molecules. This
turbulent flow is also known as unsteady flow or eddying and is an undesirable feature in
most phases of flight.
Steady streamline flow is desirable in most phases of flight, and turbulent flow is best
avoided.

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HOW LIFT IS GENERATED
If the aerofoil is seen to represent the lower half of a Venturi tube, then the following
deduction can be made:
As air flows over the aerofoil, it encounters a reduced area and the velocity of the airflow is
increased (the Equation of Continuity).
When the velocity of the airflow is increased, the static pressure reduces (Bernoulli's
Theory). As air flows under the aerofoil, the velocity and therefore the static pressure
remains unchanged, provided the lower half of the aerofoil is flat and not inclined in the
airflow.

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This differential in the static pressures: normal static pressure below the aerofoil and lower
static pressure above the aerofoil, gives rise to a lifting force called the total reaction.
Where the undersurface of the aerofoil is concave in shape, the airflow under the aerofoil
encounters an enlarged area, thus the velocity of the airflow is reduced, (the Equation of
Continuity). When the velocity of the airflow is increased, the static pressure is decreased,
(Bernoulli's Theory). The pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces of the
aerofoil is now greater and the magnitude of the total reaction is increased.
Where the aerofoil is inclined in the airflow, (greater angle of attack), the area through which
the airflow must pass above the wing is effectively reduced even further, resulting in a
greater acceleration of airflow and a further drop in static pressure. Below the aerofoil, the
airflow strikes the underside of the inclined aerofoil given rise to a greater increase in static
pressure due to ram effect.
This increase in lift at higher angles of attack is known as FLAT PLATE LIFT.
The pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil is now
greater and the magnitude of the total reaction is increased.
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By tracing the airflow as it encounters the aerofoil, another factor can be found. The is light
upwash of the airflow before reaching the aerofoil and a downwash after passing the
aerofoil. In this process of forcing the airflow downwards, there is an equal and opposite
force which forces the aerofoil upwards and, in so doing, adds to the total reaction.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND AN AEROFOIL
From the aforementioned regarding the generation of lift, a simple experiment was
developed to quantify the pressure distribution around an aerofoil. In this experiment, a
series of small holes in the aerofoil surface are connected to glass manometer tubes which
are immersed in a liquid. Where there is a decrease of pressure over the upper surface of
the aerofoil, a "suction" effect results and the liquid in the corresponding tube is sucked up.
Where there is an increased pressure below the aerofoil surface, the liquid is compressed
in the tube.
From this experiment, the following points are noteworthy:
a) There is a pressure decrease on the upper surface of the aerofoil and a pressure
increase on the lower surface of the aerofoil.
b) The pressure is not evenly distributed. The pressure decrease above the aerofoil is
greater than the pressure increase below the aerofoil, therefore although both upper
and lower surfaces contribute to lift, it is the upper surface which contributes most to
lift, (almost 80 %).
On highly cambered aerofoils, the airflow is forced to increase its velocity more than on a
symmetrical aerofoil. By increasing the angle of attack, the aerofoil becomes effectively
thicker, thus giving the airflow greater acceleration over the upper surface of the aerofoil,
resulting in a larger pressure decrease with each increased angle of attack.
If all the distributed pressures acting on the aerofoil were replaced by a single resultant
force, the position on the chord at which this resultant force acts is called the centre of
pressure. Its location is a function of both camber and angle of attack
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MOVEMENT OF THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE WITH CHANGING ANGLE OF
ATTACK
The following series of diagrams describe lift and the movement of the centre of pressure at
various angles of attack on a general purpose aerofoil.
At approximately -4 angle of attack, no lift is being developed.
At 0 angle of attack, the aerofoil is developing lift mainly due to the camber of the upper
surface of the aerofoil.
As the angle of attack is progressively increased, the lift becomes greater firstly because of
the greater acceleration of airflow over the upper surface of the aerofoil, and sedondly
because of the increased high pressure below the aerofoil due to ram effect. It is important
to note that as the angle of attack is progressively increased, the centre of pressure moves
progressively further forward. The movement of the centre of pressure is explained simply
with the following philosophy:
The centre of pressure is that point through which the total reaction may be considered to
act. The total reaction representing the net result of the aerodynamic forces acting on the
aerofoil will act at a point where the Venturi is the narrowest, (aerofoil is effectively the
thickest), and the airflow over the aerofoil is subject to the greatest acceleration.
The increasing lift, with successive increases in angle of attack, cannot carry on indefinitely
and at about 15 angle of attack, for general purpose aerofoils, there is a dramatic reduction
in lift. The aircraft pitches down and the centre of pressure moves backward. At this point,
the aerofoil has been stalled, a subject which will be dealt with fully later.

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THE LIFT FORMULA
From the previous experiment, it was found that there are several factors which influence
the pressure distribution and, therefore, the lift of an aerofoil. In isolating these factors, the
lift formula was derived:
LIFT = CLVS
where:
CL = coefficient of lift. This represents:
i) Angle of attack of the aerofoil.

ii) The shape of the aerofoil.
This described in terms of thickness/chord ratio and a camber and can be altered in flight,
for example, by lowering the flaps.
= The density of the air.
For any given altitude during subsonic flight, the density may be considered to be constant.
V = The velocity of the aircraft, squared.
S = The wing area.

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LIFT/DRAG RATIO
It is apparent that for a given amount of lift it is desirable to have the least possible drag
from the aerofoil. Typically the greatest lifting effort is obtained at an angle of about 16 and
least drag occurs at an angle of attack of about -2. Neither of these angle is satisfactory, as
the ratio of lift to drag at these extreme figures is low. What is required is the maximum
lifting effort compared with the drag at the same angle, the highest lift/drag ratio.
The L/D ratio for an aerofoil at any selected angle of attack can be calculated by dividing
the CL at that angle of attack by the corresponding C D. In practice the same result is
obtained irrespective of whether the lift and drag or their co-efficients are used for the
calculation.
From the above diagram you can see the L/D ratio increases rapidly up to an angle of 4 at
which point the lift may be between 12 25 times the drag, the exact figure is dependant on
the aerofoil fitted to the plane. At larger angles the L/D ratio steadily, because even though
the lift itself is still increasing the proportion of drag is rising at a faster rate. The most
important feature of this graph is the indication of the Angle of Attack for the highest L/D
ratio; this angle is the one at which the aerofoil gives its best all round performance.

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DRAG
When a body is set in motion through the air, a resistance force opposing its
motion is produced. In aerodynamics, this resistance force is known as drag.
Drag is that component of the total reaction which acts parallel and opposite to
the flight path of the aircraft.
THE SOURCE OF DRAG
Total drag as expressed in the definition, is made up of two types of drag:
Profile Drag.(parasite)
Induced Drag.
PROFILE DRAG
Profile drag is also known as zero lift drag or parasite drag. The sources of profile drag are:
Form Drag
Form drag results whenever a body is in the path of an airflow. The airflow strikes the body
causing a resistance called drag. the greater the area being struck by the airflow, the
greater the drag. Besides the area, the shape of a body also has a decisive effect on the
amount of form drag. In the case of an unstreamlined body, the airflow behind the body is
of a turbulent nature, which adds to the amount of drag being produced. In aerofoil
terminology, this streamlining is expressed as Fineness Ratio.
Fitness Ratio = Length

Breadth

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The above diagram illustrates how drag can be reduced by changing the shape of the
object in the freestream.
Skin Friction Drag
As air flows over a body, the roughness of the surface of the body (even if only
microscopically rough), causes the airflow to be retarded. This retarding action of the air
against the surface causes the airflow above it to be retarded to a lesser degree the further
we move away from the surface. This retarding action causes the airflow to change from
laminar to turbulent in nature, and it is this turbulence which causes skin friction drag. The
rougher the surface, the greater the drag and the larger the surface area, the greater the
drag. Furthermore, the greater the viscosity (stickiness) of the air, the greater the skin
friction drag. Cold air is more viscous than warm air.
Interference Drag
Where various components of the aircraft are attached, for example the wings and the
fuselage, conflicting airflows cause turbulence which, in turn, increases the drag.
Interference drag is effectively reduced by the use of fairing.
Parasite drag and all of its components, vary in proportion to the square of the speed of the
aircraft.

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INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is also known as lift dependent drag. It is drag which is produced as a direct
result of producing lift.
Bearing in mind that air always flows from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure, the air flows around the wing describes the following pattern:
On the upper surface of the wing, the air flows from the tip to the root. This is because the
ambient air pressure outside of the wingtip is high and the air pressure on the top surface of
the wing is low. On the lower surface of the wing, the air flows from root to tip. This is
because the air pressure below the wing is high and the ambient air pressure outside of the
wingtip is comparatively lower. As these conflicting airflows meet at the trailing edge op the
wing, they form small vortices, which move from root to tip. At the wingtip, these vortices
combine with the strong under-spillage of air from below the wingtip to above the wingtip
and form what is called a Shed Tip Vortex. When viewing an aircraft from behind, the
Ram's horn vortex rotates clockwise on the left wing and anti clockwise on the right wing.
In order to set up a strong circular motion of air requires energy, and this energy absorption
is a part of induced drag.
Bearing Newton's Third Law in mind, it becomes apparent that in order to keep a wing
suspended in the air, the air below the wing must be forced down. In order for the vortices
to force the air down behind the wing requires energy, and this absorption of energy is
another part of induced drag.
Now, although induced drag is always present whenever lift is being produced, its value is
the greatest when the aircraft is at a low speed and high angle of attack. In order to keep
the wing suspended in the air requires a certain volume of air to be forced down over a
given distance. At a low speed, the distance being covered is far shorter and, therefore, the
magnitude of the air being forced down must be far greater in order to keep the volume the
same. This results in a greater induced drag.
A simple analogy would be to consider a water-skier at low speed. Digging his ski deep into
the water and exerting a lot of drag on the motor boat.

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AERODYNAMIC EXPLANATION
Consider a section of a wing of infinite span, which is producing lift but has no trailing edge
vortices.
The diagram shows a total aerodynamic reaction which is divided into lift and drag. The lift
component, being equal and opposite to weight, is at right angles to the direction of flight,
and the drag component is parallel and opposite to the direction of flight. The angle at
which the total reaction lies to the relative airflow is determined only by the angle of attack
of the aerofoil.
The effect of the downwash due to the vortices is to tilt downwards the effective relative
airflow thereby reducing the effective angle of attack.
To regain the consequent loss of lift the aerofoil must be raised until the original angle of
attack is restored. The total reaction now lies at the original angle, but relative to the
effective airflow, and the component parallel to the direction of flight is longer. The
additional value of the drag resulting from the presence of wing vortices is known as
INDUCED DRAG.
Summary. Wingtip vortices and the resultant downwash, represent an acceleration, i.e.a
change of speed and direction of the airflow. The power absorbed in doing this work may
be expressed in terms of an additional drag force known as INDUCED DRAG.

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Factors Affecting the Induced Drag
The following factors affect the Induced drag:
Aspect Ratio
Aspect ratio is the ratio of an aerofoil's span to its chord.
ASPECT RATIO = Span

Chord
A high aspect ratio wing has small wingtips in relation to its wing span. There is thus a
smaller area involved in the under-spillage of airflow at the wingtips, resulting in a lower
Induced drag. A high aspect ratio aerofoil thus has low Induced drag and a low aspect ratio
aerofoil has high Induced drag.
Plan Form
Planform describes the shape of an aerofoil as seen from above. An aerofoil which is
tapered to have small wingtips will have smaller wingtip vortices and therefore less Induced
drag.
Weight
The greater the weight of an aircraft, the greater the amount of lift the aerofoil will have to
produce. This means that the pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces of
the aerofoil will be greater, resulting in stronger vortices with more downwash and greater
Induced drag.

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Angle of Attack and Speed
In order to maintain a constant value of lift, angle of attack and True Airspeed are inversely
proportional. Thus, at low speed the aerofoil must have a large angle of attack, resulting in
a high Induced drag.
Factors Which Reduce the Induced Drag
The following are design features which can be incorporated to reduce Induced drag.
Tip Barriers
By incorporating tip barriers or winglets on the wingtips, the under-spillage of airflow at the
wingtips is reduced, thereby reducing the magnitude of the tip vortices and the Induced
drag.

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Washout
Washout describes a design feature where the wingtips have a lower angle of incidence
than the wing root. This means that the wingtips will always have a lower angle of attack
than the wing roots, resulting in a smaller pressure differential at the tips and smaller wingtip
vortices with less Induced drag.
Change of Aerofoil Section
This describes an aerofoil where the camber is reduced near the wingtips. In this way, the
pressure differential and vortices are reduced at the wingtips, resulting in a lower Induced
drag.

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The Induced Drag Curve
TOTAL DRAG
The total drag on an aircraft during flight is the sum of the Profile drag and the Induced
drag.
Graphically, the Total drag curve is the combination of the Profile drag and the Induced drag
curves.

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Taking into account all of the previously mentioned factors which account for Total drag, the
Total drag formula can be derived.
TOTAL DRAG = CDpVS
Where:
CD = Coefficient of drag, incorporating angle of attack and aerofoil shape.

p = Density of the air.
V = The True airspeed squared.
S = The surface area of the aerofoil
TOTAL DRAG
PROFILE DRAG INDUCED DRAG
FORM SKIN INTERFERENCE

DRAG FRICTION DRAG

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LEVEL FLIGHT
THE EFFECT OF POWER CHANGES IN LEVEL FLIGHT

When an aircraft is in straight and level flight, lift is equal and opposite to weight and thrust
is equal and opposite to drag. Furthermore, to satisfy Newton 1, the nose up pitching
moment from the thrust/drag couple and the tailplane is equal to the nose down pitching
moment from the lift/weight couple. Visualise the diagram of the 4 forces in straight and
level, if power is increased, the state of equilibrium is broken and the thrust/drag couple
becomes greater than the lift/weight couple, causing the aircraft to pitch nose up.
THE EFFECT OF FLAPS IN LEVEL FLIGHT

Referring to the balance of forces in level flight, when flaps are lowered, the following
occurs:
A nose up pitching moment is caused by the fact that the centre of pressure is moved
further forward due to the increased camber. This means that the arm between the lift and
weight forces is smaller, resulting in a weaker nose down moment.
A nose down pitching moment is caused by the fact that the drag line is effectively lowered
when flaps are down. This means that the arm about which the thrust and drag vectors
work is shorter, resulting in a weaker nose up pitching moment.
A further effect worth noting, is that because the airflow follows the camber of the wing, the
increased camber from the lowering of flaps means that the downwash from behind the
wing is deflected further downwards, often rendering the elevators less effective.
THE EFFECT OF UNDERCARRIAGE ON LEVEL FLIGHT

Unlike the lowering of flaps, there is no lift benefit from lowering undercarriage. The only
effect is this - the drag line is lowered, thus shortening the arm about which the thrust/drag
vectors work. This has the effect of weakening the nose up thrust/drag moment, resulting in
a nose down pitching moment.
FLYING FOR RANGE

The definition of flying for range is to cover the greatest distance possible for a given
amount of fuel. To achieve this requires a compromise between aerodynamic
considerations, engine considerations and weather considerations.
AERODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
To achieve the greatest range for a given amount of fuel, the engine must be overcoming as
little drag as possible. This point is found at the best lift/drag ratio, or the velocity for
minimum drag, which is the point formed by a tangent on the Preq curve.
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ENGINE CONSIDERATIONS
For maximum range, the engine must be achieving the best possible fuel consumption.
This is achieved at full throttle height for a specific speed. At this height, the throttle has just
reached the fully open point to achieve the best range speed. If height is decreased, the
engine must be throttled back to maintain the speed. If the height is increased, the speed
drops below the optimum and there is no more power to regain the speed.
The mixture must be as lean as possible for minimum fuel consumption. As altitude is
increased, the air density decreases and the mixture must be leaned off to maintain the
correct burning ratio.
The RPM must be low. The lower the RPM, the coarser the pitch. The coarser the pitch,
the less the drag. Also the coarser the pitch, the better the efficiency of the propeller
because energy is being expended to accelerate the airflow, rather than accelerate the
propeller.
WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS
Flying at full throttle height at the correct range speed is ideal for still air conditions. In the
event of a headwind, the range will be reduced. Depending on the severity of the
headwind, it may be advantageous to sacrifice full throttle height and correct speed by
descending to a lower altitude in order to increase the speed and spend less time under the
effect of headwind. The net effect however will still be a reduction in range.
In the event of a tailwind, the range will be increased. Under these circumstances, full
throttle height and best range speed should be maintained, thus enjoying the full benefit of
aerodynamic, engine and weather considerations.

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FLYING FOR ENDURANCE
The definition of flying for endurance is to remain in the air for as long a time as possible for
a given amount of fuel. To achieve this requires a compromise between aerodynamic
considerations and engine considerations.
AERODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Flying for endurance means that the engine must produce the lowest possible fuel
consumption. This is found at the velocity for minimum power (Vmp), which is the lowest
point on the Preq curve.
ENGINE CONSIDERATIONS
Because Preq = Drag x TAS, and TAS is lowest at sea level, the aircraft should be flown
at the lowest safe altitude.
For the same reasons as mentioned under Flying for Range, the aircraft should still be flown
with low RPM and the mixture correctly leaned.
NOTE: Because the object is to stay airborne for as long a time as possible and distance
covered is not at question, the optimum speed for endurance is unaffected by wind
conditions.

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Revision Questions on Lift
1. The principles on which the production of lift are based on are
(a) Boyle's Law

(b) Bernoulli's Theorem
(c) Reynolds Number
2. When considering aerodynamic forces, the effect of size is related to
(a) Joule's Law

(b) Bernoulli's Theorem
(c) Reynolds Number
3. Newton's first Law of Motion, generally termed the Law of Inertia states
(a) to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

(b) force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration
(c) every body persists in a state of rest, or of motion in a straight line, unless acted
upon by an external unbalanced force.
4. The angle between the chord line of the wing and the longitudinal axis of the
aeroplane is known as the angle of
(a) incidence
(b) dihedral
(c) attack
5. In order to maintain altitude while decreasing airspeed:
a) increase angle of attack to compensate for decreasing lift,

b) increase angle of attack to produce more lift than drag,
c) decrease angle of attack to compensate for increasing drag.
6. If the angle of attack and other factors remain constant and the airspeed is doubled,
the lift produced at a higher speed will be:
a) twice than that at a lower speed,

b) three times more than that at the lower speed,
c) four times more than that at the lower speed
7. A wing designed to produce lift resulting from relatively :
a) high air pressure below and above the wing surface,

b) low pressure below and high pressure above the wing surface,
c) high pressure below and low pressure above the wing surface.

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8. The changes in aircraft control which must be made to maintain altitude while
airspeed is decreasing are to
(a) increase angle of attack to produce more lift than weight

(b) maintain a constant angle of attack until the desired airspeed is reached, then
increase angle of attack
(c) to increase angle of attack to compensate for decreasing lift
9. The point of an aerofoil through which lift acts is the
(a) centre of pressure

(b) centre of gravity
(c) centre of rotation
10. Lift on a wing is most properly defined as the:
(a) differential pressure acting perpendicular to the chord of the wing,

(b) force produced perpendicular to the relative flow,
(c) reduced pressure resulting from a smooth flow of air over a curved surface.
11. On a wing, the lift force acts perpendicular to and the drag force acts parallel to the:
(a) chordline,
(b) longitudinal axis,
(c) flight path
12. During flight at zero angle of attack, the pressure along the upper surface of the wing
would be:
(a) less than atmospheric pressure,

(b) equal to atmospheric pressure,
(c) greater than atmospheric pressure.
13. The angle of attack of a wing directly controls the:
(a) amount of airflow above and below the wing,

(b) point at which the CG is located,
(c) distribution of high and low pressure acting on the wing.
14. One of the main functions of flaps during the approach and landing is to:
(a) permit a touchdown at a higher indicated airspeed;

(b) increase the angle of descent without increasing airspeed;
(c) decrease lift, thus enabling a steeper than normal approach to be made.
15. It is true to say concerning the use of flaps during approach and landing that
(a) flaps decrease lift which increases the stall speed,

(b) flaps provide an increase in lift,
(c) a steeper than normal approach is necessary because of increase in stall
speed.
16. It is true to say regarding the use of flaps during level turns that:
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(a) using a constant flap setting and varying bank has no effect on stall speed,
(b) the addition of flaps increases the stall speed,
(c) the addition of flaps decreases the stall speed.
17. The maximum allowable airspeed with flaps extended is lower than cruising speed
because:
(a) the additional lift and drag created would overload the wing structure at higher
speeds,
(b) the flaps will retract automatically at higher speeds,
(c) too much drag is induced.
18. When gliding into a head wind the best glide angle will be achieved at
(a) an IAS which produces the best lift/drag ratio

(b) an IAS which is higher than that for best lift/drag ratio
(c) an IAS which is lower than that for best lift/drag ratio, but which is higher than
that required for best endurance
Revision Questions on Drag
1. If airspeed doubles while the angle of attack remains the same, the drag will:
(a) remain the same,

(b) double,
(c)be four times greater.
2. As airspeed increases in level flight, total drag of an aircraft becomes greater than the
total drag produced at the maximum L/D speed because of the:
(a)increase in induced drag

(b)increase in profile drag
(c) decrease in profile drag
3. Changing the angle of attack of a wing, enables control of the:
(a)lift, gross weight and drag,

(b)lift airspeed and drag,
(c) airspeed, weight and drag.
4. As airspeed decreases in level flight, total drag of the aircraft becomes greater than the
total drag produced at the maximum L/D speed because of the
(a) increase in induced drag,

(b) increase in parasite drag,
(c) decrease in induced drag.
5. Regarding the angle of attack, it is true to say that:

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(a) a decrease in angle of attack will increase impact pressure below the wing and
decrease drag,
(b) an increase in angle of attack will decrease impact pressure below the wing and
decrease drag,
(c) an increase in angle of attack will increase impact pressure below the wing and
increase drag,
6. An aircraft at 100 mph produces 1,000 lb. of drag. If angle of attack remains the same
but airspeed is doubled, total drag would increase to:
(a) 2 000 lbs.,

(b) 3 000 lbs.,
(c)4 000 lbs.
7. In comparison with a low aspect ratio wing, a high aspect ratio wing in a constant airflow
velocity will have:
(a) decreased drag, especially at high angles of attack,

(b) increased drag, especially at high angles of attack,
(c)increased drag, especially at low angles of attack.
8. In comparison with a high aspect ratio wing, a low aspect ratio wing in a constant airflow
velocity will have,
(a) decreased drag, especially at low angles of attack.

(b) decreased drag, especially at high angles of attack,
(c)increased drag, especially at high angles of attack.

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CHAPTER 3
STABILITY
Stability of an aircraft means its ability to return to the original condition of flight without any
action on the part of the pilot.
An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium if the sum totals of the external forces and of the
moments of those forces about any point is zero. An aircraft is stable if on disturbance from
its state of equilibrium it tends to return to it. This is usually called "latent stability".
STATIC STABILITY
The term static stability is concerned with the tendency of resulting motion of a body in
attempting to return to a condition of equilibrium.
When a body that has been displaced returns to equilibrium, a state of positive static
stability exists.
When a body that has been displaced has the tendency to continue in the direction of the
disturbance, a state of static instability exists.
When a body that has been displaced neither tend to return to equilibrium or continue in the
displaced direction, a state of neutral static stability exists.
The following points concerning the concept of static stability are important:
1. The concept only has real significance in a system which is initially in equilibrium.
2. It is only concerned with the tendency of the system to return to equilibrium and not
what happens to the system after displacement.
3. It is only concerned with small displacements within the system and not with
relatively large displacement;

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DYNAMIC STABILITY
This involves an element of time with that of motion.
Consider a system that is statically stable. Once having been displaced from equilibrium,
the system will, due to the forces created, return or gently subside back to its original
condition, without any tendency to overshoot the point of equilibrium. Such motion is called
subsidence or dead-beat return. Such a system is both statically and dynamically stable.
However, while still possessing the tendency to return to equilibrium, the system may, when
it reaches the point of equilibrium, do so with finite velocity so that it overshoots. Because
the system is statically stable, the new forces retard the system so that it eventually moves
back again towards equilibrium with a series of decreasing oscillations. Such motion is
called damped phugoid.
The diagram below depicts a statically stable system (i.e. the tendency is always to return or
attempt to return to a state of equilibrium) but over a period of time the oscillations may
either remain constant or get worse.
A highly undesirable system is one possessing both negative static stability (static instability)
and negative stability, as there is no tendency to return to equilibrium, even with an element
of time involved.

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LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
THE POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The position of the centre of gravity must remain within certain limits laid down in the Flight
Manual. This is necessary because the position of the centre of gravity is a very important
factor in determining the stability of the aircraft in the pitching plane. The centre of gravity is
located ahead of the centre of pressure so that a nose down moment is provided by the two
forces. The further forward the centre of gravity, the more stable the aircraft is in the
pitching plane. As we shall see when discussing the effect of the centre of pressure
movements, these in normal flight are stable and so the stability provided by the forward
location of the centre of gravity is necessary to overcome this tendency.
With the centre of gravity in the middle of its normal range, the aircraft will be normally
stable, but with the centre of gravity towards the aft limit the level of stability will be reduced
because the arm between the centre of gravity and the centre of pressure is reduced,
allowing the effect of movement of the centre of pressure to have greater significance . If
the centre of gravity is behind the aft limit the aircraft will be dangerously unstable. As we
will see when studying spinning this aft position of the centre of gravity also has dangerous
results in relation to the Inertia Moment during a spin.
The nose down moment produced by Lift being behind Weight is usually counteracted by
thrust being below drag, but as these are two small forces a down load on the tailplane is
usually required to balance the moments.

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POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE
We shall soon see that any increase in angle of attack prior to the stall causes the centre of
pressure to move forward; this is an unstable movement because by decreasing the nose
down moment of Lift and Weight it tends to make the angle of attack increase further which
is an unstable action. The position of the Centre of Pressure depends upon the angle of
attack which depends upon the following:
Speed: At high speeds, the centre of pressure lies well aft of the centre of
gravity but moves forward as the speed is decreased.
Weight: Any increase in weight requires a larger angle of attack resulting in a
forward movement of the centre of pressure, or an increase in speed which
would keep the centre of pressure in the same position.
Manoeuvres: Any demand for increased lift requires a larger angle of attack with
forward movement of the centre of pressure.
Turbulence: Turbulence will result in a change of the relative airflow, which
consequently alters the angle of attack, causing the centre of pressure to
fluctuate.
Configuration: During a flap or gear change, the centre of pressure is affected.
DESIGN OF THE TAILPLANE
A wing on its own is not stable and, therefore, need a smaller wing placed at some distance
behind it to provide the stabilizing effect required. This small wing is called the tailplane and
its effectiveness depends on the following:
1) Its size.
2) The distance of its centre of pressure behind the aircraft centre of gravity.
3) Its shape.
4) Its aspect ratio.
On most occasions, the exact position and incidence of the tailplane is determined by the
downwash of the mainplanes. It is so positioned that this downwash meets the tailplane at
an angle different to the angle at which the airflow meets the mainplanes. This method of
obtaining longitudinal stability is called longitudinal dihedral.
Consider an aircraft in level flight. Assume the angle of attack on the mainplanes to be 4
degrees and that of the tailplane 2. Should a disturbance be encountered giving a 2
degree nose up pitching moment, then the angle of attack of the mainplanes would be 6
degrees, representing a 50 % increase in lift. However, the tailplane is also subjected to
the disturbance, thus resulting in an angle of attack of 4 degrees. This represents a 100 %
lift increase, thus raising the tail resulting in a nose down correcting tendency.

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LATERAL STABILITY
Lateral stability is stability in the rolling plane. Factors that affect lateral stability are:
i) Dihedral.
ii) Keel effect.
iii) Sweepback.
iv) High lift and low centre of gravity.
DIHEDRAL
When the span of an aircraft wing is tilted upwards, this inclination is called dihedral.
Downward inclination is called Anhedral and provides a means of instability, especially in
the case of fighter type aircraft. When an aircraft is displaced from its lateral position, it
begins to slip sideways. This is due to the inclination of the tilted lift vector and the weight.
During the slip, the direction of the relative airflow is altered, as shown. However, due to
dihedral, the lower wing is now at a greater angle of attack than the higher wing, so
producing greater lift which tends to roll the aircraft back to the laterally stable position.

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KEEL EFFECT
When an appreciable area of the fuselage and vertical tailplane lie above the centre of
gravity of an aircraft, the "keel effect" helps return the aircraft to a laterally stable position.
Below depicts an aircraft in a side slip. Although such an attitude is unlikely, it serves as an
illustration to explain keel effect which is exactly what happens in a sideslip of only a few
degrees.
SWEEPBACK
Consider an aircraft with swept wings in a sideslip. With regard to the lower starboard
wing, the following is noted:
1) The effective span is larger than that of the higher wing, thus producing more lift on
the lower wing causing the aircraft to roll out of the banked attitude.
2) It has an effective increase in camber i.e. more lift produced.
3) It has a greater aspect ratio.
4) It is not shielded as with higher wings.
These factors contribute to an increase in lift and thereby rolling the aircraft to a level
attitude. This provides lateral stability.

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HIGH WING AND LOW CENTRE OF GRAVITY
This method acts similarly to a pendulum, thus producing a righting moment due to the
"pendulum effect".
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Directional stability is stability in the yawing plane. This is achieved by the following
methods:
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HIGH/LARGE VERTICAL FIN
Weathercock action is obtained from the vertical fin. The distance between the vertical axis
and the fin depends on the amount of stability required. Too long a moment arm could
result in an "over corrected" situation. The same weathercocking action is directly provided
by the fuselage area behind the C of G.
SWEEPBACK
As discussed, a larger frontal area provides an increase in drag on that wing which is yawed
forwards. This increase in drag, therefore, tends to oppose the disturbing yaw and maintain
a satisfactory condition of directional stability.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LATERAL AND DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
In the study of stability, lateral and directional stability are so closely interconnected, that it is
impossible to consider one without the other:
SPIRAL INSTABILITY
Consider an aircraft that is very stable directionally, but not laterally stable e.g. large fin and
little or no dihedral. The aircraft would have a marked tendency to sideslip during a banked
attitude. Due to the large tail fin, a weathercocking action is set up and this only increases
the tendency of the nose to yaw towards the lower wing. So, roll plus yaw, the nose yaws
below the horizon and the aircraft enters a spiral dive. Bank becomes steeper and steeper
and the aircraft becomes uncontrollable. This is called spiral instability, caused by too much
stability (directional). This is in fact similar to the further effect of the ailerons, primary effect
being to roll the aircraft, further effect being yaw (weathercocking).
ROLL WITH YAW

When yaw is induced, either by deliberate application of rudder or the failure of one
engine, in a multi-engined aircraft, the outer wing travels further than the inner wing. This
results in an increased speed in which case the outer wing develops more lift and begins to
rise (i.e. roll). So we have yaw plus roll, the nose of the aircraft is still yawing and it yaws
below the horizon and the aircraft enters a spiral dive; the primary effect of rudder is yaw
and the further effect is roll.
OSCILLATORY INSTABILITY
When an aircraft has a combination of roll and yaw, it is said to have oscillatory instability.
The motion is called Dutch Rolling when rolling predominates and Snaking when yawing
predominates.
Smaller dihedral angles and tail fins will minimise this type of instability.

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YAW DAMPERS
Dutch roll can cause big handling problems in large aircraft so yaw dampers are often fitted
to prevent yaw from developing by automatically applying a cancelling rudder input when
yaw is sensed. The 2 main types of yaw dampers found in aircraft today are PARALLEL
type and the SERIES type. The parallel type moves the pilots rudder pedals as it operates
and so must be switched off for take off and landing to avoid problems with crosswinds and
asymmetric performance. The series type is the more modern type and does not move the
rudder pedals as it operates and so may be switched on during all phases of flight.

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Revision Questions
1. If an aircraft is stable, this means that:
(a) it is in a state of balance;

(b) if it is displaced it will return to its original position without any correction by the pilot;
(c) if it is displaced it must be returned to its original position by the pilot operating the
controls.
2. For an aircraft which is neutrally stable in roll, following a wing drop:
(a) the wing would tend to return to the level position;

(b) the wing would continue to drop;
(c) the wing would remain in its displaced position.
3. After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillates in pitch with increasing amplitude. It is:
(a) statically and dynamically unstable;

(b) statically stable but dynamically unstable;
(c) statically unstable but dynamically stable.
4. Longitudinal stability is given by:
(a) the fin;

(b) the wing dihedral;
(c) the horizontal tailplane.
5. An aircraft is constructed with dihedral to provide:
(a) lateral stability about the longitudinal axis;

(b) longitudinal stability about the lateral axis;
(c) lateral stability about the normal axis.
6. Lateral stability is given by:
(a) the ailerons;

(b) the wing dihedral;
(c) the horizontal tailplane.
7. Stability about the lateral axis is given by:
(a) wing dihedral;

(b) the horizontal tailplane;
(c) the ailerons.
8. Stability about the longitudinal axis is given by:
(a) elevators;
(b) ailerons;
(c) wing dihedral

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9. Moving the centre of gravity aft will:
(a) reduce longitudinal stability;

(b) increase longitudinal stability;
(c) have no effect on longitudinal stability.
10. If the aircraft has a nose-up pitch displacement, the effective angle of attack of the
tailplane:
(a) remains the same;

(b) changes and causes the tailplane to apply a restoring moment;
(c) will not change if the pitch up was due to elevator selection.
11. The longitudinal static stability of an aircraft:
(a) is reduced by the effects of wing downwash;

(b) is increased by the effects of wing downwash;
(c) is not affected by wing downwash.
12. To ensure longitudinal stability in flight, the position of the C of G:
(a) must always coincide with the C of P;

(b) must be forward of the Neutral Point;
(c) must be aft of the Neutral Point.
13. Wing dihedral gives a stabilising rolling moment by causing an increase in lift:
(a) on the down-going wing when the aircraft rolls;

(b) on the lower wing when the aircraft sideslips;
(c) on the lower wing whenever the aircraft is in a banked altitude.
14. A high wing configuration gives:
(a) more lateral stability than a low wing;

(b) less lateral stability than a low wing;
(c) the same lateral stability as a low wing.
15. After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillates for a long time with only small
reductions of amplitude on each oscillation. It would be said to have:
(a) low damping;

(b) high damping;
(c) negative damping.
16. The presence of the fuselage in an aircraft with a high wing during a sideslip:
(a) increases the lift on the lower wing and decreases the lift on the upper wing thus
creating a stabilising moment;
(b) increases the lift on both wings thus creating a stabilising moment;
(c) decreases the lift on the lower wing and, increases the lift on the upper wing thus
creating a destabilising moment.
17. Sweepback of the wings will:

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(a) increase lateral stability;
(b) decrease lateral stability;
(c) not affect the lateral stability.
18. If an aircraft is yawed to a large angle of sideslip:
(a) directional stability will be lost;

(b) if the sideslip angle is too large the fin may stall and directional stability will be
decreased;
(c) the rudder will always have to be used to return the aircraft to its original position.
19. The fin gives:
(a) directional stability about the longitudinal axis

(b) directional stability about the normal axis;
(c) longitudinal stability about the lateral axis.
20. Increasing the size of the fin:
(a) reduces lateral stability;

(b) increases longitudinal stability and directional control;
(c) increases the size of the keel surface giving increased directional stability.
21. Pendulum stability is a property possessed by:
(a) aircraft with swept back wings;

(b) aircraft with high wing configuration;
(c) aircraft with low wing configuration.
22. An aircraft with a `Dutch roll' instability will:
(a) go into a spiral dive following a lateral disturbance;

(b) experience simultaneous oscillations in roll and yaw;
(c) experience oscillations in pitch.
23. Dutch roll may be prevented by:
(a) having the wings swept back;

(b) reducing the size of the fin;
(c) fitting yaw dampers.
24. An aircraft is yawed to starboard and the rudder is then centralized. if it then yaws to
port it is:
(a) directionally neutrally stable;

(b) directionally statically stable;
(c) directionally dynamically stable.

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25. Increasing the size of the fin will:
(a) increase lateral stability

(b) decrease lateral stability
(c) not affect lateral stability.
26. After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillates with increasing amplitude. It is:
(a) dynamically neutral

(b) dynamically stable but statically unstable
(c) dynamically unstable longitudinally.
27. To ensure longitudinal stability in flight, the position of the C of G:
(a) should not be forward of the neutral point

(b) should not be aft of the neutral point
(c) should coincide with the neutral point.
28. Moving the centre of gravity aft will:
(a) increase longitudinal stability

(b) reduce longitudinal stability
(c) have no effect on longitudinal stability.
29. After a disturbance in pitch, an aircraft continues to oscillate at a constant amplitude. It

is:
(a) longitudinally neutrally stable

(b) laterally unstable
(c) longitudinally unstable.
30. Dutch roll is:
(a) A type of slow roll

(b) primarily a pitching instability
(c) a combined rolling and yawing motion.
31. When the C of G is close to the forward limit:
(a) very small forces are required on the control column to produce pitch
(b) longitudinal stability is reduced
(c) larger stick forces are required to pitch because the aircraft is very stable.
32. Stability of an aircraft about its lateral axis is normally provided by the:
(a) tailplane
(b) ailerons
(c) elevators.

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33. The aircraft nose initially tends to return to the original position after the elevator is
pressed forward and released, the aircraft displays:
a) negative stability,
b) positive static stability
c) negative dynamic stability.
34. Rotation about the lateral axis is known as:
a) pitching and is controlled with the elevator,

b) rolling and is controlled with the ailerons,
c) yawing and is controlled with the ailerons.
35. If an aircraft is loaded to the rear of the CG range, it will tend to be:
(a) unstable about the lateral axis,

(b) sluggish in aileron control,
(c) unstable about the longitudinal axis.

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CHAPTER 4
CLIMBING, DESCENDING & TURNING
CLIMBING
THE BALANCE OF FORCES IN THE CLIMB
WEIGHT
Although weight always acts towards the centre of the earth, the weight vector can be
resolved into a horizontal component and a vertical component. The horizontal component
is parallel to and in the same direction as drag. It therefore supplements the drag and is
known as weight apparent drag.
The effect of increased weight in the climb is as follows:
If weight is increased, the total lift must be increased. The increase in lift can come from
one of two sources - angle of attack or speed. To increase the angle of attack is not
practical because of the danger of reaching the critical angle of attack. To increase the
speed is the only alternative, but to do this, the angle of attack must be reduced and in so
doing, the overall climb performance of the aircraft will be reduced.
LIFT
In the climb, the lift is perpendicular to the flight path of the aircraft . Generally one would
think that lift should be more than weight in the climb. Refer to the diagram above, it can be
seen that lift is actually less than weight during the climb because thrust is inclined upward
and therefore has a vertical component aiding lift.

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THRUST
Thrust acts parallel and opposite to drag. In terms of magnitude, thrust must be equal to
the sum of drag and weight apparent drag.
When speaking of thrust, it is correct to speak in terms of power available.
Power available = Thrust x TAS
At zero speed, there is zero Pav. At high speed, Pav approaches zero because propeller
efficiency reduces beyond a certain speed because the high speed airflow is passing
through the propeller faster than the propeller is forcing the airflow back. There is,
therefore, a reducing amount of true thrust from the propeller.
As the aircraft gains altitude in the climb, the Pav reduces. Although the TAS increases,
this is overcome by the fact that the thrust reduces as a result of reduced air density.
DRAG
In flight, an aircraft requires power to overcome drag; this is the source of the power
required curve.
Power required = Drag x TAS
At low speed, the aircraft requires a lot of power to overcome high induced drag . At
high speed, the aircraft requires a lot of power to overcome high profile drag. As altitude is
gained during the climb, the TAS increases and thus the power required curve moves
upward.
THE BEST RATE OF CLIMB

The best rate of climb is defined as climbing at a speed which will ensure the most height
per unit of time ( Vy).
Referring below, it can be seen that the best rate of climb occurs at that speed at which
there is the greatest difference between Pav and Preq (most excess power).

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THE BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB ( VX)
By definition, the best angle of climb is a climb at a speed which will ensure the greatest
amount of height per distance flown.
Referring to the diagram and formula, it can be seen that the best angle of climb occurs at a
speed for which there is the greatest difference between thrust and drag. Given that the
aircraft is at full thrust during the climb, the object must then be to fly at the speed at which
there is the minimum drag (best Lift/Drag ratio). This speed is traditionally lower than the
best rate of climb speed.
THE EFFECT OF WIND ON THE CLIMB

When considering the effect of wind on the climb, it helps to conceptualise that, firstly, the
aircraft climbs in a block of air and, secondly, the block of air moves over the ground
because of wind.
Referring to the diagrams:
The effect of headwind on the rate of climb - Nil.

Angle of climb - increased.
Effect of a tailwind on the -
Rate of climb - Nil.

Angle of climb - decreased.

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THE CRUISE CLIMB
By definition, a cruise climb is one which will ensure a good rate of climb as well as a high
forward speed. The cruise climb is typically used for cross-country flights. A good example
for a light aircraft is this:
An increase in speed of + 20kt above the best rate of climb speed, will usually lead to a
reduction in the best rate of climb of + 7 %, with an increase in speed of + 25 %.
DESCENDING
THE BALANCE OF FORCE IN THE GLIDE/DESCENT
With reference to the balance of forces in level flight, when all or some of the thrust is
removed, the aircraft will experience a nose down pitch. Once the correct attitude has been
selected, the aircraft will commence a glide/descent at a specified speed and constant rate
of descent. The forces in the descent reach a state of equilibrium, diagrammatically
represented above.
WEIGHT
Weight continues to act towards the centre of the earth. With the removal of the thrust
vector, the Lift/Weight couple overcomes the Thrust/Drag couple, causing a nose down
pitching moment.
With the angular inclination between the flight path and weight vector, the weight can be
resolved into a vertical and horizontal component. As can be seen, the horizontal
component acts parallel and opposite to drag and is therefore, in effect, thrust. This force is
commonly referred to as weight apparent thrust.

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LIFT
In a descent, the aircraft still has forward speed and a positive angle of attack and thus
develops sufficient lift to balance weight. Although the lift vector has been tilted forward and
it is the vertical component of lift which must balance weight, the trigonometric relationship
between the two is a cosine function and even at unusually high descent angles, such as
15, the angular component still remains very close in magnitude to the vertical component
(97 %).
In order to produce the correct value of lift, speed and angle of attack (attitude) must be
adjusted. The two have an inverse proportion, the higher the attitude, the lower the speed,
and vice-versa.
THRUST
Referring to the balance of forces when an aircraft is descending, the origin of the thrust is:
Weight apparent thrust in the case of a power off glide, or
The sum of weight apparent thrust and engine thrust in the case of a power assisted
descent.
The glide path or angle of an aircraft can be determined trigonometrically with the equation:
The greater the power in the descent, the less the weight apparent thrust must be for the
sum of the two to equal drag. The less the weight apparent thrust, the smaller the gliding
angle or the shallower the glide.
Provided the speed is kept the same, the smaller the gliding angle, the lower the rate of
descent and the further the glide distance.
DRAG
In all phases of flight, including the descent, total drag is equal to the sum of the induced
drag and profile drag. In the descent, total drag continues to act parallel and opposite to
the flight path of the aircraft.
With reference to the Total Drag curve, there is a specific speed at which drag is the least
(best L/D ratio). To achieve the smallest gliding angle, the aircraft should be flown at this
speed.
If the aircraft is flown any slower or any faster than this speed, the drag will increase. If the
drag is increased, the weight apparent thrust must be increased by increasing the gliding
angle.
To achieve the least drag and consequently the smallest glide angle, the aircraft should be
flown in the clean configuration and with a coarse propeller pitch.
THE MINIMUM ANGLE / MAXIMUM RANGE GLIDE

By obtaining the minimum glide angle, the aircraft will achieve the greatest gliding range.
This means that the horizontal distance covered per amount of height lost will be the
greatest. Referring to the diagrams and formulae below, it can be seen that by flying the
aircraft at the speed for the best L/D ratio (lowest drag, the weight apparent thrust needs to
be the least and, therefore, the gliding angle will be the least.

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ACHIEVE SHALLOW GLIDE ANGLE
T-D
GLIDE ANGLE SIN = (W SIN )
W
FLY AT SPEED FOR MIN DRAG
THE MINIMUM RATE OF DESCENT/MAXIMUM ENDURANCE GLIDE

By flying at a specific speed which ensures the minimum rate of descent, the aircraft will
achieve the maximum endurance or remain airborne for the longest possible time.
Referring to the diagrams and formulae below, it can be seen that by flying at the velocity
for minimum power, (to overcome drag), the rate of descent will be the lowest, thus ensuring
the maximum endurance in the glide.

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THE EFFECT OF WIND ON THE GLIDE
When considering the effect of wind on the glide, it helps to conceptualise the fact that the
aircraft flies in a mass of air and then this mass of air moves over the ground due to the
wind.
Referring below it can be seen that:
In a headwind:
The glide angle from the cockpit remains the same.

The glide angle from a ground observer appears steeper.
The gliding distance is reduced.
In tailwind:
The glide angle from the cockpit remains the same.

The glide angle from a ground observer appears shallower.
The gliding distance is increased.
THE EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON THE GLIDE

Referring to the diagram below:
If the weight of the aircraft is increased, the weight apparent thrust increases. If the weight
apparent thrust increases, the speed of the aircraft will increase. If the speed increases, the
drag increases - now drag again balances thrust.
If the speed increases, the lift increases - now lift again balances weight.
The net result is that the balance of forces is restored. There is no change to the gliding
angle, thus no change to the gliding range.
The only difference is that the aircraft flies at a higher speed and therefore has a higher rate
of descent, i.e. it reaches the ground sooner, but at the same place.

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THE CRUISE DESCENT
The cruise descent is a power assisted descent. The aircraft has a lower rate of descent
and a higher forward speed. Although the engine consumes more fuel than it would in a
glide, the earlier arrival at destination due to the higher forward speed make the descent
more efficient.
TURNING
THE BALANCE OF FORCES IN A TURN

In a turn, the lift vector is tilted in the direction of the turn by an amount equal to the angle of
bank. The vertical component of Total Lift is called effective lift and it must still balance
weight.
In order for the effective lift to balance weight so that the aircraft can achieve a level turn,
the total lift must be increased. To achieve this added total lift, the angle of attack must be
increased in the turn. An increase in the angle of attack will lead to an increase in the
induced drag, which in turn reduces the speed of the aircraft slightly if the thrust setting is
maintained constant.
The horizontal component of Total Lift is called Centripetal Force. Centripetal force works
towards the centre of the turn and it is the force which turns the aircraft . In order to satisfy
Newton's Laws, there must be a force equal and opposite to Centripetal Force. This force is
called Centrifugal Force, which is often verified with the popular analogy of releasing a
stone swinging at the end of a piece of string.

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LOAD FACTOR
Load factor is best described as an increase in apparent weight.
L
Mathematically LF =
W
In straight and level flight, L = W, therefore LF = 1.
During a level turn, the total lift is greater than the weight, yet level flight is maintained.
There has been an apparent increase in weight and the load factor is greater than 1.
If load factor is described by the relationship between lift and weight, then its value can be
determined trigonometrically with the function Secant.

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Total Lift
Sec =
Weight
L
Sec =
W
Sec = n
1
= N
COS
1
E.g. An aircraft at 30 bank = 1.15
COS 300
Therefore, the load factor is equal to 1.15 and the aircraft and pilot experience and
apparent weight of 1.15 times their actual weight.
In order to sustain a level turn, the angle of attack of the aircraft must be increased. When
the angle of attack is increased, the induced drag and, by association, the Total Drag is
increased. Preq = TAS x Drag, therefore the Preq is increased in a turn.
Because of the increase in drag, the speed of the aircraft will reduce. Should the pilot wish
to maintain a constant speed in the turn, it would require the expenditure of excess power,
(difference between Pav and Preq). With each successive increase in the angle of bank,
the angle of attack must increase, the drag increases, the Preq increases and the excess
power to maintain the speed decreases.

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TURN RADIUS
The term turn radius describes the distance of the aircraft from the centre of the turn. The
mathematical formula for determining turn radius (r) is:
V2
r =
g tan
where:
= angle of bank.
This formula is described fully under Minimum Radius and Maximum Rate Turns.
From the formula, the following deductions can be made:
If TAS and bank angle are maintained constant, the turn radius will be constant and
the size and weight of the aircraft will have no affect on the turn radius.
Therefore if a B747 and a C172 have the same TAS and angle of bank, they will have the
same turn radius.
If TAS is increased, but bank angle is kept the same, the radius will increase.

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If the TAS is kept the same, but bank angle is increased, the radius will decrease.

If TAS is increased and the same radius is required then the AoB must be increased.
TURN RATE
The term turn rate describes the amount of degrees of turn that the aircraft covers per unit
of time, usually assessed in degrees per second.
The mathematical formula for determining turn rate n is:
v
n =
r
This formula is described fully under Minimum Radius and Maximum Rate Turns.

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For the formula, the following deductions can be made:
The greater the TAS, the greater the rate of turn.
The smaller the radius, the greater the rate of turn.
THE EFFECT OF WIND ON THE TURN

When considering the effect of wind on the turn, it helps to conceptualise that firstly, the
aircraft turns in a mass of air and, secondly, this mass of air moves over the ground. This
means that turn rate and turn radius are unaffected by the wind conditions. What does
change however, is the aircraft's apparent change in turn radius when its position is viewed
in relationship to the ground.
THE EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT WEIGHT IN RELATION TO TURNING

An increase in weight requires an increase in lift. Lift is increased by increasing the angle of
attack. When the angle of attack is increased, induced drag increases. When induced
drag is increased, the aircraft speed is reduced. Thus the following factors are affected:
The aircraft attitude (angle of attack) is higher during the turn.
Unless power is applied, the speed is lower during the turn.

Because the speed is reduced, the radius of turn is reduced:
V2
r =
g tan
Although both the TAS and radius of turn are decreased, the radius decreases
proportionally more, thus the rate of turn is increased.
v
n =
r

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THE EFFECT OF BALANCE ON THE TURN
Rudder applications must be made in the direction of turn to keep the turn balance.
If too much rudder is used in the direction of turn, the excessive lifting force from the tail will
cause the aircraft to skid out of the turn, indicated on the Turn Co-ordinator by the ball being
displaced out of the direction to turn.
If too little rudder is used in the direction of turn, the lifting force from the tail will be too
small, causing the aircraft to slip into the turn, indicated by the ball being displaced in the
direction of turn.

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AIRCRAFT ATTITUDE IN THE TURN
In a turn, the angle of attack must be greater then for the straight and level condition of
flight. From the cockpit, the direct indication of angle of attack is attitude which, clearly, will
also be higher than for the straight and level conditions.
THE EFFECT OF DENSITY ALTITUDE ON THE TURN
Up to a certain point, TAS increases with increased density altitude . This has the following
effect on the turn:
An increase in TAS will cause the turn radius to increase:
V2
r =
g tan
Although the TAS and radius both increase, the radius increases proportionally greater, thus
the turn rate will decrease:
v
n =
r
CLIMBING TURNS
Referring to the diagram, it can be seen that the movement of the inner and outer wings can
be resolved into an upward component and a forward component.
Over a given time, the upward component for both wings are the same, but over a given
time the outer wing has travelled a greater distance.
By resolving the upward and forward velocities into a relative airflow, it can be seen that the
angle of attack of the outer wing is greater than the angle of attack of the inner wing. From
the lift formula then, the outer wing develops more lift than the inner wing and to maintain a
constant angle of bank in the climbing turn, bank must be held off.

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DESCENDING TURNS
Referring to the diagram, it can be seen that the movement of the inner and outer wings can
be resolved into a downward component and a forward component.
Over a given time, the downward component for both wings is the same, but over a given
time, the outer wing has travelled a greater distance than the inner wing.
By resolving the downward and forward velocities into a relative airflow, it can be seen that
the angle of attack of the inner wing is greatest. From the lift formula then, the inner wing
develops more lift than the outer wing and to maintain a constant angle of bank in the
descending turn, bank must be held on. In some aircraft. Other aircraft may be more
adversely effected by the fact that the outer wing is travelling faster and that the outer wing
is producing more lift, hence some aircraft may overbank in a descending turn and require
bank to be held off.

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Revision Questions
1. The angle of climb is proportional to:
(a) the amount by which the lift exceeds the weight

(b) the amount by which the thrust exceeds the drag
(c) the angle of attack of the wing.
2. As altitude increases the excess thrust at a given IAS:
(a) decreases because drag increases and thrust decreases

(b) increases because drag decreases and thrust is constant
(c) decreases because thrust decreases and drag is constant.
3. As altitude increases the excess power available:
(a) decreases because the power available decreases and power required is constant
(b) increases because the power required decreases and power available is constant
(c) decreases because the power available decreases and power required increases.
4. To cover the greatest distance when gliding, the gliding speed must be:
(a) near to the stalling speed

(b) as high as possible within VNE limits
(c) the one that gives the highest L/D ratio.
5. If weight is increased the maximum gliding range of an aircraft:
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains the same.
6. As bank angle is increased in a level turn at a constant IAS, the load factor will:
(a) remain the same

(b) increase
(c) decrease.
7. In a level turn at a constant IAS:
(a) the drag will be greater than in level flight because of the increased induced drag
(b) the drag will be the same as in level flight because the IAS is the same
(c) the drag will be less than in level flight because the lift is less.
8. For a level turn at a constant IAS if the radius of turn is decreased the bank angle and
load factor will:
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same.

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CPL DOC 01
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CHAPTER 5
STALLING
When any object moves through a gas or liquid, molecules of the fluid tend to adhere to the
surface of that object. This is due to the viscosity of the fluid.
If a layer of molecules clings to the surface what of the molecules adjacent to the layer?
Viscosity also means that there is a degree of attraction between the individual molecules of
that fluid. Thus the molecules dragged along at the surface will tend to drag their
neighbours along, but not with the same velocity. The layer of air adjacent a body in which
this dragging effect is felt is termed the boundary layer, and as we shall see it is this layer
that actually determines the maximum amount of lift that can possibly be generated by any
particular wing.
VELOCITY PROFILES
Velocity profiles are drawn to help visualize the local velocity of an airstream in the boundary
layer. Below shows one of these. The relative velocity at the surface is zero, and the relative
velocities at various levels away from the surface increase until the outer edge of the
boundary layer is reached.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
The beginning of airflow at the leading edge of a smooth airfoil surface produces a very thin
layer of smooth airflow. This type of airflow is called laminar flow and is characterized by
smooth regular streamlines. As the airflow moves back from the leading edge, the
boundary layer thickens and becomes unstable. Small pressure disturbances cause the
unstable airflow to tumble, and intermixing of the air particles take place. This type of
airflow is called turbulent flow. Above shows the boundary layer flowing on a flat plate and
shows the increasing thickness of the boundary layer and transition from laminar to
turbulent flow. The thickness is greatly exaggerated in the drawing.
Velocity profiles are different in laminar and turbulent flow. Laminar profiles show a gradual
decrease in the relative velocity from the outer edge of the boundary layer to the surface .
Turbulent flow involves rapid intermixing of the air levels, and fast removing air speeds up
the particles near the surfaces, result in profiles as shown

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TRANSITION POINT
The point at which laminar flow converts to turbulent flow i.e. transition to turbulence, is
termed Transition Point .
SUMMARY
Air is viscous and clings to the surface of an object over which it flows . This is the basic
mechanism for the creation of the boundary layer. The boundary layer may be laminar or
turbulent in flow. When turbulent it is thicker and possesses more kinetic energy than a
laminar flow boundary layer.
INVERSE AND ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENTS

As air flows over a wing it comes into contact with different pressures. Initially air flows from
the leading edge (High pressure) to the low pressure at about 25 % cord during this stage
the air wants to flow from the high pressure to the low pressure. This is called the INVERSE
PRESSURE GRADIENT. After 25 % chord the air enters an area of ADVERSE pressure
gradient from the low pressure area to a high pressure area at the trailing edge of the wing.
It is important that you understand that a turbulent boundary layer by virtue of its higher
Kinetic energy, can progress further into an adverse pressure gradient than can a laminar
boundary layer.
AIRFLOW SEPARATION AND SEPARATION POINT

The airflow in the boundary layer is being acted on by two forces, friction forces and
adverse pressure gradient forces. The friction forces between the surface of the object in
the airstream and the air particles, and the friction forces between the particles themselves,
tend to reduce the relative velocity to zero. This results in an aerodynamically 'dead' air
layer close to the surface. Second, the air is being slowed by the adverse pressure gradient
(discussed above). The result of the air slowing creates a stagnated region close to the
surface of the object. Airflow from outside the boundary layer will overrun the point of
stagnation and cause the boundary layer to separate from the surface. The point at which
this occurs is termed the separation point, and in effect very little lift is produced from the
airfoil surface aft of the separation point.

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In the presence of an adverse pressure gradient, such as exists at high angles of attack, the
boundary layer is slowed down, stopped, then reversed in its direction of flow. Since the
boundary layer no longer follows the form or shape of the object over which it flows neither
does the airflow riding on the boundary layer. The separation of the boundary layer causes
a breakdown of the orderly flow of air about the wing, and very little lift is produced aft of the
separation point. If a large portion of the wings has separated flow the wings will no longer
support the aircraft in level flight and the aircraft is said to be stalled.
STALLING, AUTOROTATION AND SPINNING
The stall may be described as that condition of flight wherein airflow separates from lifting
surfaces at high angles of attack. Lift is drastically reduced, drag increased and controlled
flight and manoeuvre is not possible whilst the airfoils remain stalled.
THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT DURING THE STALL

On a normal subsonic section no flow separation occurs at low incidences, the now being
attached over the rear part of the surface in the form of a turbulent boundary layer. As the
incidence increases, so the adverse pressure gradient is increased and the boundary layer
will begin to separate from the surface near the trailing edge of the wing. As the angle of
attack is further increased the separation point will move forwards along the surface of the
wing towards the leading edge. As the separation point moves forward the slope of the lift
incidence curve decreases and eventually an incidence is reached at which the wing is said
to stall, i.e. the separation point moves rapidly forward. The flow over the upper surface of
the wing is then broken down and the lift produced by the wing decreases

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CRITICAL ANGLE
The marked reduction in the lift coefficient, which accompanies the breakdown of airflow
over the wing, occurs at the critical angel of attack for a particular wing. In subsonic flight
an aircraft will always stall at the same critical angle of attack. A typical lift curve showing
the critical angle is shown, it should be noted that not all lift is lost at the critical angle, in
fact the aerofoil will give a certain amount of lift up to 90 ('flat - plate' lift is still available).
An aircraft will stall if the critical angle is exceeded. Nothing else can make an airfoil stall.
The speed at which an airfoil stalls is determined by weight and load factor, but the stall
angle remains the same, regardless of the speed at which the critical angle is obtained

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Traditionally, the angle of incidence of the horizontal stabiliser is less than that of the wings.
Thus, when the wings are stalled, the horizontal stabiliser still produces lift and this will lead
to a nose down pitching moment, or reduction in angle of attack. As it was an excessive
angle of attack which leads to the stall, the reduction in angle of attack will cause the CP to
move rearward and the aerofoil to unstall, regardless of the speed of the aircraft.
As airflow separates from the wing, downwash is reduced and is eventually destroyed.
This causes an increase in angle of attack on the horizontal stabilizer which reduces the
down load on the tail to pitch the nose of the aircraft down. This action assists recovery and
forms part of the longitudinal stability of the aircraft.
THE BASIC STALLING SPEED

It must be remembered that an aircraft may be stalled at any speed; it is the angle of attack
which remains constant for the stall. Because most smaller aircraft do not indicate the angle
of attack on a gauge, it is customary for the aircraft manual to quote a stalling speed which
corresponds to the staIling angle of attack under given conditions. These are:
Aircraft at a given weight, with flaps and undercarriage retracted and the engine throttled
back - basic stalling speed (Vs).
If any of these factors are changed, the stall speed will be different; for example the stalling
speed in the landing configuration, with flap and undercarriage extended (Vso).

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The basic stall speed is derived as follows:
During level flight, L = W.
Therefore L = W = CLpVS
Before the stall, the CL will be at a maximum value (CL max) and the speed will be at a
minimum (Vs)- basic stall speed.
The formula will now read:
W = CL max pVS
The symptoms of the approaching stall are:

High nose attitude - which corresponds to the high angle of attack.
Low speed.
Ineffective controls - due to the reduced speed of the airflow over the controls.
Stall warning - buzzer or light.
Buffet - due to the turbulent airflow from behind the separation point striking the
tailplane. Aircraft which have a T-tail configuration will experience less buffet
than aircraft with a conventional tailplane due to the fact that the tailplane is
elevated above the turbulent airflow from behind the wings. On aircraft with a
conventional tailplane, the application of flaps will tend to deflect the turbulent
airflow downward and below the tailplane, thus reducing the amount of
turbulence felt by the pilot on the controls.

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THE RECOVERY FROM THE STALL
The recovery procedure is designed first and foremost to unstall the mainplane.This can
only be achieved by reducing the angle of attack
At this point, the aircraft will still have a low airspeed and before any attempt can be made
to recover, the aircraft to a climb, the speed will have to be increased. To do this, one of two
options may be used:
(ii.) The transfer of potential energy (height), into kinetic energy (speed), by selecting a
nose low attitude.
(iii.) the transfer of mechanical energy (power), into kinetic energy (speed), by selecting a
level flight attitude and immediately opening full power. This method will obviously
result in a smaller height loss.
Once the aircraft has again safely reach flying speed, a climb away may be initiated.
THE EFFECT OF WEIGHT AT THE STALL
The effect of greater weight at the stall will make no difference to the stalling angle of
attack. However, by referring to the formula for the basic stalling speed
Vs = W
CL max pS
it can be seen that the greater the weight, the higher the basic stall speed
THE EFFECT OF WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION AT THE STALL

If the centre of gravity is too far forward (weight in the nose), the nose down pitch at the
stall will be very strong due to the length of the arm between the weight vector and the lift
vector from the tailplane. This strong nose-down pitch could result in an excessively nose-
low attitude and consequent height loss before recovery.
If the C of G is too far aft (weight in the tail), the C of P may move ahead of the C of G as
the aircraft approaches the stall. The lift/weight couple now reverses its trend to a nose-up
pitching moment, thus accelerating the stall.
A forward C of G will require greater down load on the tail during S & L flight. This will
increase the amount of weight that the lift must support. An increase in weight will cause an
increase in Stalling Speed. So aircraft which are nose heavy will have higher stalling speeds
than aircraft which are tail heavy. This effect is very small on small aircraft.

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EFFECT OF MANOEUVRES, "G" LOADING, ON THE STALL SPEED
In any condition of flight where lift exceeds weight, for example during a turn, the aircraft will
experience an apparent increase in weight or "G" loading and will stall at a higher speed.
The ratio of manoeuvre stall speed to basic stall speed can be calculated as follows:
Vs (manoeuvre stall speed) = L

CL max pS
Vs (basic stall speed) = W

CL max pS
PILOT SIMPLE FORMULA: VsNEW = VsOLD x Load Factor
An aircraft in a level turn, if the total lift is two times the weight, the square root of two is 1.4,
therefore the manoeuvre stall speed will be 1.4 times the basic stall speed. The aircraft will,
however, still stall at the same angle of attack.

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THE EFFECT OF AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION ON THE STALL SPEED
Vs = WEIGHT
CL max pS
WING AREA (S)

An increase in the wing area, such as by using Fowler type flaps will reduce the stall speed.
CHANGE IN CL MAX
The use of all types of flaps will increase the CL max An increase in the CL max will reduce
the stalling speed.
THE EFFECT OF THRUST AND SLIPSTREAM AT THE STALL

The effect of thrust and slipstream at the stall is two fold:
As the aircraft approaches the stall, it has a high angle of attack. The thrust vector can be
resolved into a vertical and horizontal component. The vertical component of thrust acts
parallel and opposite to weight and thereby assists lift. In this process, the stalling speed is
reduced.
The effect of high speed airflow from behind the propeller is to re-energise the boundary
layer over the wing, thus delaying separation. In the process, the stalling angle of attack is
increased. It must be remembered that this effect is local and restricted to the inboard
sections of the wing where the slipstream passes. The outboard section of the wing (wing
tips) now stand the risk of stalling first, (normal stalling angle of attack), which could lead to
a wing drop and incipient spin if one wing stalls before the other.

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WING TIP STALLING
Good aircraft design dictates that an aerofoil be designed to stall from root to tip for the
following reasons:
(a) When the root section stalls first, the turbulent airflow behind the root will
strike the tailplane and warn the pilot of the impending stall.
(b) The ailerons, situated on the outboard ends of the wings, will remain effective
up to higher angles of attack.
(c) The danger of a large rolling moment when one tip stalls before the other is
reduced
FACTORS PROMOTING TIP STALLING
Power/Slipstream
Slipstream from behind the propeller re-energises the boundary layer over the inboard
sections of the wing, thereby delaying separation. The effect is local; the inboard section of
the wing will stall at a higher angle of attack, but the tips will stall at the same angle of
attack, i.e. sooner.
Flaps
Flaps increase the camber of the wing at the inboard sections. In doing so , the larger
deflection of the downwash will incline the relative airflow vector, effectively reducing the
angle of attack and delaying the stall. The effect is local to the inboard sections of the wing
where the flaps are, thus the wing tips will be inclined to stall first.

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FACTORS REDUCING WING TIP STALLING
Washout
The term washout describes an aerofoil design where the angle of incidence of the aerofoil
reduces from root to tip. For any given flight conditions, the root will always be at a higher
angle of attack than the tip and thus will stall first.
Change of
Aerofoil Section
This describes
a change in
camber of the
aerofoil from
root to tip. The
more highly
cambered an aerofoil the more the downwash behind the aerofoil. This means that the
relative airflow will be deflected to a greater degree and the effective angle of attack will be
reduced. By having greater camber wing tip, the wing tip stall can effectively be delayed
until after the root stall.
Root Spoilers
Root spoilers are small triangular metal strips attached to the inboard leading edges of the
wing. They disturb the streamline flow of air over the wing root causing an earlier transition
from laminar to turbulent airflow, thus causing the wing roots to stall sooner than the wing
tips.
Slats and Slots
The effect of slats is to decrease the angle of attack at the outboard section of the wing,
(similar to leading edge flaps), thereby delaying the stall at the tips.
The effect of slots is to re-energise the boundary layer behind the slots at the wing tip,
thereby delaying the stall

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THE EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO ON THE STALL
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the span of a wing to its chord, described by the formula
ASPECT RATIO = SPAN

CHORD
The lower the aspect ratio of a wing (short, but wide), the greater the amount of downwash.
behind the wing. The effect of this downwash is to deflect the relative airflow and reduce the
effective angle of attack. The attitude of the aircraft wiIl therefore be far higher before the
stalling angle of attack is reached, (higher stalling angle - same stalling angle of attack).
Swept back and delta wing aircraft have low aspect ratios.
THE EFFECT OF ICING AND WING DAMAGE ON THE STALL

Icing and damage to an aerofoil have the effect of spoiling the laminar airflow and causing it
to become turbulent. This means that separation will occur sooner and the aerofoil will stall
at a lower angle of attack.
DEEP STALL
A swept wing aircraft suffering pitch up may take the angle of attack well past the stalling
angle due to inertia effect of the pitching moment. Unlike a straight wing, which will
experience a pitch down when stalled, a stalled swept wing is likely to have a steady nose
up pitching moment from the only remaining attached flow near the wing root. If a
conventional low wing tailplane is fitted, the tailplane/elevator can be used to pitch the nose
down and regain stable flight. However , if a high tail is fitted, the separated flow from the
wing may envelope the tailplane thus making it ineffective. In this case no restoring control
is available and it may not be possible to recover. The ensuring rate of descent will further
increase the angle of attack thus perpetuating the deep stall condition.
Swept wing aircraft in the configuration below are all fitted with stick pushers which provide
an undemanded nose down control at a very high angle of attack. This prevents the aircraft
from achieving very high angles of attacking in the 1 st place.

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SPINNING
With reference to the stalled aircraft if the aircraft starts to roll there will be a component of
flow induced tending to increase the angle of attack of the down-going wing and decrease
the angle of attack of the up-going wing. The cause of the roll may be either accidental
(wing-drop) deliberate (further effect of applied rudder) or use of aileron at the stall.
The effect of this change in angle of attack on the CL and CD curves is that the "damping in
roll" effect normally produced at low incidence is now reversed. The increase in angle of
attack of the down-going wing decreases the CL and increases the CD. Conversely, the
decrease in angle of attack of the up-going wing increases the CL and decreases the CD.
The difference in lift produces a rolling moment towards the down-going wing tending to
increase the angular velocity. This angular acceleration is further increased by the roll
induced by the yawing motion due to the large difference
in drag.

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The cycle is automatic in the sense that the increasing rolling velocity sustains or even
increases the difference in angle of attack.
It is emphasized that autorotation like the stall, is an aerodynamic event which is dependent
on angle of attack. It is therefore possible to auto-rotate the aircraft in any attitude and at
speeds higher than the basic stalling speed. This principle is the basis of many of the more
advanced acrobatic manoeuvres
AUTOROTATION
Autorotation, sometimes called the incipient spin, is an aerodynamic event before the full
spin occurs and stabilizes. During the spin, the aircraft is in a stalled condition of flight,
simultaneously rolling, pitching and yawing.
In the erect spin to the right illustrated, the aircraft is rolling right, pitching up and yawing
right. For convenience the direction of the spin is defined by the direction of yaw.

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SPIN LIMITATIONS
It is most important to observe any limitations imposed on spinning of a particular aircraft
type. These limitations are usually imposed to eliminate any tendency of the aircraft to get
into a flat spin. This can result from spinning an aircraft with the centre of gravity in an
excessively aft location. The tendency is exaggerated when the spin is allowed to continue
for too many turns. For these reasons, the limitations imposed usually apply to centre of
gravity aft limits; in some cases it is stipulated that no baggage may be carried in aft
baggage compartments when carrying out spins. In some aircraft, the maximum number of
turns permitted before recovery is stipulated.
INSTRUMENT INDICATIONS DURING THE SPIN

1. Low airspeed, fluctuating around the stalling speed.
2. Maximum rate of turn on the turn co-ordinator in the direction of yaw (spin).
3. Inclinometer shows a skid. (Bank opposite direction to that of the spin.)
4. High rate of descent confirmed on the VSI and altimeter
SPIN RECOVERY
Throttle closed
Full opposite rudder to the direction of the spin (anti-spin moment).
Progressive forward moment of the control column to unstall the wings (anti-spin
moment).
Once the spin stops centralize the rudders to prevent a spin in the opposite
direction.
Ease gently out of' the dive. Harsh use of elevators at high speed may induce
structural aircraft damage or cause a high speed stall to develop.

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Revision Questions
1. A stall warning must be set to operate:
(a) at a speed just below stalling speed

(b) at a speed above stalling speed
(c) at the stalling speed.
2. In a steady turn an aircraft experiences 3g, the stalling speed will be:
(a) above the normal stalling speed

(b) below the normal stalling speed
(c) the same as the normal stalling speed.
3. At altitudes above sea level the IAS stalling speed will be:
(a) the same as at sea level

(b) less than at sea level
(c) greater than at sea level
4. An aircraft wing stalls at:
(a) a constant true airspeed

(b) a constant angle of attack
(c) a constant indicated airspeed
5. A typical stalling angle of attack is:
(a) 30
(b) 15
(c) 5
6. With engine power on, an aircraft will stall:
(a) at the same speed as with power off

(b) at a lower speed than with power off
(c) at a higher speed than with power off
7. If the aircraft weight changes by 6% the stalling speed will change by approximately:
(a) 3%
(b) 12%
(c) 6%
8. A fixed spoiler on the leading edge of the wing at the root will:
(a) prevent a root stall

(b) induce a root stall
(c) give a shorter landing run.

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9. At angles of attack above the stalling angle:
(a) the lift decreases and the drag decreases

(b) the lift decreases and the drag increases
(c) the lift increases and the drag increases.
10. A leading edge slat is a device for:
(a) increasing the stalling angle of the wing

(b) decreasing the drag of the wing
(c) decreasing the stalling angle of the wing.
11. Wing tip staIling may be prevented:
(a) wash out on the wing

(b) wash in on the wing
(c) giving the tip a sharp leading edge.
12. Increasing aircraft weight will:
(a) decrease the stalling speed

(b) not effect the stalling speed
(c) increase the stalling speed.
13. A stick shaker is:
(a) a high Mach number warning device

(b) an artificial stability device
(c) a device to vibrate the control column to give a stal1 warning.
14. The stalling speed is determined by:
(a) the maximum value of CL

(b) the CL for zero lift
(c) the CL for maximum L/D ratio.
15. A stick pusher is a device for:
(a) assisting the pilot to move the controls against high air loads
(b) preventing the aircraft from getting into a stall
(c) automatically compensating pitch changes at high speeds.
16. Wing tip stalling may be prevented by:
(a) giving the tip a sharp leading edge

(b) wash-in on the wing
(c) wash-out on the wing.

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17. if weight is increased the stalling angle of attack is:
(a) increased
(b) decreased
(c) the same.
18. With the C of G on the forward limit, the stalling speed would be:
(a) lower than with the C of G on the aft limit

(b) higher than the C of G on the aft limit
(c) the same as with the C of G on the aft limit.
19. If an aircraft is flying close to the stall, and ailerons are operated:
(a) a stall could occur on the wing with the down aileron
(b) a stall could occur on the wing with the up aileron
(c) there would be no effect on stalling.
20. On a highly tapered wing without wing twist the stall will commence:
(a) at the tip

(b) at the centre of the span
(c) At the root.
21. The indicated stalling speed of an aircraft at a given weight:
(a) increase with altitude increase

(b) is constant at all altitudes
(c) decreases with altitude increase.
22. The separation point of the boundary layer:
(a) moves forward with increased angle of attack

(b) moves aft with increased angle of attack
(c) remains constant up to the stalling angle.

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CHAPTER 6
LIFT AUGMENTATION
FLAPS
The function of flaps is as follows:
In order to ensure that an aircraft can have a reasonably short landing distance, the
approach and landing speed must be reasonably low. From the lift formula, it can be seen
that the lower the speed, the less the lift. Under these circumstances, the pilot is compelled
to raise the angle of attack in order to restore the lift. The situation is undesirable, firstly
because raising the angle of attack places the aircraft close to the stall while close to the
ground and secondly, raising the angle of attack reduces the forward visibility at a time
when it is important to be able to see the runway.
The use of flaps solves the problem. Firstly, flaps produce drag which helps to slow the
aircraft down and secondly, by increasing the camber of the wing, using flaps increases the
lift without having to increase the angle of attack.
Flaps are also useful during the take-off. When it is necessary to take-off from a short
runway, the aircraft can be rotated at a lower speed, thus using less runway for speed
acceleration. The loss of lift due to the lower speed is compensated for by the increased lift
from the flaps. When it is necessary to clear a high obstacle after take-off, the aircraft can
be climbed at a lower speed and steeper angle, with flaps once again restoring the lift lost
due to the low speed.
The stalling angle of attack refers to the angle between the chord line and the relative
airflow when the aircraft stalls he diagram below illustrates the effect flap has on stalling
attitude and angle of attack in level flight.

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The plain or cambered flap, illustrated above, will have the effect of increasing the maximum
lift by + 50 %. The stalling angle of attack will be reduced.

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TYPES OF FLAP
As mentioned, flaps may be situated on the trailing edge of the leading edge. Both leading
edge and trailing edge each have many variations. For this reason a table summarizing the
various types is presented

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LEADING EDGE FLAPS
Swept wing aircraft operating at high angles of attack are prone to significant increases in
induced drag due to wing vortices and flow separation along the leading edge. To prevent
this, and to generate more lift at high angles of attack, all swept wing transport aircraft are
fitted with some form of leading edge lift augmentation device. Leading edge flaps are one
of the options. One common design is the Krueger flap which has a folding nose to vary the
effective camber of the leading edge. Alternatively, a drooped leading edge flap may be
used. Both these designs are shown. The B747 employs Krueger flaps on the inboard wing
section and a slightly different design on the outboard sections which allows the airflow to
be re-energized by means of a slot in the flap design. In all cases, leading edge flaps are
hydraulically actuated.
LEADING EDGE SLATS

For some types of swept wing aircraft, an alternative use of leading edge slats is used to
reduce spanwise flow of the boundary layer and increase lift at high angles. The MD DC-10
uses this method. The slats are cambered surfaces which when retracted, lie flush with the
upper surface of the leading edge of the wing. They are arranged in sections along the
leading edge and operated at low speeds by hydraulic actuators in the same way as flaps.
In the extended position, as shown, a slot is formed between the slat and the wing surface
which acts as a venturi accelerating the flow and energizing the boundary layer. In this way
slats prevent spanwise flow which in turn reduces the tendency to tip-stall.

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CHAPTER 7
FLYING CONTROLS
An aircraft has three axes about which it moves. Movement about these axes is achieved
with the use of the appropriate controls. All three axes pass through the centre of gravity.
THE AXES OF MOVEMENT
THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS

The longitudinal axis runs from the nose to the tail of the aircraft. When the control column
is moved to the left, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. When the
control column is moved to the right, the right aileron goes up and the left aileron goes
down. The wing with the up-going aileron experiences a decrease in camber and a
decrease in angle of attack and thus a decrease in lift. The wing with the down-going
aileron experiences an increase in camber and an increase in angle of attack and thus an
increase in lift. This differential lift causes the aircraft to roll about the longitudinal axis.
Damping in Roll
When aileron is applied, an unbalanced force is created about the longitudinal axis, and this
force causes the mass of the aircraft to accelerate about this axis. The rate of roll is initially
zero as the ailerons are applied but the radial velocity of the wingtips will increase
proportionally to the length of time that the rolling force is applied. This implies that the
response, or number of degrees rotation per second for a fixed deflection, is changing
continually. But does this mean that for a fixed deflection an aircraft will roll faster and faster
until it is spinning like a bullet? Theory would imply so, but it does not happen due to a
phenomenon known as 'damping in roll'. This simply means that as the wings start rotating
an additional component of free stream flow is created that changes the relative angle of
attack of the wings. The down goings wing's angle of attack is increased and the up
goings decreased. This reduces the lift differential between the wings. There will come a
time when the alteration of the angle of attack of the wings cancels out the lift differential
from the ailerons and the forces on the wing will be in equilibrium once more. When this
happens a steady rate of roll will exist.

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As rate of roll increases the damping force increases until a steady rate of roll results.
In most low performance, conventional aircraft the damping in roll takes full effect well within
the control application time (usually within one second). Thus for most of the time of
application there is a steady response from the ailerons, and they are then termed rate
controls.
THE LATERAL AXIS

The lateral axis runs from the wingtip to wingtip of the aircraft. When the control column is
moved forwards, the elevator deflects downwards. The camber and angle of attack and
thus the lift is increased on the horizontal stabiliser. The tail of the aircraft moves up and
the nose of the aircraft pitches down about the lateral axis. When the control column is
moved aft, the elevator is deflected upwards. The camber and angle of attack decrease
and thus lift is decreased on the horizontal stabiliser. The tail of the aircraft moves down the
nose of the aircraft pitches up about the lateral axis.
Damping in Pitch
As illustrated it can be seen that an elevator deflection will cause a rotation that will increase
the restoring moment of both tail and main plane. It is for this very reason that the moment
produced by the elevator is rapidly damped or equalized as this restoring moment is very
large and increases rapidly. Thus an elevator deflection will rotate the aircraft through to a
fixed and constant angle of attack. For example, if an elevator produces 500 N of force it
will rotate the aircraft until the restoring moment is also 500 N. The angle of attack will
remain constant with the forces in equilibrium i.e. there is no further rotation about the axis
as there was in the case of the ailerons and roll. The aircraft, because of its increased lift,
will then follow a curved flight path, such as a loop.

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Elevator Deflection Moment Balanced by restoring Moments of Wing and Tail, giving
rotation to a fixed angle of attack.
THE NORMAL AXIS

The normal axis passes vertically through the centre of gravity of the aircraft. When the left
rudder pedal is depressed, the rudder is deflected to the left. Lift is increased on the right
hand side of the vertical stabiliser. The tail of the aircraft moves to the right and the nose of
the aircraft yaws to the left about the normal axis.
When the right rudder pedal is depressed, the rudder is deflected to the right. Lift is
increased on the left hand side of the vertical stabiliser. The tail of the aircraft moves to the
left and the nose of the aircraft yaws to the right about the normal axis.
WEATHERCOCKING
Weathercocking refers to an occurrence which describes an aircraft's movement about it's
normal axis, i.e. Yaw.
If the nose of an aircraft is yawed to the left, the airflow will strike the right- hand side of the
fuselage and vertical stabiliser. This unbalanced force on the right-hand side of the aircraft,
behind the C of G will cause the nose of the aircraft to yaw to the right and thus restore the
aircraft to flight parallel with the airflow.
The restoring force is called the weathercock effect.

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTROLS
The effectiveness of the aircraft's controls depends upon the following factors:
THE SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE CONTROL

The greater the size or area of a control surface, the greater is the potential in developing a
lifting force and therefore, the greater its effectiveness, (Lift = CLpVS).
THE SQUARE OF THE AIRCRAFT'S SPEED (EAS)

The greater the speed of the aircraft, the greater the speed of the airflow over the control
surfaces and the greater the potential for developing a lifting force, (Lift = CLpVS), and
therefore, the greater the control effectiveness.
THE ANGLE OF DEFLECTION

The greater the angle through which a control surface is deflected, the greater its change in
camber and angle of attack and therefore, the greater its lifting force and effectiveness, (Lift
= CLpVS).
THE LENGTH OF THE MOMENT ARM

The distance between where a force acts, (at the control surface), and where the aircraft
moves, (at the C of G about the appropriate axis), is called a moment arm. The longer the
length of the moment arm, the greater the control effectiveness for any given control
deflection.
ADVERSE AILERON YAW

By definition, adverse aileron yaw is an initial yaw in the opposite direction to the intended
roll. With reference to Chapter 3, it is clear that the greater the angle of attack and lift of an
aerofoil, the greater the induced drag.
When an aileron application is made to roll the aircraft, the down going aileron/ up going
wing, experiences an increase in angle of attack and lift and therefore experiences more
induced drag. Conversely, the up going aileron/down going wing experience a decrease in
angle of attack and lift and therefore experiences a reduction in induced drag.

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This differential drag results in an initial yaw in the opposite direction to roll and is called
adverse aileron yaw. Adverse aileron yaw is described as an initial yaw in the opposite
direction to roll. The directional stability of the aircraft due to the weathercock effect will
oppose the yaw as it occurs and restore the longitudinal axis of the aircraft to flight parallel
with the airflow.
FACTORS TO REDUCE ADVERSE AILERON YAW
DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS
For any given control deflection, the up going aileron moves through a greater arc than the
down going aileron. This helps to balance out the differential drag caused when the down
going aileron experiences more induced drag than the up going aileron.
FRISE TYPE AILERONS

In the construction of Frise type ailerons, the ailerons are hinged at a point slightly aft of
their leading edges. When deflected, the nose of the up going aileron deflects into the
airflow, and the nose of the down going aileron does not. The up going aileron thus
experiences more profile drag than the down going aileron. This helps to balance out the
differential drag caused when the down going aileron experiences more induced drag than
the up going aileron.

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SPOILERS
Spoilers are flat plates on the upper wing surface which are activated with aileron
application. When ailerons are applied, the spoiler on the side of the up going aileron is
extended. The down going wing thus experiences more profile drag than the up going wing.
This helps to balance out the differential drag caused when the down going aileron
experiences more induced drag than the up going aileron.
AIRSPEED EFFECTS
AILERON REVERSAL
Wings are not totally rigid and at high speeds the force produced by an aileron deflection
can be so strong that the wing twists about its torsional axis. As illustrated this twisting
moment causes a reduction in angle of attack thus reducing the effectiveness of the
ailerons for a fixed deflection. At a certain speed, known as aileron reversal speed, an
application of aileron will cause such a twisting moment that there is no change in lift on the
wing in total thus there will be no rolling moment. If the aircraft is flown beyond aileron
reversal speed the twisting moment can cause a reduction in angle of attack to a negative
value and the aircraft will roll in a direction opposite to that intended.

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LOW SPEED EFFECTS
At low speeds it is usually necessary to make larger deflections in order to achieve a
desired roll rate. As the wing itself is operating at higher angles of attack at these lower
speeds, an application of aileron can cause the aileron deflected downwards to operate
very close to the critical angle. At these high angles of attack the following can occur:
AILERON SNATCH
At high angles of attack the airflow over the aileron may begin to oscillate and separate.
This can. result in rapid movements of the centre of pressure on the control surface such
that at time the centre of pressure moves past the hinge line of the control, towards the
leading edge. This anti-restoring force causes a rapid increase in angle of attack of the
aileron, and the C of P moves further forwards, aggravating the problem. The resultant
force can be such that the control stick is literally snatched out of one's hand in the intended
direction of movement.
AILERON OVERBALANCE
On some aircraft one may find that the larger the deflection angle the smaller is the stick
force needed to hold the control in that position. This is because the larger the deflection
the more effective is the aerodynamic balance e.g. more and more section ahead of the
hinge line protrudes into the flow, giving greater balancing. At some stage the control force
will lessen to zero and beyond that deflection the controls may begin moving of their own
accord, and overbalance may be confused with snatch. With snatch, however, there is no
progressive decreasing of control forces before the control stick begins moving of its own
accord.

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FLUTTER
An important problem associated with aircraft controls is that of "flutter". This can be
prevented by mass-balancing the system. On a few low performance aircraft the additional
weight necessary to mass-balance the control is added externally. Usually, however, the
weight is stored internally, often inside the horn balance, in the leading edge of the control
surface on an arm which is inside the appropriate main surface.
It is also of the utmost importance that a spring or servo tab is individually mass-balanced
about its own hinge-axis.
Control surface flutter arises as the result of coupling between the rotation of a control
surface and the bending or torsional motion of the wing, tailplane, or fin. As an example,
the next diagram illustrates the case of a wing flexural-aileron flutter in which the motions
involved are wing bending and aileron rotation.
If the wing is oscillating in bending and the CG of the control surface is behind the hinge line
of the control the inertia effects are such that as the wing moves upwards the control tends
to rotate downwards. Conversely as the wing moves downwards the
control moves upwards and the aerodynamic force produced by rotation of the aileron may
assist the motion of the wing.
The motion is opposed by the rigidity of the wing and the aerodynamic damping effects, and
at low speeds flutter does not occur. As the forward speed is increased, however, the
aileron excitation forces increases as the square of the speed, whereas the aerodynamic
damping effect only increases linearly with speed. Thus above a certain critical speed flutter
will occur.
TYPES OF FLUTTER
Torsional Flexural Flutter - Twisting of the wing under load
Torsional Aileron Flutter - Wing twists due to aileron input (shown below)
Flexural Aileron Flutter - Aileron lags behind up and down

movement of the wing.

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CROSS-COUPLING OF CONTROLS
When a control produces a response in a plane other than that desired it is termed a cross-
coupling response, and one method of solving the problem is to cross-couple the controls of
the plane affected. In the case of adverse yaw the linkage system of the ailerons and rudder
can be geared so that each time a movement is made in the rolling plane the rudder
automatically moves to cancel out the adverse yaw.
USE OF RUDDER DURING AILERON APPLICATION FOR BALANCE

Although the above mentioned devices certainly reduce the amount of adverse aileron yaw,
most aircraft still require a rudder input in the direction of the intended roll to overcome the
effects of adverse aileron yaw completely and keep the aircraft balanced.

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CONTROL BALANCING
On larger and faster aircraft, the forces required by the pilot to deflect the flight controls of
the aircraft would be enormous. Clearly, some form of assistance is required and this
comes in the form of control balancing. Some of the more common forms of control
balancing are listed below:
THE SETBACK HINGE OR INSET HINGE

The net lifting force on a control surface acts through the centre of pressure. The product
of this force and the arm between the CP and the hinge line is the moment which the pilot
must oppose in order to deflect the control surface. By moving the hinge line aft, the arm
and therefore the moment are reduced, requiring less force by the pilot to deflect the control
surface. Certainly, the hinge line should not be positioned too far aft. As the angle of
deflection of a control surface is increased, its CP moves forward. Should the CP move
ahead of the hinge line, the moment would be reversed, causing the control surface to
remain in the deflect position with no action on the part of the pilot and the "feel" would be
lost.
THE HORN BALANCE

When a control surface is deflected, a portion of the leading edge of the control surface
protrudes into the airflow on the opposite side of the aerofoil. Airflow striking this position of
the control surface assist the pilot to deflect the control surface.

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TAB BALANCES
A tab is a small fixed or hinged surface forming part of the trailing edge of a control surface.
The general principle of operation of the tab is as follows:
When a control is deflected, the tab is deflected in the opposite direction. The large lifting
force on the control surface and the short arm between the CP and hinge line form a
moment which is balanced by the smaller lifting force on the tab surface and the longer arm
between its CP and the hinge line of the control surface.
The force required by the pilot to keep control surface in the deflected position is thus
reduced or removed altogether.
Some of the many types of tab balances are listed below.
Fixed Tabs or Adjustable Tabs

These tabs cannot be adjusted in flight. After a series of test flights, they are bent to a
position which will ensure that no force is required by the pilot to keep the control surfaces
in the deflected state which will keep the aircraft in straight and level flight at cruise power
and cruise speed.
Trim Tabs
Movement of the trim tab is achieved by the pilot in flight, either by means of manually
turning a trim wheel in the cockpit which is connected to the tab by cables, or by activating
an electrical switch in the cockpit connected to the tab via an electric motor. The trim tab
can thus be deflected by the pilot to remove the forces required to move a control surface in
any number of aircraft configurations and speeds.

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Servo Tabs
The controls in the cockpit are directly linked to the tab instead of the control surface.
When a control movement is made, the tab is moved in the incorrect sense and the lifting
force from the tab causes the control surface to be moved in the correct sense. The
principle of the servo tab is that it is far easier for the pilot to move the small tab surface
than the large control surface.
Balance Tabs
A balance tab is not under the control of the pilot. It is linked to the aerofoil in such a way
that when the pilot deflects the control surface, the tab automatically moves in the opposite
sense, thereby reducing the force input required by the pilot.

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Spring Tabs
With balance tabs, the tab is linked to the aerofoil and its movement is coupled to be
proportional to the movement of the control surface. With spring tabs, the tab is linked to
the control surface with a spring between the two.
In this way, at low speeds, the tab does not become operational until the control surface has
been deflected by a certain number of degrees and at high speeds, the degree of tab
deflection is small to prevent overbalancing, (the effectiveness of a control is dependent
upon its angle of deflection and the speed of the airflow).
SPRING BIAS TRIMMERS

With spring bias trimmers, no tab is involved at all. When the trim wheel is moved in the
cockpit, it exerts a spring pressure on the cables of the flight controls or the flight controls
themselves, to hold them and thus the control surface in the deflected position.
VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANES

Where very large trim inputs are required to control an aircraft in the pitching plane, the
forces produced by a small tab surface are often insufficient. In this case, the action of the
tab is augmented with a variable incidence tailplane. The tailplane's movement is achieved
electrically or hydraulically. Its movement is coupled to the movement of the tab and the
two will be activated by one control.

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Variable-incidence tailplanes of different design are used on all large transport aircraft with
slight differences. The diagram below shows a variable-incidence tailplane which is used
mainly as a trimming system. An elevator is also attached which is used for primary flight
control in manual flight.
The variable-incidence function is operated by trim controls in the cockpit, by autopilot servo
motors as the primary control in automatic flight , and also as a Mach trimmer through the
autopilot servomotors. The diagram below shows a more advanced system where the
variable-incidence function is used as the primary pitch control for automatic and manual
flight as well as all trimming operations. This system is generally referred to as a flying tail.
Elevators are fitted to this system but direct movement of the stabilizer itself, thereby
supplementing its control functions rather than serving as an independent pitch
maneuvering control surface can only operate them.

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POWERED CONTROLS
A power operated system is shown Below. This system the pilot moves the cockpit control
(control wheel) which is connected to a control valve. Depending on the amount of valve
movement, hydraulic fluid under pressure moves to the appropriate side of the operating
jack which is connected to the control surface.
CONTROL ACTUATOR
Given the limited control input needed by the pilot, the power control actuator must be
capable of achieving the necessary control deflections throughout the aircrafts flight
envelope. This is mainly a problem of hydraulic jack design, considering such factors as
piston area and the pressure of the hydraulic supply. If the aerodynamic loads become too
great for the jack to oppose, a condition known as jack stalling occurs. In such a situation,
aircraft maneuverability is reduced.
The control system must remain stable and must not be influenced by signals that do not
originate from the pilot. to maintain this stability it is essential that the linkage is free from
backlash and that the hydraulic system is free from varying pressures.
ARTIFICIAL FEEL SYSTEMS
The assessment of the handling characteristics of an aircraft is very dependent on the

amount of control movement and the control forces or feedback that the pilot experiences
through the control linkage. In an aircraft with conventional non-powered controls the forces
increase in direct proportion to the square of the aircraft speed. This relationship forms an
important part of a pilots feel for the aircraft and consequently can affect flying perfor-
mance. In a fully powered control system however, such feedback is not available, the only
natural forces being the friction generated when moving the control and control valve
mechanism.
To prevent aircraft overstress and to provide a neutral datum control position for pilot
reference, all powered control system have an artificial feel system. The most common form
of artificial feel system is the q system where resistance to control movement is directly
proportional to dynamic pressure (q). Below it shows a typical hydraulic q feel system. Pitot
and static pressures are fed to either side of a pressure capsule in much the same way as
an airspeed indicator. Movement of the diaphragm is thus a function of dynamic pressure
which is in turn connected to a hydraulic servo-valve. The servo-valve then provides
metered hydraulic pressure which is equivalent to an amplified value of dynamic pressure.
This pressure is fed to a jack which opposes the movement of the pilots control and thus
provides the feel for the system.

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Although the q feel system provides a natural feedback to the pilot in proportion to
airspeed, the system can be adapted to provide maneuver protection for the aircraft. A
common technique which is sometimes used in large aircraft rudder systems is the V-
cubed method. Instead of providing control stick resistance based precisely on q (which of
course is based on V-squared), at higher speeds, the resistance increases dramatically as a
function of V-cubed. When applied to a rudder system it prevents the application of large
control deflections with corresponding large side-slip angles at high speed. Equally, a V-
cubed system could help prevent an aircraft overstress at high speed if fitted to the
longitudinal control system. Another method to prevent overstress is to increase the control
resistance as a function of g or load factor. This is normally called a G feel system.
POWERED CONTROL FAILURE
In the event of a failure of the powered control system some form of back-up must be
provided. Modern large transport aircraft normally provide some form of redundancy to the
system by having parallel hydraulic jacks driven from separate hydraulic systems. Some
aircraft even have three distinct hydraulic systems for the primary flight controls. If possible,
an aircraft manufacturer will also provide the option of a manual reversion where the pilot
can make some movement of the controls mechanically. With very large aircraft this may
not be possible under any circumstances due to the very large components involved, and
on medium sized aircraft may only be possible once the aircraft has slowed to low airspeed
where aerodynamic loads are less. In this situation, one of the powered control systems
may he fitted with an emergency hydraulic accumulator which provides sufficient fluid for
control operation whilst the aircraft is slowed to a speed where manual control is possible.

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Revision Questions
1.To produce the desired effect, trim tabs must be adjusted:
(a)in the same direction as the primary control surfaces they affect,
(b)in the opposite direction to the primary control surfaces they affect,
(c)depending upon the design of the trim tab controls.
2.Flight manoeuvres are generally divided into four flight fundamentals:
(a)aircraft power, pitch, bank and trim,

(b)straight and level flight, turns, climbs and descents,
(c)take-offs, slow flight, fast flight and stalls.
3. If the aircraft is in an unusual flight attitude and the attitude indicator has exceeded limits,
the instruments to rely on first to determine pitch attitude before starting recovery are
(a) turn indicator and VSI

(b) ASI and altimeter
(c) Turn indicator and ASI
4.The most important function of a rudder during coordinated flight is that:
(a)it prevents skid,

(b)properly applied, it helps to overcome adverse yaw,
(c)applying rudder overcomes the asymmetrical thrust of the propeller as the turn is
initiated.
5.Application of aileron alone when rolling into a turn will result in unbalanced flight for the
duration of the aileron input and will result in
(a) sideslip
(b) skid
(c) either of the above may be correct depending on the direction of the turn

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CHAPTER 8
MULTI ENGINE FLIGHT
TWIN ENGINE PERFORMANCE
As the title implies, this section deals with aircraft performance that results from the failure
of one of its engines. One of the most critical situations in the event of engine failure is
during the take-off roll where safety margins are very slim. The problem of engine-out take-
off performance is not covered here since it merges with the study of flight planning
performance, particularly the problem of obstacle clearance planning.
ASYMMETRIC BALANCE OF FORCES
Any multi-engine aircraft that suffers the failure of one of its power plants will need to
stabilize in an asymmetric situation, unless all engines share the same thrust line. Clearly,
all modern transport aircraft have a potential asymmetric problem because of the differing
engine thrust lines. Once one engine has failed, apart from the obvious reduction in total
thrust, the aircraft is subjected to a rearrangement of forces along the flight path as shown
below.
Notice that the thrust line is now to one side of the main aircraft axis, acting through the
thrust line of the one remaining engine in this case. Also, the drag line has moved to the
other side because of the increase in drag on the failed engine side. In this example the
drag is the result of a wind milling propeller, which even when feathered offers some drag.
In the case of a jet engine drag is also experienced as a result of flow through the wind
milling fan. Whatever the type of power plant, the thrust line will move toward the remaining
engine(s) and the drag on the side of the failed engine will increase.
These forces, together with the moment arm that is evident from the diagram will create a
yawing moment toward the failed engine. The yawing moment would of course be less on
an aircraft with fuselage-mounted engines such as an MD-80, than that experienced on a
wing-mounted configuration such as a B737, for a given engine thrust. This is because the
moment arm is very different in the two cases. Left uncorrected, this moment will yaw the
aircraft at a rate that will be resisted by the aircrafts directional stability. This yaw will also
create a roll toward the failed engine because of the increased lift on the faster wing. It is
important to under-stand that although the yawing moment is the root cause of the control
problem, on modern aircraft it is imperative to control the roll with aileron as well as
controlling the yaw with rudder.

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Once corrective inputs are made and provided adequate speed is maintained, the aircraft
will maintain a constant heading under asymmetric thrust with an infinite number of bank
and sideslip combinations, depending on the size of the following resultant forces:
The sideslip force of the fuselage/fin as a result of its natural directional
stability (Ssf).
The rudder sideforce generated by the use of rudder (Rsf).
Lateral component of weight due to angle of bank.
Thrust from the live engine(s).
Total drag.
And for propeller driven aircraft the following additional forces:

Propeller torque, which tends to roll the aircraft in the opposite direction to propeller
rotation.
Asymmetric blade effect, which displaces the thrust line of the engine to the left if the
propeller rotates anti-clockwise when viewed from behind, particularly if the aircraft is
operating at a high angle of attack. This is due to the effective increase in angle of
attack of the down-going blades when the propeller axis is inclined to the aircraft
flight path.
Above the diagram shows the arrangement of the main forces (ignoring the forces peculiar
to propeller aircraft), for an aircraft maintaining heading with wings level. In this situation the
yawing moment of the combined thrust force and sideslip force must be balanced by a large
rudder side force. Note that the aircraft is sideslipping at a small angle so that heading and
direction of flight are not coincident. Also the skid ball is centered since both lift and weight
are aligned on the same plane.
The diagram below shows the arrangement where a small angle of bank is used toward the
live engine. This reduces the sideslip angle which has the benefit of reducing the sideslip
force (ideally to zero) and consequently the amount of rudder side force that must be
generated. The rudder side force that must be created by rudder deflection to oppose the
yawing moment of thrust is balanced along the lateral plane by a side component of weight
(Wsf), which will vary with bank. For this reason, bank must be contained to about 5-10 if
optimum performance is to be achieved. In this situation the yawing moment generated by
the rudder balances the thrust yawing moment. The skid ball is not centered since lift and
weight are not exactly aligned.

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MINIMUM ASYMMETRIC CONTROL SPEEDS
VMCG minimum control speed ground
VMCG is the minimum speed under take-off power and configuration conditions at which it
is possible to recover and maintain directional control on the ground following the loss of the
critical engine using rudder alone. Critical engine considerations are not applicable for jet
aircraft since a failure on either side produces the same magnitude of yawing moment.
Propeller driven aircraft however, will suffer slightly more yaw from a failure on one side due
to the combined effects of torque and asymmetric
blade effect (if applicable).
Although the aircraft nose wheel is assumed to be in contact with the ground, the operation
of nose wheel steering is not permitted when VMCG is calculated for a given aircraft. In the
real case however, nose wheel steering would be used. Because the setting of VMCG
depends on the yawing moment of the live engine(s), the speed will vary with airfield
altitude and temperature. Flight manual figures of VMCG refer to sea level standard rated
take-off thrust situations. VMCG is below the take-off decision speeds (V1).

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VMCA minimum control speed air.
As the name implies, this is the minimum speed that directional control can be maintained
following the loss of the critical engine in flight. The specification of VMCA assumes the
take-off configuration and allows up to 5 of bank toward the live engine for the reasons
explained earlier. For propeller driven aircraft the matter of the critical engine is important
since both torque effects and asymmetric blade effects at the high angle of attack on take-
off need to be controlled.
Like VMCG, VMCA is affected by thrust on the live engine and will vary with altitude and
temperature. Flight manual figures are specified for a standard day at sea level.
EFFECT OF ENGINE FAILURE IN CRUISE AT HIGH ALTITUDE
In straight-and-level unaccelerated flight, thrust is equal to drag. At high level, quite often
the engines are operating close to maximum thrust for cruising flight. Consequently, in the
event of an engine failure, a speed loss is inevitable unless a descent is made to an altitude
where the thrust available from the remaining engine(s) is sufficient to sustain engine-out
cruising flight. Inevitably the maximum possible cruising level for engine out flight will
depend on ambient temperature and aircraft weight. Under certain conditions at high level,
e.g. turbulence or lack of attention on the part of the crew, the speed reduction following an
engine failure could be rapid, resulting in the aircraft stalling. This is particularly the case
when operating at and above FL400, i.e. at levels where the speed range between buffet
boundaries is much smaller.

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Revision Questions
1. What procedure is recommended for an engine out approach and landing?

a. The flightpath and procedures should be almost identical to a normal
approach and landing.
b. The altitude and airspeed should be considerably higher than normal
throughout the approach.
c. A normal approach, except do not extend the landing gear or flaps until over
the runway threshold.
2. What criteria determines which engine is the critical engine of a twin-engine

airplane?
a. The one with the centre of thrust closest to the centreline of the fuselage.
b. The one designated by the manufacturer which develops most usable thrust.
c. The one with centre of thrust farthest from the centreline of the fuselage.
3. What effect, if any, does altitude have on Vmc for an airplane with un-supercharged
engines?
a. None
b. Increases with altitude
c. Decreases with altitude.
4. Under what condition should stalls never be practiced in a twin-engine airplane?

a. With one engine inoperative.
b. With climb power on.
c. With full flaps and gear extended.
5. In a light, twin-engine airplane with one engine inoperative, when is it acceptable to

allow the ball of a slip-skid indicator to be deflected outside the reference lines?
a. While manoeuvering at minimum controllable airspeed to avoid overbanking
b. When operating at any airspeed greater than Vmc.
c. When practicing imminent stalls in a banked attitude
6. What is the safest and most efficient takeoff and initial climb procedure in a light,
twin-engine airplane? ACCELERATE TO-
a. Best engine-out rate-of-climb airspeed while on the ground, then lift off and
climb at that speed.
b. Vmc, then lift off at that speed and climb at maximum angle-of-climb
airspeed.
c. An airspeed slightly above Vmc, then lift off and climb at the best rate-of-
climb airspeed.
7. What performance should a pilot of a light , twin-engine airplane be able to maintain

at Vmc?
a. Heading.
b. Heading and altitude.
c. Heading, altitude and ability to climb 50 ft/min.
8. What does the blue radial line on the airspeed indicator of a light, twin-engine
airplane represent?
a. Maximum single-engine rate of climb
b. Maximum single-engine angle of climb.
c. Minimum controllable airspeed for single-engine operation.

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CHAPTER 9
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
Slow flying aircraft can use highly cambered wing designs without any concern for the
effects of air compressibility. Aircraft designed to fly faster then about 300kts need wings
designed to cope with the changes in air density and the flow disturbances caused by
compressibility effects.
As an aircraft moves through the air, velocity and pressure changes occur which create
pressure disturbances in the airflow surrounding the aircraft. At speeds below the speed of
sound, air ahead of the aircraft is moved aside by pressure change, which is transmitted
ahead of the aircraft at the speed of sound. When an aircraft flies faster than the speed of
sound, the air ahead of the aircraft has no advance warning of the aircrafts approach
because the aircraft is flying faster then the pressure waves it is generating. These pressure
disturbances are actually transmitted in all directions, but at speeds in excess of the speed
of sound, the pressure waves stack up in front of the aircraft to form shock wave. The same
thing happens at the leading edge of an aerofoil in supersonic flight.
It is important to note that compressibility effects are not confined to aircraft speeds at and
above the speed of sound. Most aircraft have aerodynamic surfaces, which produce lift by
acceleration of airflow, so these surfaces will have local flow velocities faster then the
aircraft flight speed. In this way an aircraft can experience compressibility effects and
shockwave problems at flight speeds well below the speed of sound. Since the speed of
sound is not constant and varies with temperature, it is very useful to define high aircraft
speed as a percentage of the current speed of sound. This ratio is known as the aircraft
Mach number. All high speed, highflying aircraft are equipped with Mach meters to indicate
to the pilot the current Mach number of the aircraft. The mach number of an aircraft can be
calculated from the inputs of pressure altitude and indicated airspeed. To obtain the aircraft
True Airspeeds (TAS) for a given Mach number, the temperature must be measured since
the speed of sound is dependant on air temperature in accordance with the following
formula:
MACH No. = 38.945 x K (where K = degrees Kelvin (O c = +273 K))

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FLIGHT AT INCREASING MACH NUMBERS
Flow velocity less than the speed of sound is termed subsonic flow. Flow velocity at the
speed of sound is termed sonic flow. Flow velocity greater than the speed of sound is
termed supersonic flow. Since it is possible to have both subsonic and supersonic flow
existing around an aircraft in flight, it is helpful to define some significant speeds and some
distinct flight speeds and some distinct flight speed ranges on the basis of Mach numbers.

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Mfs Free stream Mach No. The Mach no. of the aircraft through the air (not influenced by
local flow effects)
Local Mach No. The Mach No. of the airflow at a particular location on and aircraft or
aerofoil.
MCRIT The critical mach number ..The mach number, which produces the first evidence of
local sonic flow. MCRIT marks the start of the transonic speed range. Above M CRIT shockwaves
form on the wing.
MCDR The critical drag rise mach number. The Mach number slightly above M CRIT, which
results in significant shockwave, related drag problems as the shockwaves grow in size and
move rearwards.
Forced Divergence Mach No. The Mach number above MCRIT, which results in large CP
changes and pitching tendencies.
MDET Detachment Mach NumberThe aircraft mach number at which the bow wave
attaches to the leading edge of the aerofoil or aircraft nose. All flow is supersonic above
MDET. It marks the end of the transonic range.
MMO Maximum Operating Mach No..The highest mach number at which an aircraft may
intentionally be flown. Sometimes MMO will lead to shockwave formation, control problems
and high airframe stresses. Jet transport category aircraft have over speed warnings, which
sound, at speeds in excess of MMO.
Normal shockwave a vertical shockwave. Airflow undergoes a reduction in velocity and

Mach number to subsonic and a rise in pressure density and temperatures as it passes
through the shockwave.
Oblique shockwave An inclined supersonic flow shockwave, Airflow undergoes a reduction

in velocity and mach number but the flow is still supersonic. There is also a rise in density
and pressure of the flow as it passes through the shockwave.
Subsonic Speeds (0-M0.75) In this speed range all mach numbers are less than one. All
flow is subsonic. The subsonic flight range extends from zero up to aircraft mach numbers
of approx. M0.75, depending on aircraft design.
Transonic Speeds (M0.75-M1.2) in the transonic range the flow is mixed, part subsonic and
part supersonic. The transonic speed range begins at an aircraft Mach number less than 1,
since some local flow velocities reach or exceed the speed of sound due to aerodynamic
acceleration even though the aircraft as a whole may still be flying slower than the speed of
sound. Similarly after the aircraft reaches Mach 1 the transonic speed range extends
through to low supersonic aircraft speeds since compressibility effects raise the temperature
of the air at stagnation points along the wing leading edges and nose. This results in
lowering the local mach numbers at these points compared to the aircraft as a whole. The
transonic range includes aircraft mach numbers from approx 0.75 through to 1.20,
depending on aircraft design. A bow wave forms ahead of the aircraft but it not yet attached
to the leading edge.
Supersonic Speeds (M1.2-M5.0) in the supersonic speed range all flow is supersonic, even
at the stagnation points. The shockwave is able to attach itself to the leading edge of the
aerofoil or aircraft nose. Above M5.0 speeds are termed hypersonic.

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VARIATIONS IN LIFT AND DRAG AT HIGH MACH NUMBERS
When designing aircraft and aerofoils for high-speed flight, a major aim is to minimize or
delay the adverse effects of shockwaves. These effects are a large drag increase with a
large loss of lift, airframe buffeting and control problems with large variations in the Centre
of pressure, and in the lifting characteristics of the wing. As the shockwaves form and grows
the CP moves rearwards generating a nose down pitch tendency (MACH TUCK) which may
require the installation of a Mach trimmer which automatically applies back elevator trim to
compensate as an aircraft accelerates to simulate a natural sense. The pilot applies forward
stick against the mach trimmer as speed increases.
Wing taper, aspect ratio, sweepback and fuselage area ruling and can produce major
effects on the aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft in high-speed flight. Of these
options, sweepback is the most significant feature for managing compressibility effects.
With a swept wing the component of speed perpendicular to the leading edge, which
determines the amount of acceleration, imparted to the flow and therefore the pressure
distribution and lift characteristics of the wing. In this way sweepback delays the onset of
compressibility effects, since a swept wing aircraft is able to fly faster before the top surface
acceleration produces shockwave problems.
The main advantages of sweepback are:
1. Delayed compressibility effects

2. increase MCRIT and increase MCDR
3. increased force divergence Mach number
4. reduced magnitude of CL and CD changed with both speed and AoA changes
5. improved lateral stability and a minor improvement in directional stability
The disadvantages of sweepback are:
1. tendency to stall tip first due to strong spanwise flow at high angles of attack. This
can cause a pitch up at the stall as the CP moves forwards and in. Artificial stall
warning devices may be required.
2. reduced CL max and higher stalling AoA
3. reduced trailing edge device effectiveness
4. excessive lateral stability which gives rise to undesirable Dutch roll tendencies
5. structural complexity.

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WING SECTIONS
The supercritical wing section features a flattened top surface to reduce top surface
acceleration and therefore delay the onset of compressibility effects. The reflex camber or
cusp on the under-surface compensates for the loss of upper camber and helps provide lift
at low speeds and high angles of attack.
DIFFICULITES ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH SPEED FLIGHT AND HIGH SPEED DESIGNS.
As an aircraft passes its critical mach number, the formation of shockwaves results in a very
large and sudden increase in drag, accompanied by a loss of lift and often nose down trim
changes due to the rearwards movement of the CP and possibly reduced tail plane
download as flow separation causes turbulent air to blanket the tail plane and elevator if
they are in the line of the flow. This turbulent airflow behind the shockwave also may cause
severe vibration and buffeting as it strikes other aircraft surfaces.
In early high-speed designs, the very high air loads at high speed led to a problem called
control reversal. The disturbance of airflow at high mach numbers could cause a wing drop,
which the pilot attempted to correct with aileron. The down going aileron on the low wing
caused an increase in lift over the rear part of the wing near the trailing edge and the force
was so great that the wing would twist around the spar causing the overall reduction in wing
angle of attack instead of the anticipated increase. The wing would then drop further leading
the pilot to believe that the control sense was reversed. Shockwaves can also lead to loss
of control effectiveness by causing the flow separation ahead of the control surface hinge.
Large high speed aircraft now have hydraulically powered controls to cope with the high air
loads at high speed but even powered controls can be overcome at high speeds if the rate
of deflection is too great or the speed too high. When this occurs the control is said to be
jack stalling-meaning that air loads are preventing full extension of the hydraulic jack. Some
aircraft use spoilers to assist roll control for these reasons.

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DUTCH ROLL
Dutch roll is a result of the increasing dominance of the lateral stability over the directional
stability of an aircraft at altitude. Highflying fast aircraft are likely to exhibit Dutch roll
tendencies at high altitude since directional stability is reduced at altitude due to low IAS
Dutch Roll values with high TAS. The lateral stability remains relatively unchanged with
altitude so the aircraft has excess lateral stability leading to Dutch Roll, or spiral stability
the tendency to recover from a spiral dive

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. At what Mach range does the subsonic flight range normally occur?
a. Below .75 Mach.
b. From .75 to 1.20 Mach.
c. From 1.20 to 250 Mach.
2. What is the highest speed possible without supersonic flow over the wing?
a. Initial buffet speed.
b. Critical Mach number.
c. Transonic index.
3. What is the free stream Mach number which produces first evidence of local sonic
flow?
a. Supersonic Mach number.
b. Transonic Mach number.
c. Critical Mach number
4. What is the result of a shock-induced separation of airflow occurring symmetrically near

the wing root of a swept wing aircraft?
a. A high-speed stall and sudden pitch up.
b. A severe moment or tuck under.
c. Severe porpoising.
5. What is the movement of the centre of pressure when the wingtips of a swept wing
airplane are shock-stalled first?.
a. Inward and aft.
b. Inward and forward.
c. Outward and forward.
6. What is the principal advantage of a sweepback design wing over a straight wing
design?
a. The critical Mach number will increase significantly.
b. Sweepback will increase changes in the magnitude of force coefficients due to
compressibility.
c. Sweepback will accelerate the onset of compressibility effect.
7. What is one disadvantage of a swept wing design?

a. The wing root stalls prior to the wingtip section.
b. The wingtip section stalls prior to the wing root.
c. Severe pitch down movement when the centre of pressure shift forward.
8. What is the condition known as when gusts cause a swept wing-type airplane to roll in
one direction while yawing in the other?
a. Porpoise.
b. Wingover.
c. Dutch roll.
9. A wing with marked sweep-back
a. has a low induced drag coefficient throughout the speed range

b. has a high induce drag coefficient throughout the speed range
c. has a reduced induced drag coefficient at the high speed range

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CHAPTER 10
WING AND FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
STRESS & LOADS ON AN AIRFRAME
Loads considered to act on an aircraft come from a number of sources. Most aircraft
operating at higher altitudes are pressurised internally giving a rather high load on the
aircraft structure , likened to a pressure tank. Structure around doors, windows and other
cut-outs become particularly critical in these designs. High Frequency vibration loads have
become common place in modern aircraft equipped with turbine engines. Loads peculiar to
transonic and supersonic aircraft are the result of shockwave formation. Loads due to
buffeting at low speeds are fairly well known and are in the inertia or dynamic load class.
Vibratory loads in the frequency range of those produces by piston engines are still present
on many aircraft and must be accounted for in a successful design.
Stress is defined as any load applied to a unit area of material, and producing a deflection
or deformation in the material. This movement of the material is termed a strain. There are
tension, compression shear and bending stresses.

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WING CONSTRUCTION
SPARS
In order to resist the bending forces imposed on it, an ideal spar is given a certain depth. An
example of this is an ordinary ruler, which will flex easily when loaded on the upper or lower
surfaces, but is very stiff when a load is applied to the edge. Unfortunately, the modern wing
is thin in cross-section, precluding the use of a deep spar. Two, three or more spars are
used in the wing to give the necessary strength. The spar usually consists of solid booms at
the top and bottom, connected by a thin plate web. Normally these are manufactured as
separate items and riveted together, but some spars are made in one piece from heavy
forgings, machined to perfect shape. Figure 1 illustrates three typical spar sections.
a) Simple plate web and extruded booms.

b) "Fail-safe" spar in which no crack can propagate across the structure
c) Spar machined from heavy forging.

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STRESSED-SKIN
Although some light aircraft still have parts of the airframe covered in fabric, most
aircraft are metal clad. In subsonic aircraft, the wing skeleton of spars and ribs are
covered with a light alloy skin. This is riveted to the framework and is designed to
stiffen the wing by taking some of the load. This type of construction is known as
"stressed-skin" and produces a relatively strong wing without too large a weight
penalty. The wing can withstand twisting or torsion loads and is usually
strengthened by the addition of span-wise stringers to withstand the bending of
flexure loadings.
MACHINED SKIN
The faster the aircraft flies, the greater the rigidity of the structure is required. To
achieve this, the stressed-skin of the slower aircraft is replaced by a machined skin.
This consists of a skin that is manufactured from a solid billet of metal. The metal is
milled away by machines so that in its final form, the contour of the wing is very
accurately reproduced, together with the necessary strengthening buttresses and
ribs. Altogether up to 90% of the original metal will be cut away, leaving a structure
that is extremely strong but light in weight. The panels so produced are joined
together to form a rigid, strong wing.
TORSION BOXES
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In this form of construction, the skin of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing joins the
front and rear spars rigidly together in the form of a box. To the front is attached the leading
edge, and to the rear, the aileron and flaps. To increase the load carrying capacity of the
skin between the spars, it is common to corrugate it, and then cover the corrugations with a
thin sheet. This form of construction is much used and a variation of it, which has a number
of spars one behind the other forming a series of boxes, appears particularly suited to
aircraft with low aspect ratios.
D-SPAR CONSTRUCTION
The front spar, which takes most of the bending load, is placed as near as possible to the
point of maximum thickness of the wing, and the skin of the leading edge is rigidly attached
to it, to form a D-shaped tube, which takes nearly all the torsional stresses of the wing.
CONTROL SURFACES
For speeds up to 300-350 kts, fabric-covered ailerons, built up on a spa and ribs are usually
satisfactory. Higher speeds demand a rigidity that can only be obtained by a stressed-skin
covering built up in much the same way as a D-spar wing. Additional stiffness can be
obtained by employing longitudinal fluting of the skin (i.e. spaced corrugations) in this
design most of the ribs can be eliminated.
BRACED WINGS
This design, feature is used almost exclusively in small high wing aircraft. The bracing
struts, running from the fuselage to a point about half-way along the wing, relieve the spars
of much of their vertical load, and anchor them in tension. The designer, can therefore, save
weight in the wing, but because of the additional drag, this form of construction is limited to
aircraft with a low top speed.
FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
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Fuselages present basically a simpler structural problem than wings. A fuselage is usually
built up from a framework of frames, or transverse members, joined by longitudinal girder
members or "stringers". The whole framework being covered by stressed skin. The shape
of the cross-section of the fuselage will vary with the job that the aircraft has to perform.
Pressurized transport aircraft have circular cross-sections; this has been found to be the
most suitable shape to resist the differential pressures. Fighter aircraft have a cross-section
of minimum area, the shape is determined by the engine it encloses and/or the radar,
armament, or other equipment carried. Light aircraft usually have a square fuselage; this
being an easy and strong shape to construct.
"SAFE-LIFE" AND "FAIL-SAFE"
In concluding, mention must be made of the structural concept of "safe- life" and "fail-safe".
Structure designed for a given safe life, is one in which actual testing of similar structures
has enabled the designer to calculate the minimum flying hours before structure failure will
occur. This figure is then the "safe-life" for that particular structure. A "fail-safe" structure is
one in which, by duplicating primary structures, an alternative path is available for a load.
Therefore, if one member fails, the remaining structure can carry the load for a limited time.
In some cases this will involve an extra weight penalty, but often the standby part can justify
its existence by performing some separate task. An example of this is the window of a
pressure cabin, which consists of two layers of glass with a sandwich of dry air between.
Normally, the pressure differential is supported by the inner layer, but should this fail then
the outer layer can be made to take the load.

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CHAPTER 11
HYDRAULICS
Hydraulic systems are a means of transmitting power through liquid filled pipes, due to the
fact that liquids, being incompressible, are able to transmit a force applied at one end of a
pipe to the other end. Hydraulics can move large load s by applying pressure over a large
area.
ADVANTAGES
Hydraulic systems have numerous advantages over their mechanical counterparts in that
hydraulic systems can be designed to:
i) Provide smooth and steady movement.
ii) Provide hydraulic power which is confined to pipelines and components, and
therefore much of the strengthening of the aircraft structure is not required as
is the case with mechanical systems.
iii) Provide greater transmission of power for weight of equipment.
iv) Simplify installation in that pipelines can be easily bent to go around

obstructions.
v) Provide variation in speed of operation without the use of gearing as would

be required in a mechanical system.
vi) Easily obtain its power to drive pumps etc., from the aircraft engines.
vii) Relieve the pilot of effort to operate the cockpit controls by requiring minimal
force to move the switches and levers to operate hydraulic controlled
systems.
HYDRAULIC FLUID
Hydraulic fluids generally are developed to provide the following requirements:
i) Be free flowing at all operating temperatures.
ii) Have low freezing and high boiling points.
iii) Not affect or be affected by the materials in the components.
iv) Have good lubrication qualities.
v) Not deteriorate or form sludge.
vi) Have a high flash point.

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Hydraulic Fluids
DTD 585
This is a widely used fluid that is coloured red, its mineral based and therefore requires the
system to be fitted with synthetic rubber seals.
CASTOR or VEGETABLE
These as the name suggest are made from natural compounds, thus require only rubber
seals in the system and are generally coloured yellow.
SKYDROL
Another popular fluid that is coloured blue or purple, and due to its ingredients requires the
system to have butyl rubber seals.
The idea of a hydraulic system
The word hydro is based on the Greek word for water. A study of hydromechanics is the
study of how the characteristics of water and other liquids can be used to do useful work,
particularly mechanical work such as the movement of a mechanical component.
The principles of hydromechanics are employed in every modern aircraft in the form of
hydraulic systems which are used to power mechanical systems such as wing flaps, spoilers
and flight control systems. A sound knowledge of the basic operating principles of hydraulic
systems is essential for pilots.
In such a system, power is transmitted as fluid pressure within a given volume of liquid
trapped in the pipes and components of the system. The pressure is then converted to a
mechanical force to move a component. If liquid is trapped under pressure within any
container, the pressure exerted by the liquid on the surfaces of the container is the same in
all directions. In a closed container there is no resultant mechanical movement, but if one
side of the container is movable, such as a piston within a cylinder as shown, then
movement will occur.

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The movement of the piston will depend on the force that is applied on the piston as a result
of fluid pressure. The force will be equal to the fluid pressure (P) multiplied by the area over
which the pressure is applied its the area of the piston (A). Thus the resultant mechanical
force F = P x A. This concept is easy to understand but needs to be reversed to fully
appreciate the benefits of hydraulic power. Since liquids are incompressible, it follows that
applying a force (F) from the piston of area (A) on the liquid will result in a pressure (P)
being applied through the liquid. The greater the force, the greater the pressure
experienced through the liquid.
Below shows the basis of a closed hydraulic system where a small piston applies a force
over area. This results in a pressure P being transmitted through the liquid. At the other end
of the system is a larger piston of area. Since the pressure experienced on the face of this
piston is the same as that generated by the smaller one, it follows that the resultant
mechanical force on the larger piston is equal to the pressure P multiplied by area. Thus the
force F2 is larger than the original force F1. In effect, the force has been magnified by the
ability of the system to transmit the pressure P.
Clearly, the success of the system depends on the ability of the liquid to transmit the
pressure, and this in turn depends on the liquid being incompressible. It is this feature of
liquids that allows the system to work in the first place. Compressible fluids such as gases
(air) are not suitable for this type of system since they cannot transmit the pressure to the
same degree.
FLUID FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE
This information is of importance when understanding how a restrictor, or similar valve,

performs. As can be seen below, if you consider a horizontal pipe through which fluid is
flowing, where at some section there is an orifice, then experiments have shown that a
steady motion is set up in the fluid. These streamlines converge toward the orifice, where
the velocity of the fluid increases. After passing through the orifice, the streamlines
continue to converge until the point B is reached. This point is known as the 'Vena
contracta', and at this point the fluid will expand outwards into the full diameter pipe. The
orifice constitutes a sudden contraction of a pipe and will cause a loss of pressure due to
the sudden contraction itself. The total reduction in pressure is not only due to the
contraction, but is also due to the sudden expansion after the vena contracta is reached.

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THE HEATING EFFECT OF LEAKAGE
With a hydraulic shock absorber, the energy to be absorbed is first given to the fluid in the
shock absorber, and this fluid is forced through small orifices where the energy is converted
into heat energy. In this case the heat effect is deliberate. Again, in an aircraft hydraulic
system, when the pump has cut out it takes fluid from the reservoir and circulates it round a
closed circuit. The fluid, after leaving the pump, is under pressure, and hence has some
energy. This energy is dissipated when the fluid reaches the reservoir, and causes the
reservoir temperature to rise. If there were no heat losses the temperature would rise
indefinitely, but in practice the reservoir temperature settles down to a steady value. A
leakage in the system will cause the fluid temperature to rise if it is an internal leak.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM TYPES
In general terms, there are two main types of hydraulic system which are sometimes known
by some authorities as:
i) Self Idling.
ii) Non-self Idling.
Modern hydraulic systems used on aircraft operate at a constant pressure, and the above
type names reflect on the ability of the pump to off load or idle when the system has
reached maximum normal working pressure.
The Self Idling Type of system has a pump fitted which is capable of controlling the system
pressure within the pump itself, hence the name Self Idling.
The Non-Self Idling system uses a pump which delivers a constant flow and requires other
components to be fitted to the system to control the system pressure.
In the following paragraphs a supply system with each of the types of pump fitted will be
examined.

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SELF IDLING TYPE SUPPLY SYSTEM (VARIABLE VOLUME)
This type of hydraulic supply system generally comprises the following components, some
aircraft however, may require variations in the layout or components used. The following
displays all the basic requirements that may be found in a supply system of this type.
RESERVOIR
The reservoir is normally situated in the aircraft where ease of access may be gained for
servicing purposes, such as checking the fluid level, or topping it up. Wherever possible it
is also positioned so it is above the level of the pump to ensure it has a head of pressure, in
order that it may provide a positive fluid supply to the pump. In situations where the
reservoir cannot be located above the pump, then the reservoir is pressurised, in order to
provide a head of pressure.
The reservoir must also be large enough to provide a reserve of fluid, to compensate for
minor system leakages, allow for jack, or actuator, ram displacement, and the return fluid
from the jacks or relief valves and other such components. In some systems the reservoir
must also be large enough to ensure an adequate volume of fluid is maintained in the total
system, for temperature control purposes.
Under normal operating conditions, fluid is drawn from the reservoir by the engine driven
pump via a filter.

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LOW PRESSURE FILTER
This filter, situated between the reservoir and engine driven pump, is sometimes known as a
suction filter. It is situated at this point in the system to ensure that any foreign matter which
has collected in the reservoir will be removed from the fluid before it enters the pump.
ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP
All normal operational supply functions are provided by the engine driven pump which is
driven by the aircraft engine, normally via a gearbox, and in a self idling system, or variable
volume system, when a selection of a service is made the pump moves to the 'on load', or
'on stroke', position and starts to pump a flow of fluid to the selected service. In the
example that flaps are selected 'down', when the flap actuators reach the end of their travel,
pressure will build up in the system, when the pressure reaches the system maximum
normal working pressure a relief valve assembly within the pump, or similar device, will
cause the pump to move to the idle mode and stop delivering further fluid that passes
through it, for this reason, when the pump is in the idle position, a small amount of fluid is
still passed through the engine driven pump for such lubrication purposes. As can be seen
this type of pump has three connections, that is, the inlet from the reservoir, to the reservoir.
On some older type pumps when the pump is not supplying a selected service and
maximum normal working pressure has been reached, the pump continues to supply a full
flow of fluid, but that flow is directed back to the reservoir. On modern pumps however, the
return line to the reservoir allows small quantities of fluid to be returned to the reservoir, to
maintain a constant temperature and viscosity within the pump.

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GROUND SERVICING CONNECTIONS
As can be seen ground servicing connections are provided in each of the pipelines, to and
from, the engine driven pump. These are normally of a 'quick release' type and allow
servicing functions to be carried out by connecting a ground, or external, source of hydraulic
fluid flow from a type of servicing trolley.
NON-RETURN VALVES
As can be seen below, a non-return valve, or check valve, is fitted after the engine driven
pump. This is fitted to prevent fluid, being pumped by the hand pump circuit, flowing back
through the engine driven pump instead of to the circuit.
PRESSURE SWITCH
It is essential that a warning device is fitted to the supply system. To indicate to the pilot
that a fault exists in the system. This normally takes the form of a warning light, usually
coloured red, which illuminates when there is a reduction in hydraulic pressure below a
certain value. The warning light is activated by a pressure switch, which is usually located
in the position. On some aircraft an audible warning system is also provided, and is also
activated by the pressure switch.
HAND PUMP
On some aircraft a hand operated pump is provided for use in an emergency, in the event
the engine driven pump fails. In some cases the hand pump may also be provided with a
separate supply of reserve fluid, in order to operate some services in such circumstances.
On most modern larger aircraft, this type of emergency arrangement would be inadequate,
and so a second, or standby, engine driven pump is provided. Such emergency systems
will be explained later. On most larger modern aircraft a hand pump is provided to assist
with servicing operations, and is normally a double acting type, that is to say, it provides a
flow of fluid continuously as fluid is displaced by the action of the pump.
HAND PUMP PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
As with the engine driven pump, the hand pump must not be allowed to over pressurise the
system, and so, when maximum normal working pressure is reached, the pump must be 'off
loaded'. In the engine driven pump, the variable volume type, the pump is moved to an idle
mode. In the case of the hand pump, a pressure relief valve is provided to allow the pump
to idle when maximum pressure is reached. The pressure relief valve is usually fitted within
the hand pump assembly itself, it is shown as a separate component for simplicity.

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HAND PUMP NON-RETURN VALVE
A non-return valve, or check valve, is also fitted after the hand pump to prevent fluid from
the engine driven pump passing back through the hand pump.
HAND PUMP FILTER
A simple low pressure suction filter is fitted between the reservoir and the hand pump to
provide clean fluid to the system.
NON SELF IDLING TYPE SUPPLY SYSTEM (CONSTANT VOLUME)
The diagram above shows an example of a non self idling supply system which is
essentially the same as the self idling type, with the exception of the following features.

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ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP
This type of pump provides a continuous flow of hydraulic fluid to the system, and has no
direct control over the system pressure. Note in the system diagram there are only two
pipes connected to this type of pump, the inlet from the reservoir, and the outlet to the
system. The pumping capacity of this type of pump for a given rpm is fixed, hence the
terms constant volume, or fixed volume pump. To control the system pressure this type of
pump relies on an automatic cut out valve.
AUTOMATIC CUT OUT VALVE
In simple terms, the automatic cut out valve is a sensitive pressure relief valve which is fitted
after the pump, and when system pressure is reached, the automatic cut out will close the
pipeline to the system and return, or redirect, the fluid from the pump back to the reservoir.
ACCUMULATOR
Stores fluid under pressure:

- dampens pressure surges
- supplements pump output during high volume demand
- allows for expansion and contraction of fluid with temperature
- permits faster operation of services
- provides emergency source of pressure pump fails
- maintains system pressure with small leaks
- absorbs shock waves
The accumulator consists of a chamber with a flexible diaphragm, on one side of which is
fluid at system pressure, the other side has compressed air at a predetermined pressure. As
hydraulic pressure builds up the gas is compressed until fluid and gas pressures equalise at
normal system pressure. At this point the pressure regulator r valve unloads the pressure
pump and it commences to idle. System pressure is then maintained by the accumulator.

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EMERGENCY OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC SERVICES
Emergency operation of a hydraulic system, in the event of normal supply failure, may be
provided in a number of ways. The following are some of the more common methods of
emergency operation that are employed in aircraft hydraulic systems at the present time. It
should be noted that any one aircraft may adopt a number of emergency operating methods
within its hydraulic systems.
HAND PUMP
In the event that the engine driven hydraulic pump fails, on some aircraft with relatively
small hydraulic systems, a hand operated pump may be provided to operate certain
services. On aircraft with very large hydraulic systems, and large volume hydraulic jacks, or
actuators, a hand pump would be totally inadequate.
When hand pumps are used for emergency use, the hydraulic reservoir has a stack-, or
stand-pipe fitted in the bottom. The normal, or engine driven pump obtains its supply of
hydraulic fluid from the base of the stack pipe. This is illustrated. As can be seen, should a
leak occur in the system which causes the fluid level to fall in the reservoir, it will only fall as
far as the top of the stack-pipe. The fluid that now remains in the reservoir can only be
provided by the hydraulic hand pump, in other words, the hand pump may be provided with
its own reserve of emergency fluid.
On most large aircraft the hand pump is connected to the hydraulic system for servicing
purposes only, and is often located in such a way that it cannot be operated in flight.

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DUPLICATED SYSTEMS
Hydraulic supply systems on modern aircraft are normally duplicated, and on some aircraft
may be triplicated. In the case of a duplicated system, in the event of one pump failing, the
remaining pump will continue to supply the hydraulic circuits with fluid under pressure.
In such a system a shuttle valve may be provided, which in the event one pump failing will
close off the supply line from the unserviceable pump, thus preventing any loss of fluid, or
fluid pressure. In this arrangement Number Two Pump is being used as a standby pump.
In this case only the pumps are really being duplicated.
In other systems the entire supply system is duplicated.

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RAM AIR TURBINE
Ram Air Turbine Units are used on many modern aircraft as a means to drive certain
components in an emergency. In this case the Ram Air Turbine (RAT) is used to drive an
emergency hydraulic pump.
When the hydraulic supply system fails, the RAT automatically lowers into the airflow under
the wing, or fuselage, and a small propeller, or turbine driven by the airflow, drives an
emergency hydraulic pump.

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Revision Questions
1. DTD 585, hydraulic fluid is:

a) blue
b) light straw
c) red.
2. A mineral based hydraulic fluid will require all components to be fitted with:
a) natural rubber seals
b) butyl rubber seals
c) synthetic rubber seals.
3. In a hydraulic system, when the engine is at idle RPM, the system pressure fails to
rise above two thirds maximum normal working pressure, the probable fault is:
a) accumulator charge pressure is too low

b) the engine RPM is too low
c) a pressure relief valve is stuck slightly open.
4. The purpose of an accumulator is to:
a) prevent cavitation at the pump

b) provide, in an emergency, a supply of fluid for the pump
c) assist in damping out system pressure fluctuations.
5. A one-way restrictor valve may be fitted to:
a) a flap circuit to reduce the rate of movement in both directions

b) an undercarriage circuit to reduce the speed of operation on lowering
c) a speed brake to ensure it moves out quickly and moves in slowly.
6. A visco-static fluid is one which:
a) maintains a constant viscosity at all working temperatures

b) maintains a constant viscosity at a specific working temperature
c) will not form sludge or thicken when it is stationary in the system.
7. A variable volume pump:
a) maintains a constant volume of fluid to the circuits at all times

b) maintain a constant pressure in the system.
c) maintain a constant temperature throughout the system.
8. Excessive pressure due to thermal expansion in a closed circuit may be relieved by

a:
(a) Flow control valve

(b) Pressure reducing valve
(c) Pressure relief valve.

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9. Excessive system pressure fluctuations may be due to:
a) high accumulator charge pressure

b) low accumulator system pressure
c) low accumulator charge pressure.
10. Most modern hydraulic reservoirs are pressurised to:
a) eliminate cavitation in the pump supply

b) to provide pressure for emergency use
c) to eliminate hydraulic hammering.
11. The hand pump in a hydraulic system is used to
a) pump hydraulic fluid from the accumulator into the reservoir

b) maintain system pressure in flight
c) provide an alternative, in an emergency to the engine driven pump
12. The component in a hydraulic system that will be set to the highest pressure is the
a) pressure relief valve

b) accumulator
c) non-return valve
13. A lower than specified accumulator gas pressure may
a) allow fluid pressures to become excessive

b) reduce the emergency source of hydraulic power
c) reduce the amount of fluid stored in the accumulator
14. Whilst operating a hydraulic system, the hydraulic pressure dropped abnormally low,
but slowly returned to normal after activation of the system was completed. The most
likely cause of this would be
a) low accumulator gas pressure

b) a leak in the component actuator
c) low fluid level
15. If fully extended hydraulic flaps start to re tract when the aircraft is below Vfe, a likely
cause is
a) a leak in the flap actuating cylinder

b) low hydraulic fluid level
c) expansion of hydraulic fluid due to high temperature

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CHAPTER 12
LANDING GEAR
When landing, the undercarriage is required to absorb the impact of the landing at touch-
down by means of the following:
a) A shock absorber to absorb compression loads.
b) A drag strut to absorb drag loads.
c) A side load strut to absorb side loads.
You know youve forgotten to lower the undercarriage when it takes full power to taxi back
to the terminal
RETACTABLE UNDERCARRIAGE UNIT
In order to reduce drag when the aircraft is in normal flight, most undercarriages are
retractable, which is normally achieved by hydraulic actuation.
Most main undercarriages are retracted sideways into the wing, or the bottom of the
fuselage adjacent to the wing root. Some high winged aircraft retract their undercarriages
into special fairings at the base of the fuselage.
The nose undercarriage unit is normally retracted forwards or backwards into a

compartment near the nose of the aircraft. Where space in the nose, or front fuselage area
of the fuselage is a problem, the undercarriage may be retracted sideways. Below shows a
number of examples of retraction.

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FIXED UNDERCARRIAGE UNIT
Some undercarriage units, particular on light aircraft, may be non-retractable or fixed.
The undercarriage must be attached to strong points of the aircraft which are capable of
withstanding the considerable impact loads experienced when landing; to this end, the
main undercarriage units are usually attached directly or indirectly to the main spar.
The nose undercarriage is normally attached to strengthened frames adjacent to the nose
of the aircraft. A similar method is employed on tail wheeled aircraft in that a strengthened
area of the rear fuselage is used.

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SHOCK ABSORBER
The shock absorber has two primary functions, the first to absorb the compression loads
imposed by the impact of landing, and the second to dampen the tendency to recoil, that is
to say, the shock absorbers tendency to rapidly extend again immediately after absorbing
the landing impact.
The shock absorber must also be designed to withstand considerable bending loads, which
it will also experience when landing, taxying, and in particular when the aircraft is being
turned when on the ground.
The shock absorber consists primarily of two cylinders which slide one inside the other
much like a telescope. To prevent one cylinder rotating inside the other, torque links or
toggles are used.
Below shows an example of a set of Torque Links or Toggles as used on a shock absorber
unit.
One some lighter types of aircraft the inner cylinder of the shock absorber is prevented from
rotating within the outer cylinder by splines on the cylinders.
The shimmy dampener (a horizontal shock absorber)

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WHEEL ASSEMBLIES
The wheel assembly consists of a wheel and tyre, and usually housed within the main
undercarriage wheels in the brake unit. The number of wheels employed on a particular
aircraft is dictated by the physical wheel loading and the type of runway to be used. It is
the function of the wheel and tyre assemblies to spread the load of the aircraft over a given
area, to produce an individual wheel loading that is acceptable within the strength limits of
the runway. Hence large heavy aircraft tend to have a greater number of wheel assemblies.
The tyre size and shape is also important in this function, in that a large balloon type of tyre
will again spread the load over a greater area. At the same time, consideration must be
made to the space available for stowage of the undercarriage units, and as a result often a
compromise must be reached in design. This in some cases has led to complex
undercarriage trim systems in which, in simple terms, the assembly is physically folded prior
to retraction.

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UNDERCARRIAGE POSITION INDICATION
The most common form of undercarriage position indicator is a system of lights.

Undercarriage down and locked down is shown by a green light, or lights, normally one light
for each undercarriage unit being used. On a three undercarriage arrangement three green
lights will be illuminated, one for the nose or tail undercarriage, and one for each main
undercarriage.
When the undercarriage is in motion and/or unlocked, the green lights are replaced with the
illumination of red lights. When the undercarriage is fully up and locked up all lights are
extinguished.
BASIC UNDERCARRIAGE OPERATION DURING RETRACTION
Most modern undercarriages are retracted by hydraulic actuation, a small number of older
types use pneumatics (compressed air) to achieve this function. In most cases when the
undercarriage is selected up, the sequence followed is as follows:
a) On selection of undercarriage up, the undercarriage door opens.
b) Undercarriage down locks are withdrawn.
c) Undercarriage position lights change from green to red.
d) Undercarriage retracts.
e) Undercarriage uplocks engage, door closes, door locks engage and lights change
from red to extinguished.
The reverse takes place when the undercarriage is selected down. On most undercarriage
systems the undercarriage doors close again after the undercarriage has extended, to
reduce aerodynamic drag.

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UNDERCARRIAGE EMERGENCY OPERATION
In the event of hydraulic system failure, the undercarriage may be lowered in an emergency
by either a back up, or standby, hydraulic system or more commonly, by the use of
compressed air which is stored in cylinders in the aircraft for such a purpose.
Selection for emergency lowering of the undercarriage is normally by a separate emergency

selector.

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WHEEL BRAKE OPERATING SYSTEM
BASIC WHEEL BRAKE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Shown is a simple wheel brake system as used on many light aircraft. The system
comprises a hydraulic supply, normally provided by an engine-driven pump, which, on
entering the brake system, passes through a non-return valve to the brake control valve.
The non-return valve creates a safety situation, in that fluid under pressure, which has
entered the system cannot flow back into the hydraulic supply, or be influenced by the
operation of other hydraulic sub-systems.
After passing through the non-return valve, the fluid is directed through the pipelines to the
brake control valve. The brake control valve is operated by the pilot, by foot pedals situated
on the rudder bar, or by a brake lever which may be located on the control column. Most
modern wheel breaks are operated by foot pedals. In the system shown in Foot Pedal
Operation is employed. Operation of the foot pedals, or brake pedals, controls the brake
control valve.

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The brake control valve performs a number of functions:
i) To reduce the hydraulic supply system pressure to a lower value, by a pressure

reducing valve located within the brake control valve. Generally, supply system
pressure would be too high, which would cause the braking to be too harsh.
ii) The second function the brake control valve provides, is the ability to employ
progressive braking on the landing run. Progressive braking is the progressive
selection of increased brake pressure as speed reduces on the landing run. By
having the ability to vary the brake pressure as required, better control can be
achieved.
iii) The third primary function the brake control valve provides, is the ability to use
differential braking when required. Differential braking is the application of separate,
or individual brakes in order to achieve steering through the wheel brakes. This
practice is widely employed on lighter types of aircraft. Larger aircraft tend to be
equipped with nose wheel steering.
When brakes are selected fluid is directed to the wheel brake units. The degree of braking
required is achieved by the amount of pressure applied to the brake pedals when they are
depressed. The further the pedals are depressed the greater the degree of braking
achieved. Progressive braking can be obtained by progressive depression of the pedals.
Differential braking can be obtained by application of one brake or the other as required.
THE BRAKE ACCUMULATOR
During normal brake operation when brakes are selected, an instant supply of fluid under
pressure is required; this is initially provided by the brake accumulator. If the supply system
provided the sole supply of hydraulic fluid under pressure, there may be a delay while the
main supply system pump builds up sufficient pressure to operate the brakes. Such an
important system as the wheel brakes cannot rely solely on pump supply. The main supply
pump will continuously recharge the accumulator with system fluid pressure, but in each
case of brake application, the accumulator will supply the initial application of the brakes, in
other words, provide the initial impetus.
In the event of main system supply failure, the accumulator will provide a source of
hydraulic fluid under pressure for emergency operation of the wheel brakes. The
accumulator is so designed to provide sufficient pressure in an emergency, to operate the
wheel brakes for a complete landing run plus a reserve.
OPERATION OF THE BRAKE CONTROL VALVE
The brake control valve is operated on most modern aircraft by servo pressure. The servo
pressure is generated by the force being applied to the brake pedals, which is turn,
operates a master cylinder, converts the pressure energy back into mechanical energy, and
operates the brake control valve.
It must be noted the fluid within the servo system is totally independent of the main supply
fluid, and to this end a filler point is usually provided at the master cylinder to top up the
servo system when required.

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BRAKE OPERATION
Brakes are applied by depression of the brake pedals, by which, via the servo system, the
brake control valve is operated, initially directing fluid from the brake accumulator to the
wheel brake units. As the fluid passes through the control valve, the system pressure is
reduced to a lower value. Fluid is directed to the brake unit inlet, and then to the brake unit
operating cylinders. It should be noted that unlike some other systems, the amount of fluid
flow to actually apply the brakes is quite small. When brakes are released, the fluid
normally flows from the brake unit back to the brake control valve, and then to return, i.e.
back to the reservoir. The accumulator in the meantime is re-pressurised with system fluid,
ready for further brake applications.
HYPDROPLANING
Hydroplaning is a phenomenon that occurs when a tyre loses contact with the runway
surface due to a build-up of water in the tyre-ground contact area. NASA has researched
this problem since the late 1950's and has identified three forms of hydroplaning:
a. Dynamic.
b. Viscous.
c. Reverted Rubber.

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DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING
Dynamic hydroplaning is caused by the build-up of hydrodynamic pressure at the tyre-

pavement contact area. The pressure creates an upward force that effectively lifts the tyre
off the surface. When complete separation of the tyre and pavement occurs, the condition is
called total dynamic hydroplaning, and complete wheel stoppage and loss of control can
occur. Below shows the forces on a tyre without the presence of water on the runway. The
ground friction causes a spin-up moment and wheel rotation results. When the tyre is rolling
freely at a fixed speed an a dry runway, the vertical ground reaction shifts forward of the
axle and a spin-down moment that offers resistance to the wheel rotation is developed.
When these two moments are equal the wheel is turning at a constant RPM.
The introduction of water on the runway leads to dynamic hydroplaning which is illustrated.
Deep fluid on the runway creates additional drag on the tyre when it is displaced from the
tyre path, and a high spray pattern is produced as shown . As the forward speed of the
aircraft is increased the spray pattern thrown up the tyre lowers and the wedge of water
penetrates the tyre-ground contact area and produces a hydrodynamic lift force on the tyre.
This is partial hydroplaning. As the speed increases the spray pattern becomes flatter, and
the wedges of fluid penetrates farther into the ground contact area until at some high
forward speed complete separation of the tyre and runway takes place and total
hydroplaning occurs. The ground friction force is progressively reduced as the wedge of
water penetrates beneath the tyre. It approaches zero at total hydroplaning, and the spin-
down moment causes the tyre to stop the wheel rotation Obviously no braking action is
available when the wheel is not making contact with the runway and has stopped rotating.
Total dynamic hydroplaning is more of a landing than a takeoff problem. However, crosswind
takeoffs are dangerous under the conditions.
Total dynamic hydroplaning usually does not occur unless there is a minimum water depth
present on the runway to support the tyre. The exact depth required cannot be predicted
since other factors influence dynamic hydroplaning. These factors include runway
smoothness and tyre tread. Smooth runway texture induces hydroplaning with lower water
depths than coarse textured surfaces. Smooth tread tyres will hydroplane more easily than
ribbed tyres. While the exact depth of water required for hydroplaning has not been
accurately determined, a conservative estimate for an "average" runway is that water depth
in excess of 0. 1 may induce full hydroplaning of an aircraft.
VISCOUS HYDROPLANING
Viscous hydroplaning is more common than dynamic hydroplaning. Viscous hydroplaning

may occur at lower speeds and at lower water depths than dynamic hydroplaning. Viscous
hydroplaning occurs when the pavement surface is lubricated by a thin film of water. The
tyre is unable to penetrate this film and contact with the pavement is partially lost. Viscous
hydroplaning often occurs on smooth runway pavements of where tyre rubber deposits are
present, usually in the touchdown area when a thin water film can significantly reduce the
coefficient of fiction. Air Force measurements have shown that the coefficient of friction is
nearly 25 % lower at the ends of a runway than in the middle.

CPL DOC 01
Page 156
REVERTED RUBBER
This third type of hydroplaning is known as reverted rubber hydroplaning. White streaks on
the runway are an indication that this type of hydroplaning has occurred. Examination of the
aircraft tyre will show an elliptically shaped tacky or melted rubber condition. This condition
occurs when the heat that is generated during a locked wheel skid reverts the rubber to a
molten or unvulcanized state. This is called reverted rubber.
METHOD OF PREVENTING HYDROPLANING
Method to prevent hydroplaning include transverse runway grooving, frequent removal of

rubber deposits from the touchdown areas, maximum use of aerodynamic braking and firm,
but not hard touchdowns.
BRAKE UNIT ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS
The Anti-skid Unit is fitted to achieve maximum retardation of the wheel brakes without the
wheels skidding, the general result being:
a) Reduced tyre wear.

b) Shorter landing run for a given set of conditions.
c) Better aircraft control during braking.
d) Reduced tendency for tyre blow-out.
ANTI SKID BRAKING
The purpose of the anti-skid system as fitted to aircraft wheel brakes, is to prevent the
wheels from skidding on wet, or icy surfaces, and to ensure that optimum braking effect can
be obtained under all conditions, by modulating the hydraulic pressure to the brakes. Anti-
skid units sense the rate of change of wheel deceleration, decreasing the hydraulic
pressure applied to the brakes when a high rate of increase in deceleration exists,
consistent with an impending skid, and restoring it as the wheel accelerates again. A
modulator valve, a form of hydraulic restrictor, is often fitted in conjunction with the anti-skid
unit, to restrict the flow of fluid to the brake unit after initial brake application, and to
conserve main system pressure. This action tends to smooth out the brake operation.
There are two basic types of anti-skid systems in use, they are:
Mechanical System.
Electronic System.

CPL DOC 01
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CPL DOC 01
Page 158
MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID SYSTEM
In the mechanical anti-skid system, the anti-skid unit is mounted either on the brake unit
torque plate, or within the axle bore. The anti-skid device is located within the hydraulic
wheel brake system, between the brake control valve and the brake unit, usually just prior to
the brake unit. The anti-skid unit consists of a valve assembly connected to a flywheel,
which is driven by the associated aircraft wheel.
MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID SYSTEM OPERATION
During normal braking action, when no skid is present, the flywheel rotates at the same
speed as the drive, and the valve is closed, allowing hydraulic fluid through the unit to the
brake unit. This fluid is supplied from the brake control valve, and is at maximum pressure
for the control valve selection made. On leaving the anti-skid unit, the fluid is directed to the
inlet of the brake unit, and then to the brake unit operating cylinders.
When the rotational speed of the aircraft wheel decreases rapidly, as when the aircraft
wheel is about to skid, the inertia of the flywheel causes the anti-skid unit valve mechanism
to operate, opening the valve, and reducing the hydraulic pressure in the brake unit. The
anti-skid unit directs the fluid back to return. The reduced pressure, which has also reduced
the braking effect, allows the aircraft wheel to accelerate, the flywheel returns to its normal
position, causing the valve to close and the brake to be applied again, until the wheel is
about to skid and the action is repeated. If the wheel bounces clear of the ground after
brakes have been applied, the adjustment of the anti-skid unit allows the brake to be
completely released for a period of time to prevent the wheel locking, prior to making
contact with the ground. Without this action a blow-out may occur.
ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID UNIT
The system comprises a wheel speed transducer, a control unit, and an anti-skid valve in
the brake pressure line, together with associated switches and check-out and warning
lamps. The wheel speed unit may supply either d.c. or a.c. depending on the type of
system used. Operation is basically similar to the mechanical system, but the use of
sophisticated logic circuits in the later types of electronic control units enables much finer
control to be exercised. Further refinements such as, strut oscillation, damping circuits,
touch-down protection, and locked wheel protection, may also be incorporated, and some
systems automatically de-activate at low speed to prevent interference with normal taxying
manoeuvres.
The method by which the wheel speed signal is processed in the control unit varies from
type to type, but all operate on the basis that, if any brake produces more torque than can
be supported by the friction between the tyre and the ground for the existing wheel load, the
resulting impending skid will produce a smaller rotational velocity signal from the affected
wheel. This reduced signal is detected by the anti-skid control circuits, which send a signal
to the anti-skid control valve, causing brake pressure to be reduced sufficiently to correct
the skid condition. Brake pressure will be re-applied, to a level just below that which caused
the skid, and will then increase at a controlled rate. Control units normally contain circuits
which provide warning of failure in the system, and a self-test facility which enables the
serviceability of the various components to be checked. Controls for the operation and
testing of the anti-skid system are contained in the control unit and in the flight
compartment.

CPL DOC 01
Page 159
FUSIBLE ALLOY PLUGS
The majority of tubeless tyre main wheels are fitted with small pressure relief valves which
are known as fusible alloy plugs. In the event a tubeless tyre is subjected to excessive heat
due to heavy wheel braking there is a danger the tyre may blow out. If in the event of a
blow, loss of control of the aircraft during the landing run may follow. To avoid this situation,
it is better to slowly deflate the tyre, relieving the excess pressure whilst maintaining control
of the aircraft. This is the main objective of the fusible alloy plug.
The fusible alloy plug is retained in the wheel by a screw thread and is located between the
flanges or wheel rims. In the event of the temperature of the air exceeding a certain value,
the fusible alloy in the centre of the plug melts and slowly allows the air to escape, giving a
controlled deflation of the tyre thereby preventing the tyre from bursting or blowing out.
Some wheels may be fitted with a series of fusible alloy plugs located at various points
around the wheel and normally set to melt at different temperatures.
Generally there may be one or a combination of three temperature settings employed on a

wheel. The common temperature at which fusible alloy plugs melt are as follows:
a) 155 degrees centigrade - plug body coloured red.

b) 177 degrees centigrade - plug body coloured green.
c) 199 degrees centigrade - plug body coloured yellow.
In the event of any tyre being deflated during the landing run, and any tyre on the same
axle, then the tyres are automatically scrapped. This means that regardless of whether the
tyres on the same axle are deflated or not the tyres are all scrapped.

CPL DOC 01
Page 160
AUTO BRAKES
Automatic braking at a pre-selected deceleration rate following touchdown. Various

deceleration rates can be selected, however, the maximum autobrakes deceleration rate is
less than that produced by full manual braking. Antiskid protection is provided during auto
brakes operation.
The auto brakes system is armed by selecting a deceleration rate. Latching of the Auto
Brakes Selector indicates the system is armed and operative. During auto brakes operation
the deceleration selection can be changed by rotating the selector without disarming the
system.
With the auto brakes system armed and both Thrust Levers at idle, automatic braking is
initiated at touchdown when main Landing gear truck un-tilt and wheel spin-up occurs. In
order to maintain the selected deceleration rate, auto brakes pressure is adjusted as other
deceleration devices such as speedbrakes and thrust reversers contribute to total
deceleration. The system provides braking to a complete stop or until It is disarmed.
The system disarms immediately when an auto brakes or normal antiskid system fault
occurs. Disarming also occurs if the following pilot actions are taken during auto brakes
operation:
manual braking
advancing either Thrust Lever after landing
moving the Speedbrake Lever to the DOWN detent after speedbrakes have been
extended on the ground
selecting the DISARM or OFF position
When the system disarms, the selector moves to the DISARM position, terminating auto
brakes operation. Illumination of the Auto Brakes Inoperative Light indicates that the system
has disarmed. Rotating the Auto Brakes Selector to OFF removes power from the system
and extinguishes the light.
The RTO (rejected takeoff) mode can only be selected on the ground. Latching of the
selector indicates the RTO mode Is armed. With the RTO mode armed, the auto brakes
system applies maximum brake pressure if both Thrust Levers are retarded to idle above 85
knots. The brake pressure applied is equivalent to that provided by full manual braking.
When the RTO mode disarms, the Auto Brakes Inoperative Light illuminates. During a
rejected takeoff, after 85 knots, the same conditions which disarm the Landing mode also
disarm the RTO mode. The Auto Brakes Selector remains in the RTO position after system
disarming. At liftoff, the selector trips OFF.

CPL DOC 01
Page 161
Revision Questions
1. In a wheelbrake circuit, the hydraulic accumulator will provide an increase in

the number of brake applications in an emergency:
a. if the initial charge pressure is increased
b. if the initial charge pressure is reduced
c. if the initial charge pressure is exhausted
2. Excessive brake travel could be due to
a. air in the system

b. a weak return spring
c. a fluid leak in the master cylinder
3. If air has leaked into the lines of a foot operated hydraulic brake system
a. the brake pedal will experience no resistance as it travels to the floor

b. the brakes will feel spongy
c. application of light foot pressure will cause the brakes to grab
4. The purpose of a shimmey damper is to
a. eliminate vibration of the tailwheel

b. eliminate vibration of the main wheels
c. reduce nosewheel vibration during ground operations
5. With reference to aeroplane operating manuals, the term Vle refers to
a. the maximum speed at which the undercarriage may be lowered

b. the maximum speed at which the aeroplane may be flown with the
undercarriage extended
c. the maximum speed of the aeroplane in the landing configuration

CPL DOC 01
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CPL DOC 01
Page 163
CHAPTER 13
ICE REMOVAL SYSTEMS
DEFINITIONS
ANTI-ICING
Used to prevent the formation of ice on the critical areas of an aircraft.
DE-ICING
Used to remove ice from less critical areas after it has formed.
TYPES OF ICE PROTECTION
There are four main types of ice protections:
FLUID
In order to prevent the adhesion of ice, this type uses a fluid which is pumped over the area
to be protected. The fluid is carried rearwards by the slipstream and forms a film over the
surface. The older type of aircraft uses this system to protect aerofoils, propellers and
windscreens. The main disadvantages lies in the limited amount of fluid which can be
carried.
MECHANICAL
This is a de-icing aid where flexible rubber boots are fitted to the leading edges of the
airframe. These boots expand and contract, thus cracking the ice off and allowing it to be
removed by the airflow.
THERMAL
Hot air is employed to give either anti-icing or de-icing protection. The supply of hot air is
taken from the aircraft engines, through ducting to the required areas, then exhausted
overboard. The aerofoils, air intakes, windscreens and system components of many
modern aircraft are protected in this manner.
ELECTRICAL
Heating elements are attached or sprayed on to the areas requiring protection. Electrical
power from the aircraft system is supplied to the elements, and heating of the area takes
place. Continuous heating provides anti-icing whilst de-icing can be obtained by the
intermittent application of heat. Aerofoils, propellers, spinners, intakes, windscreens and
system components can all be protected by this method.

CPL DOC 01
Page 164
Some of the systems described can be used either for de-icing or anti-icing. Though
designed for one particular mode, operational reasons may justify its use for the other. The
areas sensitive to ice formation are:
i) Aerofoils.
ii) Propellers.
iii) Engine intakes.
iv) Windscreens.
v) Pitot and static heads.
FLUID SYSTEMS
This system prevents the adhesion of ice on surfaces by pumping de-icing fluid over them.
The fluid is supplied from the storage tank to the pump through an integral filter. The pump
has a single inlet and a number of delivery outlets to feed the distributors on the aerofoil
leading edges. A diagrammatic layout is shown.

CPL DOC 01
Page 165
PROPELLER ANTI-ICING
In this system, de-icing fluid is sprayed along the leading edge of each propeller blade. The
fluid is held in a small tank, usually in one of the engine nacelles. This supply is fed to a
small rotor-type pump driven by an electric motor. The fluid is fed through a valve to a
slinger ring attached to the rear of the propeller hub. As the propeller rotates, centrifugal
force sends the fluid from the slinger ring out, via a slinger tube, to the leading edges of
each blade root as shown. The fluid continues along the blade under centrifugal force,
remaining in the blade boundary layer and spreading over the blade chord.
MECHANICAL AIRFRAME DE-ICING
With mechanical de-icing, ice is allowed to form and accumulate for a period of time, and is
then broken up and swept away by the airflow over the aircraft. The system is applicable to
the low subsonic aircraft only, and is very common. It is used on the leading edge of the
mainplane, tailplane and fin.
Rubber de-icer boots, bonded to the leading edges, are pulsated pneumatically, the
successive inflation and deflation breaking up the ice allowing it to be swept away.

CPL DOC 01
Page 166
THERMAL ICE PROTECTION
In this type of system, hot air is used to heat wing, tailplane, fin leading edges and also the
area of engine air intakes this source of hot air can be tapped from:
i) The engine exhaust, and ducted to atmosphere through a head exchanger. This
component raises the temperature of the ram air passing through it, which is then
used in the anti-icing/de-icing system.
ii) The rear of the engine compressor, where it will be at a high temperature and
pressure.

CPL DOC 01
Page 167
AIRFRAME SYSTEM
The temperature of the air supply is controlled to prevent local overheating. The hot air is
then ducted along the inside of the leading edges, and allowed to exhaust to atmosphere at
the tips. Electrically operated shut-off valves control the flow of hot air to the leading edge
sections, and these may be operated by thermo-switches to provide temperature control.
Temperature indication and overheat warning is normally provided.
One disadvantage of the thermal system is that a loss of engine power occurs when air is
drawn from the compressor. Because of this, it is usually operated as a de-icing rather than
anti-icing system. However, the system can be linked to an ice detector so that it is
automatically switched on when icing conditions exists.
ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING

The hot air system provides surface heating of the engine and-or power plant where ice is
likely to form. The affected parts are the engine intake, the intake guide vanes, the nose
cone, the leading edges of the nose cowl and, sometimes the front stage of the compressor
stator blades. The protection of rotor blades is rarely necessary, because any ice
accretions are dispersed by centrifugal action.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the last stage of the compressor,
and externally ducted through pressure regulation valves, to the parts requiring protection
When the nose cowl requires protection, hot air exhausting from the air intake manifold may
be collected and ducted to the nose cowl. Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the air to
pass into the compressor intake or vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a flow of air
through the system.
On some engines, however, the engine and nose cowl anti-icing systems are independent.
The engine nose cone is protected by a continuous unregulated supply of hot air tapped off
the compressor and internally ducted to the nose cone. The nose cowl receives its supply
of hot air from the high pressure compressor, via external ducting and a pressure regulating
valve.

CPL DOC 01
Page 168
WINDSCREEN DE-ICING
To prevent icing and misting, hot air is sometimes blown over the outside and inside of the
windscreen and other transparent panels. The principle of the outside air blast system is
also extended to rain clearance. Aircraft using this latter system include the Lightning, Jet
Provost and DC8. Great care must be taken when ground running aircraft with this system
to prevent overheating the windscreen.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
There are two main methods, spaymat and heater mats, of utilizing electricity for the
prevention of removal of ice; they are both used for the protection of aerofoils, engine
intakes and propellers.

CPL DOC 01
Page 169
Each mat is designed for a specific application, the heat output being obtained from
whatever electrical source is available. Mats are available both for anti-icing or de-icing.
Anti-icing mats on intakes are supplied continuously with electricity, while the de-icing mat is
intermittently heated. The total area to be heated is often divided into several smaller areas
with independent mats for each. The electrical power is then arranged to be switched to
each small area in turn. Thus, on any particular area, there is no heating for a given period
during which the ice builds up and then, when power is switched to that area, adhesion is
broken by heat and the ice removed by the airflow.
WINDSCREEN PROTECTION
Electrically heated windscreens are used on the majority of modern military and civil aircraft,
both for ice and mist prevention, and to increase the resistance of the panels to bird strike
at very low temperature. The older type used very thin wire heater elements sandwiched
between the glass laminations, the wire being connected to the electrical circuit. However,
the introduction of transparent electrically conductive heater films has almost eliminated
these types. .
A transparent film element in the panel is connected to the electrical system and used as a
heater panel. Also incorporated in the panel is a temperature sensitive element, which
automatically regulates the heater temperature and an overheat sensing unit to guard
against failure of the temperature regulator.

CPL DOC 01
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CPL DOC 01
Page 171
CHAPTER 14
PRESSURIZATION
DEFINITIONS
Absolute pressure: pressure

measured along a scale which has
a zero value at a complete
vacuum.
Aircraft altitude:
the actual height of the aircraft
above sea level.
Ambient pressure:
the pressure in the area
immediately surrounding the object
under discussion.
Standard barometric pressure:

the weight of gases in the
atmosphere sufficient to hold a
column of mercury 760 mm high
(approx. 30 in) at sea level, i.e.
17.7 psi at sea level. This pressure
decreases with altitude.
Cabin altitude:
used to express cabin pressure in
terms of equivalent altitude above
sea level.
Differential pressure:
the difference between cabin
pressure and atmospheric
pressure.
Positive differential:
cabin is said to be having positive
differential when cabin pressure is
more than ambient pressure.
Negative differential:
cabin is said to be having negative differential when cabin pressure is less than ambient
pressure.
Gauge pressure:
a measure of pressure in a vessel, container or line as compared to ambient pressure.

CPL DOC 01
Page 172
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION - OXYGEN CONTENT
Lack of oxygen is the most important factor in the adverse physiological effects
encountered at altitude. At ground level and at rest, a person normally breathes 30 cubic
inches or approximately 500 cubic centimetres of air at each breath, and at a normal
respiration rate of 12 to 15 cycles per minute. Which means that the oxygen requirements
for a human body are six to eight litres of air per minute.
The primary effect of exposure to low air pressure is that the oxygen content of the blood is
decreased, the immediate effect being on the brain. Oxygen absorption into the blood
across the surface of the lungs decreases with reduction in atmospheric pressure. The
effects may be felt at altitudes greater than 10 000 feet, although they are not generally
serious even when they aggravate feelings of fatigue. At an altitude of about 20 000 feet,
reduction in oxygen content leads to a phenomenon called HYPOXIA with consequent
dulling of all the senses.
It is more serious in that the victim is generally unaware of its onset (hypoxia) and believes
that he is acting in a competent and cheerful manner. Meanwhile one's judgement is
seriously impaired, and disastrous mistakes can ensue. Further decrease in atmospheric
pressure leads to another phenomenon, called ANOXIA, which is due to serious lack of
oxygen in the human body. Anoxia causes lack of clarity, loss of sight (defective vision),
deterioration in hearing, uncontrolled trembling of muscles, and the victim becomes weak
and sick. Total unconsciousness eventually occurs, and the time taken to fall unconscious
decreases rapidly with increase in altitude. For example, altitudes of about 25 000 feet
produce unconsciousness in six minutes and at about 40 000 feet in 20 seconds followed
by death.
It is also necessary for a certain minimum oxygen pressure to exist in the lungs, for the
oxygen to diffuse through the lung tissue and pass to the red corpuscles in the blood
stream. The minimum ambient pressure to maintain life, in this respect is 2.7 psi absolute,
the equivalent altitude being 40 000 feet, even if 100 per cent oxygen is being breathed.
From this aspect of passenger comfort, the ideal cabin conditions to maintain would be
those corresponding to sea level. However, considering cabin structural requirements and
consequent power and weight penalty, the difference between cabin and ambient pressure
should be kept to the minimum. Experiences have shown that the vast majority of
unselected persons suffer no discomfort, due to hypoxia at altitudes of up to 8 000 feet. For
all healthy persons, in all conditions, cabin altitude of 8 000 feet is generally accepted as a
safe figure to maintain passenger comfort, and from aircraft structural considerations.

CPL DOC 01
Page 173
RATE OF CHANGE OF CABIN PRESSURE
Apart from altitude, the question of the rate of change of cabin altitude within the aircraft
must also be considered. It is common practice for an aircraft to climb at a rate of 1 000
feet per minute or more and engines are designed to maintain their performance with the
changing atmospheric conditions during a climb. But the effect of rapid altitude changes on
the human body causes physical pain and discomfort. If the cabin pressure decreases
violently, the nitrogen and other gases in solution in the blood stream expand rapidly in the
form of bubbles. This causes acute pain and injury, but would not normally occur except in
the event of explosive decompression. If however, the rates of change are large but not
violent, the most common effects are:
i) Sickness.
ii) Expansion of gases in the abdomen (uncomfortable).
iii) Mild effects of bends in exceptional cases.
iv) Expansion of gases in the ear.
Cabin pressure can be decreased at slightly higher rates than increased without undue
discomfort. Here again it has been established that a rate of change of cabin altitude of
500 feet/min for climb, and 300 feet/min for descent are acceptable limits for pressurized
passenger aircraft.
PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURIZATION
REQUIREMENTS OF A SEALED CONTAINER.
Firstly we require a sealed container, strong enough to withstand all stresses, and which
could be taken to any altitude and still maintain the same pressure internally. Every
endeavour must be made on the part of the manufacturer to ensure that the shell is
perfectly sealed. This is essential if the air that is entering and leaving the cabin is to be
effectively controlled. Unwanted leaks can occur at rivet points, windows, doors, escape
hatches and each hole in the skin through which a service must pass to reach the
unpressurized portion of the aircraft. Through these various holes must pass the main
flying and trimmer controls, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and other service lines and
cables. Each hole must be effectively sealed, but main flying control rods, trimmer cables
and throttle controls must allow freedom of movement without too much static friction.
AIR INPUT INTO THE SEALED CONTAINER
To cater for the ventilation requirements, fresh air must be supplied to the sealed container
through the inlet port, and be allowed to escape to the ambient through controlled discharge
valves which will offer a restriction the outflow from the container.
If the pressure in the cabin is to be controlled accurately by the position of the outflow valve,
and for simplicity of system design, the input air into the cabin should be kept at a constant
mass flow. That is, the control will automatically allow for changes in the air density and
changes in cabin back pressure on the inlet, due to changes in the position of the outflow
valve, maintaining a constant mass flow (lbs/min) into the cabin irrespective of cabin
pressure.

CPL DOC 01
Page 174
BASIC METHOD OF PRESSURE CONTROL
The principle of pressurization is that whilst the aircraft is climbing at high rate to its cruise
altitude, the cabin is climbing at a slower rate, to a lower altitude. Consider a sealed
container (fuselage) where a constant mass air flow is coming in, if the same mass air flow
is going out through a control valve, then the internal pressure will be held constant.
Furthermore if the control valve stays in one position, the internal pressure must finally
stabilize. Closing the control valve (outflow valve) will increase the pressure, and opening
the valve will decrease the pressures and when the pressure is stabilized, there will be as
much air going out as there is coming in.
CONTROL OF RATE OF PRESSURE CHANGE
The cabin rate of climb should be selected to ensure that the set cabin altitude is reached at
approximately the same time as the aircraft reaches its cruise altitude. For example, if the
aircraft was flight planned to fly at 20 000 feet altitude, and when pressurized to its
maximum differential of 5 psi, it would have a cabin altitude of 6 000 feet. Then the time
taken for the cabin to reach 6 000 feet from sea level would be the same as the time taken
for the aircraft to reach 20 000 feet. So that comfortable conditions are made available for
passengers and crew during climb and descent, the rate of cabin pressure change should
be approximately 500 feet/min during climb and 300 feet/min during descent. This is
achieved by controlling of the outflow valve.
PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM CONTROL AND OPERATION

CPL DOC 01
Page 175
RATE CONTROL
A rate control can be incorporated in order to control the rate of change of cabin altitude,
and also to limit the minimum and maximum rates of change. High rates of change are
uncomfortable for the occupants and may cause severe pain in the ears.
TYPICAL PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS
When the aircraft is on the ground and with the cabin altitude set for field elevations and
barometric corrections made, the cabin pressure will be the same as the ambient pressure.
After take-off the desired cabin altitude for cruise flight and the desired rate, are selected. If
the aircraft climbs at a rate higher than selected rate the cabin will climb at the selected rate
until the selected cabin altitude is reached. If the aircraft climbs at the same rate as the
selected rate, or at a lower rate than the selected rate, then the cabin will climb at the same
rate as the aircraft until the selected cabin altitude is reached. If the aircraft levels off below
the selected cabin altitude, the cabin will climb to the aircraft altitude and then will also level
off until the aircraft climbs again.
The cabin altitude will be maintained at the selected level during cruise, provided the
maximum pressure differential is not exceeded. If the aircraft climbs further, the cabin
altitude will be maintained at the selected level until the differential pressure limit is reached,
and then the cabin will also climb. The rate of cabin climb will be such that the maximum
pressure differential is maintained. In effect, the actual cabin climb rate will be lower than
the aircraft climb rate.
Before descent, the cabin altitude is set to the landing field elevation, and barometric
correction is done. The cabin will descend at the selected rate, provided the maximum
pressure differential is not exceeded, and will automatically go to the landing field elevation
on touch down.

CPL DOC 01
Page 176
Revision Questions
1 To measure the rate of climb of the cabin in a pressurised aircraft, the cabin VSI
uses:
a. static pressure measured at the aircraft altitude
b. cabin differential pressure
c. static pressure measured inside the cockpit
2. After a flight in a pressurised aircraft, none of the doors are able to be opened.
This could be caused by
a. the safety valve failing to operate due to faulty weight switches

b. the negative relief valve opening one landing
c. the use of incorrect door opening procedures
3. During a climb, the pilot notices that the cabin altimeter and VSI are reading the
same as the aircraft altimeter and VSI. A possible cause is
A. the negative relief valve is stuck closed

b. the aircraft is not above 10,000 ft yet
c. the safety valve has opened
4. On a given aircrafts pressurisation panel the cabin altitude has been set to 8000 ft
and cabin rate of change is set to maximum (2000 fpm). If after take-off from sea
level the aircraft climbs at 1000 fpm, the cabin pressure would initially
a. remain the same as outside pressure up to 8000 ft

b. decrease at twice the rate of the outside pressure
c. decrease at half the rate of the out side pressure
5. Oils and greases should not be used on joints in oxygen lines because
a. they can clog the lines

b. they may start a fire
c. they will cause the connections to oxidise (rust)
6. The use of supplemental oxygen by a pilot in a pressurized aircraft is mandatory
a. at all times for a flight planned above 10,000 ft

b. at all times when the aircraft is above 10,000 ft for longer than 60 mins
c. at all times when the cabin altitude is above 10,000 ft for longer than 60 mins

CPL DOC 01
Page 177
7. For cruise in an unpressurised aircraft at FL270 a diluter demand oxygen system
a. is not suitable for prolonged operations

b. would deliver oxygen under pressure
c. need not supply 100% oxygen
8. Continuous flow oxygen systems
a. are suitable for prolonged use up to 25,000 ft

b. are suitable for prolonged use up to 33,000 ft
c. are suitable for prolonged use up to 40,000 ft
9. Which statement is incorrect regarding autopilot operation?

a. Many autopilots should not be engaged above certain limiting IAS values
b. Autopilots should always be off for take-off and landing
c. Autopilots are designed to maintain attitude and so should be used during
flight through turbulence
10. When disengaging an autopilot a pilots main concern should be to
a. guard against sudden changes in aircraft attitude

b. maintain straight and level flight
c. maintain a rate one turn
11. Which of the following ice protection systems is designed to be used only for
de-icing?
a. Alcohol spray
b. Hot air
c. Pneumatic system

CPL DOC 01
Page 178
CPL DOC 01
Page 179

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CPL

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

1. Distribution of the 4 forces 01

Annex A Sample Exams 353

Copyright 2001 Flight Training College of Africa

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT IN LEVEL FLIGHT

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

It can be said that in Straight and Level flight (unaccelerated) :

THE EFFECT OF THE TAILPLANE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

i) The shape of the body.

Factors (iii) to (vi) are collectively known as Reynolds Number.

THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

In subsonic aerodynamics, air is considered to be incompressible, therefore density may be

The significance of this equation is as follows:

Kinetic, or Dynamic pressure energy = pV

Static pressure energy = P

Bernoulli's Theory is thus represented by the following formula:

The significance of Bernoulli's Theory is as follows:

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

THE POINT OF MAXIMUM THICKNESS

THE THICKNESS/CHORD RATIO

FINENESS RATIO = LENGTH

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THE MEAN CAMBER LINE

Aspect ratio = Span

WHERE : SPAN = distance from wing tip to wing tip

CHORD = Distance between leading edge and trailing

THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Streamline flow around an aircraft is very desirable.

In turbulent flow, succeeding molecules do not follow a streamlined flow pattern.

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND AN AEROFOIL

From this experiment, the following points are noteworthy:

At approximately -4 angle of attack, no lift is being developed.

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CL = coefficient of lift. This represents:

i) Angle of attack of the aerofoil.

= The density of the air.

V = The velocity of the aircraft, squared.

S = The wing area.

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

THE SOURCE OF DRAG

Total drag as expressed in the definition, is made up of two types of drag:

Fitness Ratio = Length

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Skin Friction Drag

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

The following factors affect the Induced drag:

Aspect ratio is the ratio of an aerofoil's span to its chord.

ASPECT RATIO = Span

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Factors Which Reduce the Induced Drag

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Change of Aerofoil Section

CPL ATG FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE