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ROCK MECHANICS for ENGINEERS Deptt. of Civil Engineering Regional Institute of Technology Jamshedpur. 1985 eneeSment Khanna Publishers 2-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak, DELHI-110006. ee ey Romesh Chander Khanna KHANNA PUBLISHERS 2-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak Dethi-110006, = All Rights Reserved This book or part. thereof cannot be translated or reproduced in any form (except for review or criticism). without the written permission of the Author and the Publishers. Ist Edition : 1985 Printed at,: Kapoor Printers, Pahar Ganj New Delhi-110055. Preface The subject “Rock Mechanics” has recently been introduced in several universities at the undergraduate level. In some universities this subject is also known as *Geo-mechanics’. This book has been written keeping in view the contents of the syllabii of those univer- sities. The author feels that the book would be of immense he Ip for the undergraduate students. However the scope of the course content has been dealt with in such a.way that the post-graduate students can also find many useful matters of their interest. Rock Mechanics may be said to present the quantitative app roach to Geology and hence in chapters 2 and 3 of the book, a brief introduction of engineering geology has been given. This will help the readers in proper understanding of the subject. Although the numerical values nave been presented in Metric system, the reader may get these values converted into S.I. Units, if required, with the help of conversion table provided in the book. The presentation of the book has been influenced by previous publications in this field. The author is grateful to-the writers and publishers of those books. The inclusion of bibliographical refer ences will help readers who wish to study some particular aspects in more details. The author is grateful to Dr. B. Sahay of R.LT., Jamshedpur, Dr. D.P. Roy and Dr. A.N.R. Char of LLT., Kharagpur for theit valuable suggestions and encouragements. The author expresses his deep gratitude to his collegue Dr. N:K. Prasad for going through the manuscript and suggesting his valuable suggestions at different stages. Finally the author thanks his wife Mrs, N. Verma for the encouragement received from her during the preparation of this book and the Publisher, Mr. R. C, Khanna, for taking keen interest in publication of the book. Suggestions for further improvement would be gratefully acknowledged by the author. Jamshedpur B,P, Verma January, 1985 UuH. : CONTENTS -Chapter Page 4-“‘Tntroduction is I'l. Rock Mechanics 1 12. Rock Mechanics Problembs : 3.. Scope of Rock Mechanics 2 1°4, Problems of Rock Mechanics 3 2, Rocks 4-19 21. Rocks a4 2:2. Minerals 4 2°3. Structure of Earth 5 2°4. Rock for Engineers 6 2'S. Rock as Construction Materials - che 2°6. Classification of Rocks 7 26'L. By Origin or Genesis 8 26 2. Igneous Rocks 8 2°63. Sedimentary Rocks , 9 264, Metamorphic Rocks oa 12 27. a 13 2°71, Geological or Lithological Classification ” 14 272. Texture 15 2°73. Structure 16 74, Composition 16 2°75, Colour 16 276. Grain Size ba x2 8. Engineering Classification . 17 Defects in Rock Mass ve 20-34 - 31. Discontiouities and Defects in Rock Mass .-+ 20 3°2. Cause of Defects in Rock Mass * co 20 33. Strike and Dip - = 21 3°4, ‘Bedding Planes, Stratification arid es Defects + 22 “3°S. Joints 7 22 36. Faults 24 (vi) Chapter Poge 3°7. Folds ae 28 3°71. Modes of Folds oa 28 372. Types of Folds oa 29 3°73. Important of Folds for Engineering Projects : 32 4, Methods of Rock Exploration we 35-59 41, Introduction ee 35 42, Object-of Rock Exploration aa 36 43. Methods of Rock Exploration ae 36 44. Rock Exploration by Direct Penetration ~— ++ 37 44°, Core Boring we cL 4°42, Core Recovery i 37 443. Rock Quality Desigaatioa (R.O. Dd 38 44°4, Fracture Frequency + 40 4°5.-. Large Diameter Calyx Holes 7 40 4:6, Logging of Cores 40: 47. Geophysical Prospecting oo 41 4°8. Methods of Geophysical Prospecting oe 41 481. Seismic Methods as 4l 4811, Theory fa 42. 4°8°1'2.. Methods of Exploration 44 48°13. Limitations 46 4°82, Electrical Methods 47 4°8°2'L. Resistivity Method 47 48°22, Theory of Current Flow 48 48°23, Measurements sl 48'2°4, Interpretation of Result 52 4°83. Gravity Method : 53 4831. Theory oa 53 4°8°3°2, Instrument and Measure- ment oe 55 48°33. Corrections - 55: 4°3'3'4. Interpretation’ of Result... 56 4°84. Magnetic Method . ST 4841. Theory os ST 4°8°4'2, Instrument Used for Magnetic Prospecting = «+ 58 48°43, Interpretation of Result -». 59 - ( vit) ‘Chapter ‘5, In-situ Tests 51. Necessity of In-situ Tests 52. Requirement of Ia-situ Tests 5°3. Selection of Test Site 54. Types of In-situ Tests 5°5, In-situ Test for Deformability 7 551. Plate Load Test uv SSVI. Cable Jacking Test 5°5'°2. Pressure Tunnel Test “5°53. Bore Hole Test 55°31, The Dilatometers 5°6. Shear Tests 37. Strength Tests us Beuring Capacity of Rock Compressive Strength Test Tensile Strength Test 57'4'|, Dilatometer Test 5742. The Stress-Relief Techniques “ 5743. Flat Jack Techniques v 5744, Indirect Methods 6. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks... 61, Introduction 462. Physical and Mechanical Properties Porosity Density Moisture Content Degree of Saturation Permeability 671. Definition 672. Use of Permeability 67°3. Experimental Determination of Permeability 6T31. Longitudinal Test 6732, Radial Tests 68. E'ectrical Properties 69, Thermal Propertigs Tests for Internal Stress in Rock 19 8l 82 84—110 84 85 85 86 87 88 88 88. 89 90 90 OL 92 2 © Chapter 6°10. ‘Swelling . Avisotropy 6°12, Durability you 613. 5114, ‘Strength ~ (iii) . Mechanical Properties L 6141. Classification of Strength 91° Y > /6 * 6142. Compressive Strength 6714°2'1, Uniaxial Unconfined Compressive Strength 6'14'2'2. Triaxial Compressive Strength 6'14°3. Tensile Strength 614°3°1, Shear Strength 6'14°3'2. Point Load Strength 61433. Scale Effect on the Strength of Rocks Elasticity. 616. Plasticity ve 6°17. Poisson’s Ratio 6°18. Deformability 6:19. Hardaess Rock Testing Tl. Introduction 72. Sampling 721. Sample Preparation 73. Specimen 74, Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test 75. Tensile Strength Tests TS1. Brazilian Test 752. Bending Test 76. Flexural Strength Test 77. Shear Strength Test ss 771, Shear Box Test on 772. Direct Shear Test on Rock Cubes 773. Punch Shear Test 73. Tests for Elastic Constants see TS i. Static Methods TSU. Test Procedure aoe ve 111—132 * Page * 94 94 95 96 96 oF 97 97 98 99 101 102 102 103 105 105 106: 109 il 112 113 113 11S 117 118 9 119 121 12L 122 123, 124 124 125 (ix) Chapter Page 7812. Young’s Modulus by Brazilian Test 127 T81'3. Young’s Modulus by Bending Test 128 782. Dynamic Methods 129 itd 1, Resonance Method 129 it ‘2, Ultrasonic Pulse Method 131 8, Creep Behaviour and Rheological Models 133—143 81. Loading Diagrams 133 82. Creep 134 83. Creep in Rocks 134 831. Measurement of Creep 135 . 832. Estimation of Creep Deformation 136 84. Rheology and Rheological Models 138 8'5. Different Rheologial Models 139 8°S'l. The St. Venant Model 139 8'5°2. The Kelvin Model 140 8°53. The Maxwell Model 141 8°54. The Bingham Model 142 8'5°S. The Burger Model 143 Strength and Failure of Rocks 144-162 91, Failure: 144 9°2, Ideally Plastic Perfectly Plastic and Elastic Plastic Materials 145 93. Types of Failure 9°4, Yield Criteria or Failure Theories 145 941, The Maximum Stress Theory . 146 9°42. The Maximum Elastic Strain Theory- 146 9°4°3. The Constant Elastic-Strain Energy - 144 Theory 147 9°44, The Maximum Shear-Stress Theory --. 147 9°4°5. The Constant Elastic Strain Energy of Distortion Theory 148 4 W's Theoryge 148 vay vel Coulomb ry 143 9°5. Types of Failure in Rock Material 149 96, SGrigitis Theory of Fracture Initiation in the Rock Mass 150 961. Stress Around Boundary of an Open Flow 150 9°6°2. Equations Defining Fracture : Initiation 152 9°7. “Relation between Grain Size and Strength ‘of Rocks 153 (x) Chapter 9°8. Experimental Investigations on Rock Strength 9°9. Strength Criteria of Jointed Rocks 9°9°1, Failure Propagation in Jointed Rocks 9°9'2. Stick-slip Process of Rupture : Barton's Theory Conclusion 10, Dynamic Properties of Rock 10°1. Introduction 10°2. Types of Waves 10°3, Theory of Wave Propagation 10°4. Factors Influencing Wave Velocity 10°41. Rock Type 10°42. Rock Texture 7 10°43. State of Stress 10°4°4. Stress Level of the Wave 10°4'5. Water Content 10°46. Temperature of Rock 10°4°7. | Stratification 10°48. Porosity 10°5. Difference in Static and Dynamic Modulii 10°6. In-situ Determination of Elastic Properties of Rocks by Dynamic Method 11, Improvement in Properties of Rock Mass 1'1. Introduction 11-2. Grouting 11°3.. Grouting Materials 1131. Cement Grout q Chemical Grouts Bituminous Grouts 11°4. Grouting Operations Methods of Grouting Guniting 11°8. Mechanism of Rock Bolting 119. Principles of Design 11°10.-Cable Anchorage Appendix I SI Units in Gectechnica! Engineering Appendix 11 References s+» 198—205 175 . 177—179- 177 177 179 179 179 180 180 182 184 184 184. 186 189 190—197 180 198 se Introduction 11, Rock Mechanics The subject “Rock Mechanics” is comparatively a new branch in engineering. Civil Engineers, Mining Engineers, Geologists and Geophysists are mainy associated with this subject because the problems pertaining to their fieid are being solved with the applica- tion of developed theories of Rock Mechanics. The First Conference of International Society of Rock Mechanics was held in 1966 in Lisbon. The Committee on Rock Mechanics of the Geological Society of America in 1964, and then Committee on Rock Mecha- nics of the National Academy of Sciences in 1966 came forward with the definition of Rock Mechanics. /“Rock Mechanics is the theore- tical and applied science of the behaviour of rock ; it is that branch of mechanics which is concerned” with the tesponse of rock to the force field of its environment’// Rock Mechanics may be taken as separate field of engineering and different from engineering geology. It not onl: i ck as an engineering materials but it also deals with changes in mecha- Heal behaviour TEKS Guch as sttess, strain” and Sao poeee rocks) brought in due to engineering activities. It is also associated with design and stability of underground structures in rock, Till the rock mass is continuous with no inherent defects, its property can be estimated with theories of engineering geology aad mechanics. But when the rock mass is discontinuous having either inherent defects or the defects which are likely to develop due to engineering operations then the theories of Rock Mechanics are required to predict the behaviour of the rock mass. Since it deals with mechanics of discontinum media, it is also known as articu- late, grain structure mechanics. 1:2, Rock Mechanics Problems As in the field of Soil Mechanics where laws of Mechanics and Hydraulics are applied to soil aud soil mass, in Rock Mechanics laws of Mechanics and hydraulic including theories of elasticity and plasticity are utilised for Rock and Ro oneal, problems of rock mechanics may be class (a) Problems of equilibrium or stability. (8) Problems of Elastic and Plastic deformations. (c) Drainage problems. Saeed For problems of (a) and (5) types it is necessary to know about the load imposed, and magnitude and distribution of stresses induced in the rock mass by the load. Rock in itself may be homogeneous but when we consider about the rock mass over which we plan to ‘make construction,-may behave altogether in different manner due to its defects in the mass such as jointing, bedding planes, schisto- sity, fissures, cavities and other discontinuities. Henee, properties which are obtained on microscopic or macroscopic basis may not be true for megascopic scale. This problem of discontinuity makes the problem of estimation of distribution of stresses induced in the rock mass very difficult. To estimate the stress distribution in the rock mass and other related problems, finite element method is being used. and the beba- viour of rock mass is being predicted well. However, the results may not tally cxactly with the nearest value, To predict the behaviour of rock mass to the nearest value, “in-situ” tests are done, But these tests are very expensive. In such cases, modelling also is tried. Hence, in the rock mechanics great importance has been given to testing techniques which include laboratory as well as in situ testing. Modelling theories have also great importance. 13, Scope of Rock Mechanics Although study of rock mechanics is necessary for mining engineers, geologists and geophysis, it has got more importance for civil engineers who are faced with problems relating to rock mass during different construction operations. If a building is very tall its foundation may go deep for stability requirement. In such cases, the foundation may rest over a rock. To act asa good foundation support, bearing capacity of the rock should be within -permissible limits. At the same time settlement criteria also should be such that there may not be uneven settlement of the building and for that, settlement properties of the rock mass is required. In case a building is verv tall and constructed on reclamed land over the shallow sea, the uplift force acts on the foundation which goes intor the sea bed. To make the building stable, the foundation has to be anchored to deep sound rock bed by anchor cables and for such operations knowledge of rock mecha- nics is essential. One of the most important work for civil engineers is the construction of masonary or concrete dams, which are also known as gravity dams. A gravity dam has its foundation supported on deep excavation into the rock mass. In such a case the rock supporting the dam should have no fault zone and should be able to take stresses due to construction of the dam. At the same time, the rock strata should be such that upstream water may not seep through the foundation bed. For these details and proper design a knowledge of rock mechanics is essential. ¢ Cea INTRODU TION 3 When a cut is made into the rock mass such as mining shafts, tunnels, underground power houses then there isa stress relief in the surrounding rock mass which causes the development of tensile stress due to which cracks appear and subsequently there is rock fall into the opening. In such cases the opening has to be designed such that rock cracks may not appear excessively after the opening has been made. Ifat all cracks have appeared, thea the rock may be made stable by adopting a suitable design of rock reinforce- ment or a concrete lining. Knowlege of rock mechanics is essential for mining engineers geologists and geophysists also. For effective mining operations explosives are put for explosion, and then the mining operation is done. Knowlege of rock mechanics helps in effective selection of explosive material depending on rock properties, Rock mechanics also helps in selecting drilling bit materials so that effective drilling may be done at deeper depth such as for oil explorations etc. 14, Problems of Rock Mechanics A few examples, discussed above, give an idea about the scope of rock mechanics in engineering practice. Based on the above dis- cussions and looking at other engineering operations, some of the problems in rock mechanics associated with engineering activity may be summarised below. Reaction of a particular rock when put to actual use, load carrying capacity of the rock at its surface and at different depths, shear strength of rock, dynamic properties of the rock, effect of earthquake on rock foundation system, elastic constants’ of rocks, effect of rock defects on its strength properties, time-dependent deformation (creep) in rock, laws of plastic flow, effect of aniso- tropy of rock on stress distribution, co-relation of laboratory results ° with rock-strength “in-situ”, estimation of test method which will provide actual “in-situ” conditions and properties of rocks, mecha- nism of failure in rocks, estimation of rock-slope design factors and factor of safety to be used in design. Although use of rock as construction materials also come in perview of rock mechanics, it is discussed in detail in books of road engineering and conerete technology. In this book general physical properties of rocks also have been discussed from which one can get an idea of its suitability for any engineering pupose. - 2 Rocks 21, Rocks Since the details of Rock properties are available in geologists’s- literature and their language, it is necessary that a rock engineer should have an information about the rock qualities, as observed by the geologist, to evaluate numerical conclusions. (It is necessary to- know about formation, qualities properties and Wéfects of rocks. Hence, in this chapter these topics will be dealt with in brief so that a. rock engineer may be acquainted with rocks fully. _ “Geologists define rocks as naturally occuring aggregates of minerals or mass of mineral matters constituting an essential part of the earth’s crust, 22. Minerals A mineral is a natural inorganic substance of a definite struc~ ture and chemical composition such as Calcite, Quartz, Chlorite, Hematite etc,- ‘Minerals are generally identified by their colour, streak, hard- ness, cleavage and fracture, tenacity, crystal form, specific gravity and lusture,~ If a mineral is rubbed over an unglased porcelain or China plate, a coloured or white streak of minute mineral particles is left on the plate. The colour of the streak is compared with a standard colour chart available, which gives an idea of characteristics of the mineral. If struck with a sharp object, a mineral breaks along a definite plane which is parallel to a crystal face and is know as cleavage plane. It is. usually a smooth surface and appears to be polished. The cleavage plane also helps in identifying a mineral. If a sharp blow is given to a mineral block it breaks into irregu- lar surfaces known as fracture. Along this failure planes, fresh mine- ral particles can be observed by microscope or simply by eye, deped- ing on the size of the grains, and they can thus be identified. 4 eS a ROCKS 5 The_ability .of a- mineral to withstand crushing, shearing or bending’is its tenacity. They are described as brittle, malleable, flexi- Ble and elastic. IF it'can be powdered easily i brittle ; malleable when it can be hammered into thin sheets. If it tents but does not return to its original shape after bending when the force is released thea it is knowa as flexible, where as it will be known as elastic if it returns to its original shape after the removal of a bend- ing force. Every mineral has a definite crystal form bounded by several or -many crystal faces and belongs to a definite crystallographic system. The crystal forms may be Monoclinic, Hexagonal, Rhombohedral etc. By keeping the mineral in hand, (just for preliminary identifica- tions) its heavyness will give an idea’ of the specific gravity of the mineral. Feeling of more heaviness will represent more specific gra- vity of the mineral. However measurement of specific gravity can be -done in the laboratory, and an exact value can be known for proper identification of mineral. Most minerals exhibit a certain characteristic appearance -(luster) under reflected light, The luster may be metallic, non-metallic or sub-metallic. Hardness of a mineral is also a good scale for its identification. ‘The hardness of a mineral is expressed by its number in Mohs scale of hardness. A mineral listed ina particular scale can scratch all minerals of smaller numbers. ‘2:3, Structure of Earth Before discussing ‘rocks’ in details, a brief idea of the Earth structure is given for reference to the readers. Due to high pressure and temperature at the Inner most’ part of the earth the minerals contain very high density. This inner most part of the earth crust is known as Inner core and consists of solidi- fied heavy metals such as iron and nickel. It is estimated to be about 850 kilometres thick. The inner core is surrounded by outer core which is estimated to be 2100 km thick. Composition of outer core is similar to that of inner core. However, the inner core is in more fluid state as compared to the outer core, The outer core again is surrounded by a layer which is estima- ted to be 2900 km thick and is known as Mantle. The materials in mantle are about two to three times as dense as those at the surface of the earth. By sismic observations, it has-been found that a major change or discontinuity occurs at the boundary between the Mantle and the outer Core. . Outside the Mantle, the portion of the Earth upto the surface is known as crust. The crust consists of two parts, ‘6 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS (a) Inner annulus also known as Sima or Basaltic Layer. (6) Outer annulus also known as Sial or’ Granitic Layer. Sima or Basaltic Layer is made up of dense, dark-coloured material which is rich in magnesia and it is similar to those which comes out of the Volcanoes, Sial or Grauitic is composed of less dense materials. It is rich in silica and alumina and has got similartiy in composition of rock granite. The depth of crust which includes Basaltic as well as Granitic layer is about 40 kilometres in the continental areas, whereas the depth of Bastic !ayer, which forms the floor of ocean under the oceanic areas, is about 6km. The prime constituent of basaltic and granitic layers is considered to be molten silicate material or magma. From time to time, the magma comes to the surface of the earth, in the form of lava, through the mouths of Volcanoes. Although geologists often call ‘rock’ to all constituents: of the earth crust, engineers devide the earth crusts into rocks and soils. The hard and compact natural materials of the earth crust are known as rocks and their derivatives due to weathering etc. are termed as “‘soils”. As discussed earlier the subject which deals with the laws of hydraulics and mechanics applied to Rocks is known as Rock Mecha- nics whereas the subject dealing with laws of hydraulics and mecha- nics applied to “Soils” is known as “Soil Mechanics”. 24, Rock for Engineers A better definition of rock may now be given as “‘Granular aelotropic, heterogeneous technical substance which occurs naturally and which is composed of grains of varied poly-crystalline or non- crystalline materials which are cemeated together either by “glue” or by mechanical boad, but ultimately by atomic, ionic aad mole- cular bonds within the grains and glue and at every interface of the boundar, Thus by “rock”, an engineer means a firm add coherent sub- stance which normally cannot be excavaced by manual methods alone. Thus like any other material a rock is frequently assumed to be. homogeneous and isotropic. But in most of the cases, it is not 50. A homogeneous substance is one in which a small element has. the same property as that of the whole substance and a hetrogencous. substance has diiferent properties of the elements within the body. An isotropic material is one that has the same physical prop2t- ties in every direction at any point whereas an anisotropic or aleotro- S < S ROGES: a pic material is one in which certain property may vary in a particular direction at a point in the substauce. In a small scale, a Rock may be homogeneous and isotropic but when considered at a large scale it may not be so. Therefore, for large engineering projects these difficulties are overcome with intro- duction of finite element method techniques and solving the problems with the help of computers. 2°5, Rock as a Construction Material Rock is used as a construction material’ in two ways. (a) Rocks with which constructions are done. (b) Rocks over which constructions are done. > For the first category, rocks are brought from quarry etc. and used in place where construction is done. : For example : (1) For making breakwaters and other such structures. (2) For protective blanketing of earth dams and other earth works against erosion by water in the form of riprap, (3) For putting as ballast to support railway sleepers, (4) Asa base and sub-base and top course for roads, and air- field runways, (5) As a coarse aggregate for concrete, (6) As facing stones for building, bridges and hydraulic struc- tures to protect such structures from weathering and to improve their elevations. (1) As buildiag blocks for putting them in foundation as well superstructures of buildings. eee => A few examples for (b) category are : (i) To support massive structures suco as dams, weirs, multi- storeyed building etc. . (2) For construction of tunnels for vehicular transport and sometimes water transportation also. (3) For making shafts. WHS. Classification of Rocks Some of the classification systems of rock are : (a) By origin or genesis. (b) | Geological or lithological classifications. (c) Engineering classification of intact rock. (d) A combination of these. 8 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 261, By Origin or Genesis Based on genesis or mode of origin rocks are grouped into three major groups. Igneous rocks ’ Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks. 262, Igneous Racks Igneous Rocks are those rocks which are formed by the solidifi- cation of molten magma originating in the interior of the Earth. Magma is a “fluid” consisting of molten silicatesy water vapour and volatiles. If a rock is formed by the cooling’and solidification of magma at depth (i.e. below the surface of earth) the rate of solidifi- cation is relatively slow and consequently a coarse grained structure is formed. If a rock is formed from the solidification of lava on the surface, (which mainly comes due to irruption of vol@anoes) the rate of cooling is faster and rapid solidification takes place. In such cases, fine grained materials are formed. __, Igneous rock which are formed at a depth, are known as pluto- nic igneous rocks and those formed from lava and formed mainly at the surface, are known as yolcanic igneous rocks. Classification of igneous rock depends upon the composition of the parent magma and its textural classification will depend upon the environment in whi h it solidifies. Thus the chemical composition of magma, rock is sub-divided into four pasts + i 7 (i) Acidic (ii) Intermediate (iii) Basic (iv) Ultrabasic. In an igneous rock if quartz and feldspar are predominant it will be acidic in compositién whereas if ferromagnesian minerals are predominant the rock will be having basic composition. The acidic igneous rocks are generally light coloured whereas basic one are dark coloured due to. the presence of ferromagnesian minerals. Textural subdivisions are done as: (i) Coarse grained also known as Plutonic (ii) Medium grained also knowa as Hypabyssal (iii) Fine grained aiso known as Volcanic. Table 2'1 gives an idea of classification of some importa nt Igneous Rocks as discussed by Krynine and Judd 5 aT ROCKS 9 oa Table 22 Classification of Igneous Rocks Composition i Structure Remarks Acidic Intermediate Basic Coarse to Granite Svenite. medium (LC) «L.C) grained | (Plutonic) Granodionite Diorite Gabbro| (L.C) | (D.C) (D.C) Medium to | Microgranite | Microsyenite L.C= Light Fine | Coloured Grained Quariz- (Hypabyssal) | porphyry = | 4 D.C-+ Dark (L.c) j Coloured Micro | Mterodiorite granodiorite | Dolerite| (LC) (D.C) (D.C) Fine ‘Rhyolite Trachyte Grained and (L.C) (L.C) Glassy (Volcanic) Pitchstone Dacite Andesite Basalt ' (L.C) (D.C) (D.C) 2-63, Sedimentary Racks __, Sedimentary Rocks are derived due to weathering and decom- ‘position of earth crust or from any rock type. When a rock or earth crust is weathered or decomposed and transported and redeposited, and subsequently consolidated and cemented partly or fully, then the new product formed is known as Sedimentary Rocks. The size of weathered products and the degree of consolidation and cementation determine the strength of the sedimentary rocks. The type of sedimentary deposit formed in any area depends upon : 10 . ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS= (a) The nature: of sedimént cazried into the area (6) The physical environment within thé‘ area.” The material from which sedimentary deposits are formed are derived in the following ways : (i) Mechanically ee ee (i) Organically (iii) Chemically. Mechanically. Weathering agents act on thé surface wor’ pre: existing rocks which may be igneous, sedimentary or metomarphic. These weathered products latter become e constituents of the new sedi- mentary rocks, le weathering agents are : (a) Atmospheric agents—Rain, frost, Wind and temperature changes. (6) Gravity—The rock disintegration duting landslide. (g) Rivers [ Seas : © ke : (f) Organic agents — such as animals ‘aad Dae Organically—Sediments ‘are formed from the remains of plants and animals. Chemically—Sediments are formed due to chemical decom-- position. Sedimentary Invironments. . Invirooments which cause sedimentations are mainly : (a) Continental, (6) Intermediate, (c) Marine. Continental, In such cases the agents are rivers, lakes, glaciers, and wind. For example deposits transported 4nd deposited “by wind are Acolian, deposited by rivers—Fluviatile and deposited by glaciers are Glacial. ‘cea Intermediate, Deposits formed in deltas are- Deltaic and deposits formed in estauries of rivers are Estuarine. Marine Environments, Deposits formed along coastlines— Shore, deposits formed under great depth of water—Abyssal. The shape of grains in a sediment depend upon : (a) The original shapes of the materials supplied by the dis- integration of pre-existing rocks, For example—weatherings - from granite will be sharp angular quartz and from felds- pars it will be irregular mica flakes. ROCKS : ir (6) The amount and nature of transport : The greater the dis- tance of transportation the more will be the rounding of the grains, Wind transported sediments will be rounded of up to the maximum extent, water causes some degree of rounding whereas ice will cause the least rounding off. Generally sedimentary rocks occurs in well defined beds. They’ are known as bedding planes or stratification. Classification of sedimentary Rocks, As a broad classification, sedimentary deposits are classified in two categories. (i) Unconsolidated Sedimentary Deposits; (ii) Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks ; In fact due to further consolidation and cementation of sedi- mentary deposits sedimentary rocks ate formed. To the engineer group (i) constitutes the engineering soils and group (ii) is the rock. From an engineering view point, the most important sedimen- tary rock are sandstones, shales and limestones, The size of grains in sandstones varies from fine grained type to’ coarse grained type. The structures are massive, horizontally bedded. or cross-bedded. Sandstones are having good bearing capacity. However presence of some weak materials in the mass make it weaker, The groups of sedimentary rock med by clay minerals are shales. A shale is laminated sedimentary rock frequently dark in. “colout and composed of mainly clay sized particles (Finer from 0002 mm size particles). Sometimes small percentage of sand and silt may occur. tt has got laminations which can easily be Observed. a has got variable hardness depending upon its consoli- dation. A good shale gives a clear ring if struck with a hammer. Limestone, It is primarily composed of calcium carbonate and has got crystalline structure. The grains are fine. [t may be considered as a good foundation materia! unless it has got cavities. Another important type of rock which may be considered in the sedimentary category, is the Conglomerate. It is a rock composed of* very coarse (6 mm to 75 mm) particles which are rounded off. Sometimes well graded particles with good percentage of fines are_ there in the materials. The well graded materials make such type of rock as good bearing surface. some of important sedimentary rocks- are given in Table 2°2. 12. ROCK MECHANICS OR ENGINEERS Table 2-2 fe Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Group Unconsolidated | Consolidated Rocks | Sediments Rudaceous | Gravels Conglomerates (Pebbly) | Fragmented rock, Breccias Arénaceous | Sands Sandstones : (Sandy) Ferruginous sandstone—iron “Cement : . Seliceous sandstone—siliceous cement. Calcareous sandstone-Calca- reous cement. Greywocke—composed of mix- ture of rock fragments. Silts Siltstones—a consolidated rock of silt grade. Argillaceous | Muds, Clays, Hard clays. shales, mudstones, (Muddy) | Brick earth fine clay, marl. Calcareouf, | Shell sand, Coral] Lime stones (Limey)” | reef, CaCO; pre- Shally limestones cipitate from Siliceous limestone solution Ferruginous Limestone Chalk, - Carbonaceous| Coals Peat Lignite Anthracite Cannel Ferruginous Clay ironstone Blackband ironstone Siliceous Silica gel Flint, Chert 264, Metamorphic Rocks Due to high pressure, high temperatures and temperature gradings as well as high shearing stresses on existing igneous or sedi- mentry rock masses, under the earth crust, recrystallisation of rocks takes place and the resulting complete or incomplete recrystallised mass is known as metamorphic rocks. Due to recrystallisation a zew rock mass evolves due to changed environments. ROCKS Ik The process which brings out changes in the rocks is known as metamorphism. The agents which are active for metamorphism are : (a) Temperature (6) Pressure (c) Stress (a) Chemically reactive substances, These agents may act separately, or combined together depen- ding upon conditions to bring the changes in the rock mass. During . recrystallisation, the action of directed pressure or stress on the rock mass causes a change in the orientation of the mineral grains or crystals, The nature of metamorphic rocks not only depends upon @ particular agent as listed above but it also depends on the -extent to which they are in action to bring metamorphism. The mineralogical composition of a metamorphic rock is depen-~ dent upon two factors. (i) The initial composition of the rock (ii) The degree of metamorphism (i.e. change) undergone by the rock mass, Limestone which coasists of calcium carbonate is changed into marble due to metamorphism and sandstone which contains silica is changed to quartzite. A shale under low grade of metramorphism_is changed to slate whereas under high grade of metramorphism, it is converted into phyllites. Igneous rocks are formed under a condition of falling tempera- ture and pressure and hence, the minerals crystallise in descending order of their melting points. In case of metamorphic rocks, there is commonly a tise in temperature which brings out new reactions depending upon the d:gree of temperature and all the constituent minerals are formed simultaneously when cooling takes place. Thea the minetals which occur in a metamorphic rock are known as anti- stress minerals if they have been formed under uniform pressure whereas they will be known as a stress-minerals when formed under a directed pressure or stress ie. when pressure or stress in a_particu- lar direction was more than the other directions. Anti-stress minerals are generally equidimensiona! whereas stress minerals are flaky or laminar. Some of the important metamorphic rocks which are used by engincers are marble, slate, schist, Gneiss, Quartzite, Hornfels etc. Marble results from recrystallization of lime stones, Slate is formed by metamorphism of fine grained sedimentary rocks. Cleavage : planes are highiy developed. 44 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Schist results from mica, chlorite, talk and hornblende minerals. They are of medium to coarse grained size. Gnciss results from metamorphism of igneous or sedimentary -rocks. Minerals are arranged in irregular bands. Common minerais are feldspar, quartz, mica or hornblende, Quartzite is formed due to recrystallization of sandstones under heat and pressure Dominant aineral is quartz. Hornfels are formed ‘by thermal metamorphism of muddy rocks, such as shales. Minerals present are feldspar, biotite and quartz. a Table 2:3 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks Structure and Composition Rock name Texture : Massive Various tabular Gneiss Banded, consisting prismatic and granular of alternating lenses | minerals (frequently elongated) -Granular, Calcite, dolomite quartz | Marble or consisting mostly in small particles quartzite .of equidimensional grains Foliated"or Various tabular and/or | Schist, slate platy prismatic minerals | phyllite (generally elongated) 2:71, Geological or Litholegical Classification ‘The lithology of a rock is the study of its physical character. It includes the study of mineralogical composition, texture, colour, physicaj appearance etc. It helps in the selection of a particular rock -for engineering purpose. Generally engineers are mainly concerned with strength properties of the rock material. Hence if an engineer is conversant with the lithological or geological classification of rocks he can select the rocks primarily for bis purpose. For example if he has to use a building block, be will be using marble where external .exposure is required, whereas he will ure granite when the rock has to be used as foundation blocks. When he refers the name of granite, limestone, sandstone, mica -shist, quartzite he gets an idea of the physical property of the rock .and he ascertains whether a particular rock will be suitable for a specific purpose. ‘ “ROCKS: To ascertain the engineering properties of rocks it is to know the following rock properties which can be ascerta 1 visnal examinations to make a preliminary inference about the - 4, ability of a particular rock for.a particular purpose. For example, granites, lime stones and other rocks may exist ina very hard and ; strong state to a campletely decomposed and weak state. Hence if $ simply rock type is described the informations may not be sufficient. Hence in order to describe-the rock fully for a particular engineering purpose it is necessary to describe following properties : (i) Texture Structure i’) Composition (®) Colour ©) Grain size. 27-2. Texture Rock materials may be of any of the following textural group: (i) Crystalline } (ii) Indurated (iii) Crystalline-indurated (iv) Compact (v) Cemented. Crystalline rock materials are composed of visible interlocking crystals or crystal grains. When scratched by the blade of a penknife, particles do not come out of the rock mass. If particles come out due to scratching, the rock will not be taken in crystalline group. Indurated rock materials are those in which interlocking crys- tals and crystal grains are not visible by naked eye. Grains are fine. But the reck is strong as particles do not come out of the rock mass when scratched by the edge of a knife. Crystalline-indurated rock materials fall between crystalline and indurated rock materials. Its individual crystal grains or crystal aggregates are finer than crystalline structure but coarser than indu- rated. Rocks of this type of structure are hard because the grains do not come out when scratched by the edge’of a knife. In compact rock materials, the particles are held together purely by tightness for grain packing. Grains are finer. Particles or powder come of the rock mass when scratched by the edge of a knife. mented rock materials are medium to coarse-grained rock. g grain to grain bonding by some cementing materials. Grains. =e visible to the naked eye and particles.come out from-the rock. mass even when scratched with’ finger nail. 273, Structare Structures refers to placing of various: textures within the rock. material. It also refers to fractures or any preferred. minerai orienta- tion within the rock mass, The various types of structures are as follows : (2) Homogeneous Z : (b) Lineated (c) Intact-foliated (d) Fracture foliated, Homogeneous, if the graias and crystals are having randony orientation the structure will be called homogeneous. By visual exa- minations only the homogeneous structures in a rock mass can be: ascertained. Lineated, Ifthe mineral particles are having a preferred: orientation in a particular linear direction/directions the structure: will be knowa as lineated. \nutact-foliated, When the minerals im the rock mass are having a preferred orientation of a planer nature, Fracture-foliated, When the planer structure is having: closed or incipient fracture such as bedding planes or cleavage planes. Generally the lineated structures pose problems because proper- tics of rock mass is not the same in all directions im such cases. The mass is known as aelotropic or zon-isotropic. 27-4, Composition Presence of calcite is of prime importance when considering. mechanical and physical characteristics of rock mass. The important sub-divisions are : (a) Noncaleareous (8) | Part-caleareous (c) Calcareous. Non.-caleareous, Rock materials are those in which calciuny carbonate is absent, : ROCKS ; 17 Part-calcareous, The rock contains mainly non-calcareous materials, The calcareous material is present asa bond between the grains. Calcareous, The rock materials which are mainly composed of calcite. 275, Colour If the Tock is of basic natyre, it will be of dark colour whereas acidic rocks are of light colour. Light-coloured rocks are generally feldspathic whereas dark coloured rocks generally contain ferro- magnesiun minerals. Calcarrous rocks, which contaia impure ‘materials, are dark in colour whereas pure calcareous rocks are light. 276, Grain Size Sometimes classification of rocks is done on the basis of their grain sizes. Ia such cases origin or type of rock is not so impor- tant. The rock material is classified ia three groups—Coarse, Medium and Fine grained. : Coarse-grained—When the particles ‘are larger than 2 mim in diameter. i : Medium grained—When particles size lies between 2mm and Oo: mm. Fine grained—Particles of less than O'l mm size and invisible to the natural eye. 28, Engineering Classification The problems of Rock mechanics are mainly associated with intact rocks.’ Hence it is necessary to classify the rock based om insitu properties. The behaviour of rock mass subjected to change in, stress due to change in physical conditions due to construction of some supefstructures or excavation of tunnels etc. is governed by mechanical properties of the intact rock mass and number and nature of geological discontinuities present in the mass. Hence, in rock classification these two items are taken separately. In addition to these, rocks are also classified sometimes according to their degree of weathering. Because this also gives an important information about the load bearing capacity of the rock mass. While making. classification as per degree of weathering rocks are classified as grade I, Il, II etc. Table 2'4 gives the classification based on degree of weathering of the rock mass as suggeted by Geological Society of London. at) ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Table 24 " Classification based on degree of weather- ing of rock mass Term Description Grade Fresh No visible sign of material weathering. JA Faintly Discolouration on major discontinuity | 1B weathered | surfaces. Slightly Discolouration indicates weathering of | Il weathered’ | rock material and discontinuity of surfa- ces, All the rock material may be discolu- red by Weathering and may be somewhat weaker than in its fresh condition. Moderately | Less than half the rock material is I weathersd | decomposed and/or disintegrated to a soil. Fresh or discoloured rock is present either as a contineous frame work or as core stones, Highly More than half the rock material is Iv weathered | decomposed and/or disintegrated to a soil. Fresh or discoloured rock is present either as a discontinuous framework or as corestones, Completely | All rock material is decomposed and/or Vv weathered | disintegrated to soil. The original mass structure is largely intact. Residual All rock material is converted to soil. The Vi soil mass structure and material fabric are destroyed. There is.a large change in volume, but the soil fas not been. signifi- cantly transported. The basis of engineering classification of rocks is uniaxial compressive strength and modulus of elasticity. Based on uniaxial compressive strength the rock is classified as Class A, B,C, D and. E. The compressive strength value is based on the results of the specimen having length diameter ratio of atleast 2. It may be obser- ved from the table that strength of different classes follow a geome- tric progression. Deer and Miller (1966) has given Table-2°5, for classification of rocks in different categories. ROCKS 19 Table 2'5 Engineering Classification ‘of Intact Rock (After Deer and Miller, 1966) Class Deszription Uniaxial Compressive Rock Material Strength kafom® A Very. High Over 2250 Quartzite, diabase, Strength basalts, Majority of igneous . rocks, Strong metamorphic rocks. B High 1125—2250 Weakly cemented sand Strength stones, -hard_ shales, majority of lime Vv stones, dolomites Cc Medium 562°5—1125 Many shales, porous Strength sandstones, and lime- stones, schistose varie- ties of metamorphic y rocks. D Low 281°25—562°5_| Porous low-density Strength rocks, friable sand- : stone, truff. E Very low | Less than Clay shales, weathered Strengih 281 25 and chemically altered rocks of any lithology. Table 2°6 shows the engineering classification of intact rock on the basis of modulus ratio, : Ma Et 5o/oust. where Eno =tangent modulus at 50% ultimate comp- Tessive strength of rock and Gus:=unaixial ultimate compressive strength. Table 26 Engineering Classification of Intact Rock 5 (After Deer and Miller, 1966) Class Description Modulus ratio H High 2 More than 500 M Average (medium) 200—500 i Low Less than 200 On the basis of above two tables engineering classification is done like AM, BH, CM. etc. (e.g. CM means medium strength and average modulus ratio). ; 3 Defects in Rock Mass 31, Discontinuities and Defects in Rock Mass~ When the foundation of an engineering structure will be put on arock mass an information regarding the type of rock, such as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic, is not sufficient. The rock may be an igneous one, but it may consist of a lot of discontinuities in the-mass which may make the rock unable to withstand high stresses due to the superstructure, Therefore, for proper design of éngineering structures ‘on’ and “in” rock, it is necessary to have a good information about the existing and probable discontinuities or weaknesses inside the rock. mass, These discontinuities and weaknesses may be in the follow- ing forms. Practures, Cracks and haircracks, Fissures, Bedding planes and laminations, Stratification, Joints, Faults, Folds and cavities. In their ‘in-situ’ conditions rock masses consist of discontinui- ties in any of the above forms in varying degrees. Sometimes these fractures split the rock mass into blocks or units of rock materials. The size of blocks or units depends on discontinuities existing. Thus. the rock mass has a predetermined structure prior to commencement. ofan engineering work. In engineering design it is necessary to specify the materiafs, such as brick, which will be used in forming the framework of the building. The engineer has to consider the strength and quality of the brick and accordingly he will design the framework such as foundations, and different bays with suitable: columns, Similarly in case of rock masses we have to consider : (a) the nature of the rock material present and (6) th: sub surface structural design depending upon the: presence of structural faults present in the rock mass. 3-2. Cause of Defects in Rock Mass Although the earth seems to be stable at its surface, but the: earth’s crust is in a state of continuous unrest which leads to gradual or sudden changes in its structure and configuration. The earth- quakes generally confirms the existence of such forces. The forces. within the crust which’ modify the structure of rocks bring our generally two types of crusted movement. (a) Epeirogenic or continent-building movements. (6) Orogenic or mountain building movements. The epeirogenic or continentat building movements are conti- nuous but slow. In such cases, portions of continents or ocean 20, ee ee ees ‘DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS 21 floor are subjected to slow continuous movements. Due to such Movements there may be upheaval or subsidence. Deformations in such cases may be uniform. The orogenic or mouutain-building Movements are associated with immense disturbing forces, Such movements are of more severe type, but affect the earth periodically. Due to sudden and severe disturbing forces the geological structures formed are of complicated nature. Due to eperogenic or orogenic movements the resulting struc- tures in sedimentary rocks are generally of simple nature due to their bedding planes. But in case of igneous or metamorphic rocks itis not so. In such cases complex structures are formed and their study is rather difficult. 33, Strike and Dip Unequal forces acting on the crust cause unequal uplift or ‘subsidence. Due to unequal uplift or subsidence, the original horizontal sedimentary beds get tilted. These tilted beds slope in some direction and subtend an angle with the horizontal plane. The direction of the line along which an inclined bed meets a horizontal plane is known as ee the strike of the bed. It is . described as N(°)E, N(C)W or SO)E, SW which means a particular angle of deviation in the direction of East or ‘West from North or South direction. | For — example N20°E means that strike makes an angle of 20° eastwards from the North direction. This has been shown in Fig. 3°1. Simila- ly S°0°F mean thats is 30° eastwards of south tion. Dip indicates the maximum slope of a particular inclined plane. The significance of the term dip is evident With reference to the angle ABC. which the inclined plane, 8C makes with horizon Ba. as shown in Fig. 32. Dip is describe? 85 ON, (VS. (SE ete. For example 20°S means a dip in southerly direction and 25°SE means a dip of 25° in South- east direction. While descri- bing dip the true dip angle Should be measured. A true dip means the angle made with horizontal by a line which lies in the inclined plane : ‘ and is perpendicular to the strike. Ip Fig. 3°1 angle ABC is a true dip of the inclined bedding Plane. Strikes and dips are used to describe joints. 2 ROCK MECHANICS’ FOR ENGINEERS 34, Bedding Planes, Stratification and other Defects In addition to Fractures, Cracks, Fissures, Joints and Faults which indicate discontinuities of the rock mass, there are some ‘weakness- es existing.inside thé rock mass which are named as Bedding planes, Laminations;-Stratifications, Cleavage. Planes and’ Partings. Bedding planes are the planes which separate the sédimentary and stratified rocks in.different layers. : Lamination of a rock strata also constitutes a discontinuity in the rock mass, and it is a mechanical wéakness of rock en masse. Stratification is layering of geological’ materials. There are different types of materials in the stratifications aad these are the planes which helps the rock material to be separated along “beding planes. Cleavage is the property of rock mass to split into thin, parallel sheels. The cleavage planes are the planes: in rocks along which cleavage takes place. - A parting is a thio layer of deposited and altered weak materials, such as carboneceous or organic, which ex@ist as separat- ing beds in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. Separation is a break between beds along bedding planes. 35, Joints The tensile and compressive stresses which act within the rock are produced due to decrease in volume i.e., shrinkage of the rock mass. These decrease in volume are caused due to : (a) Drop in temperature (6) Loss of moisture (c) Drop in temperature as well as loss of moisture. Due to tensile and compressive stresses in the rock mass regular and irregular ctacks or discontinuities are developed in the tock mass. Any break in a rock mass irrespective of its size is termed as fracture. Minor fractures are designated as cracks and fissures, Cracks along which the fractured rock masses appear to have suffered no relative displacement are known as joints. Joints occur in all types of rocks, ie., igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. In sedimentary rocks generally there are two system of mutualy perpendicular joints both perpendicular to bedding planes. In igneous rocks there are three regular sets of joints. They are : (i) Flat laying joints (i) Q joints or cross joints (ii) S joints or longitudinal joints, DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS. *He 2 23. _ Flat-lying joints.are approximately horizontal and are , parallel to the bedding planes... . 3 ce : »* Q joints or cross joints are almost perpendicular to the fow Jimes. i = ‘S joints or longitudinal joints,-dip steeply -and strikes: parallel to the flow lines if projected to a plane surface. . : The three joints are shown in Fig, 3°3. IGNEOUS ROCK MASS Fig. 3-3. Types of joints. Joints seldom occur alone. Generally a number of more or Jess paralle! joints occur together in the form of a joint set. Two or - more joint-sets together constitute a joint system. A joint can be open or closed. A closed joint is one whose walls are in contact. Closed joints may be invisible, Along such surfaces there is no resis- tance against separation. Hence sometimes they pose serious prob- lems if they are not detected by a proper investigation, When the structures are constructed and stresses act along such joints, sliding occurs and if not delt with properly it may endanger the structure. i When a rock mass consists of many joints, the rock mass is divided | into individual blocks to forma three-dimensional network. In such cases the rock mass may be considered as aggregate of uncemented, oo + | cerry} Peteidede reddy Fig. 3 4 (a) ee Fig 34 (6) ) | | | 24 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS cchesionless cuboid blocks. These may be compared with closely fitted blocks in a dry masonry wall. If the blocks are properly imbri- cated, shear strength will be more in the rock mass against the forces trying to dislocate the structure, Fig. 3 4 (b) whereas shear strength will be Jessif irbrication will be poor as shown in the Fig. 3°4 (a). 36. Faults When there is a displacement on each side of a fracture in the tock mass along the fracture plane, then the plane is classified as a fault, The displacement may be horizontal, vertical or both. In wide centast with joints, faults are well defined cracks. When several faults occur in close proximity and are parallel to each other, then the resulting zone of broken rock is called a shear or fault zone, As faults occur along well defined planes, their descrip- tion in space is defined in terms of their dip and strike. In Fig, 3°5 Dip 2 ACB=50° Hode £ CAB=40° Fig. 36 ‘DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS 25. ‘the strike of the fault is north-south and the fault is vertical, In Fig. 3°6 the fault is an inclined one and its dip is 50° towards east. “The hade of a fault is the angle subtended by the fault plane to any -yertical plane, striking in the same direction. Head and dip of a fault are thus complementary to each other. The total displacement of the block due to a fault is known as its net slip. Movement of the block due to fault may be along the big. 3:7 strike or along the dip. In Fig. 3°7, it is a stcike slip and in Fig. 3°8 it is a dip slip. Fig. 3:8 “Thus, slip along the true dip of the faulting plane is known as a dip -slip' whereas the slip paralle] to the strike of the fault is known as a strike slip. Depending upon the forces acting inside the crust the fault may ‘pe horizontal, or vertical as shown in Fig. 3°9 or ir may be. inclined a (6) Vertical Fault (a) Horizontal Fault Fig. 39 I | ; ' 26. ROCK MECBAMCS FOR BNGINERRS, as showa in Fig, 3°8.’ Since the fault is generally caused. due to shear, failure incliaed faults are more common. Ia otherwords it caa be said that since the shear failure occurs along an inclined plane, faults occurring. in nature are gene- -rally inclined.,. Thus. the..two blocks on each side of the ,incli-° ned shear plane appear to rest on the other. The block which seem to support the other block is known as a foot wall side and *'to other one beiag supported on foot wall side is known as a han- ging “wall side as shown in. Fig. 3°10. : Fig. 310 Types of Faults Considering the relative positions of footwall side and handing wall sides, the fault is classified in two types. (a) Normal fault. (b) Reverse ‘fault. When the hanging wall side appears to have moved relatively dowawards in comparison with the adjoining footwall side, it will be called a normal fault. In a normal fault, the dip of the fault plane is usually more than 45°. In normal faults, the fault is caused mainly by vertical pressure as shown in Fig, 3°11. rica PRESSURE Pe ewsng FAuLT Fig. 311 When the footwall side appears to have shifted downwards in comparison with the adjoining hanging wall side, the fault is knowa as reverse fault. In such cases, the hanging wall side appears to have risen and dip of the fault plane.is usually less than 45°. The reverse fault is usually caused by horizontal thrust as shown in Fig. 3°12. When an engineering project has been taken up and a fault has been Getected below the foundation, it is necessary to know whether DEFECTSIN‘ROCK’ MASI FSH 27 the fault, which has occurred, may have movements in future. In fact it is very difficult to. predict such phenomena. Hewever, for fra THRUST "CAUSING FAULT hess THAN 45° Fig. 3:12 Precaution against such hazards, generally the faults are termed as' Active and Inactive faults. Active faults are those in which the move~ ments have occurred during the recorded history of mankind and in such cases further movements can be expected at any time. Inactive’ faults are also called as passive faults. When there is no recor- ded history of movement along the fault, it is known as an inactive rae Such faults are generally assumed to be of static condition in uture. For important civil engineering works, such as the foundations’ of a bridge piers and masonary dam, thorough geophysical investiga- tion is most important for an useful life of the project. For example, if a bridge foundation is put over a fault, as shown in Fig, 313, Fig. 3°13 there isa chance of sinking of the bridge pier due to the super~ structure load because there might be sliding along: the faulted zone. 28 ROCK MECHNICS FOR ENGINEERS Similarly, if a masonry dam is put on a faulted zone as_ shown in Fig, 3°14 (a), there is a chance of danger to the structure as sliding might take place due toa resultant force R as shown in the figure. Fig. 3:14, In such cases foundation bed is improved by grouting but if the fecation of the fault zone is as shown in Fig. 3°14(6) danger to the Inucture may not be there. Hence, with the above two examples, it is clear that location of faults or a fault zone is necessary before starting a project. But search for fault is not always effective. Sometimes, they afe discove- red during the construction. Faults might be burried deeply. If the foundation excavation has been started and faults containing gauge and bracciated rock is met with, then it is better to abondon the site from economic point of view. Because excessive excavation may be required to remove the fault or fault zone which may continue up to a great depth, or a ground improvement may be necessary. How- -ever, a proper decision depends upon other factors also. 37, Folds Folds are wavy undulations which are developed in the country- rocks when the region is subjected to high stresses, The wave like form is made up of a series of alternate crests and troughs. 37-1, Modes of Folds There are three fundamental modes of folding. (1) Concentric folding (2) Cleavage @) Flow. Concentric Folding means that all internal movements are . parallel to the bedding plane, It is fundamentally an elastic bending of an originally horizontal sheet, with development of parallel con- centric shear planes in the flanks of the folds. The deformation may ‘DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS 25 be called elastic-viscous, and is common in the upper part of the: earth’s crust, but it is not restricted to the upper part only. Concen-- Fig. 3°15 (a) concentric Fold. Fig. 3°15 (b) Elevage Fold. tric folding is also known as parallel folding or distance-true folding, because the thickness of any conceatrically folded bed remains unchanged. Cleavage is a process by which all internal movement is along shear-planes which do not change their position during the process of folding. Normully they are perpendicular to’ the deformative stress. The process is a dilatation in a vertical direction and a comp- ression in a lateral direction. Generally, the deformation is elastic- viscous where the elastic properties have not yet lost their influence, but it is almost near the plastic range, Cleavage is common in the lower region of orogenic belts (Fig. 3°15 (6)]. Flow is a kind of distortion in which fixed orientation between not oriented in any direction. It can take place in any direction with the result that it can no Jon- ger be represented adequately in a section. It is common in weak rocks like salt or+in| other rocks reoeey high confining pressures LM or high temperature The defor- mation of rock in such a case is ig. 3° i rreuie (Fig. 13 (el Fig. 3°15 (c) Oblique Shear Fold. Combinations of cleavage and concentric folding are very common. 372, Types of Folds The simplest kind of a fold is the monocline. It can be com-~- pared with a flexible beam firmly embedded at two ends. If the Fig. 3°16. shear-planes and stress direction is lost. The internal movement is- support sinks a poiht: of inflection .is formed asi shown’ in Fig. 3°16. Ee i Monoclinal fold may be compared with the deflected shape of the beam. Such fgids\are formed due to sinking of a part of the basin. Such typegiof falds are also termed as bedding folds. When theféld‘appears in the wave form having crests and -troughs, anticlines and synclines are formed. Anticlines are crests and synclines “are trough of the wave form folds. Iu case of very large folds, consecutive crests or troughs may be hundreds of kilo- metres apart. The smallest folds may have several crests of troughs within a span of a few metres. The portion of rock beds laying between any crest and the adjacent trough is known as the limb of the fold. Such type of folds are known as buckling folds. | 30 ROCK MECHANICS: FOR ENGINEERS: | | j | | (6) Fig. 3-17 ‘The..mechanism of buckling fold can be comtpared with the - bucklingof a column as shown in Fig. 3°17 and 3°18. Arrover Joaded-column may deflect as in Figs, 3°17 (a) or 3°18 (a). The vertical-force'acting-on the column as shown in Figs. 3°17 (a) and 3°18 (a) can be compared with horizontal: stresses acting on the rock mass OS inside. the crust. When > deflection is as shown in Fig. 3°17(a) Anticlines may Fiz. 3:18 (a) be formed, and when deflection is an shown ia Fig. 3°18 (a), asct of | anticlines and synclines are formed. Some other theories also have been given to explain the phenomena of fold. According to this theary a change in the shape of mass is due to action of shearing stresses and not due to acompressive force. The horizontal shears may be : compared with the horizontal couple, and this horizontal couple has | to be counter balanced by a vertical couple. The vertical stresses are caused due to upward acting force of the vertical couple, and this causes wrapping in the upward direction which is called anticline and similarly the downward acting force of the couple will cause wrapping downward, and thus, synclines are formed. Due to folding, there will be.stretching at the top of anticlines and bottom pf synclines, At the top of anticlines there is no resistance to such i DEFECTS']N'-ROCE/MASS 31 stretching ‘whereas.at the bottom of synclines there is a. resistance to stretching due to lower strata. Hence, more tension cracks develop Fig. 3°19 (6) 32 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS: at the top of anticlines. The extent of cracks depends upon nature of folding, type of rock and forces causing folding. ‘When the axial plane of the fold is vertical and both the limbs. have the same amount of dip the fold is known as symmetrical. If the limbs have unequal dips the fold is described as asymmetrical. 373, Importance of Folds for Engineering Projects Folds do not cause serious problems in case of foundations for buildings. But in case of dam foundations, reservoir locations and PERVIOUS. STRATUM WWE TG SEEPAGE Fig. 3°28 tunnel iocatioas, significances of folds are there. When a monocliae contaiaing pervious strata dips down stream, there will be excessive seepage below the dam from the upstream side to the down stream side as shown in Fig. 3°20. However, ‘there is no such danger if the monocline dips upstream as shown in Fig. 3°21. DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS If a tunnel passes through a cyncline, the maximum pressure iS expected at the middle points of the tunnels and if pervious strata Fig, 322 (@) Tunnel Driven through a Cyncline. a SEEPAM uo | it (®) Cross-section: Fig. 3:22 (© Pressure on Tunnel, Fig. 3-23 (a) Tunnel Driven through Anticline. “ ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS exists in the layers, the seepage will be directed inside the tunnel which causes serious problems for the maintenance (Fig. 3°22) where- as, in case, an alignment passes through anticline, the pressure will be directed at the two ends due to an arching action, and maximum pressure will be at the two ends, and at mid-point the pressure will be minimum. Seepage due to pervious strata also will be directed at the two ends (Fig. 3°23). TURWEL, Fig. 3-23 (6) Cross-section. Fig. 3 23 (c) Pressure Distribution on Tunnel. _ Thus, it is clear from the above examples that thorough infor- mation about folds is necessary fora successful performance of an engineering project. 4 Methods of Rock Exploration (Geophysical Prospecting) 41, Introduction Careful desiga of an engineering structure is not completed unless full information about envirooments of the strata, on which the structure is going to stand is available. Intelligent design for safe and economical construction requires thorough knowledge of subsurface conditions. Many useful engineering details are obtained from geological maps. Geological maps give information about the rock units directly underlying the project area. The characteristics ‘of rocks are of prime importance in the selection of water retaining structures and dams. Conditions beneath the surface can often be correctly predicted by the three dimensional information given on geological maps, Qn geological. maps rocks are identiGed by name and geological age. A formation is an individual bed or several beds of rock that extend over a large area, and that can be clearly differentiated from overlying or underlying beds because of a distinct difference in lithology, structure or age. Geological maps often carry one or mote geological sections which describe the disposition of the various strata in depth along an arbitrary line usually marked on the map. These sections are somewhat hypothetical and is to be used with caution. They give a general strata condition and an exhaustive information can not be obtained with the study of geo- logical map of an area, That is why for any important engineering project such as dams, multistoreyed buildings, or a massive structure, it is necessary to know the strata conditions in detail below the eqnstruction site. Some times minor modifications may serve the purpose and some times the site may be shifted if the strata condi- tion is not favourabje. Therefore after completion of the Civil Engi- neering Survey—that is survey of the surface ground ~it is necessary to do survey of the substrata which may be said to the geological and rock mechanics survey. Itis said that strong rocks such as granite are suitable for almost all engineering purposes, but it is not always true. Much depends on details of jointing, weathering, permeability, ground water conditions etc. 35 36 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 42, Object of Rock Exploration While conducting geological or substrata survey following item of information are required to be described and measured. (i) Homogeneous zones and their extent. (ii) Rock type and their engineering properties. (iii) Geological separations and their geomechanical signifi- cance. (iv) Width of separations with details of fillings. (y) Joint surfaces, (vi) Determination of the degree of jdinting, spacing of joints. and their two and three dimensional extent. (vii) Water conditions in respect to both rock material and: joint and fault material. Information of homogeneous zones and their extent gives us an idea of suitability of the strata asa supporting member of the foundation if the structure is to be built on or above the strata and some times they give an idea of materials available for a particular construction work if the structure is to be built with the material available along the strata. For example—extent of materia} avail-. able for a masonary dam. Information about the Rock Type and their engineering. properties helps the designer in selecting the type of foundations and Jimit of their dimensions. And details of joints, faults etc. caution the designer in selecting the dimensions of the foundations and to- see if some treatment of: sub-strata is required or not. Some times. treatment of fractured sub-strata becomes absolutely necessary for successful life of the project. If we summarise the objective of subsurface exploration then it can be said that the objective of sub surface exploration are to obtain quantitative data on the kinds, properties, amounts, distributions and. structure of the material under and adjacent to a proposed structure. 43, Methods of Rock Exploration Two groups of methods are available to obtain these data. (i) By direct penetration of the materials. (ii) By making certain physical measurements from the sur- face without direct penetration and then to interpret. those data for ascertaining the above required informa- tion. Before starting any engineering geological survey it is beneficial to study the available literature and official records on the geology and hydrogeology of the area. This helps to establish the extent of geological and hydrogeological exploration to be done on the construction site and correctly outlining a definite programme of the: required survey work by determining the required number of explora- tion bore hoies. The number of such bore holes and their depth. depends upon the complicated nature (complexity) of the geological. structures and suspectibility of the strata to settlement. METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 37 44, Rock Exploration by Direct Penetration of the Material Instead of some indirect methods for ascertaining any property of a material it is always better to have some direct method. Direct penetration into the rock mass helps in direct observation of its structure with which its property can be inferred to a great reliability. Therefore, boring is the best method for rock or sub-surface exploration. Borings are of two types 1. Core borings. 2. Large diameter calyx holes. 441, Core Borings The primary purpose of core boring is to obtain samples of the materials penetrated and to get inference about the lower strata by direct observation and preliminary testing of the core samples. Core boring can be done in almost every type of rock and the samples ‘are machined cylinders of the materials penetrated. Core holes are mostly vertical but in some exceptional cases inclined borings are also done, The equipment commonly used are known as drilling rings and arerun by variable speed machines. Drilling fluid is used inside the hole to progress further deep. Sometimes compressed air dril- ling is also done for greater depths. The bit makes an annular opening in the rock and as drilling continues the core barrel slides down over the central core of rock material. When the core barrel is raised a catcher holds the core in place and the core is raised with the core barrel. Cutting tools commonly used are diamond bits and steel alloy toothed cutters, Diamond bits cut even the hardest rocks but tend to clog in softer materials. Steel-alloy tooched bits are generally better adopted to shales and soft rocks and operates satisfactorily in dense and un- weathered basalt. The diameters of cores with diamond or steel alloy bit range from 22mm to 100 mm. Length of the core cut depends on core barrel. 442. Core Recovery The success of core-drilling is measured by the percentage of core- recovered. Sometimes a good operator abtains between 90 to 100 percent recovery ifthe rock penetrated fs sound. Bad rock condi- tions cause blocking of the core in the barrel and consequent grind- ing of the core. If the core recovery is not good it should be checked at the time of drilling how losses are occuring.. From behaviour of the drill rig and character of the returning drilling Ruid and cuttings, ' ' 38 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS fracture systems in the rock mass very poor recovery is obtained. To get a correct picture of fracture etc. inside the rock mass sufficient number of borings are done and on the basis of core recovery from different bore holes inference is made. 443, Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D.) We have seen in the above para that good core recovery represents good quality of rock whereas poor core recovery repre~ sents poor rock strata. That weakness might be due to poor strength of the rock or due to presence of joints, fissures, faults etc. inside the rock mass. Of course this can be ascertained by observation of the fresh core being recovered. Now-a-days designers, consulting engineers and geologists in several countries use the “R.Q.D.” as yardstick for evaluating the quality of rock at site R.Q.D. stands for Rock Quality Designation. When a drilling has been done for a particular depth the cores coming out of it are accounted for. Then total length of core recovery (that is the rock which has’ come up) is measured. Then ratio of total length of core recovery and length of core runi.., drilling done, is expressed as core recovery ratio. The ratio is expressed in percentage. Ce __ Total length of core recovered covery =—~T ength of drilling done In this procedure length of all the cores whatever be their Jength, are counted. Buta new system was adopted in which the length of rock cores which are less than 10 cm are not counted and the core “fecovery ratio ow expressed in percentage are known as Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D.). In such acase the effect of rock weaknesses are taken into account. Because if the rock will be weak, then cores will not be of bigger length. At the same time due to joints, fracture etc. also the cores will be of lesser dimensions. thus R.Q.D.' gives a good assessment for the quality of rock. The cores might be brokea during handling and drilling processes also. In such cases the surfaces may be having fresh irregular breaks. In such cases, fresh broken pieces are fitted together and counted as: one piece provided they form the length of 10cm or more. - Natural joint surfaces can be identified looking at the broken core samples. and generally in such cases pieces can not be fitted together to give an appearance of one piece. Per running metres the number of fractures may also be counted looking at the recovered core but the result may not be good. Hence R.Q.D. has been taken as yard stick to represent the quality of rock. Table 4°1 gives description of rock strength based on 2.Q.D. Fig. 4'1 explains determination of Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D.) from the cores obtained from a bore hole. Pee Pe eee eee eo ee ford Due to’ presence of bedding planes, some times correct infe- rence is not obtained by this method for rock strata having sedimen- tary beds but for igneous and metamorphic rocks more exact infe- rance is made. CORE RECOVERY MODIFIED CORE ‘ “ncn Grd Recover (oan) iT Z 6 Total Core Recovery oe s =265 om Total Core Run =300 cm ‘ Modifien Core Recovery =242 cm Core recovery \ 2650s =y00 783% R.Q.D. 22 _ ance, = 390 807% As per table 4 1 Rock Quality escription =Good (For R.Q.D. =87%) Note— Cores for 10, 14, 13 and 4 om resp. ;have come in small pieces. Hence not counted for R.Q.D. Fig. 4:1. v0 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Table 41 R.Q.D( Rock Quality | Rock Quatity Description Designation) { (A) 0-25 Very poor 25—50 Poor 50-75 Fair 75—90 Good 50—100 Excellent #44, Fracture Frequency For description of quality of rock some times fracture freque: ° ncy is used. Natural discontinuities in fracture per foot or per Metre run is described as fracture frequency. 45, Large Diameter Calyx Holes Although this method is costly, yet it gives a correct picture of the strata condition inside the hole. By this method the rock can be examined in-situ. With the help of camera, photographs are taken inside the hole for different sub-surface strata and inferance is drawn with those photographs. Sometimes, electronic equipments are also used as sub-surface probe. 46. Logging of Cores Logging of cores means keeping the rock cores (which come out of the bore holes) in porper sequence with detailed descriptions. Cores are of no value unless properly logged. In order to write a good log report the site incharge must understand drilling methods and comprehend the engineering purposes for which the work is to be undertaken. For example if bearing piles are to be located then determination of elevation of the depth of sound rock mav be sufficient, If investigation for a masonary dam is being done, then location of fauits, joints and fractures are also necessary. Percentage of core recovery is to be determined after each pull and effort to be made to’ascertain the cause of losses of the core. If the drill stem drops suddenly and circulation of drilling fluid is lost temporarily it can be inferred that core loss may be due to an open cavity. If drilling stem drops at faster rate than the normal while circulation of drilling fluid is normal but it becomes muddy then core loss may be due to grinding or washing away of the core, which means that in the zone, there might be fracture filled with silt which was washed away due to drilling fluid. For good reporting and preparation of good boring log, itis necessary that reporter ‘METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION Al should always be present at the site and must be able to make Proper interpretations. A typical example of a boring log has deen shown in Table 4°2. 47, Geophysical Prospecting Geophysical prospecting may be describea as Geophysical exploration. This is a type of field investigation in which physical measurements are done at the ground surfare to obtain information about sub-surface. In this method of exploration, physical measure- ments which are based on principles of physics are interpreted in terms of sub-surface geological structure and lighology. In fact, an engineer is satisfied with bore holes: oniy from which he gets a physical verification of the substrata condition, But making many ‘bore holes for a project may be a costly affair. In such a case, :geophysical methods are adopted which gives an qualitative idea of ‘the sub-surface condition at comparatively lower cost and then, bore holes are done at determined places to have a correct picture. Hence bore holes and Geophysical methods may be considered as comple- mentary to each other for an engineering project. Ina broad sense, geological prospecting is done for the follow- sing three purposes. (a) Determination of extent of mineral deposits or a construc- tion material. (8) Determination of rock structure and lighology. (c) Detection of underground metal or pipe lines etc, 48, Methods of Geophysical Prospecting The properties of rocks which are mostly used in geophysical prospecting are density, magnetic susceptibility, elasticity and electrical conductivity. The four principal methods of geophysical -exploration are : (i) Seismic, (ii) Electrical, (iii) Magnetic, (iv) Gravitational. 481, Seismic Methods Of all the methods seismic methods is highly developed and most of the details are obtained correctly where it is employed. Rocks have different elastic properties and densities therefore -elastic waves are propagated through them with different velocities, At the interfaces, the velocities are reflected and refracted because properties of the rocks change at the interface. An elastic wave generated by an impulse at the surface travels in side the rock mass but when an interface is met with, some part of it is reflected back to the surface and some after refraction travels through the lower rock mass. Travel time of the wave is observed at different points at the surface. And with the help of graph or other methods the depth of interface is obtained. Seismic exploration is done by two methods : (tf) Reflection (ii) Refraction. q ate ERE Reflection méthod is mostly used for deep exploration. Gene- rally more than 600 metres. Refraction methods are adopted for lesser depth. Since most of the engineering explorations are of shallower depth hence refrac- tion method of seismic exploration are employed for engineering explotations. 4811. Theory : Let at point S on the-surface of ground a shock be created. At ae optione has been put to receive the signal. Distance point G one geophon F between Sand G is x. For waves there may be two possibilities to travel. One shown by SAG in which the wave travels through upper medium only. In which it has got velocity V,. Another =f . possibility is that it tra- : | ' lone . _vels om path SBCG. OF hina ee "Ze course there might be other paths also. But f path SBCG is also a Fig. 4°2. possibility ia which the wave passes through both upper and lower medium with velocity V; and V, respectively. Since is more than V;, there is a possibility when signals at G is received at atime for the waves travelled by both the paths SAG and SBCG. Let Hbe the depth of upper strata. AM ria COS ic SB=CG= where ic is angle of incidence. BC=x~2H tan i, If ¢ is the time, taken by wave to reach at C’ through path SBCG L ( ca vs 1 : Then t wn )+ 7 2H tan i) Ea x _ 2H tanic conte TV, 1 Vi cos ie Vy ) | f+ METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION net: % i sin fc 1 : av saul Fycos ts ~ cos ie * Vilsin te ] ice | " = =sin ie [ Vaan te because sin i.g=sin 90° aun tow [at 7 V, cos ie cos? ie V, 008 ie =~ 42H 4 2H cos ie lat Time 4, takea by wave to reach from Sto G through upper A : x medium will be =. Vy Since both the signals are received at G at the same time. -h=t : x _ % , 2H cos i or Wo F Vi; : [2-4 ]- 2H cos fe | = Wanye ay 2H cos ic : Vi 2Hcosio Vib | ro, a ee Vinevs i V2 cos ic =a P2008 te 4-2) 2.H- VnV, (4°2y pooch sin fe= Va soa 1? sint i= o'r - | . vy Se ee or 1~cos? ie We Ad ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS or cos? (43) cos fe= *Putting value of cos ie in Eq. (4°2), we get HV VV VV) Vi-Vy | VEV Veet =2Hy (44) With the help of equation (4'4), thickness “#” of upper layer can be calculated. - 4812. Method of Exploration The method is based on the variable velocity of wave propoga- tion in different materials of the earth crust. Several seismic wave receivers, known as geophones or pickups, are set in a line on the ground at known distances as shown in Fig. 4°3 (6). The function of a pick-up is to convert the mechanical vibrations in the ground into electrical vibrations or pulses which are used to drive the record- ing mechanism. A smal! amount of electrical energy fed to the detector is amplified electronically in a manner similar to that employed in a radio receiver set. The energy supplied by the amplifier is fed to the recording device. Thus with the help of recorder, time of arrival of the wave is sensed, which is recorded also for future reference. At a distance, of course in the line of the pickups, a hole is made into the ground to keep some explosive. The point is known as shot point. The explosives are exploded by some electrical device and the seismic waves sent into the ground travel jn different directions. The waves reaching at different, points 1,2, 3 etc. are picked up hy geophones kept at those points. After proper magnification, it is’ transmitted to the recording device. The time of shooting is recorded by a separate device. Thus time of shooting .at the short point and time of arrival of seismic waves at points 1, 2, METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 45 3 etc, are recorded. The distance and time of arrival of wave front to reach a particular point is plotted on graph as shown in Fig. 4°3(a). If points on the graph are jointed, two straight lines are obtained as showa in Fig. 43 (a). To the left of intersection point, geophones set at | and 2 receive the direct wave first, whereas as at the right of the intersection pt., i.e., geophones at 4, 5 and 6, receive refracted waves first. Velocity of wave through lower strata is faster than. that of the upper strata. At 3rd point the geophone receives both the direct and refracted waves at the same time, and this corresponds: to the intersection point C. With the graph presented in Fig. 4°3 (a), the distance x of the intersection point can be measured out and thus, thickness’ of the upper strata A can be obtajned by Eq. 4°5, Ve-S, Ha *,} Sse 2 Poth 4 g 8 4 VELOCITY WW TOP LAYER fELOCITY IN BOTTOM LAYER Lo dee SHOOTING, DISTANCE = oan Fig. 4:3 (a) o DETECTORS (GEQPHONES) 2 e ft SH Te eT 2 3 al 5h Ss, it : . i Tap Lave? | 4? Sketch showing principles of Scismic exploration. Fig. 43 (6) 46 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS In the above equation V, and V, ie. velocity of the seismic waves in upper and lower strata can be evaluated from the observa- tions received by geophones kept at different points. Signal-at point 1 will be received earlier than point 2. At both the points, direct waves are being received. Distance between point 2 and 1 is known. Now difference in time intervals of signals received at point 2 and 1 gives the time of wave to travel from point 1 to 2. “Therefore, velocity V can be known as ~7> ; a hy -where f,is the time when signal has been received by géophone at 2. tis the time when signal has been received by geophone at 1, and distance between point 2 and 1 is D, metres. Similarly at point 4 and 5 refracted rays will be received earlier since V2 >V;) than the direct wave. Therefore, velocity De tet Vy: where ts and ¢, are the times when signals are received at point 5 and 4 respectively, and distance between point 5 and 4 is D, metres. Distance between geo phones are kept about 20 metres to 30 metres. Shooting distance is kept 3 to 4 times the depth upto which probing is required. Tf depth to be probed is not deep. then at shooting point, wave is generated by hitting the ground by a hammer instead of firing a dynamiee, Theory of wave propogation is also used to estimate the strength properties of rocks. + 4813, Limitations. Although seismic method is best among the geophysical methods of site exploration, yet this method has got the following limitations, lL. If the lower strata is dense compared to the upper strata the velocity. of waves will be faster and depth of upper Strata can be predicted correctly. But if the upper strata is denser than the lower one; then this method may not be successful. 2. This method is successful only when the velocity contrast is great, which means that there is a sharp change in the density of the two layers. If there is a gradual transition from surface soil to bedrock, the velocity contrast will be relatively small and in such a case it becomes difficult to make definite conclusions. 3. If the surface terrain and the interfaces of the ayers are steeply sloping or irregular instead of horizontal and pee then also seismic method may not be so success- ul. METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 47 482. Electrical Methods Electrical methods of prospecting can be employed in three ways. (a) Self-potential method, (b) Surface potential method, (c) Electromagnetic method. Certain ore bodies tend to act as wet cell batteries and generate a feeble current which can be measured in their vicinity. And this property of-the bodies are used to identify them in self potential method. Sometimes this method is used in ore prospecting. When an electric circuit is grounded at two points, an electrical field is produced in the earth. Any sub-surface variation in conducti- vity alters the form of the current ow within the earth and this affects distribution ot electric potential. The measurement of potential helps in identification of the strata. This method is popu- Jarly known as resistivity method but sometimes it is known as surface potential method also. : In the electromagnetic method, electromagnetic field of the ground currents are measured in place of their electrical fields and interpretation of substrata is done. Out of the three metitods described above the surface potential method or the resistivity method is mostly used by engineers for subsurface explorations. 4821, Resistivity Method The electrical conductivity and its reciprocal, the resistivity of the earth materials which include soils or rocks, depeadon the amount of dissolved electrolyte in pore water as well as on the volume of the pore water also. The amount of dissolved electrolyte in the pore water depends upon the chemical composition, whereas the amount and volume of pore water depend upon the porosity of the layer. Hence a layer having more porosity will have more pore water and thus, making the layer more conductive for electrical currents. The resistivity of the layer will be low. On the other hand if a layer of sand stone (which is composed of insoluble minerals) is there, it will have low concentrations of dissolved electrolytes in the interstices or pores. For such case the strata will be having less elec- trical conductivity and will have high resistivity. Thus, if the measure- ment of resistivity is done for passing current through the strata, it can help in identification of the strata. The principle underlying the resistivity method is that two electrodes are placed in the ground and joined in a circuit to a source of electrical energy producing direct current. The current will flow from one electrode to the other passing through the ground. The difference in potential between the two points spaced at equal distance from the electrodes is measured by a potentometer from which resis- tivity of the strata can be known, Since, the resistivity thus obtained is an average value between the two points of electrodes spacing, it is called the “apparent resistivity”, 48 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Before going into the details of the method it is better to have’ some idea about the theory of current flow which will help in under- standing the resistivity method. 482°2, Theory of Current Flow Ifa current in parallel lines flows through a conductor of cross- sectional area A, then resistivity p is defined by RA = St. wee S) tr ; (2°5) where Ris the resistance measured between two equipotential sur- faces separated by a distance L. e: Ohm’s Law states that AY : = at (46)! R T (4°6): where 7=current in the conducting body, AV=potential difference between two surfaces: of constant potential. R=the resistance between the surfaces, From Eq. (4°6) G7) Fig. 4°4 The current density (current per unit area) oi Av ey ren (48) If the current fiow is not parallel, the current density will vary through the conductor. But the same argument can be applied to an infinitesimal element of the conductor bounded by equipotential: surfaces which may be curved. The ratio AV/L becomes in the limit the maximum potential gradient dV/dL and then, the equation for current density can be written as, . dv a ae 9 ___Negative sign shows that the potential increases in the opposite direction to the current flow. __) METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 49 Next, let a curreat be flowing from a poiat which is knowa as ‘source’ and the negative pt., which is “‘siak”’, is at a infinite distance. If S is the strength of the source, the potential at a distance r from the source is given by Ss vai (4°10) Tf the source is at the centre of a sphere of radius r, then the current flowing through unit area of the surface will be given by Eq. (49) (4°11) [vrs r - =-4] ee OF caetan Surface area of the sphere =4nr? Total cucrent=Surface area x Current density Ss =4nr? > ann? . ==(4°12) and (4°13) For resistivity surveying the following condition prevails. The medium is semi-infinite bounded by a plane surface. This plane sur- face separates it from air. Air is considered to be of infinite resistivity and the source is situated at the interface. Since the surface is seffispherical, hence from Eq. (4°13) we can write that ede oo 2n If the potential gradient is measured at a point distant r from the source at the surface, wecan get equation for resistivity as follows (4°14) oa iF | \ | 50 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS S=Vr + (4°15), cers (4°16) and 7 amern 5 i a 2a f “ rs o-($°18) (aV/ar) has opposite sign to J therefore p is finally positive. If four electrodes are placed in line at equal distances apart and the inner being poten- tial electrodes and the outer 7 8 OD being current electrodes, the potential difference between the inner electrodes can bea 4a —4 easily be calculated with - the help of the above equa- Fig 45 tions. The configuration has been shown in Fig. 4°5. Potential at B due to A Vea= com oe Te v= J . - . aan’ Eq. (4:17) Potential at B due to D ee Vao= Fe (2a) . Net potential at B due to 4 and D. : - #Y( aS -) v= (IS 5 2419) Similarly potential at C due to 4 ae Voa= 35 (ia) and Veo= <2 Qna .. Net potential at C due to 4 and D a Ip a i onan (a-4] (420) > ee x eon METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION St Pctential difference between Band C Va—Vou tt (4- 2n a Je {1 2n la te [2 2e 7 ae an * Za ale = 2na Va—Vo=AV ; ib yao AY Fna Ae. Cae ar (421) With the help of Eq. (4°21) resistivity of the : h 4 strata if the difference of potential between two potential Gaesde ad current flowing between the outer two electrodes are known. an 48°2°3,. Measurements ‘The set up for the resistivity measurement is shown in Fi; : r the ; wa in Fig. 4° The instrament, which is a protable one is known as resistivitemeter The two electrodes are . placed in the ground and = -—i| | joinced in a circuit to a t Source of electrical enerey which is usually dry. cell. The amount of current flow is measured by a milliameter eee which measures the current ea in milliampere. The poten- Sere . rf eee ea 1S tial difference between the are Uae two inner potential electro- ig. +6 \ fee ig measured by a galvanometer. Sometimes, a potentiometer : circuit is also used for the purpose, The current electrodes are steel pin electrodes which are driven into the ground. The potential elee- trodes are of non-polarising type. This is to avoid electrochemical effects. A non-polarising electrode consists of a porous pot contain: ing a metal electrode immersed in an electrolyte of one of its ua ! salts, For example a copper electrode is immersed in copper sulphate: Tt has been seen by experience that the average depth of penetration | of the current is one fourth of the distance between the two current electrodes. If the four electrodes are kept in a line at the Hie | distance“ va Fig. 46, then the configuration i Snowa I \ 52 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS: as Wenner configuration. Since the four electrodes are placed in a: line at equal distances apart the calculation for resistivity becomes simple and easy. It can be stated that the depth of current penetra- tion will be the same as the distances between electrodes (of course approximately). If greater depth is to be probed, then the electrodes spacing is to be increased. Sometimes Schlumberger arrangement is also used, In this configuration the electrodes are kept ina line, bur the distance between potential electrodes are lesser. The resistivity survey can be done by two methods. (i) To get the horizontal variation of materials. (if) To get vertical variation of materials. Inthe first method, the spacing between electrodes are kept: equal to the depth to be probed. For example, if it is required to investigate the type of material upto 5 metres depth in a locality. Then the area is divided into traverse and electrodes spacing is kept 5 metres. The value of resistivity obtained is plotted on the traverse and equiresistivity curves can be drawn as contour lines and materials. may be identified. 4824, Interpretation of Result A guide line about the strata condition can be obtained by resistivity values as given in Table 4°3. Since variation in the resisti- vity value is wide, exact inference can be made by experience and: verification by a few bore holes in the area. Table 43, Resistivity of different strata Type of Straum Resistivity (Ohm-m) Clay | 1-10 Sand with saline water 5 Sand with fresh water 30-200 Gravel with fresh water 70-200 Weathered/fractured rock 90-209 Lime stone 300- Basalt 400° Granite 500 Schist 700— 10,000 ‘METHODS OF RCCK EXPLORAT 53 For vertical variations at a place the area is divided into diffe- rent sections. At each section the resistivity values are obtained at different electrodes spacings. For example, electrode spacing of 5m will give resistivity values of strata upto 5m and 10 m spacing will give details up 10 m depth and so on. The result is plotted on graph. Electrode spacings on the x-axis and resistivity values on the y-axis are plotted. An abrupt change in the curvature of the resistivity profile indi- cates a change of underlying material ata depth corresponding to the spacing-of the electrodes. A rising curve indicates the presence of hard stratum, such as a rock, because rising curve indicates high value of resistivity which is possessed by rocks or a hard strata. A flat or descending curve indicates the presence of clays or other clayey type soils. Resistivity method is widely used for the determination of water tables or water bearing strata. Civil engineers use it for the determination of depth of bed rocks for masonary or concrete dam construction. This method is employed for study of lithology . also. This method also can be used for estimation of extent of a particular construction material such as sand, gravels etc. under ground. 483, Gravity Method 4831, Theory The basic theory involved in this method is the Newton's Law of Gravitation. The law states that every particle of matter exerts a force of attraction on other particle, and the force between the two particles is given by the equation rag «-(4°22) where M, and M, are the mass of the two particles R the distance between them, and G the gravitational constant. From the second law of motion, we know that F=am, where a is the acceleration of the body of mass 44, a +e(4°23) CM, wee(o'24) 1 34 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Equation (4°24) gives the acceleration in the body of M, due” attraction of a body of mass M,. Equation 4°23 states that accelera- tion is equivalent to force per unit mass acting on the body. ._ If My is taken as the mass of the earth and R equal to earth's tadius, then the resulting acceleration will be equal to the gravitatio- nal acceleration on the earth's surface. Similarly acceleration due to a small burried mass m at a depth r can be obtained by the equation Is a=G. r Due to a variation in density of earth at different points late- tally, there exists some difference between theoretical and observed gravity. This difference is known as Bouguer Anomaly. These gravity anomalies are there which are detected by ins- trument and used for interpre- anes eae! tation of sub-surface strata. Since 1 gravity anomalies are very small compared with the average values. | : of earth’s field it follows that le yz this direction is virtually constant | and itis normal to the surface. I te Hence instruments used for detec- | tion of gravity anomalies measure the vertical component of the acceleration of gravity due to any CU local material inside the subsur- face. Therefore, the vertical com- ponenta: can be obtained by Eq. 4°25. Referring Fig. 4°7. lig.47. (425) mez 7 +(4°26) If the body is large then az=G j ae o(4°27) If the mass is spherical and the diffrence in density of the mass and average carth crust is say “‘y” then for min the Eq. 4°26, weean put $RR'y, Where Ris the radius of the mass METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 55 Unit of acceleration in measuring gravity anomalies is milligal. One gal is equal to an acceleration of I cm/sec*. Since 1000 m gal is equal to 1 gal, the acceleration due to gravity is about 930,000 m gal. In measurement of gravity anomalies in gravitational prospect- ing, data obtained ts of the order of a few milligals. 4832. Instrument and Measurement The instrument used for measuring gravity anomalies are gravi- meters. A brief description of its 4 working principle is described. A beam which is hinged at carries a weight, aa shown in Fig. 4°8. Tne beam 1s con- nected to a spring and the other end of the spring is attached to a support at P which 1s directly avove the hiage point A. Now tension in the spring-is such that / beam makes aa angie 4, with He the horizontal which ts very 62 smali. The gravitational mo- ment m cos @ is balanced by a moment F.x. Where F is the force in the spring and x the perpendi- cular distance of the spring from the hinge point. If gravity increases, the beam deflects cownward until the new equilibrium position is reached. The length of the spring increases. At point P some arrangement is made to bring the spring to the original length. This is doae witn che help of a micrometer to which the other end of the spring at # is attacned. Provision is made to convert the micro- meter teadiag to the force to bring the spriag to the null position. Thus the force gives the vertical composent of the gravitation anomaily. The iastrument is temperature compensated to neutralise the effect of temperatuce variations. . Other instruments in use are pendulums and torsion balances. Pendulums also measure the relative values of gravity, but the torsion balance measures the gravity gradient /.e., variation in gravity per unit horizontal distance. 4833, Corrections Since the observed gravity will depead upon a place where the measuremeat is beiag made, the following corrections are also required to be made. (a) Latitude correction (8) Eievation correction (c) Terrain correction, If go isthe value of gravity at equater then gat a place is given by g=go(1+0°0052884 sin? ¢-0°00000 59 sin? 2 6) (4°29) where # is latitude of the place where observation is being taken. Fig. 4°8. Line diagram of a gravitymeter ! 1 56 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Ifthe observation is being taken ata height A above the sea level. Then Since for oe we can write go, which means g at mean sea level ema 1- 2h.) (ignoring higher order) Elevation correction aga Zeek : : gongs (4°30) a Terrain correction depends upon nature of the ground. This is obtained by a graphical method. Assuming uniform density distribution, it is now possible to correct for the above factors and value of gravity at any point on the surface of the earth can be.computed. If these corrections are made and the computed value of gravity does not equal the observed value then the difference between the two is gravity anomaly. Such anomalies arise from irregularities in the distribution of mass in the earth’s crust, and are closely connected with local geology. For this reason the gravity methods are good for subsurface geological exploration. The anomalies or Bougur Anomalies after necessary correction are obtained as [Observed gravity-+elevation correction -+topographical correction] : —[Theoretical giavity at the same latitude] If the observed value of gravity is greater than computed value the anomaly will be positive and if observed value is less than computed value the anomaly will be negative, Ata place if more dense material exist than the surrounding one, positive anomaly is obtained whereas negative anomaly will be obtained if less dense rock material exists than the surrounding one. 483-4, Interpretation of Result The gravitational method makes Possible to establish the boundaries between the masses of different densities. Anomalies of gravity i.e., the difference between the theoretical and the corrected observed values are represented in plan by contours of equal gravity anomaly values called “isogams” and in section by anomaly profiles. One such profile describing a fault is shown in Fig. 4°9. The gravity method, as other geological method, can te used for qualitative survey. This is a method to te used with suppliments yeas ys “ ‘METHODS OF ROCK EXPLORATION 37 of bore holes. It can reduce the number of bore holes at a plane. ‘Generally this method is not so common for enginecring projects. For mine exploration this can be used. (a) : WO 200 SSCaLSSCOSSC 1 HORIZONTAL QISTANCE N METRES: ‘ (e) Fig. 4-9 484, Magnetic Method 4841, Theory The gravity method,of geophysical prospecting is based on variation in density of rock masses, similarly the magnetic method of geophysical prospecting is based on variation in magnetic proper- ties of rock masses. Similar to gravity anomalies, magnetic anoma- Yies are also represented on maps and inference of the substrata under the surface is made. Magnetic property of rocks varies from place to place. The most common magnetic minerals are magnetite and pyrrhotite. A few other minerals also have magnetic properties but weaker in extent. In igneous rocks magnetic minerals are more abundant than in sedimentries. Magnetite and pyrrhotite are more abundant in basic rocks than in acid rocks. Magnetic minerals are also concen- trated in fault zones. The earth itself is considered to have two magnetic poles near its geographical poles. But the geomagnetic axis and geographic axis do not coincide. The effect of earth magnetic force is minimum at equater and maximum at the poles. Hence ifa magnetic needle is suspended at equator it will be in horizontal pcsition whereas at poles it will be vertical. Between equator and pole it will have some inclination which is defined asa dip. In magnetic method of geophysical prospectic vertical component of the magnetic intensity of a place is taken into account. While measuring magnetic intensity of a place declination also has to be taken into account. At, the 58 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS same time effect of diurnal changes in the earth’s magnetism also is to be taken into account. OP represents in magnitude and direction the intensity of magnetic ficld due to earth and geological bodies. Angle X’OX represents the magnetic declina- tion of the place. OX represents the horizontal and OZ the vertical component. of the mag- netic field. XOP represents the magnetic dip. The vertical Fig. 4°10 (a) component OZ of the vector OP is considered for magnetic anoma~ lies. The difference between the theoretical and observed intensities is the magnetic anomaly. For magnetic measuremeats the unit is gauss which is numerically equal to 1 dyne. For expressing mag- netic anomulies the unit is y (gama) which is equal to 10~° gauss. x Fig. 4°10 (6) Earth Magnetic Field OF. The anomalies plotted on plan are Keown as isonomaly lines. And in the sections are known as profiles. 48-42. Instrument used for magnetic prospecting are- (a) Magnetic balance. (5) Torsion magnetometer. (c) Fluxgate magnetometer. (d) Proton magnetometer. ‘a magnetic balance measures the changes in horizontal or vertical component of-the magnetic intensities of the earth’s field. It does not measure the absolute strength of the components. It is known as vertical or horizontal fcrce variometer depending upoa wether it measures the vertical or horizontal component. The vértical force variometers are more common in use. Torsion magzetometer is also a vertical force variometer. In this type of magaetometer, the restoring torque is applied to the magnet by a horizontal torsion fibre which also acts as the suspen- gsion for the system. The difference in angular torque needed to “Egestore the magnet to the null position for different values of the tical component of the field isa measure of the change of the mponent. It is unaffected by the horizontal component of the. ne METHOD OF ROCK EXPLORATION 59 earth’s field. Hence it is the most suitable method for the measure- iment of vertical component of the earth's field. The flux gate magnetometer measures and records continuously the changes ia total field strength. It records the component of the field along its axis with au accuracy of +1 gamma, and can be used to record any component of the geomagnetic field depending upon the alignment of the sensitive element. The proton magnetometer is a magnetometer which measures directly the strength of the total field. One great advantage with this type of magnetometer is that measurement can be done while: they are in motion. Hence it can be used ia air. This instruments is based on the priaciple of electronics. Since the observed vertical force anomalies in the regions are related to the geological structure, measurement of vertical compo- nent is mostly done for prospecting, In magnetic prospecting, the: anomalies measured are larger as compared to the gravity anomalies. In gravity prospecting measurements to an accuracy of 1 in 10” are common but ia magnetic prospecting measurements are done to an. accuracy of +! gamma, which is about 1 in 50,000. 4843, Interpretation of result As discussed in gravity prospecting in this case also engineer get only qualitative information of the substrata. Which helps in reducing the number of bore holes for site investi- gations. This method has got more application in mining. Ores such as magnetic and pyrrhotite are strongly magnetic, and hence these may be detec- ted directly by magneto- meters. Sometimes, this @ method can be used to detect underground pipe lines ete. Where folds are exist- ing, there may be sedimen- tary sequences consisting of ferruginous sandstones, shales or tuff. In such 7 MAGNETICINTERSITY 1 cases, anticlines will be a 100 200 ae Oo nearer to the surface and DISTANCE WW METRES —e- will produce positive ano- (b) malies while synciines will Fig 411. produce negative anoma- 8 lies. Thus geological structures can be inferred with this method. This method is used extensively in military eugineering for locating: mines and ammunitions, Since cost of survey work is low, this can be used as subsidiary method to give qualitative information. A typicai profile of magnetic prospecting is shown ia F. | > In-Situ Tests 5-1, Necessity of In-situ Tests Before selecting a material for a particulat work, an engineer has to satisfy himself with the engineering properties of the material. If the material is homogeneous, sample pieces are tested in the labora- tory and its properties are found. This helps in design. Thus, for homeogenous materials, behaviour of a large mass can reasonably be Predicted from experiments on small laboratory samples. Knowing the engineering properties from laboratory. tests, the design can be done suitablya : When dealing with rock: masses, the engineer is faced with unusual problems. Rock masses are heterogeneous. Rocks in-situ contain various structural imperfections. Therefore, rock defects prevent rock from behaving it in a perfectly elastic manner. Thus scale of experiment determines the. result of the experiment. A small piece of rock may have less discont-nuity or it may be sound even and if the small piece is tested in laboratory it will give high strength, But, if the in-situ test is done onthe sam2 rock mass, where greater mass will be involved in the stress zone, the mass may have more discontinuities giving lesser strength value. Thus, we see that the mechanical behaviour of rock mass cannot be determined purely from laboratory tests. Large scale “in-situ” tests are neces- sary for design consideration of major projects, because laboratory tests invariably Jead to an overestimate of the properties of the rock mass. Because of the presence of fissures, cracks, joints, gaps, stratifications, plane of weakness, compressibility of in-situ rock is considerably greater than that of laboratory in tact rock test speci- men. Similarly, intact rock mass will be having Jess strength than the laboratory intact rock specimen due to the above reason. Thus, we see that for the. prediction of engineering properties of the rock mass, it is always necessary to go foran in-situ test. Although, the in-situ test involves a lot of cost, it is pteferrable to go for it, Since, the laboratory tested properties are on a higher side, it leads to an unsafe design. For a proper prediction of the rock mass properties, ichas become necessary to test the rock mass in-situ. That is why in-situ testing has got great imp:rtance in the subject rock mechanics. Major development in “in-situ” testing techniques has helped a lot in designing high and large dams, large hydraulic structures, pressure tunnels and construction of structures on even weaker rock strata. 60 N-SITU TESTS él. Thus, need for ‘in-situ’ testing arises when large scale effects- are anticipated which can not be ascertained from small scale labora- tory tests. The ratio of laboratory to in-situ values of ‘modulus of defor- mation’ may vary in wide range, 10:1 or more. Ratio is low for high modulus rocks. In case the anticipated modulus of defermation exceeds 10° kg/ cm® “in-situ” tests can be reduced only to confirm the anticipated values, but if the modulus of deformation is lower, 2 to 6 tests are recommended in each zone. In-situ test data also gives a-valuable information about the mode of failure of the rock mass on which the construction is going. to be done. Hence, it facilitates the designer to design the structure with more confideace, 52, Requirement of In.situ Tests An in-situ test should fulfill the following conditions : (a) The test should affecta rock mass to the extent that it represents the behaviour of the affected rock mass or zone. (b) The cost of testing should be low. But economy should not be at the cost of test results, . (c) The equipment used for the test should "be as’ Simplé as - possible so that there might not be much’ difficulty in operation. : (d) The test results should give the result nearest to the actual stress condition due to the construction of a prototype in the long run, (e) The test conditions should, as far'as' possible adhered: to, as per the theory on which the test is-based. (Jf) The test loads should be applied to the rock surface in the same direction as loads from the proposed structure are expected. 5:3, Selection of a Test Site The test site at locations should be selected such that the test might be representative of the actual condition due the constructiom of structure. When selection of a test site has been done, geology of the subsurface must be known for proper interpretation of the test result. Following details of information are also, required for proper evaluation of the test results. (a) Type of rock material and their relative extent. (6). Intensity of the load to be transferred to the rock mass, and its uirection relative to the-tcck mass bedding planes, - joints, etc. ce) Joints frequency and their extent. 62 ROCK MECHANICS. FOR ENGINEERS {d) Existance and extent of faults in the area, their orientation relative to the loads being applied. : (2) Pore conditions of the rock mass for example porosity, degree of saturation, moisture content etc. In-situ tests are mostly done in the bore holes or test galleries or trenches. If the test galleries or trenches are required, then first it should be ascertained if such a site is available from the geological investigation at the site. If it is available, utilisation of such sites should be done first. If bore holes are required for the in-situ. test, then full geological details with regard to dip, strike, bedding planes, joints etc. should be studied and recorded, because this will help in interpretation of the in-situ test results. 5-4, Types of In-situ Tests When large scale effects are to be investigated, “in-situ” tests are done because laboratory tests may not provide such informations. ‘In fact the in-situ test should be number of as less as possible because ‘the cost involved is high. However, the number of in-situ test depends ‘upon a number of factors and the most important of them are : ‘ (a) Type of the structure and its importance, (6) Rock strata condition. If the structure to be constructed is of vital importance, then javestigation required is thorough and in such a case, mcre number of tests may be required. If the rock strata is sound, Jess number of. tests will do the work, but if the strata condition is poor, then mare ee of tests, may be required for proper interpretation of test results. _ The in-situ tests in general can be put'in four different cate- gories. The type of test to be carried out depends upon the type of structure to be constructed. (i) Deformability tests, (ii) Shear tests, (iii) Strength tests, (iv) Tests for internal stresses, Deformability tests are done to obtain deformation parameters of the rock mass on which the structure will be made. This gives an important information. This helps in determination of loading inten- sity on the rock mass and on its surrouding. Shear tests are conducted to investigate an overall stability of the rock mass consisting of discontinuities such as bedding planes, joints etc. These tests also help in determination of shear strength parameters which help in determination of the shear strength of the strata. Strength tests are done for determination of strength para- metres, such as compressive strength, when the rock mass is used a8 a supporting structure. IN-SITU TESTS . 63 The stability of an excavation in rock depends upon the strength of rock in relation to the stresses that are imposed in the vicinity of excavation. So determination of stress in the rock mass is necessary for the evaluation of its stability. Although a few methods are available to. measure the stress in rock mass, mostly stress measurement in rock mass is done indirectly. ‘Strain value is measu- red and then, the stress is calculated. Therefore, in such category, tests involving measurement of strain in rock masses come. 55, In-sita Test for Deformability Previously the deformability of rock mass was evaluated by testing the rock sample in a laboratory. But latter on it was observed that depending upon the extent, amount and distribution of joints and other discontinuities in a rock mass, modulus of deformation of rock mass is different from its modulus of elasticity which is a pro- perty of an intact rock. mass. Hence, it is better that the modulus of deformation or deformability of a rock mass is evaluated by an ““n-situ” test. In general there are two methods : Static and Dynamic. Tn-a static test, large static loads are applied on the rock surface and subsequent deformation is observed. In the dynamic tests, the velocity of propogation of elastic waves is measured and then, defor- ability i is evaluated. The static deformability tests are done by one of the following methods : (a) Plate load test, (6) Pressure tunnel test, (c) Bore hole test. 551, Plate Load Test The gbject of this test is to determine the extent _to which the rock mass will deform under ap externally imposed load, The method consists of applying a normal load to an exposed flat surface of rock by means of a hydraulic jack, and measuring the ‘estlting displacement of the 70k serface, > The deformation modulus can be calculated by using the follo- wing equation which is based on Boussinesq equation. mP(\~y ) : aya GD where S=averae surface displacement of rock surfice, m=displacement coefficient, P=total normal surface load, A=area of the loading piate, oisson’s ratio, £=modulus of deformation of the subgrade. oe If the subgrade is. perfectly elastic, the modulus cf deformation is the modulus of elasticity. 64 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS The displacement coefficient m depends on shape of the loadiag plate aad can be obtained from Table 5"1. Table 5:1 Values of Displacement Coefficient Shape of loading Side ratio mt late LB Values Circle | 0°96 Square Lil 095 Rectangular oe 092 082 1:10 on Testing Procedure A typical test layout is shown in Fig. 5*I. First, an underground test gallery is prepared which is in the form of'a small tunnel. The base width of the test galley is at: least four times the flower dimension of the test plate, if the test plate is. rectangular ; Otherwise, it should be more than four times the dia or the side of the test plate, (IF the test plate is circular or square). The length of the gallery is such that at least four to five tests can be: conducted. The loading arrangement is ‘as shown in Fig. 51. In order that the load applied should be uniform on the rock surface, the load by jack is applied through a loading pad which is of mild steel, 3.to 4.cm thick. A reinforced concrete loading pad is also used. The thickness of the Joading pad depends upon the loading area, — Sy IN-SITU TESTS - 65 Similarly, at the top where the jack takes a reaction a loading pad and a suitable packing are provided. Ac the bottom, on the surface of the loading pad, a number of dial gauges (preferably three) are mounted to measure the deflections. The average displacement of the loaded area can be determined, taking an average of the three dial gauge readings. The load is applied through oil filled hydraulic jacks. The capacity of loading jack should be selected such that an average loading pressure on the rock surface should be at least the ‘twice the expected pressure developed by the proposed structures. When the testing arrangement has been completed, the fullo- wing test procedure is followed : (a) The maximum load applied should be reached in 4 to 5 stages ; in the first stage 20%, 2nd stage 40%, 3rd stage 60% and so on, (6) The maximum load at the time of loading and zero load atthe time of unioading in each stage should be main- tained until the deformation rate at the centre is less than 0°025 mm/br. (c) Creep of rock at the maximum pressure should be measu- red by keeping the pressure constant for 2-3 days. (d) When the rock is wet, the rate of loading should be such that the excess pore water pressure should be decipated. In general, 3 to 4 tests should be performed at each site with varying sizes of loading plates. Variation in size of plates gives an idea of the size effect. In fact, the loading area should be as big as possibie to take into account of the discontiauation iuside the rock mass upto the influence zone. But, economically it is not feasible. The testing cost will be enormous. Hence the maximum size upto one metre widih or diameter has been tried for the test. The loading and unloading diagram of a typical plate load test is shown in Fig, 3°2. 4OA0ING i \ 1 (@) Ist CYCLE LOADING 1 (B) 2nd CYCLE LOADING " () 34d CYCLE LOADING DEFORMATION 66 DUE MUNA ares me The modulus value calculated, taking pressure Pj and P, and displacement D, or D, is known as deformation modulus (Ez). Modulus of elasticity (Es) is obtained when deformation values (D,E,) or (DxE,) are taken into account for the modulus value where as initial tangent modulus (£2) is obtained when displacement corresponding to small load in early part of loading (when curve is almost linear) is taken into account. While reporting plate load test values of Eo, E, and Ea for each cycle are to be reported. § This helps in evaluating rock property even if it is non-linear. 5511, Cable Jacking Test Cable jacking test is a simple method of loading the surface ia a trench in the ground where reaction is not available or construction of gallery or plate load test involves more cost and testing becomes costly. Hence, this test economises the testing charge. Since reaction surface is not required, this test is also useful where good reaction surface is not available. In addition to economy the follo- wing additional advantages are there in this type of test. (1). More load can be applied on the loading surface. (2) The rock can be tested ina direction in which the actual load of the structure will be exerted ; (3) At the same location, the test can be done at different elevations, which helps to obtain information about the variation of rock characteristics with depth. A typical arrangement of test is shown in Fig. 5°3. A bore hole is made in the strata to be tested. For anchorage, a strong cable is inserted into the bore hole, and hole is grouted. The minimum depth. of anchorage is 8 to 10 times the dimension of the bearing pad. To neglect the effect of bore hole, the area of bearing pad is keyt large DIAL GAUGE ‘SEY TLEMENT LOADING pa9————4 a ai) -GROUTED BORE HOLE | AN-SITU TESTS 67 Finally the free end of the cable is achored at the reaction head, The load is applied through hydraulic jacks and the deflection is noted. if the loading area is large, then more number of jacks can be used. The loading pad arrangement may be two or four in plan depending upon the situation. Loads upto [000 tonnes can be applied in this way, using a single cable and allowing a large volume of rock to be influenced. If needed, several cables could be used. If further testing is required at the same location, then rock from the testing level to the depth equivalent to loading pad width should be removed and then, the test is repeated. When the tests at different elevations are required, depth of bore hole is kept such that anchorage length of at least 8 to 10 times the dimension of bearing pad is available at the lowest elevation. 55:2, Pressure Tunnel Test The pressure tunnel test is also known as pressure chamber test. A part of a circular tunnel is sealed by concrete wall known as bulkheads. The sealed portion is radially loaded by fluid pressure. The diametrical deformation of the tunnel is measured which helps in determination of the modulus of elasticity of the rock materials. This is one of the oldest method for determination of the in-situ modulus of rock mass. The calculation is based upon treating the tunnel as a thick walled cylinder and assuming the external radius to be infinite. Radial and tensile stresses at a point, distant r from the centre of the tunnel are given by Equations : of5'2) (5°3) where a is the radius of the tunnel, p the intensity of uniform radial hydrostatic pressure and r the distance of the point from the centre of the tunnel. The diametral deformation at-the tunnel boundary is given by. . the equation ad= FE) axe w(5'4) =P (l+y) ey pall) 4 (55) v=Poisson’s ratio, usually obtained from laboratory tests on rock core specimen or by geophysical technique, d=diameter of the tuanel, E=modulus of elasticity. where | OS eee E values are determined in more than one direction within the rock mass to take into account of rock anisotrapy. ‘The test set up is shown in Fig. 5°4. (after Rock et al 1055).. Fig, 5:4.'1. Mannole 2. Pressure gauge tube 3. Water inlet 4. Air outlet 5. Cable adinission tube’ 6, Cable tube seal 7. Water meter 8. Water outlet 9, Pressure gauge 10. Vibrating wire meter 11. Air Pressure Equally chamber 12. Invar rods 13. Air pr. equalising tube 14. Cable, ___ The test is conducted in a section of the tunnel of exploratory adit which can be plugged with a concrete wall known as bulk ‘head and the othes end being dead end of the tunnel. If the tunnel has been excavated up to the full length and the test is being undertaken LINING DONE IF TUNNEL ROCK 15 CF USED Fig. 5°5 at some Mid point of the length, then the two ends for the testiny: zone are closed by concrete wall as shown in Fig. 5°5. If the rock is. permeable, then the lining of concrete is done on wall to stop see~ page of testing fluid, or after the thin lining of concrete, the section of the tunnel is lined with a non-permeable lining usually of rubber or PVC. To make the end effect negligible, the jength of the section under test must be large enough (Preferably more than two times the diameter of the tunnel). The section is loaded by filling it with water and applying pressure gradually with a pump. The applied pressure may be twice the- pressure expected due to actual construction otherwise it may be: estimated depending upon type of rock mass. Similar to plate load. INSITU TESTS 69 ‘test the maximum stress is applied in stages. Deformation i.e, change in diameter of tunnel is measured with extensometers or water proof vibrating wire deflectometers which have a sensitivity of +3 microns. Reading of the stress applied and corresponding deflection are noted, and a curve is drawn for the evaluation of modulus of elasticity. Some of the advantages of pressure tunnel test are : (a) Rock deformation can be known in any radial direction. {b) Hydrostatic pressure on rock in the tunnel can be sustained for a long period o/ time to observe long time effect, Xc) The effect of concrete lining on deformation modulus can be determined by testing lined and unlined section in same chamber, (d) For pressure tunnels, this test is most suitable. Disadvan- tages of the test are: (a) It is very expensive and hence, test site is to be limited in number. (b) It brings about tensile hoop stresses in the rock and if exceeded by the compressive strength of the rock then radial cracks in rock may appear. (c) A modification in pressure chamber test is the radial jacking test which is easier to conduct. 55:3, Bore Hole Test Although the pressure tunnel test is most suited for in-situ testing of pressure tBauels, cost Tavolved iy high and hence, an econo- ‘mical technique has been evolved for such a test, Bore Hole Test is” a replacement of pressure tunnel test. because the fest can be conduc: ted economically. The instrument used is known as dilatometers or feformeter. It consists of a shell which can be inserted into the bore hole at any depth, Itis filled with oil and pressure is applied to the oil. The Shell expands Taterally and pushes the wall of the bore hole thusim- arting pressure. With the help of the transduces, the deformation ‘of the bor “wall _is measured. And plotting the stress= ie deformation modulus is obtained. Some of the advantages of the Bore Hole Test are listed below : 1. Since the test is done in bore holes which one by dia- mond drilfing, tock mas§ remains almost undisturbed. In pressure ‘Tunnel test since the dia of the tunnel is about {'S mto 2 m, an ex- cavation through rock does not leave it in a perfect undisturbed state. 2. Since less cost and less time are involved_in testing, a num- ber of tesfs can be Carried out at the site. _ 3, More number of test results heli determining the dist bution Of de! ability within the rock mas: ans ¢ desis eam be carried out even undce Waren land 8 i 70 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 5531. The Dilatometers A number of dilatometers have been developed by different countries, One of the dilatometers developed in France is by Menard and. is commercially known as Menard’s Pressuremeter. But, it is better suited for soft rocks or soit as compared to hard ones. The latest. instrument in use for rock investigation is LNEC dilatometer, which. has been developed in Lab. Nac, de Eng. Civil, Lisbon. Sectional elevation of the LNEC dilatometer is shown in Fig. 56. The dilatometer can be used: in 76 mm dia bore holes which LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL SPRING. “To SEORMER RACKET auio wNOER PRESSURE nee MULLS a ZZ Kt “A a A, See inrcosrrent 7 RING BST Tam 755m 0 STEEL CYLINDER’ Fig. 5°6. The LNEC Dilatometer (After Rocha et al 1966). are regarded as the standard size of bore holes made in rock mass. The instrument is made of a stainless steel cylinder of 540 mm length and 66 mm external diameter. Wall thickness is 10 mm and it is wrapped in a rubber jacket, 4 mm thick. The external diameter of the instrument is 74 mm, which means that 2 mm clearsnce is avilable when it is put in borehole of 76 mm diameter. The liquid, which may be water or oil, is pumped into the space between the external surface of the cylinder and the internal face of rubber jacket for the applica- tion of pressure on the side walls. The top is closed by a plug through. which pressure relief valve, pipes and electric wires pass. These are connected to the measuring units. The instrument is installed in the borehole by means of a rod screwed to the top. The differential transformers are applied at four cross-sections in four different direc tions which are 32 mm apart. Each transformer has its metallic core and its coil assembly in contact with the rock by means of two small rods which are kept in contact with the rock by means of springs. These transformers measure changes in dia of the bore holes in four ditferent directions due to application of pressure. The unit weighs about 12 kg. Theretore, it is very conveniently operated at different. locations, In addition to dilatometers, borehole, jacks are also used for deter- mination of ia situ propertics of rock masses. Instead of applying a PIPE FOR THE LiQui UNDER PRESSURE. IN-SITU TESTS : Wn uniform pressure to the full cross-section of the boreholes (as done by dilatometers), high pressure is applied toa particular part of the borehole surface by driving plates against the borehole wall using hydraulic pistons, or flat jacks. This is the principles of using bore~ hole jacks. The ‘load caa be applied in any desired direction. 56, Shear Tests For a design purpose, information about shear strength of rock mass is necessary, because this will give an idea about the overall stability. Shear strength comprehends effect of various rock defects. Determination of shear strength involves measurement of two related parameters, cohesion and angle of internal friction. Cohesion is rela~ ted to grain to grain attraction whereas angle of internal friction des- cribes frictional resistance between grain to grain. The method for determination of these two parameters is direct shear test. A typical set up for the shear test is shown in Fig, 5'7. For preparation of test block, out of the rock-mass, thé size and shape of the test block may be adjusted to coincide with natural joints or fissures. The preparation of the test block should be done with the minimum disturbance. However, international Society of Rock ACK FOR NORMAL Ad ba} -T0 OL PIPE LOAONG PAD ROCK TEST BLOCK Fig. 5:7 Mechanics recommends the specimen size of 700 mmx 700 mm x350 mm. _If the size of the test block wil! be small, then the effect of dis- continuities may not come. Thatis why, a large size has been re- commended. For manoeuvering equipments, usually a working space of 2 to3 mis needed. Itis to be kept in mind that the base of the test block should coincide with the plane to be sheared, and the direction of shearing should correspond to the direction of anticipat- ed shearing ia the full scale structure to be iavestigated using the test result. Around the base of the test block, a layer, of about 20 mm thick, of weak material snould be applied and the remaining block is encas- ed with reinforced concrete to peevent collapse of the block during testing. Care should be taken to keep the load bearing surface to be perfectly plane. ___ The vertical jack for an application of normal load and the in- clined jack for an application of shearing force should be placed as 72 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS shown in figure. The pore water pressure inside, the rock should be dissipated first. by the application of — normal loading. The load is applied gradually and the resulting deformation is noted. When the rate. of change of normal displacement is less than 005 mm in 10 minutes, it is assumed that the consolidation is complete and pore water pressure is dissipated. When consolidation is complete, the shear force is applied. Approximately 10-sets of readings are taken before reaching a peak value. The rate of shear displacement should be less than 0°! mm/ minute in a 10 minute period. When the peak strength is reached, tate of shear disp!acement is increased to 0°5 mm/min. The displace- ment of the’ block should be measured at several points along the shearing plane. When shearing has taken place, the rate of displacement should be 0°02 to 0°2 mm/min for a 10 minutes period and then, it may be increased to 1 mm/min. Normal load is applied in stages. When the btock is displaced slightly the norma) Joad is increased again. and shear force applied and displacement: noted. The test is continued step by step till the maximum normal stress to which the test surface is to be subjected, is reached. Shear and normal stresses are compu- ted by the following relations. P.cosa Sh tress = ear stress wis Normal stress Ait sins Where N is the normal load. P the shearing Joad, A the cross- sectional area of the block and « the inclination of the shear Joad with horizontal if it is inclined. In case the shear load has been applied horizontally, then a=0 and shear stress A and normal stress o=N/A. For determination of shear strength parameters C and ¢, two procedures may be adopted. . SHEAR STRESS(€)—> NORMAL STRESS (T)——> Fig. $8 i IN-SITU TESTS. 73 With the same test block, shearing force corresponding to each “normal load’ (which is increased in stages) is noted. In this case shearing load has to be controlled when it reaches maximum value under each successive normal loads. Other alternative is to test several blocks under different normal load. In such case each test block is sheared completely under particular normal load. Now dividing shear load with area of the test block the shear stress is -calculated for each set of normal stress. The result is plotted as shown in Fig. 5°8. The intersept of the curve with Y-axis gives the value of cohesion and its inclination with x-axis gives the value of angle of interval friction. Thus'to shear strength parameters “C” and ‘¢’ can be evaluated for the reck mass. Single Jack Test Protodyakonov (1961) has described the method of testing. One ‘ledge is left on the inclined plane of the rock mass. The ledge is ‘loaded with a hydraulic jack as shown in Fig. 5°9. Shearing takes place along the inclined plane MN. gpoNe PADS JACK Fig. 59 If the coefficient of friction of the rock is known, shear strength _Psin2a _ uP costa where coefficient of friction of the rock mate- rial, .57, Strength Tests Strength tests are carried out for an investigation of in-situ strength of the rock mass. These may be (a) Bearing capacity tests, (4) Compressive strength tests ; (c) Tensile strength tests. 571, Bearing Capacity of Rock Bearing capacity of rock may be defined as the stress which it can take before failure. Principle of the bearing capacity test is the 4 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS. same as that of the plate load test described earlier. But the load, which is applied to the rock is, vertical and it is applied through a rigid plate. The plate. dimension fixes the exteat of the rock to be Stressed because the rock mass depth which is influenced by the test is equivalent to the diameter of the rigid plate through which the load is applied. The set up of the test is shown in Fig. 5°10. If the anchoring arrangement is proper, sand bags may not be required. In place of” Proper auchoring arrangement, sand bags are required for loading. Total load of the sand bags should be more. than the load to be LOADING. PLATFORM LOADING PAD WACK LP HANGER DIAL GAuGE STEEL PLATE Fig. 5:10 applied through the jack to the rock mass. The size of the plate is 300 mm to 450 mm in dia, but for weak rocks, the dia of the plate may be more. After setting the equipment properly, it should be seen that the load on the plate should be applied centrally, Eccentric load cause uneyen settlement and plate may tilt. First, a seating load is applied to fill up the local uneveness on the testing bed. If the testing bed is very much uneven, a cement plaster bed is put on the testing bed before the plate so that stress on rock mass may be uniform. The seating load is removed, and then the dial gauges which are to measure the settlement of the plate, are set to zero reading. Load is increased to about one fifth of the esti- mated failure load. The deflection of the dial gauges are measured until the rate of settlement drops to 0'0254 mm/min. While noting. the detlection, care is to be taken to see that the load is constant. Next, the load is increased to one fifth of the estimated failure loadin each increment. For each increment of load, the deflections of dial gauges are noted. After the fourth increment the load is re- leased and the rebound is noted. Again, the load is increased to the previous value and finally to failure load. After reaching the failure load. it is noted that deflections in the dial gauges are much eee IN-SITU TESTS 1S more compared to the previous values. Load settlement curve is drawn and the bearing capacity of the rock mass is estimated. The nature of the load settlement curve varies for different types of rocks. Fig, 5‘L1 shows a typical load settlement curve for an slastic- plastic type of rock. Initially the curve is linear upto point 4. From 4 to B, it is non-linear and after point B, it shows a PRESSURE > (a) Linear range (b= Nonlinear range: (c)- Post peak drop (di- Residvaliplasticy range (@)~ Linear range (0) Nonlingar range «= Plastic range de 4 PENETRATION 5. Fig. 5°12. Yielding of an elastic elastic-plastic rock. ‘brittle ~plastic rock. perfectly plastic behaviour, Bearing capacity of the rock mass is: given by point B. Bearing capacity of a soft rock may also be determined by the formula given by Terzaghi. qr=CNe+qgNqt0'S pbNy +e(5°10)* where Ne, No, Ny are called bearing capacity factors aad they are function of the angle of internal friction $ of the rock mass. e=unit weight of the rock mass, 6= width of the footing, C=cohesion of the rock mass which may be obtained by” shear test, q=surcharge load on the rock mass at the footing level. ‘The bearing capacity of rock mass is not only dependent upon rock defects such as fault zones, joints etc. but it is also depends upou’ the (a) Pressure of water in the rock mass, (b) Degree of saturation, (c) Ambient pressure, (d) Shape of the test plate, (e) Porosity of the rock mass, () Composition of the rock mass. 16 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 5°72, Compressive Strength Test Although compressive strength of rock mass may be obtained by specimen tested in laboratories and the values may be used with confidence, if planes of weaknesses do uot exist in the rock mass. But for an important work, for example, to put a rock mass column to support rock roof in case of underground power houses, or for design of columns to support the roof in case of coal mines, it is necessary to evaluate the value of the compressive strength of rock to be used as columns because, sometimes, the existence of invisible planes of weakness may cause harm inthe long run. Therefore at the time of preparation of a test specimen, it is necessary to keep in mind that sufficient number of planes of weakness are included in the test pillar. The Austrian School (Denkhaus 1962) suggested that the cross-sectional area of the specimen must contain at least 100—200 planes of weakness. Further, Hoek (1966) suggests that if the com- pressive strength of the specimen is to be within 10% of the in-situ value, the'size of the specimen should be 50—100 times the spacing between the discontinuties. From the above discussion, it is clearthat the size of the speci- men for compression test has to be large. The test specimen may be either a circular, a sqaure or a rectangular prism: The size of pillar in plan has.been-used from 40 cm 40 cm to’? mX2m._ For uniform distribution of a load, a pad of flexible material may be provided at -the top of specimen. The 'load is-applied ‘by:a set of hydraulic jacks. Reaction sur- face should be sufficiently strong. Displacements are measured by dial gauges, with suitable mountings, or by mechanical strain gauges. A typical testing arrangement is shown in Fig. 5°13, The load is applied up to the failure value. The compressive strength is evaluated .by dividing the ultimate load by area of the specimen in plan. LOADING PAD Ke JACKS 470 on PIPE Fie. 5-13 For an interpretation of the test result Greenwald et al (1941) have suggested the following equation. Knowing the size of a column its compressive strength can be evaluated by using Eq. $*11. ernere ete preeene tete fae om 2800 ca ee( SL) . where Ge compressive strength in Ib/in®, idth in inches, eight in inches. i: However, for the design of pillars, its compressive strength can be estimated with cube strength of the rock mass tested in a labora- tory, by using the equation proposed by Lama and Vatukuri (1978). oe $2 ==0'64+-0'36 (B/H) ++(5°12) where ce=compressive strength of the pillar, MPa oey=compressive strength of the cube, MPa B=width of the pillar in m H=height of the pillar ia m. 57-3, Tensile Strength Test Due to practical difficulties, direct measurement of tensile strength of a rock in-situ has not been successful. Yet, some indirect method has been developed to estimate the tensile strength. The test is known as pull test. The set up of the test is shown in Fig. 514. The method in fact has been developed in Russia. A hole is drilled into the rock. Fig. 514 mass up to a depth of about 15 cm to 20cm from the face of the rock. At the end of the hole, diameter of the hole is increased. A hydraulic mechanism, which grips the rock in the enlarged region is inserted and finally, pull is applied from the face. An alternative is to put a bolt with enlarged head into the hole and gripping it pro- porly. Finally, pull is applied. Due to the pull, rock breaks in the form of a cone.as shown in figure. The tensile strength 9 is obtained by the following equation 12P 7 oR +(5°13) where P=pulling force at failure, H=height of the cone extracted, R=radius of the fractured cone containing the bolt. 574, Tests for Internal Stress in Rock For the construction of different types of structures inside the rock, an engineer is concerned with the properties of rock “en mass” in place of the properties of rock materials. This has also been dis- cussed earlier. It is necessary to measure the stresses inside the rock mass due to the construction of structures or due to an excavation of the rock mass for the construction of the structures. The stability of an excavation in rock depends upon the strength of the rock in rela tion to the stress that is produced in it in the vicinity of the excavation. We should know the forces that has to be withstood by the lining in case of tugneling. Uptill now, no method has been evolved for the measurement of natural stresses inside the rock mass without disturb- ing the rock at the location of measurement. Therefore, for the measurement of stress at a point, the measurement of such proper- ties of rock are done which are related to stress and thus the measure- ment of stress is done indirectly. The property which is closely rela- ted to stress is strain and its measurement can also be done easily. Only modulus of elasticity is to be assumed as ascertained. There- fore, for the measurement of internal stresses inside a rock mass gene- rally measurement of deformation or strain is done by different methods. Methods which are in common use are : (i) Dilatometer test, (ii) The stress-relief technique, (iii) FlatJack test, (iv) Indirect methods. 57-41, Dilatometer rest %Oe As discussed earlier, deformation of in-situ rock mass is deter- mined along inner surface of bore holes by means of an instrument which is known as a deformation x etrer or.a dilatometer. Uniform pressure is applied through oil along a particular length of the borehole by means ofa metallic cylinder and a deformable y AN-SEEU LESLS 719 rubber jacket, through which the oil flows. The details of construc- tion of a dilatometer have been discussed earlier in this chapter. Due to an applied pressure, there is a dilation of the dilatometer which is equivalent to a change in diameter of the bore hole. The diametrical deformation D of the bore hole is given by following equation (ee r w(5*14) E= Boe) 7 (3°15) where (r= inside radius ot the bore hole, \ p= intensity of pressure applied to the dila- tometer, ‘Poisson's ratio, Modulus of elasticity. Knowing the diametrical strain, and modulus of elasticity the -stress in the rock mass can be calculated by the relation E=a/6, where o is the stress and £ the strain. 5742, The Stress-Relief Technique, This method is also known as en overcoring technique or a borehole strain measuring technique. By this method, magnitudes and directions of the three principal stresses acting at a point can be known, which means an absolute stress measurement. In this method the rock element containing the strain measuring device is relieved from the stress imposed by the surrounding rock, and the resulting strains are measured, which help in the determi- nation of stresses by known stress-strain relations, The procedure of test is described briefly. A bore hole of 762 mm diameter which corresponds to NX size of bore hole is made into the rock mass upto a length for which. a stress measurement is required. Next, a borehole of 38°! mm diameter, which corresponds to EY size, is concentrically drilled up to 45 cm to 60 cm Jength into the end of previously drilled WY size bore hole. Three electrical strain gauge rosettes are. glued on the periphery of EY potion of the bore hole. The rosettes are placed about 15 cm to 20 cm inside of the bore hole, and for easy calculations, one is glued at top of the ‘bore hole and the next at 90° and 225° respectively to the first one. Reading of the rosettes are taken. Next, the EX portion of the bore hole is overcored by a hollow rotary core drill of outer diameter equal to the bigger bore hole size. The hollow cylindrical core containing the rosettes is removed and the strain measurement of rosettes is taken. The latter value of the strain will be the required one after relieving the stress of the rock mass from the hollow 80 ROCK MECBANICS FOR ENGINEERS: cylinder, The sequence of operation is shown in Fig. 515. With (i) Nx Bore hole drilled. (ii) EX Bore hole drilled at end of WX hole and rosettes pasted, (iii) EX portion of the bore hole overcored by NX coring crown, (iy) Cylindrical hollow core = removed. 5 Ta) + difference in strain reading befote and after overcoring the absolute stress in the rock mass- is determined with known value of modulus. of elasticity of the rock mass. For simplicity in calculation, the bore hole should be made, horizontal and electrical strain gauges in the rosettes should be kept at an angle of 45°. In addition to electrical strain gauges, there are other devices also for the measure- ment of strains. They are : (a) Bore hole deformation meters ; (bd) Bore hole inclusion stressmeters ;. (c) Bore hole strain gauge devices. Fig. 516 z | a a Fig. 5°15. . Sequeuces of bor hole stress-relief technique. IN-SITU TESTS : . 81 A bore hole deformation meter measures the change in the diameter of the borehole ia any desired direction due to a stress change in the bore hale. Stress can be calculated by using the elastic theories. The borehole inclusion stress meter may be calibrated directly in terms of stress even though it measures the strain dus to stress induced. An elastic circular inclusion is welded around the boundary of the hole. If a change of stress ¢ occurs in the hole material (iz. in the rock mass) a uniformly distributed stress o’ is set in the stress. meter. The stress can be obtained from the following equation, (av) = : O-D+g W'FDU-2') +E : ) (56) FE WH+D+0+DG-4) where E=modulus of elasticity of the rock mass, E'=modulus of elasticity of stress meter material, y=Poisson’s ratio of rock mass, v’=Poisson’s ratio of stress meter material. Different types of stress meters are available for different uses. 5743, Flat Jack Technique $L The principle of this technique is a relief of stress and then, its recovery by means of a hydraulic pressure. A narrow slit is cut into the rockmass of length 350 mm to 500 mm. The width of the slit is 35mm to 50 mm. Priorto slit making, deformation measuring pins ars fixed into the narrow holes. 8z ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS drilled into the rock or, the pins are cemented over the surface of the rock as shown in Fig. 5°17. Before making the slot, distances between the two points on opposite sides of the slot are measured. Due to a construction of the slot, local stress relief takes place due to which measuring point converge. This is measured for three to five days. ‘The flat jack is inserted into the slot with its edge flused with the surface of the rock and grouted. It is left for hardening for 3 to 4 days. A hydraulic pressure is applied to the flat jack and the pressure is increassed in stages. Measurements across the measure- ment pins are- taken at different stages and pressure is increased till their distances come to pre-slot values. The pressure is then released and again increased to the previous value for 2 to 4 cycles over a period of 15 to 20 days. Now the stress cn normal to the jack can ‘be obtained from following relation, on=ap+bq 2517) where g=tock stress parallel to the jack p= mean canceilation pressure aand b=constants depending upon dimensions of the flat jack and the geometry of the measuring points positions relative to the flat jack. . When the measuring points are ona line through the central axis of the slot and located at a distance one third the length of the slot then cancellation pressure equals the stress in the rock mass. Thus, by a proper selection of measuring points, the stress in the rock mass can directly be evaluated which is equal to the cancellation pressure. 5'744, Indirect Methods Indirect methods of stress-measurement in the rock mass include following methods : (i) Dynamic methods (by measurement of propogation of waves). (ii) Electrical Resistivity method, ¢ In the dynamic method a change in sonic velocity is noted due to stresses in the rock mass and noting the change in velocity, an estimation of stress is done. But, the result by this method is not so reliable. dii) Hydraulic Fracturing test, In an electrical resistivity method, electrical resistivity observations are utilised for analysing rock stresses. This method is also not 50 suitable because interpretation is difficult, due tovariation of electr ical SN-SITU TESTS 83 resistivity variation in the physical properties of the rock mass, such as porosity, moisture content, mineral content etc. In a_ hydraulic fracturing method a section of deep hole is sealed off with packers and fluid pressure applied to the sealed portion. of the bare wall of the hole. Pressure is increased till failure in the wall occurs, which can be known froma plot of the applied pressure vs accepted fluid in the bore hoje. Before failure takes place, the curve is linear. But the nature of the curve changes when failure occur. Thus the break point indicates the failure-load, from which failure stress can be evaluated. In this method, only ultimate stress, which the rock mass can take, can be evaluated. i t 6 Physical aud Mechanical Properties of Rocks @1, Introduction The performance of rock, under a particular condition, depends upon physical and mechanical properties of rock materials, The physical properties may be known as index properties, which describe the rock materials and help in classifying them. The mechanical properties may be known as strength properties and they give an information about the performance of rock materials, when subjected to a particular Joadiag system. Arock material is an aggregate of mineral particles. These individual minera) crystals and grains are not homogeveous, isotropic and perfectly elastic bodies due to sequence of formation of rock masses. The crystal hardness are influenced by various physical and mechanical properties, such as cohesion, brittleness, tensile strength etc,, at the same t’me due to an orientation of cleavage planes. Direction of application of load is also an important factor while determiaing the rock properties: When acted upon by high stresses for along period of time mineral crystals and crystal grains show time-dependent strain which is known as creep deformation or flow, and which causes an internal rearrangement of atomic structure of mineral. Itcan be summarised that the mechanical properties of a rock mass depends on the following factors. (a) The mechanical © properties of the individual . elements constituting the system. (b) The sliding friction along the planes of weakness. (c) The configuration of the system with respect to direction. of loading. (d) The induced stress condition inside the mass. ‘The property of rock depends on the size of rock mass also. On amegascale the structural properties of the rack mass, seh as: bedding, cleavage plances etc. are important, while on a macroscopic scale, mechanical properties are important whereas on a microcopic scale the physical properties may be important. 84 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 85 62, Physical and Mechanical Properties Physical properties, which are of interest in rock mechanics are: 4 at é . (i) Pofosity (ii) Density (ii) Moisture content (iv) Degree of saturation (») Coefficient of permeability (vi) Electrical properties (vif) Thermal properties (viii) Swelling (ix) Anisotropy (x) Durability. Mechanical properties which are of interest in rock mechanics are: Staph Pragfert > (é) Strength (ii) Deformability (iii) Elasticity and Plasticity - (iv) Hardness. . Physical Properties ‘These are the properties of the material inheritated at the time of formation, These help in classifying a rock material. These are also called index properties of a rock specimen. 63, Porosity \,.. Porosity identifies the relative proportion of solids and voids. The porosity of a rock sample‘is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the sample he. x 100 61) where n is the porosity generally expressed in percentage ; Vo is the volume of void i.e. volume of air as well as water Present in the pore spaces ; V is the total volume of the rock sample. 86 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Ifthe sample is completely dry, voids will contain only air whereas in case of a fully saturated sample, voids will contain only liquid such as water or oil. Porosity depends upon the_shape of mineral. gtains, their grading, orientation and the degree of com- paction and cementation. When the rock forming patticles are of different sizes, the space created by bigger particles will be filled by finer particles and thus, the rock will be haying dense compaction resulting into a lesser porosity. On the other hand, if the grains are of uniform size, the spaces inside the mass will be large and thus, the rock will be having a higher porosity value. Due to weathering in the rock mass, and microfractures, the porosity of the rock may be higher. Porosity generally decreases with the age of the rock. It decreases with.the depth also. Because at a greater depth, a rock is suojected to a higher pressure which reduces the pore spaces of the rock mass. Sedimentary rocks have porosity variation to the maximum extent. The value ranges from 1% to 90%. In fact, it depends on the age of formation: ‘The igneous rocks have porosity less than 1% to 2%. But due to weathering, the value goes as high as 20%. Hence, the measured value of porosity gives an idea of weathering in the rock mass also. Chalk is found to be the most porous rock. This value is found to be as high as 50% or more. The porosity of a rock material is + measure of its water-holding capacity also.. This, sometimes, helps in evaluating the water yield of a stratum. More porous rock may not be suitable for an engineering structure. 64, Density -? Density _is_defi ii s§ per unit volume of the rock, Depending upon a requirement, the density may be expressed as dry density, bulk density or saturated density. —% Dry density refers to mass per unit volume when the rock mass is completely dry 7.e. void contain only air. ulk density refers er unit volume in normal condi- tion, which means that the rock mass may contain some liquid an some aif in its pores. ~F Saturated density refers to mass per unit volume when the rock mass is fully saturated. Since. the rock mass is made of solid minerals, the specific gravity of the solids is the ratio of its density and unit weight of water. Similar to the case of a porosity, rocks have a wide range of density which of course depends upon the mineral constituents and the degree of compaction in addition to the depth at which it is existing. In general, dry density of the rock varies from 2°6 gm/cc to 2°8 gm/cc in normal cases. However, Table-6"1 gives an idea of dry density of common types of rocks. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 87 Table,6-1 Dry Densities of some Typical Rocks Rock | Dry Density Rock Dry Density (gmjec) (gm/ec) Granite 2°65 Quartz, mica schist 2°82 Diorite 285 Rhyolite 237 Gypsum 2°30 Basalt 277 Dense limest one 270 Shale 2°25 to 2°62 (varies with depth) Marble 21s Coal 0'7 to 2°0 (varies with ash content) 7 - Although an approximate inference is drawn about the stcength of a rock with values of porosity and density, but these values do not give information about the nature of a bond among the mineral grains, The relation between bulk density and dry density is given by : Eq. 62 * = —Y_ ol6" oa eae 62) where ya=the dry density, ' y=bulk density, { | and m=the moisturelcontent of the sample. ! 65. Moisture Content, The moisture coatent of a rock sample is defined as fhe ratio of weight of water in thew sigat of dry sotic ‘sample a : We ie. m= Ww i where m=the moisture content, { =the weight of water, =the weight of solids, / 88 ROCK MECHANICS FOR ENG: NEERS Natural moisture content of a rock sample is the moisture content of the sample when taken from ground due to excavation or boring. ‘The moisture content is determined by noting the loss in weight of the sample after drying it for 24 hours at a temperature ranging from 105°C to 110°C. An excess natural moisture content gives an indication that the rock is more porous, making it of lesser strength. When confining pressure is increased around the rock mass, there is a decrease in moisture content making a rock mass stronger and vice-versa. That is why, due to an excavation near a rock mass, JRATURAL (IN SITU)MOISTURE CONTENT (%4)—> Fig. 61 confining stress is decreased which may cause the natural moisture content to increase resulting in a decrease in strength. Duncan (1969) has given a relation between the moisture content and the bearing capacity for a site in red mark. From the figure, it is quite apparent that bearing capacity decreases with incrase in natural moisture content. 66, Degree of Saturation ~7 Degree of saturation is defined as the volume of water in the yoid to the total volume of voids in the rock sample ie S= = ++(3°3) where S=the degree of saturation, Ve=the volume of water, and V_=the volume of void. The rock mass having higher porosity has higher degree of saturation, if it lies below water table. 67, Permeability 671, De! ___ Permeability refers to the ability of a porous material to allow a liquid to pass through its pores. Since the pores are connected with

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