Comics

Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images, often combined with text or other visual information. Comics frequently takes
the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia
indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing.
Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses
photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late
20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, graphic narratives, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly
common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.

The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures. Scholars have posited a pre-history as far back asthe Lascaux
cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished particularly in the United States, western Europe (especially
in France and
Belgium), and Japan. The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer's cartoon strips of the 1830s, and became
popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin. American comics emerged as a mass
medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic books followed in the 1930s, in
which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938. Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning
(manga) propose origins as early as the 12th century. Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century, and the output
of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post-World War II era with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu
Tezuka. Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater
acceptance with the public and in academia.

The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium and a plural when referring to particular instances,
such as individual strips or comic books. Though the term derives from the humorous (or comic) work that predominated in early
American newspaper comic strips, it has become standard also for non-humorous works. It is common in English to refer to the
comics of different cultures by the terms used in ht eir original languages, such asmanga for Japanese comics, orbandes dessinées for
French-language comics. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the
combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction
or the use of recurring characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further
made definition difficult.

Contents
Origins and traditions
English-language comics
Franco-Belgian and European comics
Japanese comics
Forms and formats
Comics studies
Terminology
Etymology
See also
See also lists
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
 External links

Origins and traditions

Examples of early comics

Manga Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame Ally Sloper in

Hokusai, early 19th Rodolphe Töpffer, 1830 Some of the
century Mysteries of
Loan and
Discount
Charles Henry
Ross, 1867

The Yellow Kid

R. F. Outcault, 1898

The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths.[1] Europeans have seen their tradition as
beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F.
fer's precedence.[2] Japan had
Outcault's 1890s newspaper stripThe Yellow Kid, though many Americans have come to recognize Töpf
a long prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized the
Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the early 19th century.[3] In the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to
flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[4] Towards the close of the 20th century, these three traditions
converged in a trend towards book-length comics: the comic album in Europe, the tankōbon[a] in Japan, and the graphic novel in the
English-speaking countries.[1]

Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings[5] in
France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[6] the
11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,[7] the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books,
Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel,[6] and William Hogarth's 18th-century sequential engravings,[8] amongst
others.[6][b]
 Theorists debate whether theBayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

English-language comics
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived The Glasgow Looking
Glass in 1825. The most popular was Punch,[10] which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures.[11] On occasion
the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences;[10] the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip
[12]
when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884.

American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the
New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault'sThe Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic
strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page[13] and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with
sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons.[14]

Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (1907–1982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).

Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the
success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.[15] In Britain, the Amalgamated Press established a popular style of a sequence of
images with text beneath them, includingIllustrated Chips and Comic Cuts.[16] Humour strips predominated at first, and in the 1920s
.[15]
and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular

Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade,
original content began to dominate.[17] The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of
the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.[18] In the UK and the Commonwealth, the DC
Thomson-created Dandy (1937) and Beano (1938) became successful humor-based titles, with a combined circulation of over 2
million copies by the 1950s. Their characters, including "Dennis the Menace", "Desperate Dan" and "The Bash Street Kids" have
been read by generations of British schoolboys.[19] The comics originally experimented with superheroes and action stories before
[20]
settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic book styles.

The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II,[21] while comic book sales continued to increase as other
genres proliferated, such as romance, westerns, crime, horror, and humour.[22] Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the content
of comic books (particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies, which
culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of theComics Code Authorityself-censoring body.[23] The Code has been
blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of
the century.[24] Superheroes re-established themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s.[25] Underground
comix challenged the Code and readers with adult, countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[26] The underground
[27]
gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in non-superhero genres.
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture;
cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter
half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between high
and low culture began to blur. Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized, as the
[28]
medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.

The graphic novel—book-length comics—began to gain attention after Will Eisner

popularized the term with his book A Contract with God (1978).[29] The term became widely
known with the public after the commercial success of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark
Knight Returns in the mid-1980s.[30] In the 21st century graphic novels became established in
mainstream bookstores[31] and libraries[32] and webcomics became common.[33]

Franco-Belgian and European comics Superheroes have been a

staple of American comic
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827,[6] and
books (Wonderworld
published theories behind the form.[34] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and Comics #3, 1939; cover:
magazines from the 19th century.[35] The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use The Flame by Will Eisner).
of speech balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to
dominate.[36] The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style,[37] was first
[38] and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.
serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929, [39]

Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (1934–44),[40] dedicated comics

magazines[41] and full-colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in
the mid-20th century.[42] As in the US, at the time comics were seen as infantile and
a threat to culture and literacy; commentators stated that "none bear up to the
slightest serious analysis",[c] and that comics were "the sabotage of all art and all
literature".[44][d]

In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées ("drawn strips") came into wide use in
French to denote the medium.[45] Cartoonists began creating comics for mature French cartoonist Albert Uderzo
audiences,[46] and the term "Ninth Art"[e] was coined, as comics began to attract draws the character Asterix.
public and academic attention as an artform.[47] A group including René Goscinny
and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater
freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it[48] and went on to become the best-selling
French-language comics series.[49] From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship laws in the
countercultural spirit that led to theMay 1968 events.[50]

Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults-only L'Écho des savanes
in 1972. Adult-oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s, such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and
[51]
others in Métal hurlant, even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige-format adult comics.

From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines
decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums.[52] Smaller publishers such as L'Association[53] that published
longer works[54] in non-traditional formats[55] by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in
fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking
print market.[56]

Japanese comics
Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has been seen as far
back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th-to-13th-century Chōjū-jinbutsu-
giga, 17th-century toba-e and kibyōshi picture books,[60] and woodblock prints such
as ukiyo-e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The kibyōshi
[61] and sound effects.[62]
contained examples of sequential images, movement lines,

Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical

cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and
Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style
newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan,[63] as well as some
American comic strips.[60] 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō
newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense,[59] and where, in
1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.[64] By the
1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys'
magazine and collected into hardback volumes.[65]

The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II, propelled by the Rakuten Kitazawa created the first
success of the serialized comics of the prolificOsamu Tezuka[66] and the comic strip modern Japanese comic strip.
Sazae-san.[67] Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades. Stories (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō
are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)
may contain over a dozen stories;[68] they are later compiled in tankōbon-format
books.[69] At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed
material in Japan was comics.[70] Translations became extremely popular in foreign markets—in some cases equaling or surpassing
the sales of domestic comics.[71]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In the US, daily strips
have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were
[72]
typically in black-and-white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.

Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily an American format, are thin
periodicals[73] usually published in colour.[74] European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines—monthly or
weekly in Europe,[59] and usually black-and-white and weekly in Japan.[75] Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of
pages.[76]

A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan and shows
the tankōbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in the middle group ofFranco-Belgian comics
are in the standard A4-size comic album format. The right group ofgraphic novels is from English-
speaking countries, where there is no standard format.
Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4-size[77]
colour volumes.[42] In English-speaking countries, thetrade paperback format originating from collected comic books have also been
chosen for original material. Otherwise, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats.
Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and
collections of short works.[78] Japanese comics are collected in volumes calledtankōbon following magazine serialization.[79]

Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon. Definitions of comics
which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel cartoons; they can be included in definitions that
emphasize the combination of word and image.[80] Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the
18th and 19th centuries, and the term "cartoon"[h] was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazinePunch.[11]

Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can access
archived installments.[81] Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of
a page.[82]

Some consider storyboards[83] and wordless novels to be comics.[84] Film studios, especially in animation, often use sequences of
images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public.[83]
[85]
Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative.

Comics studies
Similar to the problems of defining
literature and film,[86] no consensus has "Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and
sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed as
been reached on a definition of the comics
the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted
medium,[87] and attempted definitions and enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."
descriptions have fallen prey to numerous R. C. Harvey, 2001[80]
exceptions.[88] Theorists such as
Töpffer,[89] R. C. Harvey, Will Eisner,[90]
David Carrier,[91] Alain Rey,[87] and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images,[92] though there are prominent
examples of pantomime comics throughout its history.[88] Other critics, such as Thierry Groensteen[92] and Scott McCloud, have
emphasized the primacy of sequences of images.[93] Towards the close of the 20th century, different cultures' discoveries of each
other's comics traditions, the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms, and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more
complicated task.[94]

European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the
visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s.[95] Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics
approach to the study of comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott
McCloud later dubbed "closure".[96] In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics
page as a semantic unit.[97] By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poïetic
creative choices.[96] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics, a medium that has
taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures dessinées" (or "drawn
literatures").[94] French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as
McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions.[97] Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are
understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments.
This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood that extend
beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is
[98]
similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.

Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent, post-WWII history, or on attempts to demonstrates deep roots in the
past, such as to the Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries, or the early 19th-century Hokusai Manga.[99]
The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi[i] in 1924.[100] Early post-war Japanese
criticism was mostly of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication for Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Complete
Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of comics. The field manga
of
[101] Formal theories of manga have focused on
studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s.
developing a "manga expression theory",[k] with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page,
distinguishing the medium from film or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element.[102] Comics studies
courses have proliferated at Japanese universities, and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics[l] was established in 2001 to
promote comics scholarship.[103] The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comicsin 1983 led
[104]
to the spread of use of the wordmanga outside Japan to mean "Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics".

Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with
The Comics (1947).[105] Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott
McCloud's Understanding Comics (1993) were early attempts in English to formalize
the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first full-
length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective.[106] Prominent American
attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner
described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and
words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea";[107] Scott McCloud defined comics as
Will Eisner (left) and Scott "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey
McCloud have proposed influential information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer",[108] a strictly
and controversial definitions of
formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings.[109]
comics.
R. C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words
(often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the
meaning of the pictures and vice versa".[110] Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding
single-panel cartoons,[111] and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of
comics is the incorporation of verbal content".[97] Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the
place of comics in art history.[90]

Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for "comics" in different
languages.[112] The French term for comics, bandes dessinées ("drawn strip") emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a
defining factor,[113] which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics.
[114] The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate

all forms of comics, cartooning,[115] and caricature.[112]

Terminology
The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular: "comics is a medium"
rather than "comics are a medium". When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium, such as individual
comic strips or comic books: "Tom's comics are in the basement."[116]

[117] often surrounded by a border.[118] Prime moments in a narrative are

Panels are individual images containing a segment of action,
broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.[119] The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by
using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events.[120] The size, shape,
and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative.[121] The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with
[122]
events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.

Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and sound effects. Speech balloons indicate dialogue (or
thought, in the case of thought balloons), with tails pointing at their respective speakers.[123] Captions can give voice to a narrator,
convey characters' dialogue or thoughts,[124] or indicate place or time.[125] Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with
comics, such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics.[126] Sound effects mimic non-vocal
sounds textually usingonomatopoeia sound-words.[127]
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink
(especially India ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[128] mixed media and digital
technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as motion lines[129]
and abstract symbols are often employed.[130]

While comics are often the work of a single creator, the labour of making them is
frequently divided between a number of specialists. There may be separate writers
and artists, and artists may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or
backgrounds, as is common in Japan.[131] Particularly in American superhero comic A caption (the yellow box) gives the
books,[132] the art may be divided between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in narrator a voice. The characters'
pencil;[133] an inker, who finishes the artwork in ink;[134] a colourist;[135] and a dialogue appears in speech balloons.
The tail of the balloon indicates the
letterer, who adds the captions and speech balloons.[136]
speaker.

Etymology
The English-language term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early American newspaper
comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The term "comic book" has a similarly
confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they regular books, but rather periodicals.[137] It is common in English
to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or
bandes dessinées for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[138]

Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English, including Russian (Russian: Комикс, komiks)[139] and German
(comic).[140] Similarly, the Chinese term manhua[141] and the Korean manhwa[142] derive from the Chinese characters with which
the Japanese term manga is written.[143]

See also
Animation Picture book
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum

See also lists

List of comic books Lists of manga
List of comics creators List of manga artists
List of comics publishing companies List of manga magazines
List of comic strip syndicates List of manga publishers
List of Franco-Belgian comics series List of years in comics
List of newspaper comic strips

Notes
a. tankōbon (単行本, translation close to "independently appearing book")
b. David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his
The Early Comic Strip (1973)
and The History of the Comic Strip(1990).[9]

c. French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse."– Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois inLa Presse enfantine
française (Midol, 1957)[43]
d. French: "C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littérature."– Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la littérature enfantine
de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar(Hachette, 1950)[43]
e. French: neuvième art
okyo (Japanese: 田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物Hepburn: Tagosaku to Mokube
f. Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in T
no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
 g. "Manga" (Japanese: 漫画) can be glossed in many ways, amongst them "whimsical pictures", "disreputable
pictures",[57] "irresponsible pictures",[58] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out of a sudden
inspiration".[59]
h. "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were
typically drawn.[11]
i. Hosokibara, Seiki (1924).日本漫画史 [Japanese Comics History]. Yuzankaku.
j. Kure, Tomofusa (1986). 現代漫画の全体像 [Modern Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center Publishing.ISBN 4-
575-71090-3.[101]
k. "Manga expression theory"(Japanese: 漫画表現論 Hepburn: manga hyōgenron)[102]
l. Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics(Japanese: 日本マンガ学会 Hepburn: Nihon Manga Gakkai)

References
1. Couch 2000. 30. Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer
2. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beerbohm 2003; Sabin 2005, 1996, p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1; Williams
p. 186; Rowland 1990, p. 13. & Lyons 2010, p. 7.
3. Petersen 2010, p. 41; Power 2009, p. 24; Gravett 31. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210–211.
2004, p. 9. 32. Lopes 2009, p. 151–152.
4. Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175. 33. Thorne 2010, p. 209.
5. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Barker 1989, p. 6; Groensteen 34. Harvey 2010.
2014; Grove 2010, p. 59; Beaty 2012; Jobs 2012, 35. Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
p. 98.
36. Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.
6. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.
37. Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.
7. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove 2010,
38. Miller 2007, p. 17.
pp. 16, 21, 59.
39. Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48; McKinney
8. Grove 2010, p. 79.
2011, p. 3.
9. Beaty 2012, p. 62.
40. Grove 2005, pp. 76–78.
10. Clark & Clark 1991, p. 17.
41. Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
11. Harvey 2001, p. 77.
42. Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215.
12. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxii.
43. Grove 2005, p. 46.
13. Nordling 1995, p. 123.
44. Grove 2005, pp. 45–46.
14. Gordon 2002, p. 35.
45. Grove 2005, p. 51.
15. Harvey 1994, p. 11.
46. Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.
16. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 45.
47. Miller 2007, p. 23.
17. Rhoades 2008, p. 2.
48. Miller 2007, p. 21.
18. Rhoades 2008, p. x.
49. Screech 2005, p. 204.
19. Childs & Storry 2013, p. 532.
50. Miller 2007, p. 22.
20. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 46.
51. Miller 2007, pp. 25–28.
21. Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.
52. Miller 2007, pp. 33–34.
22. Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.
53. Beaty 2007, p. 9.
23. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 49–50.
54. Lefèvre 2010, pp. 189–190.
24. Gabilliet 2010, p. 50.
55. Grove 2005, p. 153.
25. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 52–55.
56. Miller 2007, pp. 49–53.
26. Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.
57. Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.
27. Hatfield 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123;
58. Gravett 2004, p. 9.
Rhoades 2008, p. 140.
59. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.
28. Lopes 2009, pp. xx–xxi.
60. Schodt 1996, p. 22.
29. Petersen 2010, p. 222.
61. Mansfield 2009, p. 253.
 62. Petersen 2010, p. 42. 105. Inge 1989, p. 214.
63. Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 21–22. 106. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.
64. Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21. 107. Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.
65. Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 23–24. 108. Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13;
66. Gravett 2004, p. 24. Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud 1993,
p. 9.
67. MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan
2008, p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004, 109. Beaty 2012, p. 67.
p. 8. 110. Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.
68. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 13–14. 111. Harvey 2010, p. 1.
69. Gravett 2004, p. 14. 112. Morita 2010, p. 33.
70. Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999, 113. Groensteen 2012, p. 130; Morita 2010, p. 33.
p. 162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121. 114. Groensteen 2012, p. 130.
71. Lee 2010, p. 158. 115. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.
72. Booker 2014, p. xxvi–xxvii. 116. Chapman 2012, p. 8; Chute & DeKoven 2012, p. 175;
73. Orr 2008, p. 11; Collins 2010, p. 227. Fingeroth 2008, p. 4.
74. Orr 2008, p. 10. 117. Lee 1978, p. 15.
75. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10. 118. Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.
76. Schodt 1996, p. 23. 119. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.
77. Grove 2010, p. 24; McKinney 2011. 120. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.
78. Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 4–6. 121. Eisner 1985, p. 30.
79. Poitras 2001, p. 66–67. 122. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011,
80. Harvey 2001, p. 76. p. 12–13.
81. Petersen 2010, pp. 234–236. 123. Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985, p. 157;
Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.
82. Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.
124. Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.
83. Rhoades 2008, p. 38.
125. Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.
84. Beronä 2008, p. 225.
126. Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.
85. Cohen 1977, p. 181.
127. Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.
86. Groensteen 2012, pp. 128—129.
128. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978,
87. Groensteen 2012, p. 124.
p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.
88. Groensteen 2012, p. 126.
129. Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates
89. Thomas 2010, p. 158. 2010, p. 98.
90. Beaty 2012, p. 65. 130. Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 13–14.
91. Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131. 131. O'Nale 2010, p. 384.
92. Grove 2010, pp. 17–19. 132. Tondro 2011, p. 51.
93. Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170. 133. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.
94. Groensteen 2012, pp. 112–113. 134. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978,
95. Miller 2007, p. 101. p. 145.
96. Groensteen 2012, p. 112. 135. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.
97. Groensteen 2012, p. 113. 136. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.
98. Cohn 2013. 137. Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).
99. Stewart 2014, pp. 28–29. 138. McKinney 2011, p. xiii.
100. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23; Stewart 2014, p. 29. 139. Alaniz 2010, p. 7.
101. Kinsella 2000, pp. 96–97. 140. Frahm 2003.
102. Kinsella 2000, p. 100. 141. Wong 2002, p. 11; Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
103. Morita 2010, pp. 37–38. 142. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 301.
104. Stewart 2014, p. 30. 143. Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
Works cited

Books
Ahrens, Jörn; Meteling, Arno (2010).Comics and the City: Urban Space in Print, Picture, and Sequence
. Continuum
International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-4019-8.
Alaniz, José (2010). Komiks: Comic Art in Russia. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-366-2.
Barker, Martin (1989). Comics: Ideology, Power, and the Critics. Manchester University Press.ISBN 978-0-7190-
2589-1.
Beaty, Bart (2007). Unpopular Culture: Transforming the European Comic Book in The 1990s. University of Toronto
Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9412-4.
Beaty, Bart (2012). Comics Versus Art. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-9627-3.
Beronä, David A. (2008).Wordless Books: The Original Graphic Novels
. Abrams Books. ISBN 978-0-8109-9469-0.
Booker, M. Keith, ed. (2014). "Introduction".Comics through Time: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas. ABC-CLIO.
pp. xxv–xxxvii. ISBN 978-0-313-39751-6.
Bramlett, Frank (2012).Linguistics and the Study of Comics. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36282-6.
Bramlett, Frank; Cook, Roy; Meskin, Aaron, eds. (2016).The Routledge Companion to Comics. Routledge. pp. 45–
6. ISBN 978-1-317-91538-6.
Brenner, Robin E. (2007). Understanding Manga and Anime. Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN 978-0-313-09448-
4.
Cates, Isaac (2010). "Comic and the Grammar of Diagrams". In Ball, David M.; Kuhlman, Martha B. The Comics of
Chris Ware: Drawing Is a Way of Thinking. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 90–105. ISBN 978-1-60473-442-3.
Chapman, Robyn (2012).Drawing Comics Lab: 52 Exercises on Characters, Panels, Storytelling, Publishing &
Professional Practices. Quarry Books. ISBN 978-1-61058-629-0.
Childs, Peter; Storry, Michael (2013). Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture
. Routledge. p. 532. ISBN 978-1-
134-75555-4.
Chute, Hillary L (2010).Graphic Women: Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics
. Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0-231-15062-0.
Chute, Hillary; DeKoven, Marianne (2012). "Comic books and graphic novels". In Glover
, David; McCracken, Scott.
The Cambridge Companion to Popular Fiction . Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–195. ISBN 978-0-521-51337-1.
Clark, Alan; Clark, Laurel (1991).Comics: An Illustrated History. Green Wood. ISBN 978-1-872532-55-4.
Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics: Introductionto the Structure and Cognition of Sequential
Images. London, UK: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-8145-9.
Collins, Rachel (2010). "Drawing Comics into Canadian Libraries". In W
einer, Robert G. Graphic Novels and Comics
in Libraries and Archives. McFarland & Company. pp. 226–241. ISBN 978-0-7864-5693-2.
Cooper-Chen, Anne M. (2010).Cartoon Cultures: The Globalization of Japanese Popular Media
. Peter Lang.
ISBN 978-1-4331-0368-1.
Dawson, Willow (2010).Lila & Ecco's Do-It-Yourself Comics Club. Kids Can Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1-55453-438-8.
Duncan, Randy; Smith, Matthew J (2009).The Power of Comics. Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-0-8264-2936-0.
Eisner, Will (1985). Comics and Sequential Art. Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-0-1.
Fingeroth, Danny (2008).The Rough Guide to Graphic Novels. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-993-3.
Forceville, Charles; Veale, Tony; Feyaerts, Kurt (2010). "Balloonics: The V
isuals of Balloons in Comics". In Goggin,
Joyce; Hassler-Forest, Dan.The Rise and Reason of Comics and Graphic Literature: Critical Essays on the Form .
McFarland & Company. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-7864-4294-2.
Gabilliet, Jean-Paul (2010).Of Comics and Men: A Cultural History of American Comic Books
. translated from
French by Bart Beaty and Nick Nguyen.University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-267-2.
Goldsmith, Francisca (2005).Graphic Novels Now: Building, Managing, And Marketing a Dynamic Collection
.
American Library Association. ISBN 978-0-8389-0904-1.
Gordon, Ian (2002). Comic Strips and Consumer Culture. Smithsonian. ISBN 978-1-58834-031-3.
Gravett, Paul (2004). Manga: 60 Years of Japanese Comics. Laurence King Publishing.ISBN 978-1-85669-391-2.
Groensteen, Thierry (2012) [Originally published in French in 1999]. "The Impossible Definition". In Heer
, Jeet;
Worcester, Kent. A Comics Studies Reader. translated by Bart Beaty. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 124–131.
ISBN 978-1-60473-109-5.
Grove, Laurence (2005).Text/Image Mosaics in French Culture: Emblems and Comic Strips. Ashgate Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-7546-3488-1.
Grove, Laurence (2010).Comics in French: The European Bande Dessinée in Context
. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-
1-84545-588-0.
Guigar, Brad J. (2010). The Everything Cartooning Book: Create Unique And Inspired Cartoons For Fun And Profit
.
Adams Media. ISBN 978-1-4405-2306-9.
Harvey, R. C. (1994). The Art of the Funnies: An Aesthetic History. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-
87805-674-3.
Harvey, R. C. (2001). "Comedy at the Juncture of Word and Image". In Varnum, Robin; Gibbons, Christina T. The
Language of Comics: Word and Image. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 75–96. ISBN 1-57806-414-7.
Hashimoto, Akiko; Traphagan, John W. (2008). Imagined Families, Lived Families: Culture and Kinship in
Contemporary Japan. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7577-5.
Hatfield, Charles (2005).Alternative Comics: An Emerging Literature. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-
57806-719-0.
Holbo, John (2012). "Redefining Comics". In Meskin, Aaron; Cook, Roy.TThe Art of Comics: A Philosophical
Approach. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–30. ISBN 978-1-4443-3464-7.
Inge, Thomas M. (1989).Handbook of American Popular Culture. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-25406-2.
Jenkins, Henry (2004). "Pop Cosmopolitanism: Mapping Cultural Flows in an Age of Media Convergence". In
Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo M.; Qin-Hilliard, Desirée Baolian.Globalization: Culture and Education for a New
Millennium. University of California Press. pp. 114–140. ISBN 978-0-520-24125-1.
Jobs, Richard Ivan (2012). "Tarzan under Attack". In Wannamaker, Annette; Abate, Michelle Ann.Global
Perspectives on Tarzan: From King of the Jungle to International Icon. Routledge. pp. 73–106.ISBN 978-1-136-
44791-4.
Johnson-Woods, Toni (2010). Manga: An Anthology of Global and Cultural Perspectives
. Continuum International
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-2938-4.
Kaplan, Arie (2008). From Krakow to Krypton: Jews and Comic Books
. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-
8276-0843-6.
Karp, Jesse; Kress, Rush (2011).Graphic Novels in Your School Library. American Library Association. ISBN 978-0-
8389-1089-4.
Kinsella, Sharon (2000).Adult Manga: Culture & Power in Contemporary Japanese Society
. University of Hawaii
Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2318-4.
Kovacs, George; Marshall, C. W. (2011). Classics and Comics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979290-0.
Lee, Hye-Kyung (2010). "Between Fan Culture and Copyright Infringement: Manga Scanlation". In O'Reilly , Daragh;
Kerrigan, Finola. Marketing the Arts: A Fresh Approach. Taylor & Francis. pp. 153–170. ISBN 978-0-415-49685-8.
Lee, Stan (1978). How to Draw Comics the Marvel Way. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-53077-8.
Lopes, Paul (2009). Demanding Respect: The Evolution of the American Comic Book
. Temple University Press.
ISBN 978-1-59213-443-4.
Lefèvre, Pascal (2010). "European Comics". In Booker
, M. Keith. Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels:
[Two Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 185–192. ISBN 978-0-313-35747-3.
Lyga, Allyson A. W.; Lyga, Barry (2004). Graphic Novels in Your Media Center: A Definitive Guide. Libraries
Unlimited. ISBN 978-1-59158-142-0.
MacWilliams, Mark Wheeler (2008).Japanese Visual Culture: Explorations in theWorld of Manga and Anime. M.E.
Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1602-9.
Mansfield, Stephen (2009).Tokyo: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538634-9.
McCloud, Scott (1993).Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Kitchen Sink Press. ISBN 978-0-87816-243-7.
McCloud, Scott (2000). Reinventing Comics: How Imagination and T
echnology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form.
HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-095350-8.
McKinney, Mark, ed. (2011). History and Politics in French-Language Comics and Graphic Novels
. University Press
of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-761-5.
Meskin, Aaron; Cook, Roy T., eds. (2012). The Art of Comics: A Philosophical Approach. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-1-4443-3464-7.
Miller, Ann (1998). "Comic Strips/Cartoonists". In Hughes, Alex; Reader, Keith. Encyclopedia of Contemporary
French Culture. CRC Press. pp. 116–119. ISBN 978-0-415-13186-5.
Miller, Ann (2007). Reading Bande Dessinée: Critical Approaches to French-language Comic Strip
. Intellect Books.
ISBN 978-1-84150-177-2.
Morita, Naoko (2010). "Cultural Recognition of Comics and Comics Studies: Comments on Thierry Groensteen's
Keynote Lecture". In Berndt, Jaqueline.Comics worlds & the world of comics : towards scholarship on a global
scale. Global Manga Studies.1. International Manga Research Center, Kyoto Seika University. pp. 31–39.
ISBN 978-4-905187-03-5.
Nordling, Lee (1995). Your Career in the Comics. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8362-0748-4.
O'Nale, Robert (2010). "Manga". In Booker
, M. Keith. Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels: [T
wo
Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 378–387. ISBN 978-0-313-35747-3.
Orr, Tamra (2008). Manga Artists. Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4042-1854-3.
Petersen, Robert (2010).Comics, Manga, and Graphic Novels: A History of Graphic Narratives
. ABC-CLIO.
ISBN 978-0-313-36330-6.
Poitras, Gilles (2001). Anime Essentials: Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know
. Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-
880656-53-2.
Power, Natsu Onoda (2009).God of Comics: Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post-World War II Manga.
University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-478-2.
Raz, Aviad E. (1999). Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland. Harvard University Asia Center.
ISBN 978-0-674-76894-9.
Rhoades, Shirrel (2008). A Complete History of American Comic Books
. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0107-6.
Rowland, Barry D. (1990).Herbie and Friends: Cartoons in Wartime. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-0-920474-52-5.
Sabin, Roger (1993). Adult Comics: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04419-6.
Sabin, Roger (2005). "Some Observations on BD in the US". In Forsdick, Charles; Grove, Laurence; McQuillan,
Libbie. The Francophone Bande Dessinée. Rodopi. pp. 175–188. ISBN 978-90-420-1776-4.
Saraceni, Mario (2003).The Language of Comics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21422-3.
Schodt, Frederik L. (1996).Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga
. Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-880656-
23-5.
Screech, Matthew (2005).Masters of the Ninth Art: Bandes Dessinées and Franco-Belgian Identity
. Liverpool
University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-938-3.
Stewart, Ronald (2014). "Manga as Schism: Kitazawa Rakuten's Resistance to "Old-Fashioned" Japan". In Berndt,
Jaqueline; Kümmerling-Meibauer, Bettina. Manga's Cultural Crossroads. Routledge. pp. 27–49.ISBN 978-1-134-
10283-9.
Stringer, Jenny, ed. (1996). "Graphic novel".The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Literature in English.
Oxford University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-212271-1.
Sugimoto, Yoshio (2010). An Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87956-
9.
Theobald, John (2004).The Media and the Making of History. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-3822-3.
Thomas, Evan (2010). "10: Invisible Art, Invisible Planes, Invisible People". In Aldama, Frederick Luis.
Multicultural
Comics: From Zap to Blue Beetle. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73743-3.
Thorne, Amy (2010). "Part Eight: Metacomic/Webcomics". In Weiner, Robert G. Graphic Novels and Comics in
Libraries and Archives: Essays on Readers, Research, History and Cataloging
. McFarland & Company. pp. 209–
212. ISBN 978-0-7864-5693-2.
Tondro, Jason (2011). Superheroes of the Round Table: Comics Connections to Medieval and Renaissance
Literature. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-8876-6.
Vessels, Joel E. (2010).Drawing France: French Comics and the Republic
. University Press of Mississippi.
ISBN 978-1-60473-444-7.
Williams, Paul; Lyons, James (2010). The Rise of the American Comics Artist: Creators and Contexts
. University
Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-792-9.
 Wong, Wendy Siuyi (2002). Hong Kong Comics. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-269-4.

Academic journals

Couch, Chris (December 2000)."The Publication and Formats of Comics, Graphic Novels, and ankobon".
T Image &
Narrative (1). ISSN 1780-678X. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Frahm, Ole (October 2003)."Too much is too much. The never innocent aughter
l of the Comics". Image & Narrative
(7). ISSN 1780-678X. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Groensteen, Thierry (Spring 2012). "The Current State of French Comics Theory".
Scandinavian Journal of Comic
Art. 1 (1): 111–122.
Cohen, Martin S. (April 1977). "The Novel in W
oodcuts: A Handbook".Journal of Modern Literature. Indiana
University Press. 6 (2): 171–195. JSTOR 3831165.
Yuan, Ting (2011). "From Ponyo to 'My Garfield Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to Literary
Composition". Childhood Education. 87 (4).

Web

Beerbohm, Robert (2003)."The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck Part III". The Search For Töpffer in America.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
Harvey, R. C. (2010-12-20). "Defining Comics Again: Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily Complicated
Definitions". The Comics Journal. Fantagraphics Books. Archived from the original on 2011-09-14. Retrieved
2013-02-06.
Markstein, Don (2010)."Glossary of Specialized Cartoon-related Words and Phrases Used in Don Markstein's
Toonopedia". Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on 2009-10-16. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

Further reading
Carrier, David (2002). The Aesthetics of Comics. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02188-1.
Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics: Introductionto the Structure and Cognition of Sequential
Images. London, UK: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-8145-9.
Dowd, Douglas Bevan; Hignite, Todd (2006). Strips, Toons, And Bluesies: Essays in Comics And Culture. Princeton
Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-621-0.
Eisner, Will (1995). Graphic Storytelling. Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-3-2.
Estren, Mark James (1993).A History of Underground Comics. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-64-5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2007) [1999].The System of Comics. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-925-
5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2014). "Definitions". In Miller
, Ann; Beaty, Bart. The French Comics Theory Reader. Leuven
University Press. pp. 93–114. ISBN 978-90-5867-988-8.
Groth, Gary; Fiore, R., eds. (1988).The New Comics. Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-11366-3.
Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent, eds. (2012). A Comics Studies Reader. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-
60473-109-5.
Horn, Maurice, ed. (1977). The World Encyclopedia of Comics. Avon. ISBN 978-0-87754-323-7.
Kunzle, David (1973). The Early Comic Strip: Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet from
c. 1450 to 1825. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05775-3. OCLC 470776042.
Kunzle, David (1990). History of the Comic Strip: The Nineteenth Century
. University of California Press. ISBN 978-
0-520-01865-5.
Sabin, Roger (1996). Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels: A History of Comic Art
. Phaidon. ISBN 978-0-7148-3993-
6.
Waugh, Coulton (1947). The Comics. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-499-2.
Stein, Daniel; Thon, Jan-Noël, eds. (2015).From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels. Contributions to the Theory and
History of Graphic Narrative. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-042656-4.
External links
Comics at Curlie (based on DMOZ)
Academic journals

The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship

ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
Image [&] Narrative
International Journal of Comic Art
Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics
Archives

Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum

Michigan State University Comic Art Collection
Comic Art Collection at the University of Missouri
Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco
Time Archives' Collection of Comics
"Comics in the National Art Library". Prints & Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on
2009-11-04. Retrieved 2011-03-15.
Databases

Comic Book Database

Grand Comics Database

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comics&oldid=814074448

"

This page was last edited on 6 December 2017, at 19:26.

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.