Research Methodology PART 1 Introduction to Research & Research Methodology M S Sridhar Head, Library & Documentation ISRO Satellite Centre Bangalore 560017 E-mail: sridhar@isac.gav.in & sridharmirle@yahoo.comPreamble + Why did you choose research methodology ? + Understanding the concepts is important + Study materials are often incomplete & lack cohesiveness and integration * Suggested main reading : Kothari’s Research Methodology (see references at the end) MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Synopsis Introduction to Research & Research methodology Selection and formulation of research problem Research design and plan Experimental designs Sampling and sampling strategy or plan Measurement and scaling techniques Data collection methods and techniques Testing of hypotheses Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of data 10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences 11. Report writing LOR CO Oo OU esi Oa MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Background Man coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research 1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information) >» Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environment Experience of others Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific Contd... MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Background Contd. 2. REASONING > Deductive (Aristotle) — From whole to part > Inductive (Francis Bacon) — From number of observations >» Combined 3. RESEARCH Systematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, l.e., Systematic & controlled Empirical Self-correcting Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences) VVVW MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Part I: Introduction to Research & Research Methodology Synopsis 1. Introduction to Research & Research methodology 2. Selection and formulation of research problem 3. Research design and plan 4. Experimental designs 5. Sampling and sampling strategy or plan 6. Measurement and scaling techniques 7. Data collection methods and techniques 8. Testing of hypotheses 9. Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of data 10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences 11. Report writing es vv What is research ? Why research ? Terms used Research Methodology Research Method Research Technique Research methodology Scientific method Benefits of research methodology Qualities of good research & researcher Research process Types of research MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1What is Research ? 1. Avoyage of discovery; A journey; An ai method of c! al thinking; A careful cri facts for principles 2. Anart of scientific investigation . Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic + Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data 3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A movement from the known to the unknown + Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic and scientific method of finding solution to a problem . Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to answer the question + Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective (purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors 4. Anactivity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge In a broad sense, everyone does research, but don’t write it up; Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay de; Anexperience; A al enquiry in seeking MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Why research ? To get a degree To get respectability To face a challenge To solve a problem To get intellectual joy OE OT a et To serve society by increasing standard of living in case of S&T, and * — by showing right path to society in case of Social and Behavioural Sciences MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1Terms Used 1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in research operations Examples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc. 2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data) Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc. Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e.., > Collection of data > Statistical processing & analysis (tests) > To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost interchangeably used MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 9Research Methodology + Ascience of studying how research is done scientifically + Away to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting various steps + Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself + Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations and resources, clarify their presupposi s and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the ‘frontiers of knowledge’ MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 10Benefits of Research Methodology Advancement of wealth of human knowledge “Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life objectively Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation) Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think crically Contd... MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 1Benefits of Research Methodology Conta... ee benefits in case of librarianship: vi Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of library Helps to learn how to use libraries & other information resources Enables critical evaluation of literature Develops special interests & skills Helps to understand attitude of others i. Creates awareness of special needs of research process i. Facilitates reference and information service MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 12Benefits of Research Assignments to Students ale 2. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated Good assignments help students to learn about their audience Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information Good assignments provide interim readers As with any real project, good assignments give students time and a schedule of interim deadlines MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 13Scientific Method + The method of all logically trained minds + The pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations + Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates * Tenets of scientific faith 1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes that events are determined by other circumstances (i.e.. Causal links can eventually be uncovered and understood) 2. EMPIRICISM: Veritiable by observation and ‘evidence’ (data) 3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: Phenomenon should be explained in the most economical way possible 4. GENERALITY: More problematic in social & behavioral science than natural science MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 14Basic Postulates of Scientific Method Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism) Utilizes relevant concepts Committed to only objective considerations Presupposes ethical neutrality Results into probabilistic predictions Methodology is made known to all for critical scrutiny and testing through replication Aims at formulating most general axioms or scientific theories 8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure DES OL Ne N MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 15Qualities of Good Research THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD EMPLOYED ENSURES: il CONS GT Powe Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts Procedure enumerated to keep continuity Carefully planned design leading to objective results Complete frankness; flaws reported and their effect estimated Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis Carefully checked data for validity & reliability Conclusions confined to those justified by the data Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty & integrity of researcher Note: 38% of papers in Nature and 25% of papers in BMJ contain one or more statistical errors; 4% of errors caused non-significant findings to be misrepresented as significant (The Economist, 5 June '04, p 70-71) MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 16Qualities of Good Research conta.. 1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking 2. CONTROLLED — Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible 3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction 4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation) 5. REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study 6. SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to public scrutiny by fellow professionals contd.. MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 17Research Process - Selection & formulation of Research Problem . Literature survey . Development of working hypotheses . Research design . Sampling strategy or sample design 6. Pilot (quick & dirty) study 7. Data collection 8. Processing & analysis of data 9. Testing hypotheses 10. Interpretation & generalisation 11. Preparation of the report NOTE: 1. Above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a series of closely related, continuously overlapping and interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions 2. What lies ahead is hard work as well as pleasure of the hunt; some frustration, but more of satisfaction; periods of confusion, but confidence that, at the end, it will all come together OoRwons MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 18Ethics of Research + Asa profound social activity research connects us to those who will use it, to those whose research we used, through them, to the research that our sources used; Hence beyond technique, we need to think about ethics of civil communication + In addition to construction of bonds within any community, ethics deal with a range of moral and immoral choices; Research challenges us to define individual moral principles; Academic researchers are less tempted to sacrifice principle for a gain than commercial researchers Plagiarism, claiming credit for results of others, misreport sources or invent results, data with questionable accuracy, concealing objections that cannot be rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroy or conceal! sources and data important for those who follow + Beyond simple moral Do not to what we should affirmatively do, ie., concern for the integrity of the work of the community combined with narrow moral standards with the larger ethical dimension + Research done in the best interests of others is also in your own MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 19Types of Research 1. DESCRIPTIVE/ SURVEY (EX- POST FACTO) + Surveys & fact-finding enquiries + State of affairs as it exists + No control over variables * Try to discover causes (l.e., ex- post facto) 2. APPLIED + Finding a solution for an immediate problem & not rigorous / flexible in application of the conditions ANALYTICAL + Uses facts or information already available and analyze to make a critical evaluation FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE) + Concerned with generalizations & formulation of theory + Knowledge for knowledge’s sake (l.e., pure or basic research) contd... MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 20Types of Research contd... 3. QUANTITATIVE + Measured & expressed in terms of quantity + Expression of a property or quantity in numerical terms + Quantitative research helps: i. Precise measurement Knowing trends or changes overtime Comparing trends or individual libraries / units 4 CONCEPTUAL + Related to some abstract idea or theory (for thinkers & philosophers) * Relies on literature QUALITATIVE + Involves quality or kind + Helps in having insight into problems or cases EMPIRICAL + Relies on experience or observation alone, i.e.,data based research + Capable of being verified by observation or experiment + Experimenter has control over variables contd... MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 2tTypes of Research contd... OTHER TYPES One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/ Developmental & Trend or prediction studies (the time domain) Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research Clinical vs diagnostic studies Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the problem) studies Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative) Content Analysis is one such quantitative method — a multipurpose method developed specifically for investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of inference. Example: word usage rates, word counts, etc. Correlational research viii. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 22Categorization of Research Design (Design Typology Criteria) 1. The degree of formulation of problem a. Exploratory or Formulated b. Descriptive, Diagnostic, Analytical The topical scope a. Historical study _b. Survey, Delphi Study c. Case study (History, Material), Accounts, Episodes, Story of experience d. Statistical study The search environment, l.e., the field or lab setting a. survey or lab experiment 4. The time dimension N << a. Cross Sectional (One time) b. Longitudinal, Trend, Developmental (Follow up or Cohort Studies in UK & Panel Studies in USA) 5. The mode of data collection a. Survey _b. Observational 6. The manipulation of the variables under study a. Experimental (Hypothesis Testing ) b. Ex post facto 7. The nature of the relationship among variables a. Causal/ Prediction b. ive/ Relational (i) ion (ii) Correlation 8. a. Conceptual ( Fundamental, Basic, Pure) b. Empirical (Applied, Action) 9. a. Conclusion oriented b. Decision oriented 10. a. Qualitative b. Quantative MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 23References 8. 9. 10. 11. Anderson, Janathan, et. al. Thesis and assignment writing. New Delhi: Wiley, 1970. Best, Joel. Damned lies and statistics. California: University of California Press, 2001. Best, Joel. More damned lies and statistics; how numbers confuse public issues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004 Body, Harper W Jr. et.al. Marketing research: text and cases. Delhi: All India Traveler Bookseller, 1985. Booth, Wayne C, et. al. The craft of research. 2 ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. Chicago guide to preparing electronic manuscripts: For authors and publishers. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987. Cohen, Louis and Manion, Lawrence. Research methods in education. London: Routledge, 1980. Goode, William J and Hatt, Paul K. Methods on social research. London; Mc Graw Hill, 1981. Gopal, M.H. An introduction to research procedures in social sciences. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970. Koosis, Donald J. Business statistics. New York: John Wiley,1972. Kothari, C.R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2 ed., New Delhi: Vishwaprakashan, 1990. MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 24References contd. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Miller, Jane E. The Chicago guide to writing about numbers. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press, 2004. Rodger, Leslie W. Statistics for marketing. London: Mc-Graw Hill, 1984, Salvatoe, Dominick. Theory and problems of statistics and econometrics (Schaum’s outline series). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982. Spiegel, Murray R. Schauim’s outline of theory and problems of statistics in SI units. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill , 1981. Simpson, |. S. How to interpret statistical data: a guide for librarians and information scientists. London: Library Association, 1990. Slater, Margaret ed. Research method in library and information studies. London: Library Association, 1990. Turabian, Kate L. A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and dissertations. 6 ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1996. Young, Pauline V. Scientific social surveys and research. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Ltd., 1984. Walizer, Michael H and Wienir, Paul L. Research methods and analysis: searching for relationships. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. Williams, Joseph M. Style: towards clarity and grace. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 25About the Author Dr. M. S. Sridhar is a post graduate in Mathematics and Business Management and a Doctorate in Library and Information Science. He is in the profession for last 36 years. Since 1978, he is heading the Library and Documentation Division of ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore. Earlier he has worked in the libraries of National Aeronautical Laboratory (Bangalore), Indian Institute of Management (Bangalore) and University of Mysore. Dr. Sridhar has published 4 books, 81 research articles, 22 conferences papers, written 19 course materials for BLIS and MLIS, made over 25 seminar presentations and contributed 5 chapters to books. E-mail: sridharmirle@yahoo.com, mirlesridhar@ gmail.com, sridhar @isac.gov.in 5 Phone: 91-80-2508445 1, Fax: 91-80-25084476. MS Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 26