1. Define fuel.

Any combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent which on heating produces
large amount of heat, that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes.

Fuels are classified into a two types.

1) Based on their origin they are classified into: a) Primary fuels
b) Secondary fuels.
a) Primary Fuels: naturally occurring fuels Ex: Wood, Coal, Crude oil, Natural gas.
b) Secondary Fuels: - derived from primary fuels Ex: Charcoal, Coke, producer gas, Petrol,
Diesel etc.,
2) Bases on their physical state fuel are classified into
a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gaseous fuels.

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

Primary Fuels Wood, Coal, Crude oil Natural gas.

Peat, Anthracite

Secondary Fuels Coke, Charcoal Petrol, Gasoline, LPG,

Diesel Producer gas,
Coal gas.

2. Define calorific value and Distinguish between Gross (higher) and Net(lower) alorific value.

Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt
completely in presence of air or oxygen.

CALORIFIC VALUE IS OF TWO TYPES AS FOLLOWS:-

1) Higher calorific value. (HCV) or Gross calorific value. (GCV)
2) Lower calorific value. (LCV) or Net calorific value. (NCV)

1) HCV: - Amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuels burnt completely in the presence
of air or oxygen and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature.

2) LCV: - It is amount of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burnt completely in the
presence of air or oxygen and the product of combustion are allowed to escape at higher
temperatures.

GCV is higher than NCV as it includes the heat liberated during combustion and the latent heat
of steam.
NCV = HCV Latent heat of steam.
= HCV 0.09X H X 587 cal/g
 3. How Calorific value of solid fuel is determined by Bomb calorimeter
Bomb calorimeter is used to find the calorific value of solid or non volatile liquid
fuel.

Construction:

It consists of a strong cylindrical stainless steel bomb in which combustion of fuel take
place.
The bomb is covered with lid and is provided with stainless steel electrodes and an
oxygen inlet valve.
A small ring is attached to support crucible at one end of the electrode.
The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter, which is surrounded by an air jacket and
water jacket, to prevent heat losses due to radiation.
The calorimeter is provided with an electrically operated stirrer and Beckmanns
thermometer.
Working
A known mass of the given fuel is taken in a clean crucible
A fine magnesium wire touching the fuel sample is stretched across the electrodes.
The bomb lid is tightly screwed and bomb is filled with oxygen to 25 atm pressure.
The bomb is lowered in copper calorimeter, containing a known mass of water.
The water is stirred and initial temperature of the water is noted.
The electrodes are then connected to 6-volt battery and circuit completed.
The sample undergoes combustion and produce heat.
Water is stirred uniformly and the maximum temperature i.e t2 is noted
 Calculation

Let
x = mass of fuel sample taken in crucible in g
W = mass of water in the calorimeter
w = water equivalent in g of calorimeter Stirrer, thermometer, bomb, etc.
t1 = initial temperature of water in calorimeter
t2 = final temperature of water in calorimeter
L = higher calorific value in fuel in cal/g.
Heat liberated by burning of fuel = xL
Heat absorbed by water and apparatus, etc = (W + w)(t2-t1)
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat absorbed by water, apparatus, etc,
xL = (W+w)(t2-t1)
(+)(21)
or HCV of fuel (L) = cal/g (or kcal/kg)

Corrections:
To get more accurate results, the following corrections are applied:
i) Fuse wire connection : The heat liberated, includes the heat given out by ignition of the
fuse wire used.
ii) Acid correction: Fuels containing S and N are oxidized, under high pressure and
temperature of ignition, to form H2SO4 and HNO3 respectively.
S + 2H + 2O2 H2SO4 + Heat
2N + 2H + 3O2 2 HNO3+ Heat
Formation of these acids is exothermic reactions. So, the measured heat also includes the
heat given out during the acid formation.
iii) Cooling correction: Time taken to cool the water in calorimeter from maximum temperature
to room temperature is noted,which is an endothermic. Cooling correction is added to the rise in
temperature.
L =
( + )(2 1 + ) [ + ]
()

4. Explain proximate analysis

Proximate analysis involves in the determination of moisture, Volatile matter, ash and
fixed carbon.
(1) Moisture: 1 g of finely powered air-dried coal sample is weighed in a crucible. The
crucible is heated in an electric hot air-oven, maintained at 1050-1100C for 1 hour. Taken out,
cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Loss in weight is moisture (on percentage-basis).

100
% of moisture =
.

(2) Volatile matter: The dried sample of coal left in the crucible in (1) is then covered
with a lid and placed in an electric furnace (muffle furnace), maintained at 925 0 200C. The
crucible is taken out of the oven after 7 minutes of heating. The crucible is cooled first in air,
then inside desiccators and weighed again. Loss in weight is reported as volatile matter.
100
% volatile matter =
.

(3) Ash : The residual coal in the crucible in (2) is then heated without lid in a muffle
furnace at 700 500C for hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in
desiccator and weighed. Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated, till a constant weight is
obtained. The residue is reported as ash

. 100
% of ash =
.

(4) Fixed carbon:

Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of (moisture + volatile matter + ash)

Importance of proximate analysis: Proximate analysis provides following valuable

informations in assessing the quality of coal:
1) Moisture in coal evaporates during the burning of coal and it takes some of the
liberated heat in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Therefore, moisture lowers the calorific
value of coal.
2) Volatile matter: A high volatile matter content means that a high proportion of fuel
will distill over as gas or vapour, a large proportion of which escapes unburnt, so, higher volatile
content in coal is undesirable. A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a long flame,
high smoke and has low calorific value. Hence, lesser the volatile matter, better the rank of the
coal.
3) Ash is a non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal. Moreover,
ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. The
presence of ash (similar to moisture) also increases transporting, handling and storage costs. It
also involves additional cost in ash disposal.
4) Fixed carbon: Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is its calorific value and
better the quality coal. The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and the
shape of the fire-box.
5. Explain Ultimate analysis
Ultimate analysis involves the determination of Carbon and hydrogen, Nitrogen,
Sulphur, Oxygen and Ash
1) Carbon and hydrogen: About 1-2 g of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a
combustion apparatus. C and H of the coal are converted into CO2 and H2O respectively. The
gaseous products of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH and CaCl2 tubes of known
weights. The increase in weights of these are then determined.

C + O2 CO2 : H2 + O2 H2O
12 44 2 18
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7H2O CaCl2.7H2O
 12 100
=
44

2 2 100
=
18

2) Nitrogen: About 1g of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with concentrated

H2SO4 along-with K2SO4(catalyst) in a long-necked flask (called Kjeldahls flask). After the
solution becomes clear, it is treated with excess of KOH and the liberated ammonia is distilled
over and absorbed in a known volume of standard acid solution. The unused acid is then
determined by back titration with standard NaOH solution. From the volume of acid used by
ammonia liberated, the percentage of nitrogen in coal is calculated as follows:

1.4
=

3) Sulphur is determined from the washings obtained from the known mass of coal, used
in a bomb calorimeter for determination of a calorific value. During this determination, S is
converted into sulphate. The washings are treated with barium chloride solution, when barium
sulphate is precipitated. This precipitate is filtered, washed and heated to constant weight.
4 32 100
=
233

4) Ash: A known weight of coal sample is heated to 4000C and heated without lid in a
muffle furnace at 700 500C for hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then
in desiccator and weighed. Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated, till a constant weight is
obtained. The residue is reported as ash

. 100
% of ash =
.
determination is carried out as in proximate analysis.

5) Oxygen:
% of O = 100 % of (C + H + S + N + ash)

Importance of ultimate analysis:

1) Carbon and hydrogen: Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen, better is the
quality of coal and calorific value.
2) Nitrogen has no significant value and hence, its presence in coal is undesirable.
3) Sulphur, adds the heating value of coal, but on combustion produces acids (So2 and
SO3), which have harmful effects of corroding the equipments Presence of sulphur is highly
undesirable in coal to be used for making coke for iron industry.
4)Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High oxygen-content coals are
characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value, and low coking power. Moreover,
oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus, hydrogen available for combustion
is lesser than actual one. Thus, a good quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen.
 5) Ash is a non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal. Moreover,
ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. The
presence of ash (similar to moisture) also increases transporting, handling and storage costs. It
also involves additional cost in ash disposal.

6. Explain Ottohoffmanns process for preparation of metallurgical coke

Manufacturing of metallurgical coke by Otto Hoffman's by product oven:
To overcome the disadvantages of Beehive oven process such as1. To maintain heat economy, 2.
To recover valuable by products, 3. to avoid direct heating Otto Hoffmann developed a oven this
process is employed.

Construction:
It consists of silicon chambers in which finely divided coal is taken and then closed
tightly at both ends. Each chamber is providing with a charging hole at the top, a gas off-
take.
The oven is heated to 1200 by burning gaseous fuel i.e producer gas and the
carbonisation process takes place gradualliiy from lateral to central.
The flue gases produced during combustion before escaping to chimney, pass on to one
of the sets of checker brick work, untill this work has been raised to temperature of about
1000 .
The flow of heating gases reversed and the inlet gases are passed throw the heated
checker work which thus serves to pre heat the inlet gases.
Thus this cycle goes on. This is regenerative princple of heat economy.
The heating is actually continued till the evolution of volatile matter ceases completely.
Carbonization of charge of coal takes about 11 - 18 hours.
RECOVERY OF BY PRODUCTS
Coke oven gas mainly consists of tar, ammonia, naphthalene, benzene, H2S, etc.
1. Recovery of tar: the coke oven gas passed through a tower where liquid ammonia is
sprayed, Tar absorbed by ammonia, collected in a tank below.
2. Recovery of Ammonia: the gases from above chamber passed throw a tower in which
water is sprayed, and then ammonia is collected into water as NH4OH.
3. Recovery of Naphthalene: The gases are then passed through another tower in which
cool water is sprayed, here naphthalene get condensed.
4. Recovery of benzene: The gases are then sprayed with petroleum, when benzene and
its homologous are collected.
5. Recovery of H2S: The gases are then passed through purifier packed with Fe2O3, here
H2S is retained
7. Why coke is prefered than coal for metallurgical purpose?

Coke has high purity, porosity, low ash content, high calorific value and high strength when
compared to coal. So coke is prefered than coal.

8. What is meant by ranking of coal?

The gradual conversion of wood into coal is known as coalification. Various stages during
coalification are wood peat lignite Bituminous Anthracite. This
series is known as Peat- Anthracite series. In this series Moisture content, volatile matter, ash
content decreases where as % of fixed carbon, Hardness and Calorific value from peat to
Anthracite. Thus in this series each stage is at the hihest rank when compared to its
preceeding member.
1. What is petroleum? Give average composition of crude oil?
Petro: means rock; Oleum: means oil
referred as crude oil, rock oil, mineral oil
Petroleum is a basic natural fuel and is a dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil.
Found deep in earths crust.
Mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins,
cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins, and aromatics) together with small amount of
organic compounds containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur.
average composition of crude petroleum is : C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%;
S = 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%.

2. Give the brief classification of petroleum.

Classification of Petroleum: Three principal verities.
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum:
Mainly composed of the saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35 H72 and
a little of the napthenes and aromatics.
Hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are called waxes.
On distillation leave a residue of solid paraffin wax.
Asphalitc Base Type Crude Petroleum:
Contains mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of
parffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
On distillation leave a residue of asphalt or bitumen.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum:
Contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally rich
in semi-solid waxes.

3. What is meant by refining? Explain the process and Give the important characteristics of
gasoline and Diesel.

Refining of petroleum:
Is a process by which the crude oil is free from its impurities, separated into various fractions
having different boiling points and further treated to remove undesirable tendencies and to
impart specific properties in them.

Various steps involved are:

Demulsification: Crude oil is in the form of stable emulsions of oil in water/water in oil type.
They are stabilized by emulsifying agents or static electricity on dispersed particles. Electrical
method is widely used. Crude oil is subjected to electric field; droplets of dispersed phase
coalesce to form bigger drops and are separated out from oil.
 Removal of harmful impurities (Nacl, MgCl2): electrical desalting and dehydration methods
are employed.
Removal of sulfur compounds: crude oil is treated with copper oxide. Copper sulfide i.e
precipitated is removed by filtration.

Fractional distillation:
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small quantities of organic
compounds containing N, O, & S and can be separated by fractional distillation, as they
have different boiling and condensation points.
A fractionating still consists of a pipe still and bubble tower. Crude oil is heated in to
about 300-4000C in the pipe still and allowed to pass through tall cylindrical bubble tower. It
consists of a number of horizontal trays and each tray is provided with number of small
chimneys, covered with loose caps. vapors bubbles through cool refluxing oil flowing down and
transfer of heat to refluxing oil takes place. Adown stout pipe carries liquid to the next lower
plate.
As the vapour moves up through the fractionator, each fraction cools and condenses at a different
temperature. Substances with higher boiling points condense on the lower trays in the column.
Substances with lower boiling points condense on the higher trays. The vapours are cool and
condense more quickly by rectification process.

Important fractions:
Gasoline or Petrol and its Characteristics:
Gasoline obtained from crude oil is known as Straight run petrol. It has boiling range of 40-
180oC and its composition range is C5H12 to C9H20. It is highly volatile, inflammable and used as
fuel for internal combustion engines of automobiles and aeroplanes.

Kerosene Oil and its Characteristics:

Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC and its composition range is C10 to C16. It is
used as an illuminant, jet engine fuel, tractor fuel, and for preparing laboratory gas. When
kerosene is used in domestic appliances, it is always vaporized before combustion. By using a
fair excess of air it burns with a smokeless blue flame.

Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics:

The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its calorific value is
about 11,000 kcal/kg. Used as diesel fuel in diesel engine.

Heavy Oil and its Characteristics:

It is a fraction obtained between 320-400oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil on vacuum distillation gives:
 (a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants. (b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline)
which is used as lubricants in medicines and in cosmetics. (c) Greases which are used as
lubricants. (d) Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper, tarpolin cloth and
for electrical insulation purposes.

4. What is meant by synthetic petrol? Explain Fischer tropsch and Bergius process.
Motor fuels derived from non petroleum sources such as oil shales, lignites, Bituminous coal. Two
methods:

1. Fischer Tropsch method

2. Bergious process (Hydrogenation of coal)
Fischer Tropsch method:

Coal is converted to coke by cabonisation process. Steam is passed over red hot coke. Water
gas is produced.

Water gas is enriched with hydrogen. Now the gas is purified by

Passing through converter with Fe2 O3 for removal of H2S.
Then Passing through converter with Fe2 O3 and Na2CO3 for removal of organically bounded
Sulphur.

Now purified gas is compressed at 25-30 atm.pressure and passed through a converter containing
a mixture of catalyst and maintained at a temperature of 200-3000C.
Crude oil vapoures coming out are cooled in cooler , liquid crude oil is obtained. On
fractionation gasoline and heavy oil are obtained. Heavy oil on cracking gasoline is obtained.

CO +H2
Bergius Process (Hydrogenation of coal):

Low ash powdered coal is made into paste with heavy oil and nickel oleate catalyst
is incorporated. Mixture is then sent through converter maintained at 350-5000C and 200-250
atmospheric pressure where it meets hydrogen gas (1.5 hrs).

During which hydrogen combines with carbon frame work of coal and forms various
hydrocarbons. They decompose at high temperature and pressure and give low boiling liquid
hydrocarbons.

These gases are led into converter, aliquid resembling crude oil is obtained, on fractionation
gasoline, middle oil and heavy oil are obtained .

Middle oil on further hydrogenation gives gasoline. Heavy oil is used for making paste.

Yield : 60% of the coal dust used.

5. Mention the requisites of ideal gasoline and how the impure gasoline is refined?
Characteristics of an ideal gasoline are:
(a) It must be cheap and readily available. (b) It must burn clean and produce no
corrosion, etc. on combustion. (c) It should mix readily with air and should easily vaporize. (d) It
must be knock resistant. (e) It should be pre-ignite easily. (f) It must have a high calorific value.
g) stable in storage and should be free from gum and sludge formation.

Olefins and colouring matter: of gasoline are usually removed by percolating through Fullers
earth which absorbs preferentially only the colours and olefins.
 Storing quality Of gasoline : improved by adding inhibitors such as aromatic amines , amino
phenols. They retard oxidation process.

Stabilisation: removal of dissolved gases such as methane,ethane etc. Passing gasoline through a
tower consisting of 49 plates. Lower plates are heated by steam and gasoline is introduced at upper
plates.
Doping : addition of Tetra ethyl lead, known as doping. It Improves anti knocking property of
gasoline.
Blending: addition of fractions having high octane number, known as blending. It improves desired
property.

6. How sulphur compounds are removed by Doctors process?

Sulphur compounds from gasoline are removed by
Doctors Process : sulphur compounds are removed by treating gasoline with an alkaline
solution sodium plumbite with controlled addition of Sulphur. Sulphur compounds are converted
into disulfides.
Sweetening is also carried out by treating with sodium hypochlorite that converts Sulphur
compounds to disulfides.
6. Explain knocking in Internal combustion Engine.
Knocking in Internal combustion Engine:
Internal combustion (ICE) is spark ignition type. Mixture of air and petrol vapour is
compressed and ignited by an electric spark. Oxidation of hydrocarbons is essential chemical
reaction. Rate of oxidation of hydrocarbons depends on number of carbon atoms, structure of
molecules and temperature. Temperature in turn depends on compression ratio.
Compression ratio (CR) is ratio of cylinder volume at the end of suction stroke to that at the
end of compression stroke. CR= V2/V1

Theoratically power output and efficiency of IC E increase with increase of CR. According to
Ricardo power output increases to maximum and falls rapidly with further increase in CR.

CR that corresponds to maximum power output known as highest useful compression ratio, at
which a slight mechanical knock or pink can be heard, Known as Highest useful compression
ratio (HUCR). It becomes more pronounced as CR is further increased, during which preignition
of fuel occurs.

Thus in ICE knocking is due to Preignitioni.e due to sudden, spontaneous combustion of last
portion of fuel.

Octane Number: Knocking tendency of gasoline is expressed by octane number.

Isooctane (2,2,4,Trimethyl pentane) n heptane

Good combustibility Poor combustibility

Little knocking knocks very rapidly
Octane number is Octane number is
Taken as 100 taken as 0

Definition: % of isooctane in a mixture of isooctane and n heptane, which just matches the
knocking characteristic of fuel under consideration.
Example: if a sample of petrol gives as much knocking as 75 parts of isooctane and nheptane,
then its octane number is 75.

Order of knocking:

Straight chain Paraffins > branchedparaffins > olefins > cycloparaffins > aromatics.

Significance of Octane number:

indicates the knocking tendency of gasoline.

Higher the octane number good combustibility and little knocking tendency.
Gasoline with high % of aromatics have high octane number

7. Give the effect of chemical structure on knocking

Chemical structure and Knocking:
Knocking tendency decreases with increase in compactness of molecules, double bonds and
cyclic structure.
In normal paraffins anti knocking property decreases with increase in length of hydrocarbon
chain.
Nbutane npentane nhexane nheptane

Branched chain paraffins have higher antiknock properties than their normal isomers. Resistance
to knock increases with number of branches and their position.
2-methyl hexane -55 2,2 dimethyl pentane-80

Olefins have higher antiknock properties than their corresponding paraffins. As the double bond
approaches centre of chain antiknocking resistance increases.

Aromatic hydrocarbons have high octane number. Naphthenes are superior to paraffins.
Anti knocking agents: Octane number of gasoline is improved by adding fuel of higher
antiknock value i.e tetra ethyl lead.

Tetra ethyl lead is added to improve antiknock properties. It increases induction period by
interacting with free radicals where lead oxide is produced,is rapidly reduced to lead by
explosive combustion. To prevent accumulation of lead on spark plug ethylene dibromide is
added.
8. Explain diesel knock and significance of cetane number

Diesel Knock: In compression ignition ingine the air is first forced into the cylinder and
compressed to 30-40 kg/cm2 result in increase of temparture.

Fuel is sprayed into the compressed air; the fuel droplets vaporise and pressure increases. Middle
and high boiling fractions are used.

If there is ignition delay, a large portion of fuel gets injected and accumulated into the cylinder
before the ignition is initiated. Result in violent combustion and sudden increase of pressure. It
causes diesel knock.

Thus in diesel engine knocking is due to ignition delay i.e delay in the ignition of the first
portion of the fuel.

Cetanenumber: knocking of diesel is expressed in terms of cetane number.

Cetane 2 methyl naphthalene

Nhexadecane
Good combustion characteristics poor combustion characteristics
Little knocking more knocking tendency
Taken as 100 Taken as 0

Definition: %by volume ofcetane in a mixture of cetane and 2 methyl naphthalene which exactly
matches in its knocking characteristics with oil under test.

Cetane number is improved

by adding ethyl nitrate; ethyl nitrate ; isoamyl nitrate.

Inhibitors are added to prevent gum formation.
To preserve fluid properties big poly hydrocarbons are added.

Order of diesel knock:

Aromatics > naphthenes > olefins > N alkanes.
Significance of Cetane number
indicates the knocking tendency of Diesel.
Higher the cetane number good combustibility and little knocking tendency.
Diasel with high % of N alkanes have high cetane number

6. Write a brief note on LPG/CNG.

Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas):
Also known as Botteled gas or refractory gas.
Valuable byproduct obtained during cracking of heavuy oils or from Natural gas.
Contains a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons of C3-C4.
Consists of hydrocarbons of such volatility that they can exist as gas under atmospheric
pressure and liquefied under pressure.
 It is dehydrated and desulpharised and small amount of mercaptants are added to
identify gas lekage.
Supplies under pressure in container under trade name Indane, HP etc.
For domestic purpose mixture of propane and Butane
For Industrial purpose fuel mainly consistsliquid propane.

Characteristics:
High Calorific Value(27,800Kcal/m3)
Colourless, low Sulphur content, Non corrosive, Sligthly Toxic
Heavier than air.

Advantages over gaseous fuel:

High efficiency and heating rate (3 times of natural gas, 7times of coal gas)
No smoke during combustion.
Less health hazard (No CO emission)
Advantages over gasoline as motor fuel:
Cheaper. Mixes easily with air.
Highly Knock resistance,Burns cleanly.
Increase engine life
isadvantages over gasoline as motor fuel:
Due to its faint odour lekage cant be detected.
Handling to be done under pressure
Response to blending is poor.
Can be used in engines with high compression ratio.

Compressed Natural gas(CNG):

Fossil fuel, substituted for gasoline /diesel or LPG
Should be compressed to a high pressure of 1000 atmospheres.
Mainly consists of CH4 and supplied in cylindrical or spherical shape containers made
upof with steel, Aluminim or plastics.
No sulphur and Nitrogen are evolved
Safer fuel, ignites at higher temperature than diesel/petrol.
Less operating cost. Lighter than air and mixes better with air.
Advantages:
Better ignition. No emission of pollutants.
Engines have long life.
Slightly efficient than gasoline. Safer fuel.
Disadvantages:
Require greater amount of space
Refueling net works for CNG are very expensive
Require heavy cylinders for storing at high pressure
 CHEMICAL ENERGY

1. What is meant by electrochemical cell and electrolytic cell?

A cell is a device which convert chemical energy in to electrical energy is called electrochemical
cell.
A cell is a device which convert electrical energy in to chemical energy is called electrolytic cell.
Electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes immersed in a electrolyte and connected
externally with a metal wire.
Electrode is a set up in which the metal is immersed in its salt solution.
Anode: It is a -veelectrode where the electrons leave from it, or the electrode where oxidation
takes place.
Cathode: It is a +veelectrode where the electrons Enter through it, or the electrode where
reduction takes place.

2. Define standard electrode potential.

Standard electrode potential is the measure of tendency of metallic electrode to lose or gain electrons,
when itis in contact with its own salt of unit concentration at 250C.
The measure of tendency an electrode to lose electrons is called Oxidation potential.
The measure of tendency an electrode to gain electrons is called Reduction potential.
The reduction potential and Oxidation potential in magnitude same but differ in sign i.e; if the
oxidation potential of an electrode is +X Volts, then the reduction will have the value of -X
Volts.
3. What is electrochemical series? Give its significance.

When all the elements are arranged in increasing order of their standard reduction potential that
series is called electro chemical series.

Li+/Li, K+/K..Al+3 / Al, Zn+2/Zn, H+/1/2H, Cu+2/Cu, Ag+/Ag.1/2F2/F-

-3.05 -1.66, -0.76 0.00 0.34 0.80 +2.87

anode Reference Cathode

Significance:
Relative ease of Oxidation or reduction: A system with high reduction potential has a great
tendency to undergo reduction, and with low reduction potential has tendency to undergo
oxidation. Top most elements in the series act as reductants and bottom elements act as
Oxidants.
Replacement tendency: Higher value of reduction potential element shows tendency to be in
reduced form. Hence in a reaction zinc sulfate solution added to copper, Cu does not change
and stay in the reduced state, but in a reaction zinc added to coppersulfate, zinc replaces Cu
and gives zinc sulfate & copper. Here Cu is reduced due high reduction potential.
 Predicting spontaneity of redox reactions:
E.M.F of cell = E cathode - E anode is positive, reaction is spontaneous
is negative, reaction is non spontaneous
Calculation of Equilibrium costant
By the equation E= RT log KcKc = Equilibrium constant
nF
if E electrode potential is known Kc can be determined by above equation

4. Define battery? Explain construction and working of dry or Laclanche cell with neat sketch.

Battery is defined as it is an electrochemical cell or several electrochemical cells in series that

can be used as a source of direct electrical current at a constant voltage.
Dry or Laclanche cell:
It is a primary cell or pure electrochemical cell which consists of only Discharging cycle can
convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
Anode: Zn can
Cathode: Graphite surrounded by MnO2.
Electrolyte:ZnCl2 + NH4Cl+ Starch
Construction:
It consists of graphite rod at the centresurronded by a paste consists of MnO2 ,NH4Cl and ZnCl2
made with starch. this entire assembly is placed inside a thin Zinc can
Reactions at Anode:
Zn Zn 2+ + 2e-
Reactions at Cathode:
2MnO2 + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3 + 2OH-

Secondary reactions:
2NH4Cl + 2OH- 2NH3 + H2O +2Cl-

Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2Cl- [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2

Net reaction:
Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O + 2NH4Cl Mn2O3 + 2NH3 + [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2

EMF of the cell: 1.5V

Disadvantages:
When electricity is drawn quickly the products of secondary reactions will build up, so
there is sudden drop in potential observed.
Even though cell is not in use due to acidic electrolyte cell will discharge continuously.
5. Explain alkaline battery.
ALKALINE BATTERY:
Anode: Zn can
Cathode: Graphite surrounded by MnO2.
Electrolyte: KOH + Zn powder
Construction:
It consists of graphite rod at the centresurronded by a paste consists of MnO2 ,.the electrolyte
KOH is mixed with Zn powder , this entire assembly is placed inside a thin Zinc can
Reactions at Anode:
Zn Zn 2+ + 2e-
Zn2+ + 2OH- Zn(OH)2
Reactions at Cathode:
2MnO2 + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3 + 2OH-

Net reaction:
Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O Mn2O3 + Zn(OH)2

EMF of the cell: 1.5V

6. What are storage devises? Explain the construction and working of a lead acid accumulator.
A. Storage devise:
Lead acid accumulator:
It is a secondary cell which consists of both Discharging and recharging component can convert
chemical energy to electrical energy by acting aselectrochemical cell and convert electrical
energy into chemical energy by acting as electrolytic cell.
Anode: spongy lead
Cathode: PbO2 coated lead.
Electrolyte: 20% H2SO4
Construction:
It consists of lead as anode and PbO2 coated lead as a cathode immersed in a 20%
H2SO4electrolyteeither a single pair or series of pairs immersed in a electrolyte with porous
partition between the pairs.
While discharging :
It act as a electrochemical cell and convert chemical energy into electrical energy
Reactions at Anode:
Pb Pb2+ + 2e-
Pb2+ + SO4- PbSO4
Reactions at Cathode:
PbO2 + 4H++ SO4-2 + 2e- PbSO4+ 2H2O
 Net reaction:
Pb+ PbO2 +2 H2SO4 2PbSO4+ 2H2O

EMF of the cell: 1.8 - 2.2V

While charging:
it acts as electrolytic cell which convert electrical energy into chemical energy.
Reactions at '-' terminal:
PbSO4 + 2H2O + 2e- PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4-2

Reactions at '+' terminal:

PbSO4 Pb + SO4-2 + 2e-

Net reaction:
2PbSO4+ 2H2O Pb + PbO2 +2 H2SO4

In discharging process the electrolyte component acid is converted into equivalent of

water and in charging process the water is converted to equivalents of acid, thus at any
time the concentration or specific gravity of acid will determine the life a battery.

7. Explain working of H2 - O2 Fuel Cell

A cell which converts chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy is called fuel cell

Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electrical energy

Anode: H2 the Fuel

Cathode: O2 The oxidant
Electrolyte: 25%KOH
Electrodes are made of graphite impregnated with finely divided Pt, Pd, Ag, Or Ni
Construction:
It consists of Porous graphite Cylinders impregnated with finely divided Pt, Pd, Ag, Or Ni , in one
electrode fuel H2 Is pumped at 50 atm and in the other electrode O2 is pumped.the electrolyte is
KOH
Reactions at Anode:
2H2 + 2OH- 4H2O + 4e-

Reactions at Cathode:
O2+ 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-

Net reaction:
2H2+ O2 2H2O
 EMF of the cell: 1.2V
Electrolyte generally used are aqueous KOH or H2SO4 or ion exchange resin saturated with
water.

Give the Applications of Hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell?

Used as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines and other military vehicles.
The product water is a valuable source of fresh water by astronauts.
Widely used as a source of power in transportation like electric mobiles etc.
Efficiently employed for power generation which is used for domestic and industrial purpose.

Other general questions:

Distinguish between electrolytic and electrochemical cell.
Distinguish between primary and secondary cells.
Explain Galvanic cell.
Explain the role of salt bridge.
What is the significance of electrode potential?
Write a brief note on electrode potential.
 Solar Energy

1.What is meant by photovoltaic cell

A photovoltaic cell (a solar cell), in which light energy is converted into electrical
energy. It is based on the phenomenon called photovoltaic effect.They are developed to
supply power to space programmes.

2. Explain construction and working of photovoltaic cell/solar cell?

A typical solar cell consists of two very thin layers of materials to form a p-n junction. It is
formed by placing p-type and n-type semiconductors next to one another. The boundary
between such regions within a single crystal is called p-n junction. When sunlight hits the
sandwich, the p-type, with one less electron, attracts the surplus electron from the n-type to
stabilize itself. Thus the electricity is displaced and generates a flow of electrons.

In the absence of external voltage, a hole from the p-side moves to n-side and an electron
from n-side moves to p-side.After some instant conducting electrons are prevented
from entering into the p-side by the layer of negative ions of the acceptor in the
lattice.Similarly the holes are prevented from entering into the n-side by the layer of +ve
ions of the donor in the crystal lattice.

Thus junction charge i.e., positive in the n-side and negative in the p-side acts as barrier
for both the holes and conducting electrons.
In the presence of light which falls on the p-n junction, electrons from the valence band
are promoted to the conduction band there by generating electron-hole pairs on both
sides of the junction.
P-n junction acts a barrier for both charge carriers and concentration of holes builds up
on p-side and concentration of electrons builds up on the n-side.
When the equilibrium concentrations of the carriers exceeds, a drift of holes towards A
and a drift of electrons towards B takes place. When A and B are connected with a
conductor, flow of current takes place from A to B and flow of electrons takes place
from B to A.
Electrons recombining with holes ensure uninterrupted flow of electrons as long as
sunlight flling on p-n junction.
Solar cells made of gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, CdS/Cu2S are also used.
Electrical energy derived is stored by charging lead-acid battery, Ni-Cd battery etc.
Advantages: Absence of moving parts
Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate
Doesnt create pollution

3. Mention the applications of solar cell?

It is used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis of water.
The liberated hydrogen is used in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
They are used in pocket calculators, power supply for rural homes, light houses,
irrigation pumps, radio-transmitters, traffic signals etc.
They are used for power generation in photo voltaic power plants replacing thermal
power plants.
They are also used for developing solar power based air-conditioners.