AKASH BALI

NEMUULEN BATTUVSHIN
PAULA COMBATE
CHARLES PADILLA
 Steel is an alloy of iron with a carbon content that can range
from 0.03% to 1, 075% of its composition depending on its
grade.
The two main components of steel are abundant in nature: https://cormsquare.com/

Steel can be recycled indefinitely without losing their attributes;

those facts facilitates its production on large scale. Its variety
and availability makes it suitable for numerous uses as the
construction of machinery, tools, buildings and public works,
aeronautics, automotive, medical equipment contributing to the
technological development of industrialized societies, as no
material can match it on resistance to impact or fatigue.
http://www.bitrebels.com/geek//
http://hackwhiz.com/2014/08/
Steel frame construction is a building technique wherein which
"skeleton framing of vertical steel columns and horizontal I-
beams, are constructed in a rectangular grid to support floors,
roof and walls of a building. The development of this technique
made the construction of skyscrapers possible.

Steel frame construction is often used in:

high rise buildings
industrial buildings
warehouse buildings
Residential buildings (light gauge steel construction)
Temporary structures (as they are quick to set up and remove)
Fig. 1 - First steel frame building : Home Insurance,
Chicago (1884)
 Advantages of Using Steel: Fig. 3

Strength and resistance

Flexibility and adaptability
Durability and efficiency
Sustainability and recyclability
Speed of construction
Fig. 4
Lightness of material
Long term maintenance costs
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Fig. 2 - First all-steel frame building: Rand
McNally Building, Chicago (1886)

Fig. 5

World famous landmarks!

Structural Steel
It is a category of steels which are used
for making construction materials.
They are available in various standard
shapes (ex: I-beam, channel, angle,
plate, HSS, etc.).
They are very stiff in respect to their
cross-sectional area and thus can
support a high load without excessive
sagging.
They are manufactured by various heat
treatment and mechanical treatment
processes.
Various yield strength grades are
available like 195, 235, 275, 355, 420,
460, 500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and 960
(MPa). The density can vary from 7.0
g/cc to 8.0 g/cc depending on the grade
of structural steel.
Structural steels may contain only iron
and carbon, or iron & carbon with
addition of one or more than one of a
variety of alloying additions like
Manganese, Silicon, Aluminium,
Chromium, Phosphorous & Sulfur,
Columbium, Nickel, Copper,
Molybdenum, Vanadium, etc.
Mild Steel
It is the type of steel which is suitable for many
applications such as Car body panels, Nuts &
Bolts, food cans, Metal chains , wire ropes,
engine parts, bicycle rims, Nails & screws and
various outdoor uses.
There are many grades of Mild Steel and they
vary according to manufacturers. Almost 90%
steel products of the world is made up of mild
steel because it is the cheapest form of steel
Mild steel is malleable, ductile, easily formed into
various shapes and a good conductor of
electricity,
Mild steel can be easily machined in the lathe,
shaper, drillling or milling machine. Its hardness
can be increased by the application of carbon
The yield strength of mild steel is 250 MPa. It has
an average density of about 7.860 g/cc.
Mild steel contains -
carbon 0.16 to 0.18 % (maximum 0.25% is
allowable)
Manganese 0.70 to 0.90 %
Silicon maximum 0.40%
Sulfur maximum 0.04%
Phosphorous maximum 0.04%
Mildest grade of carbon steel or mild steel
contains a very low amount of carbon - 0.05 to
0.26%
Structural steel is used in construction or building
projects. In its most basic definition, structural steel is
defined as steel shaped for use in construction. Many
structural shapes take the form of an elongated beam
having a profile of specific cross section. Structural
steel shapes, sizes, chemical composition, mechanical
properties such as strengths, storage practices, etc.
are regulated by standard in most industrialized
countries. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/structural-
engineering/48671-structural-steel-construction-material/

Fig. 6
Types of Structural Steel:

Mild Structural Steels or Carbon Steels

Carbon-manganese steels composed of iron,
carbon and manganese
High strength, ductile and economical
E.g ASTM grade A36

High-Strength, low-alloy steels

E.g ASTM grade A572

High-strength tempered and quenched alloy steels

E.g ASTM grade A514
 Structural steels are manufactured in section and
plate shapes and are normally used in bridges,
buildings, ships, and pipelines

Beams and channels can range from 20 - 60 in

length, and can very in ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials) rating depending on use.

Chart - Alro Company. (2013). Structural Shapes. Retrieved November 7, 2017,

from http://www.alro.com/datacatalog/004-structural.pdf
A structural steel shape is a profile formed with a
specific cross section.
I-beam
Z-shape
Angle
Tee
Bar
Rod

Because of the ductility of structural steel, the

variety of shapes, thicknesses and even sizes can
be customized to meet specific building needs.
Fig. 7 Fig. 8

I-beam: An I-shaped cross section Z-shape: Half a flange going in opposite

capped with flanges on either side directions resembling a Z
Fig. 9 Fig. 10

Angle: an L-shaped cross section Tee: a T-shaped cross section

 Fig. 11

Bar: a rectangular, cross-sectioned long Rod: a round or square long piece of

piece of steel steel
Pros
Super-quick to build as a lot of work can be pre-
fabricated from manufacturer
Flexible, hence making them dynamic resistant from
natural forces such as wind, earthquake
Has a wide range of ready-made structural sections
Can be customized to various shapes and cladded with
any material
Wide range of joining methods such as bolting, welding,
riveting

Cons
Loses its strength at high temperature making it
susceptible to fire, hence fireproofing steels is
mandatory
Prone to corrosion in humid or marine environments
Light gauge steel is created from a mixture of zinc and
aluminum also known as zincalume. It is known to have
the same principles as wood frame construction.

All of the wooden framing members are essentially

replaced with thin steel section
They are most commonly found in residential and small
buildings in North America and even in parts of Europe.
The sections are given shape or shaped at room
temperature. They are shaped by thin sheets of steel
going through a series of rollers, with each roller
changing its shape
 An economical light gauge steel frame
system is increasingly being used in
America, Europe, Australia and New
Zealand.
This light gauge steel frame is developed
through a cold-formed process without
the use of heat.
This process enables steel
manufacturers to produce lightweight but
high tensile steel sheets.
It results in buildings that are more solid,
rigid, stronger, durable and easier to
build. Fig. 12
 The techniques that are used are very similar to
that of wood frame construction. It follows it both
structurally and mechanically.
Contractors will typically order pre-punched steel
sections
The gaps between the steel sections are filled in
with insulation

Fig. 13
 There is minimal amounts of assembly in regards to
light gauge steel at the construction site.
Most of the assembly is done at the manufacturing
stage, as it is pre ordered.
As for the construction of the building, there are a
series of connectors and joists that help with
construction with light gauge steel.

Fig. 14
Pros
They are light, and require minimal amounts of heavy tools or equipment.
Components can be easily carried by hand. The main tool is a light, handheld
screw gun. Since steel is strong, LGS structures are lighter than wood framed
structures of equivalent strength
Their higher strength allows greater spacing between members when
compared to wood frame construction: about 24" (600mm) for LGS vs. about
16" or 20" (400 or 500mm) for wood. Fewer members translates to quicker
construction times.
It is able to shape itself to any form, and can be clad and insulated with a wide
range of materials.
It is easy to change or modify this construction at any point in its lifespan.

Cons
Light framed structures allow the passage of sound more readily than the more
solid masonry construction.
Light gauge steel will lose strength in the advent of fire. Adequate fire protection
must be used. The easiest form of fire protection is to clad the steel with fire
rated sheathing or drywall.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrBE7C3niK0
Mild steel is the most common form of steel. It is
flexible, cheap, and durable!
When a great deal of steel is needed it is often the
type of steel selected.
Mild steel is also known as low carbon steel.

The term mild steel is a general term for an array of

low carbon steels that have good strength and are
flexible so that they can be made into sheet metal
fabrication or a variety of shapes for uses from
vehicles (like cars and ships) to building materials
 Mild steel in its making process involves a
combination of iron ore and coal.
Once the coal and iron ore are extracted
from the earth, they are melted together in
a blast furnace.
Once melted, the mixture is moved to
another furnace to burn off any impurities
that they may have, as well as to make any
other adjustments to the mild steels
chemical composition.
Following that, the steel is allowed to
solidify into a rectangular shape. This slab
of mild steel is then usually brought down to
the desired size using processes called hot
rolling or cold drawing (other methods may
be used) Fig. 15
Mild steel can be used in almost Here are some other things where
everything! mild steel is used in the world:
Signs
This is not hard to believe as the
material is extremely versatile, cost- Automobiles
effective and easy to manufacture, with Furniture
the end product being extremely ductile Decorations
thanks to a low carbon content with an
almost limitless potential in terms of Wire
possible end-products. Fencing

In terms of framing construction, mild Nails

steel, with its unique properties not
found in wood or anything else, is highly
favoured as a building frame material
due to it's incredibly high strength.
 Fig. 16 a rigid connection of 4 units achieved by Fig. 17 Cup locks could be as a scaffolding
a single action system

1. Cup locks
Used in residential, commercial and industrial sites, cup locks can be erected for
straight, curved or even circular configuration for both support and access. They
are found on fastening methods (node points).
 Fig. 18 Fig. 19

2. Joint Pins 3. Pressed Double Coupler

Joint pins are for internal connections which Used for joining tubes at a 90 degree angle
allow ease of joining. These are crucial to the to other tubes.
system of scaffolding as it can join multiple
stories in a single structure.
 Fig. 11
Fig. 12 - L-channel, I-channel, C-channel

4. Channels
Generally used to support the frame structure.
Types of channels: L-channel, I-channel, C-
channel
 Fig. 21 Fig. 22

5. Props (aka. Mild Steel vertical member) 6. Mild Steel Pipes

Frame structure in building construction. Props
are generally used as supporting members as Designed in tubular forms and are diverse in
they maintain a proper straight form which do dimensions. These are used for construction
not crack or rot (opposed to wooden ballies). in all types of buildings.
.if you attach a mild steel bar on your ceiling, you could hang 20,000kg from
it - the equivalent of 18 Honda's or one and a half London buses (double-
deckers too).

For construction use in particular, mild steel is also advantageous because it

meets strict seismic or wind requirements, is resistant to damage which could
be caused by insects and is also repellent to both rot and fire.
Pros
Ductility- the property of material by which it can withstand a great deal of manipulation without
failure under high tensile stresses
Additions- Mild steel is a flexible material, hence, it can be added to existing steel structures quite
efficiently. For examples, new bays or even entire wings can be added to steel frame buildings,
and steel bridges can be widened.
Long Span Construction- High-rise buildings, high transmission towers, and long span bridges are
composed mild steel. Plate girders or trusses can be used to create industrial buildings up to a
span of 90 meters. Bridge spans up to 260 meters have been made with plate girders.
Temporary Construction- Mild steel structures are commonly used for temporary structures
because they can be disassembled by opening a few bolts, transferred to another location and
the structure can be easily reassembled.
Lightness- The carbon content of steel determines the weight of the structure; the higher the level
of carbon, the heavier the structure will be. Because mild steel has a low carbon content, it is a
better option if one is pursuing to work with little to no help.
Affordability- Mild steel is one of the most affordable types of steel. This is the material to go for
on a tight budget.
Recyclable- Due to its magnetic properties mild steel is particularly easy to recover from unsorted
waste without losing its quality.
Cons
Heat Treatment- Heat usually affects the carbon content of steel. Steel is usually
subjected to heat treatment in order to alter its characteristics, such as making it
harder. Mild steel is therefore a poor candidate for heat treatment because the limited
carbon content in it makes it unable to show significant changes after heat treatment.
1. Clearspan Frames
Rigid frames that offer durability, strength, and
versatility. The frame design requires no interior
columns and offers large areas of unhindered
spaces.

Fig. 23

2. Modular Frames
Includes interior columns and allow for wider
building spaces.

Fig. 24
3. Single Slope Frames
Different eaves heights on each sidewall
allows the roof of the building to slope in
one direction.

Fig. 25

4. Lean-to Frames
Designed to attach to existing rigid frames
or to structures that require additional
support.

Fig. 26
Rivet Connections
Involves the process of driving
rivets into holes made in the metal
in order to connect them. Rivets
are made up of a round ductile
steel bar called shank and a
head at one end.

Fig. 27 Riveting Process Fig. 28 Riveted Connection

Bolt Connections
Involves the process of using bolts to hold together different steel members.

a. Bearing Type Bolts

1. Black Bolts 2. Turned Bolts 3. Ribbed Bolts

Fig. 29 Fig. 30 Fig. 31

b. High Strength Friction Grip Bolts

Fig. 32
Advantages of Bolted Connections:
Quiet installation

Quicker than riveting

Cheaper than welding

Requires less man power in making the connections.

Does not require heating, which reduces the risk of fire.

Disadvantages:
Strength is greatly reduced when subjected to vibrating loads.

Requires drilling and punching holes.

Unfinished bolts have weaker strength due to non-uniform diameter.

Weld Connections
The process of joining two pieces of metal together to create a single piece by
heating the materials to their melting point.

Fig. 33
Weld Symbols
Fillet welds require no advanced preparation of the joint,
making it a more economical choice.
Full penetration butt welds are stronger. Butt welds are also
called groove welds.

Fig. 34
Advantages of Weld Connections:
Allows for simpler detailing which increases freedom in
design.
Saves on materials due to the lack of connecting members
needed such as bolts.
Disregards the need to drill or punch holes into the steel.

Forms more rigid joints.

Disadvantages:
Inspection of weld is required and can be costly.

Requires a higher level of skill to be able to weld.

Can be expensive than other methods of joining when using

a field weld.
Shear Connection (Simple
Connections)
Transmitting vertical forces from a beam
to a column.
Simple connections where the building
must depend on diagonal bracing or shear
walls for lateral stability.
Bolting and light welding are usually used.

Moment Connection (Rigid

Connections)
Transmitting bending forces between a Fig. 35
beam and a column.
More expansive and uses full-penetration
groove welds.
Typical Shear Connections
1. Bolted Beam-to-Column-Flange
Connection
The beam is connected to the column by angles,
plates, or tees fastened to the web of the beam.
Only the web of the beam is connected to the
column.
Demo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQEDlqvPmO8

Fig. 37

Fig. 36
Typical Shear Connections
2.Seated Beam-to-Column-Web
Connection
Considered a shear connection even though
the beam flanges are connected to the
column by a seat angle under and a
stabilizing angle above.
It is not a moment connection because two
bolts are not enough to develop the full
strength of the beam flange.
Used when there is insufficient space to insert
a power wrench in between the column
flanges in order to tighten all the bolts.

Fig. 38
Typical Moment Connection
1.Welded Beam-to-Column-Web Moment
Connection
Used when rigid connections are required.

A vertical shear tab, welded to the web of the

column, serves to receive bolts that connect
the column to the web of the beam.
A horizontal stiffener is welded inside the
column flange and serves to reduce
concentrations of stress at the welds.
Demo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NULtvdoq1rQ

Fig. 39
Typical Moment Connection
2. Welded and Bolted Moment Connection
Joining a Beam to a Column Flange
Used when rigid connections are required.

The bolts hold the beam in place for welding

while also providing shear resistance.
The groove welds create the full strength of
the beam allowing moment forces between
the beam and the column.
Beam flanges are cut to a dog bone shape
that is weaker in bending than the welded
area.
Stiffener plates are welded between the
column flanges if the column flange does not
hold the moments coming from the beam.
Fig. 40
Stabilizing the Building Frame
1. Braced Frame uses diagonal bracing to create stable triangular
configuration.
2. Shear Walls stiff walls made of steel, concrete or reinforced concrete
masonry. Serves the same purpose as the diagonal bracing in a braced frame
structure.
3. Moment Resisting Frames rely on moment connections between beams and
columns. Capable of stabilizing the frame against lateral forces. Does not
require to have all moment connections within the frame.

Fig. 41 Fig. 42
Fig. 43
Stabilizing the Building Frame
Rigid Core everything in the
center of the building (elevators,
stairs, mechanical chases and
washrooms)
Fig. 44
Rigid Perimeter uses diagonal
bracing, shear walls or moment
connections. The entire interior of the
structure can be assembled with
shear connections.
Fig. 45
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