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CHAPTER 2:
STOICHIOMETRY

By:
PUAN NURUL IZZA TAIB

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing the course, students will be able to:
1. Name and write formula of simple inorganic
compounds
2. Name and write formula of binary covalent
compounds

3. Name and write formula of simple acids, bases and

hydrates

4. Determine empirical and molecular formula of

unknown compounds
5. Solve stoichiometric problems involving limiting
reactants.

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A simplest pure substance consists

entirely of one type of atom only
Atoms are composed of subatomic
particles, of which electrons, protons
and neutrons
Cannot be broken down into any ELEMENT
simpler substances by physical or
chemical means

A structure consists two or more

atoms that are chemically
bound together and thus behaves
as an independent unit
MOLECULE

A substance composed of two

or more different elements
that are chemically bound
together

COMPOUND

A group of two or more

substances (elements and/or
compounds) that are physically
intermingled
MIXTURE

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Naming of Elements
Elements are named by using symbols of 1, 2 or 3
letters. Each element symbol start with a capital
letter.
H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), K (potassium) are elements
with symbols containing one letter.
Ca (Calcium), Mg (Magnesium), Cl (Chlorine) are
elements with symbols containing two letters.
Uub, Uut, Uuq and Uup are elements with symbols
containing three letters.

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Naming Compounds
There are:-

1. Ionic compounds
Binary ionic compound Type I
Binary ionic compound Type II
2. Polyatomic ionic compounds
3. Covalent compounds

4. Acids & bases

1) Ionic Compounds
Composed of metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals

Donate electrons Accept electrons

Form positive ions Form negative ions
(cations) (anions)

The name of the cation is the same as the name of the metal. M any
metal names end in ium
The name of anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds the
suffix ide

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a) Binary I onic Compounds Type A

These compounds have cations of elements from main groups
Group 1A, 2A and Al from group 3A in Periodic Table
The compounds has zero net charge the positive charges of cations
must balance the negative charge of anions
Rules:
Cations: name of the element
Anion: named by taking the root of the element name and adding
ide

Cations Anions
Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name

H+ hydrogen H- hydride
Li+ lithium F- fluoride
+1 Na+ sodium -1 Cl- chloride
K+ potassium Br- bromide
Cs + cesium I- iodide
Ag+ silver

Mg2+ magnesium
O2- oxide
Ca2+ calcium
S2- sulfide
+2 Sr2+ strontium -2
Ba2+ barium
Zn2+ zinc
Cd2+ cadmium
+3 Al3+ aluminum -3 N3- nitride
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Name the ionic compound formed from the
following pairs of elements:
(a) magnesium and nitrogen (b) iodine and cadmium
(c) strontium and fluorine (d) sulfur and cesium

b) Binary Ionic Compounds Type B

These compound have metals which form more than one

positive ion (cations) / multiple charges
Rules:
must show the oxidation number (charge) in
parenthesis
Examples:

Ion Name Compound Compound Name

Fe2+ Iron(II) FeO Iron(II) oxide

Fe3+ Iron(III) FeCl3 Iron(III) chloride

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Common name:
The suffix ous for ion with lower charge
The suffix ic for the ion with the higher charge

Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name

Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous

Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Iron Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Lead Pb+2 lead(II)
Pb+4 lead(IV)
Tin Sn +2 tin(II) stannous
Sn +4 tin(IV) stannic

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2) Polyatomic Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds which consist of two or more atoms with
one overall charge
Examples:

Ions Name Ions Name

NH4 + Ammonium CO3 2- Carbonate

NO2 - Nitrite HCO3 - Hydrogen carbonate

SO4 2- Sulfate PO4 3- Phosphate

OH- Hydroxide C2 H3 O2 - Acetate

CN- Cyanide MnO4 - Permanganate

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Examples of polyatomic ionic compounds

Compound Name

K2SO4 Potassium sulfate

BaSO4 Barium sulfate

K2Cr2O7 Potassium dichromate

KMnO4 Potassium permanganate

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Oxoanions
Element (usually non-metal) which bonded to one or more
oxygen atoms.
2 oxoanions in the family:
More O atoms ate, eg: Sulfate SO42-
Fewer O atom ite, eg: Sulfite SO32-
4 oxoanions in the family (halogen bonded to O atoms)
Most O atoms - per*ate, eg: perchlorate ClO4-
1 fewer O atom ate, eg: chlorate ClO3-
2 fewer O atoms ite, eg: chlorite ClO2-
3 fewer O atoms hypo*ite, eg: hypochlorite ClO-

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Hydrated Ionic Compounds

Hydrates have a speci fic number of

Number Prefix
water molecules
1 Mono-
2 Di-
No of water molecules is shown 3 Tri-

after a dot and is named by a 4 Tetra-

5 Penta-
Greek numerical prefix before the
6 Hexa-
word hydrate
7 Hepta-
8 Octa-
9 Nona-
10 Deca-

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3) Covalent Compounds

Compounds containing only non-metal elements

These compounds are always neutral and consist of
only two elements
Systematic ways of naming:-
Element with lower group number is named first
If both elements in the same group, the one with
higher period number is named first
The second element is named with suffix ide

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Examples of covalent compounds

Compound Name

CCl 4 Carbon tetrachloride

P 2 O5 Phosphorus pentoxide

ICl 3 Iodine trichloride

NOTES !!!!

Prefixes are only for covalent compound not for ionic compound
The only time we drop a prefix is if the mono is to appear at the
beginning of the name.

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4) Acids and Bases

Acids
Compounds which release hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved.
Act as proton donor (hydrogen atom which has lost
its electron)
Any compound with leading H's in formula are acidic
hydrogens

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Guidelines for naming acids

name the anion within the acid
change the anion ending to one of the following:

in acid, replace
anion ending examples
with:

hydrochloric acid, HCl

*ide hydro*ic acid
hydrobromic acid, HBr

nitrous acid, HNO2

-ite -ous acid chlorous acid, HClO2
hypobromous acid, HBrO

sulfuric acid, H 2SO4

-ate -ic acid nitric acid, HNO3
chloric acid, HClO3
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Bases

Compounds which release hydroxide ions (OH- )

when dissolved

A base is composed of a metal and an OH- ion,

except for ammonia (NH3)

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Guidelines for naming bases

name the metal and add with hydroxide
Oxidation state with value more than one should write
in parenthesis after metal name
Examples:

Base Name

KOH Potassium hydroxide

Fe(OH)2 Iron(II) hydroxide

Al(OH)3 Aluminum(III) hydroxide

AgOH Silver hydroxide

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Give the systematic names for the formulas or the
formulas for the names of the following
compounds:
(a)tin(II) fluoride
(b)CrI3
(c)ferric oxide
(d)CoS

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Write the chemical formula for the substances given
below.
1. Sodium thiosulfate 2. Copper (II) sulfate
3. Iron (II) chloride 4. Iron (III) chloride
5. Calcium carbonate 6. Zinc oxide
7. Zinc oxide 8. Lead (II) sulfate
9. Lead (IV) chloride 10. Hydrochloric acid
11. Carbon tetrachloride 12. Barium hydrogen carbonate
13.Hydrogen peroxide 14. Iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate
15. Lead (II) acetate 16. Ammonium dichromate

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY (1808)

All matter consists of atoms, which are tiny particles

which cannot be created, destroyed or split.

Atoms are the smallest unit of an element.

All atoms of a given element are identical in all

aspect (size, mass, chemical properties).

The atoms of one element are different from the

atoms of all other elements.

Compounds are composed of atoms of more than

one element combined in a fixed simple ratio.

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ELECTRONS
q Definition:

Very light particles that have a

negative electrical charged

q Symbol: e

q Charge: -1

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PROTONS
q Definition:

Much larger and heavier and have a

positive charged

q Symbol: p

q Charge: +1

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NEUTRONS
q Definition:

Electrically neutral
particles

q Symbol: n

q Charge: 0

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Sub-atomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass (kg) Location

Electron -1 9.109 x 10 -31 Electron
cloud
Proton +1 1.673 x 10 -27 Nucleus

Neutron 0 1.675 x 10 -27 Nucleus

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PROTON NUMBER

z Definition:

The number of protons in the

nucleus of an element

z a.k.a: atomic number

z Symbol: Z
z Example:

Proton
number

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MASS NUMBER
z Definition:

The total number of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus

z a.k.a: nucleon number

z Symbol: A
z Example: Mass
number

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Atomic symbol
mass number A
Atomic number Z X

X = Atomic symbol of the element

Z = atomic number (the number of
protons in the nucleus)
A = mass number ; A = Z + N
N = number of neutrons in the nucleus

Problems:

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Isotopes
atoms with same atomic number but different mass
number.
atoms with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
have similar chemical properties but may have different
physical properties.

Hydrogen has three isotopes with special names:

protium, deuterium and t ritium.

Carbon has three isotopes: C-12, C-13 and C-14

Mass of an atom
The mass of an atom depends on the number of
electrons, protons and neutrons
We cannot weigh a single atom directly but we can
determine mass of one atom relative to another
atom experimentally
First we need to assign a value to the mass of one
atom of a given element so that it can be used as a
standard

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Atomic mass
Mass of an atom is usually expressed in atomic mass
units (a.m.u)
The modern system of atomic masses, instituted in
1961 is based on 12 C (C-12) as a standard
1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u) is defined as a mass exactly
equal to 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom
C-12 atom = 12.00 amu
C-12 is the carbon isotope with 6p and 6n, and 1 C-12
atom has been set at 12.00 amu to provide the
standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other
elements.

Experiments have shown (using mass spectrometer) that a

hydrogen atom is only 8 .400% as massive as C-12 atom.
Therefore the relative atomic mass of a hydrogen atom is :
8.400 % x 1 2.00 a.m.u = 1 .008 amu
100%
e.g

When 1 2C and 1 3C are analysed in a mass spectrometer, the

ratio of their masses is found to be

mass 1 3C = 1.0836129
mass 1 2C
Determine relative atomic mass of 1 3C

Solution:

Mass of 1 3C = 1 .0836129 x 1 2.00 a.m.u = 13.003355 = 1 3.00

amu

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Average Atomic Mass

If you look up the atomic mass of carbon in a

periodic table, its value is not 12.00 amu but
12.01 amu
The reason for the difference is because most
naturally occurring elements have more than
one isotope

Average atomic mass

Carbon has 3 isotopes
C-12 C-13 C-14
98.89 % 1.11% negligible
(12.00 amu) (13.00 amu)
Average atomic mass = ( 98.89% of 12.00 amu) + ( 1.11% of 13.00 amu)
= 12.01 a.mu.
Everytime we say atomic m ass- we m ean average and relative atomic
mass.
Even though natural carbon does not contain a single atom w ith m ass
12.01 amu, for stoichiometric purposes, we can consider carbon to
be composed of only one type of atom w ith a m ass of 12.01 amu.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Silvers(Ag: Z = 47) naturally occurring isotopes,
107Ag and 109Ag, give this mass spectrometric

data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:

Isotope Mass(amu) Abundance(%)
107 Ag 106.90509 51.84
109 Ag 108.90476 48.16

Molar mass

is the mass in grams of one mole of a substance.

* Molar mass of C atoms (grams) is numerically equal
to atomic mass of C (amu)
Atomic mass of C =12.01 amu
Molar mass of C = 12.01 g

Atomic mass of Na = 22.99 amu

Molar mass of Na = 22.99 g

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Molecular Mass

sum of the atomic masses of elements (in amu) in a

molecule
E.g. Molecular mass of CH4
1( atomic mass of C) + 4(atomic mass Of H)
1(12.01) + 4(1.008) = 16.04 amu

Molar mass of a compound is numerically equal to

the molecular mass of its molecule
So molar mass of CH4 is 16.04 g

For ionic compounds, the term formula mass

is used

The number of atoms of each element inside

the parentheses is multiplied by subscript
outside the parentheses

Find formula mass of Ba(NO3)2:

= _________________________

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Percent Composition of Compounds

A practical use is to determine the

amount of an element in any size sample
of compound

Mass % of element X =

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)

x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound

SAMPLE PROBLEM
In mammals, lactose is metabolized to glucose
(C6H12O6), the key nutrient for generating
chemical potential energy
a) What is the mass percent of each element in
glucose?
b) How many grams of carbon are in 16.55 g of
glucose?

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Mole
Mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as
many entities ( atoms, m olecules, ions) as there are atoms in
12 g of C-12 atoms.

12 g C -12 (1 mole) contains 6 .02 x 1 0 23 C-12 atoms.

1 mole of Na atoms contains 6 .02 x 1 0 23 Na atoms
1 mole of H2 O molecules - contains 6.02 x 1 0 23 H2 O
molecules
1 mole of cars - contains 6 .02 x 1 0 23 cars
1 mole of C-12 atoms has a mass of 1 2.00 g
contains 6 .02 x 1 0 23 C-12 atoms

Converting moles of elements

To convert between mol
and mass, use molar mass

To convert between mol

and no of entities, use
Avogadros no.

To find the no. of

molecules in a given mass,
or vice versa, convert to
moles first

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Converting moles of compounds

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Tetraphosphorus decaoxide reacts with water to
form phosphoric acid.
a) What is the mass of 4.65x1022 molecules of
tetraphosphorus decaoxide?
b) How many P atoms are present in this sample?

Chemical formula

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Molecular formula
In order to find the molecular formula of a substance,
two pieces of information are needed:
the percentage composition, from which the empirical
formula can be obtained
the molecular weight or mass

The molecular weight or mass allows us to chose the

correct multiple of the empirical formula for the
molecular formula.

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EXERCISE
During excessive physical activity, lactic acid (M
= 90.08 g /mol) forms in muscle tissue and is
responsible for muscle soreness. Elemental
analysis shows that this compound contains
40.0 mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass %
O.

Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid

and the molecular formula

Determine the empirical and molecular

formulas for a compound that gives the
following analysis (in mass percents)
71.65% Cl, 24.27% C, 4.08% H
The molar mass is 98.96 g /mol

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Combustion analysis
Combustion Train for the Determination of the Chemical Composition of
Organic Compounds

The unknown compound is burned in pure O 2

All the H in the unknown is converted to H2 O which is absorbed in first
chamber and all the C is converted to CO2 which is absorbed in second
chamber
By weighing absorbers before and after combustion, we find the masses of
CO 2 and H2 O to calculate mass of C and H

SAMPLE PROBLEM
A dry cleaning solvent (M = 146.99 g/mol) contains C, H
and Cl. When a 0.250 g sample was studied by
combustion analysis, 0.451 g of CO2 and 0.0617 g H2 O
formed. Find the molecular formula

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Chemical Reactions and Chemical

Equations
Chemical reactions
a process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
involves a reorganization of atoms in one or
more substances
Standard way to represent chemical reactions
is by using chemical equations.

Consider the reaction of sodium metal and

chlorine gas:

Reactants Product

2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2 NaCl (s)

Coefficients Subscripts Coefficients

+ : Reacts with
: Yields or produces
(s), (g) : Phase labels which indicates
physical states

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For a chemical equation to be balanced, it

must have the same number of each type of
atoms on both sides of the arrow

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

1C 1C
4H = 4H
4O 4O

Intrepretation of a balanced equation

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Microscopic level 1 molecule 2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules

Macroscopic level 1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 2 moles

6.02 x 1023 2(6.02 x 1023) 6.02 x 1023 2(6.02 x 1023)
molecules molecules molecules molecules

16.04 g 64.00 g 44.01 g 36.03 g



80.04 g reactants 80.04 g products

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Steps for balancing chemical equations

Write the u nbalanced equation

Determine what coefficients

are n ecessary
Start with the most complex
substance
End with the least complex
substance

Specifying states o f matter

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EXERCISE

Calculating amounts of reactant and

product

In a balanced equation, the no. of moles of

one substance is stoichiometrically equivalent
to the no. of moles of any substance

The coefficients - tell us mole ratio of

reactants that correctly react to form products

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Summary of the mass-mole-number

relationships in a chemical reaction

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Cu2S (s) + O2 (g) Cu2O (s) + SO2 (g)
a) How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0
mol of copper(I) sulfide?

b) How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when

10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide is roasted?

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EXERCISE

Limiting reactant
Sometimes when a chemist carries out a reaction,
the reactants are usually not present in exact
stoichiometric amounts, i.e. in the proportions
indicated by the balanced equations.
This means some reactant will be used up when
others will be left over at the end of the reaction.
The reactant that will be used up is the limiting
reactant. The reactant that will be left over at the
end of the reaction is the excess reactant.

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Importance of limiting reactant

The amount of product formed is
determined by the limiting reactant.

Stoichiometry involving limiting

reactants
Given:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

a) What mass of H2O can be produced by 4.00

g of H2 reacting with 16.0 g of O2 ?
b) What mass of excess reactant is left after
the reaction ?

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Hydrazine(N2H4) and dinitrogen
tetraoxide(N2O4) ignite on contact to form
nitrogen gas and water vapor. How many
grams of nitrogen gas form when 1.00x102 g of
N2H4 and 2.00x102 g of N2O4 are mixed?

Percent Yields

The effect of side reactions on yield.

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The percent yield is the measure of productivity

of a reaction

Percent yield (%) = Actual yield x 100

Theoretical yield

Actual yield - actual mass obtained in a real

experiment
Theoretical (Calculated) Yield amount under
perfect lab conditions
% yield may range from a fraction of 1% to 100%
Chemists strive to maximize % yield in a reaction

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Marble (CaCO3) reacts with HCl solution to form
CaCl2 solution, water and CO2. What is the
percent yield of CO2 if 3.65g of the gas is
collected when 10.0g of marble reacts?

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