CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION TO LUBRICATION THEORY

 CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION TO LUBRICATION THEORY

Friction and lubrication play a most vital role in our great

and complex civilization. Without friction, wedges would slide

out, corks pop out of bottles, screws and bolts would loose

their hold, we should hear no more violin music, even walking

would be difficult or.impossible. Apart from the useful side,

friction is commonly considered detrimental, because it creates

difficulty in starting machines under load and causes *power

loss and surface damage. Every moving part of every machine

is subjected to friction and wear. Throughout the centuries from

ox-cart axles to grinding wheel spindles, one of mans most

persistent problems has centered around the reduction and control

of friction and wear. Friction consumes and wastes energy. Wear

causes changes in dimensions, and eventual breakdown of the

machine element and the entire machine and all that depends

upon it. Professor Vogelpbhl (1951) has estimated that from

one-third to one-half of the total energy produced in the world

is consumed in friction. This is a serious situation.

The main object of research in lubrication mechanics is to reduce

friction and wear in machinery. Lubrication is the art of reducing

frictional resistance by means of some kind of substance introduced

 - 2 -

between the two surfaces in relative motion. Such a substance

is called a lubricant. The function of the lubricant is to hold

the moving surfaces apart, allowing them to slide on each other,

with minimum effort. Machines like jet engines, rolling mills,

wrist watches, grinding wheel spindles, electric motors, auto

engines, electric generating equipment and many others that

sustain our civilisation, some form of bearing is found as the

vital and indispensable element. Even in the machinery of

human body, the nature has beautifully provided lubricants in

each joints, so that the entire system operates for a whole life.

Although the use of lubricants to reduce wear and resistance

was known to mankind for quite a long time, it was not a subject

of any theoretical analysis till the end of nineteenth century.

Him (1854) was considered the father of lubrication research

and the discoverer of fluid film lubrication. Petrov (1883) was

apparently the first to make significant attempt to analyse

theoretically the friction-effect of fluid film lubrication.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICATION THEORY.

The theory of lubrication can be classified into four basic

types. They are

(a) Hydrodynamic lubrication.

Much of our industrial life would grind to a stop

without this lubrication phenomenon. Every ship at sea is

propelled by the oil film pressures in its thrust bearings. The

oil film literally pushes the ship through the water. Every
 - 3 -

kilowatt of electricity produced by the public utilities is

generated by machinery that operates on a hydrodynamic oil film.

The hydrodynamic theory of lubrication is based primarily

upon complicated mathematical analysis of the motion of liquids.

The systematic development of the theory of hydrodynamic

lubrication stems directly from the experiments conducted by

Tower (1883) and their interpretation by Reynolds (1886). ;

DEVELOPMENT OF REYNOLDS EQUATION.

Reynolds obtained a differential equation which bears his

name now. The following assumptions were made

(i) Flow is laminar.

(ii) The lubricant is Newtonian, i.e. stress is proportional

to rate of shear.

(iii) Fluid inertia is neglected.

(iv) Body forces are neglected, i.e. no external forces

act on the fluid film.

(v) There is no slip at the boundaries.

(vi) The pressure is constant across the fluid-film.

(vii) The fluid is incompressible

(viii) The curvature of surfaces is large compared with film

thickness.

(ix) The viscosity is constant through the film thickness.

(x) Compared with the two velocity gradients ~ and ,

all other velocity gradients are considered negligible.

 - 4 -

Since u and, to a lesser degree, w are the predominant

velocities and y is a dimension much smaller than either

x or z, the above assumption is valid.

Under these assumptions Reynolds derived his equations

by setting up a force balance of an element of fluid in the

lubricant film. With external forces and inertia neglected and

with no pressure gradients in the y-direction, the forces in the

x and z direction give

(?2 + dx)dydz dydz + (*?, * dy)dxdz dxdz

+ ( P - \ dz) dxdy - (p + j dz) dxdy = 0 . (1.1.2)

By canceling like terms and simplifying, we get

(1.1.3)

Wow, according to assumption (ii)

(1.1.4)

Using Eqs. (1.1.4) into iiqs. (1.1,3) we obtain

1 (1.1.5)
"dy~c)z M ~dx
 5

^ 2w ''b 2w _ 1 ~c)p
^jy2 'dy'Sz = M- ~0Z

Making use of assumption (x), the second terms on the left hand

side of Eqs. (1.1.5) drop out and we have

b)2u JL_ ?>T>

^y2 >u

(1.1.6)
^2v; 1 ?)P .
^y2 M Z

Reynolds showed that the motion of a viscous fluid in narrow

clearance of bearing surfaces develop such high pressures so as

to sustain a load . When fluid films are confined to narrow slots,

grooves etc and when pressure gradients and flows are induced,

these films develop remarkable and sometimes unbelievable physical

properties. The films may range from only about ^ to 3 or 4

mils in thickness, yet under certain conditions pressures have

been generated in them as high as 20,000 psi. The film pressures

acting against the confining walls of the slot produce very well

known fluid film bearing. When pressure is self induced by the

relative sliding motion of the walls of the slot, the action is

called hydrodynamic lubrication. This is the most common type

of fluid-film lubrication and is the most useful in terms of the

number of existing applications.

Kingsbury (1897) varified the hydrodynamic theory of lubrica-

tion by experiments on air-lubricated bearings. After Kingsbury

several people contributed to the advancement of fluid-film

 - 6 -

lubrication. Mention may be made of Sbmmerfeld (1904), who

provided elegant theoretical extensions to the journal bearing

problems, Michell (1905), Kingsbury (1931) and Needs (1935) who

extended Reynolds theory to include side leakage, Rayleigh (1918),

who found that the optimum profile for the maximum load capacity

of a slider-bearing is a step function.

In recent years many investigators have contributed to the

theory of hydrodynamic lubrication. As a result, quite a large

number of literature now is available in the form of books by

Shaw and Macks (1949), Purday (1949), Michell (1950), Slezkin

(1955), Fuller (1956), Pinkus and Sternlicht (1961), Hersey (1954;,

1968), Gross (1962), and Cameron (1966,1971).

(b) hydrostatic lubrication

Hydrostatic lubrication is accomplished by introducing

the fluid from outside, under a sufficient pressure to separate

the surfaces and balance the load, even when there is no relative

motion. Bearings that depend upon hydrostatic lubrication are

called 'externally pressurized'. Here lubricant is forced into

the clearance space of the bearing from an external high-pressure

source. The pressure in the film is therefore not self-induced

but externally induced. This system of lubrication offers some

distinct advantages not found in hydrodynamic bearings. Among

the most important of these characteristics are extreme rigidity,

a load capacity independent of velocity, and very small frictional

drag. Mathematical analysis of these bearings is straight-forward,

 - 7 ~

and the resultant equations relating the variables of viscosity,

pressure, film thickness, and oil flow can be conveniently

applied to their design. A systematic development of the subject

was reported by Professor Fuller (1956) and by Prof. Archibald

(1953) in their books.

(c) Hydro-magnetic lubrication.

The use of magneto-fluid dynamics to lubrication has

been receiving attention for the last twenty years. Liquid metals

like sodium, mercury are used as lubricants in some high temperature

applications. These fluids have several advantages over ordinary

lubricating oils, such as high thermal conductivity and ability

to withstand high temperatures, But their lubricating property is

poor due to low viscosity. Consequently, the load capacity is

reduced. The motion of electrically conducting fluids across a

magnetic field induces 3n electric field which gives rise to an

electric current. The eleetric current interacts the magnetic

field to produce an electromagnetic body force which changes the

flow field and the load bearing capacity may be increased by

electromagnetic effects.

The first analysis of hydromagnetic externally pressurized

thrust bearing was due to Hughes and Elco (1962). Snyder (1962),

Osterle and Young (1962), Elco and Hughes (1962) studied inclined

slider bearing problems with transverse magnetic field. Lateron,

many researchers solved many problems of different bearings with

magnetofluid dynamics as lubricants.

 - 8 -

(d) Thermodynamic lubrication.

The thermal or thermodynamic lubrication depends on

fluid pressures being generated by temperature inequalities in

bearings that could not otherwise support any appreciable load,

In this theory of lubrication, temperature distribution in the

metal and across the oil-film is considered. Thermal lubrication

or load capacity resulting from temperature inequalities is

attributed to two conditionss (i) the Fogg effect caused by thermal

expansion of the entering oil (ii) the Cam^eron effect, due to a

temperature gradient across the film. Shaw (1947) Kettleborough

(1955) and many other scientists contributed elegant results

in thermodynamic lubrication,

1.2. BRIEF SURVEY OF DIFFERENT LUBRICANTS.

Any softerva material that prevents the two surfaces in

relative motion from coming into contact may be called a lubricant,

even if it does not reduce friction. o the lubricant serves both

to separate the rubbing surfaces and to remove heat. Viscosity

is the important property of a lubricant and is truly a measure

of the physical ability of a fluid to maintain lubrication under

specified conditions of operating*speed, temperature, and pressure.

Viscosity is thought of as that physical property of a fliiid

which offers resistance to relative motion of its parts. This

corresponds to an internal fluid friction produced by the molecules

of a lubricant as they flow past one another. Lubricants in which

the stress is linearly proportional to the strain rate, is referred

 - 9 -

to as Newtonian. Figure 1.1, where rate of shear is plotted

against shear stress, shows curves of different shapes for

different classes of lubricants. Ordinary petroleum and fatty

oils are Newtonian except at the lowest temperatures and highest

pressures, hater and air are coming into use d the higher speeds.

Petroleum or mineral oils have been adopted to modern requirements

by the addition of some percentage of chemicals called 'additives'

Anti-rust additives are used in turbine oils. Mixtures of melted

sodium and potassium have been used in reactor pumps. Alcohol,

liquid refrigerants, mercury, molten metal, gasoline, grease and

a number of gases are also used as lubricants.

NON-NEWTONIAN LUBRICANT.

Newtonian fluids are not the only possible lubricants. There

are non-Newtonian fluids which have their applications in lubrica

tion, The fluids which show deviations from Newtonian type of flow

are called non-Newtonian. The fluids like blood, paste, honey,

condensed milk, printers ink, slurries, starch solutions, plastics,

high polymer solutions and many other materials of industrial

importance fall under this category.

A number of causes may/ account for the deviation of a fluid

from the Newtonian character, for example, (i) under the action

of applied shear the fluid may undergo structural changes, or

(ii) the stress tensor many depend on the instantaneous state of

deformation;- and hence it is expressible as a function of the rate

of strain tensor but the dependence is not linear. The non-Newtonian

 - 10-

fluids may be classed as

(a) Visco-inelastic

(b) Time-dependent

(c) Visco-elastic

(a) These fluids are isotropic and homogeneous at rest, When

they are subjected to a shear, the resultant stress depends only

on the rate of shear. These fluids are further sub-divided into

the following classes:

(i) Power law fluids

These fluids are characterized by the rheological equation

n-1
3 3 1/2
pij - k ( S I eml elm^ 'id
(1.2.1)
m=l 1=1

whene k and n are called the consistency and flow behaviour

indices respectively. If n < 1, the fluid is called pseudoplastic

power law fluid and if n > 1 , it is called dilatant power law

fluid. The main difference between the pseudoplastic and dilatant

fluids is that iT)the former class of fluids the apparent visco

sity decreases with the increase of rate of shears while the

reverse holds for the latter. Values of the fluid parameters have
been given by Metzner (1956) .

(ii) Reiner-Rivlin fluids.

Reiner (1945) and Rivlin (1948) established that for an

isotropic fluid, the most general relation between the stress

 - 11

tensor p^ and the rate of deformation tensor has the form

(1*2.2)

where Tj q and yUc. are the coefficients of viscosity and cross-

viscosity, which are in general functions of the three invariants

1^, Ig and where

(iii) Bingham plastics.

Bingham plastics^like Newtonian fluids show a linear

relation between shear stress and shear rate. The distinguishing

feature of the two is that Bingham plastics have a yield value in

shear. This value must be exceeded before flow takes place.

Mathematically, the characteristics of the plastic flow of an

isotropic fluid is described as

(1*2.3)

where C 0 is the yield value, a quantity equal to zero in

Newtonian fluids.

(iv) Reiner-Phllippoff fluids.

The rheological relation between the stress tensor and

the strain rate tensor is given by

(1.2.4)
 - 22 -

whei^) ' ,'r) and p are the fluid parameters. In the limiting
v UU v

cases, when the parameter pQ tends to zero or infinity, the

constitutive equations reduce to that of Newtonian fluid with

viscosity ^ Q or ^ . /The values of the Reiner-Philippoff

parameters for various fluids have been given by Philippoff (1935).

(b) Time-dependent fluids are those fluids which show either

increase or decrease of viscosity as the time passes, when they

are subjected to a steady rate of shear under isothermal conditions.

The fluids which show increase in viscosity under the above

conditions are called Rheopectic and those which show the

opposite effect are called Thixotropic, Slibar and Paslay (1962)

have given an analytical description of the thixotropic materials.

(c) The visco-elastic fluid is the real fluid found in nature.

These fluids possess a certain degree of elasticity in addition

to viscosity. All liquids are to a degree visco-elastic, the

prominence of the elastic behaviour depends on the rate of shear.

When a visco-elastic fluid is in motion, a certain amount of

energy is stored up in the material as strain energy while some

energy is lost due to viscous dissipation. In this class of fluids

unlike the inelastic viscous fluids, one cannot neglect the strain,

however small it may be, as it is responsible for the recovery to

the original state and for the possible reverse flow that follows

the removal of the stress. During the flow the natural state of the

fluid changes constantly and tries to attain the instantaneous

state of the deformed state, but it does never succeed completely.

This lag is a measure of the elasticity or the so called memory

of the fluid.
 - 13 -

Evidences of liquid elasticity in an 1.5 X stanch solution

can be observed by Hesss experiment [Reiner (1949)3 and by

the recoil of air bubbles in a mixture of Polymethyle Methacrylate

and Cyclohexanone (made by dissolving 3 gms. perspex in 100 ml.

of solvent) contained in a bottle which has been suddenly turned

and then brought to rest.

The interesting aspect of such a fluid has attracted the

attention of researchers like Oldroyd (1950, 1953 1958, 1962),

Walters (i960, 1962^ 1962(b|;, Rlvlin and Erick sen (1955), Roll

(1958) and Coleman and Noll (i960). They have adopted different

attitudes in developing and formulating a mathematical theory

of visco-elastic fluids.

1.3. VISCOELASTIC FLUID MODELS.

In this section we shall briefly discuss a few

visco-elastic fluid models.

(1) MAXWELL MODEL.

If a tensile force s 1 applied to the body produces

a strain a , then the relation between s and a can be derived

to be

do 1 ds s (1.3.1)
dt ~ n dt nA1 *

where n is the coefficient of elasticity, 7\ ^ is called the

relaxation time and n?^ is the coefficient of viscosity. If

there is a steady motion of the body which continuously increases

do
the displacement then treating to be a constant and integra
dt
ting (1.3.1) with respect to t, we get
 14 ^

s = n^i ft + C exp (1.3.2)

where C is a constant. This equation shows that as time passes

on, s tends to a constant value. If the strain a is kept

constant and s = sQ at t = 0, then from Eq. Cl.3.2), we obtain

s * sQ exp (- t/;Vj), (1.3.3)

showing that s gradually disappears, so that if the body is

left to itself it gradually loses its internal stress. Again at

1
time ,, the stress becomes - th of the initial stress. In mobile

liquids ^ ^ is a small fraction of a second and in viscous solids

it is several hours or even days.

Fluids describable by Eqs. (1.3.1) are known as Maxwell

fluids. A spring and a dashpot arranged in series is a mechanical

model for a Maxwell fluid.

(ii) JBPFBEY *S MODEL.

This is a series combination of a dashpot and Kelvin

body. This describes a real fluid. In this case, s and a are

V

connected by < , /
/
s +7^ s =*)0 (o + 7^ a ), ^>'^22 0), (1.3*4)

where ^ and *7\ 2 are the times of relaxation and retardation

respectively. The equation (1.3.4) includes the Maxwellian viseo

elastic fluid as a particular case for"?\ o = 0 Equation (1.3.4)

can be rewritten as
 - 15

f
f/ ''
(1 -^D) s o (1 +7^2D)a t (D s ^-) (1.3.5)

-1 .
=* s =^o (i + 7\2D)(1 +7^1D) a

(1 +A2D)(l - >>2 D + . . .) cr

=T) [1 - (Tv ^ - A2)d + higher powers of

7^ and Agl c

If we neglect higher powers of 7s '7\2 ( A ^ - A2), and the

product terms like '7s ^ /V 2 etd, we get

B -*)Q [1 - (7^ - A)D] O

-)o (^l- V * 3. (1.3.7)

If we put Tv^ * 7\ 2 E<5S* (1.3.7), we have s =,)0 a ,

which is the equation for Newtonian viscous fluid, The above
derivation has been given in a paper by Giesekus (1970).

(iii) QLDROYD FLUID MODEL.

There is experimental evidence that some real liquids

[ Oldroyd, Strawbridge and Toms (1951)3 do behave approximately in

accordance with the Eq, (1.3.4), hut are not adequately characterised

by Eq. (1.3.1). The equation (1.3.4) can be generalized in the form

D D
'A- Dt
pij = 2T)o +^2 Dt 6lj (1.3.8)
 - 16

to represent the constitutive equation to explain the behaviour

of the visco-elastic fluid for small rates of strain.

/ 9

Here (1.3.9)
Dt ""t k 3^'

Inspite of all its capabilities to explain the physical

phenomena, Jeffrey's model too has its own defects, since it is

^alid for small shear rates. Hence further generalizations of

Eq. (1.3.8) are necessary. Oldroyd (1950) generalized this

equation in two possible ways and named them liquid A and liquid B.

Liquid A is

(1 ,ptt -2*)6 {1. + '2sr) eik (1.3.10)

and liquid B is

(i ^ 4t ) plk = 2t)0 ( i -*$->(> (1.3.11)

v/here denotes the convective derivative and for a covariant

/
second order tensor b^ ns given by

6b., b.,
ik ik m , m , *a ,
5j.
ov --v'v
ois + v b., m + v . b .
ik. ^ m 91. mk + v $k
, b. (1.3.12)
and for a contravariant second order tensor b is given by

& btt Vs - pj v?, - vL A (1.3.13)

In the same paper Oldroyd (1950) has shown that liquid B exhibits

Weissenberg effect while liquid A exhibits the reverse effect* But

 - 17 -

liquid A is not realistic one and visco^-elastic liquids are

governed by the equation (1.3.11) for liquid B.

Equation (1.3.11) can be written as

= 2% (1 , 7,1 -fef (1 + A2 -fc>

2*)o & ^l 5t |t)

ik
z% [i.c^-vfc- + 0
ik *VA 1 ~ ^2^ It e + * ^*3.1^]
zrl O e

If we neglect the second order terms in 7\^ and as they

are very small, we get from Eq. (1.3.14)

r
-.'-A

jL fi-ri (1.3.15]
o St

V
where
lo (7\
k '")
o
This can be looked upon as a generali

zation of Eq. (1.3.7). This form of equation has been derived by

Kenneth Walters (1962(c), who has introduced the concept of

continuous relaxation spectrum and has developed a new theory for

visco-elastic fluids (i960, 1962 (b). The equation (1.3.15) in fact

corresponds to Walters B* liquid, where

oo
*)0 - / N(ir) dn
o

is the limiting viscosity at small rates of shear and the

 18 -

short memory coefficient is defined by

oo
^ - IQ r n(t) d? ,

where N(,2") is the distributive function of the relaxation times.

(iv) RIVLINSRICKSEN FLUID MODEL.

The constitutive equation of Rivlin-Ericksen (1955)

fluid is
rvfro
CM

-
0*

ta
Qr

.0-
M

<CM

<
<

>

H>
JC\
P.

CO
U1
I

PO
r
i

rH

r-4

CM

r-i

+ 4>6^A1A2 * k2n) +ct)7^AiA2 + A|Al^ 'r<^Q^A2. + A2Al) 9

(1.3,16)
where p is an arbitrary hydrostatic pressure and cjp's are

polynomial functions of the traces of the various tensors occurr

ing in the representation, matrices A^ and A^ are defined by

A-. s
= A
ii/, \ . s V. . + V.
1 (1)2-0 X, j 0 t1

A2 = A(2)ii - aJ,i + ai.3 + 2vm,l vn,3 *

where is the velocity vector and the acceleration vector

given by
~d v
a. m ^r-r= + v v. ^
i ot m i,m

This theory has the advantage that one can deduce the theories
 . - 19 -

of Riener-Rivlin fluids and second order fluids as particular

cases.

If we take Ag = 0 in Eq. (1.3016), we get

T * - pi +45iai , (1.3.18)

which is the constitutive equation of Riener-Rivlin fluids.

If we neglect the squares and products of A^, we have

T = - pi +4^ A2 + c^a| , (1.3.19)

where and c> ^ are constants. It is customary to call

4^ the coefficient of ordinary viscosity, c> ^ the coefficient

of viscoelasticity, and the coefficient of cross-viscosity.

The equation (1.3.19) is called the constitutive equation of

second order fluids.

(v) ROLL* s FLUID MODEL.

Walter Noll (1958) suggested a constitutive equation

for visco-elastic fluid which is given by

Pi3 + *1 Pi3 = z'r>o eij + 4^c eik ek3 (1.3.20)

/-v* 9
where p4 . is the rate of stress tensor defined in the

contravarian t form

r-*t k
*ij
p "d t * P ,k y ,k

(1.3.21)
 20 -

1.4. POLAR FLUID MODEL.

To treat the flow of fluids with microstructure

like those containing some additives, suspensions et^Bringen (1966)

introduced the concept of micropolarfluids in which local fluid

elements are allowed to undergo only rigid rotation without

strech. Physically micropolarfluids may represent fluids with

rigid spherical substructure. The constitutive equation given

by Eringen is

Pi3 - (- P -7'vk(k)6la *Mvii3 + v3fi) + | (va>i - vlf3

2 e,ijk ^ .k') % (1.4.1)

Mij = afk*k 613 f ^ i,o +irt^3,i * (1.4.2)

where 9u9 K, a, @f T are all material constants, M. . isthe

* ^J
couple stress' tensror, e^^ is the alternating tensor and ^

represents microrotation.

1.5. - FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS.

The basic equations which govern the study of

fluid dynamics are

(i) equation of continuity

(ii) equation of motion

(iii) rheological equation of state.

 21 -

The first expresses a definite physical fact namely, the

conservation of mass based on the hypothesis of continuum

mechanics. For a compressible fluid it is

MMM
+ div = 0, Cl.5.1)

where ^ is the density of the medium, q is the velocity vector.

For an incompressible fluid Eq. Cl.5.1) reduces to

div q = 0 or yi,i 0 Cl.5.2}

The equations of motion are expressed as

i s O
f V SYXi Cl.5.3)

where v1 is the velocity vector, X^ is the external body force

acting on the fluid element per unit mass in the ith direction,

p is the mean pressure, p.. is the stress in the fluid.

The equation of state is a relationship between stress and

rate of strain tensors. It is linear for Newtonian fluids and

non-linear for non-Newtonian fluids.

The study of lubrication is, from a mathematical stand

point, the study of a particular form of the Navier-Stokes

equations. To get a complete and accurate representation of

the lubricating film, it is often necessary to consider simul

taneously the Reynolds equation which can be deduced from the

Navier-Stokes equations, the equation of continuity and the

equation of state.
 - 22 -

1.6. WORK DONE BY THE PREVIOUS AUTHORS.

In this section we have just mentioned the names and

references of a few authors those have solved a number of

problems on lubrication. The review is not exhaustive and has

not included many work on this field on account of limitations

of space. The author offers his apologies for this.

Kingsbury (1930); Muskat, Morgan and Meres (1940), Archibald

(1950), Morgan and Cameron (1957), Pinkus (1958), Ausman(l957),

StemjLicht (i960), Raimondi, (i960), Kingsbury (1950), Housley,

Peterson and Corey (1952), Fuller (1953), Brand, (1955), Osterle

and Saibel (1955), Milne (1958), Toba and Saibel (1961), Lyman

and Saibel (1961), Macken and Saibel (1972), Saibel and Maeken

(1974), Akay and Saibel (1976), Tanner (i960* 1963, 1965),

Williams and Tanner (1970), Phuoc and Tanner (1980), Rao and

Nigam (1954), Batra (1966,1973), Verma (1969), Shukla (1963,1964),

1964(b), 1964(c), 1964(d)i Shukla and Isa (1974, 1975(a), 1975(b)),

Balaram (1975), Ramanaiah (1965, 1966(a), 1966(b), 1966(c), 1967,

1968, 1969(a), 1969(b), 1976), Mohanty and Ramanaiah (1974(a),

1974(b)), Ramanaiah and Dubey (1975), Ramanaiah and Sarkar (1978,

1979), Mishra and Rout (1979(a), 1979(b)), Rout and Sinha Roy

(1980, 1981), Kapur and Verma (1973, 1975).

1. 7 MOTIVATION

It is human nature to accept the challenge of solving unsolved

problems whether the solutions are immediately useful or not .

 - 23 -

Moreover, in order to meet the demands of advanced technology

there isalways search for better lubricants. Many authors solved

many problems on bearings with non-Newtonian and MHB lubricants.

But not much of work on bearings using visco-elastic fluid as

lubricant has been found in literature. So, we have solved in

this thesis a few problems on bearings with visco-elastic fluid

as lubricants. Excluding the chapter-1,. which is a general

introduction to lubrication theory, there are seven chapters.

In every chapter we have studied the effects of parameters on

the flow characteristics with due emphasis on the effect of

elasticity of the fluid. The following problems have been solved.

Chapter-II. The effect of lubricant inertia in externally

pressurized bearings using a visco-elastic lubricant.

Chapter-Ill. The effect of fluid inertia on the film pressure

between two axially oscillating parallel circular

plates with a visco-elastic lubricant.

Chapter-IV. Analysis of slider bearing with visco-elastic

lubricant.

Chapter-V. Inertia effect in squeeze films with visco-elastic

lubricant.

Chapter-VI. Inertia effect in conical porous bearing with a

visco-elastic lubricant.

Chapter-VII. Analysis_ of hydrostatic porous thrust bearing with

visco-elastic lubricant.
Chapter-VIII Analysis of step bearings and hydrostatic step seals

with visco-elastic lubricant.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 - 24 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Akay, A,
and (1976) Wear, J7, 377.
Saibel,E.

2, Archibald, F.R. (1950) Trans. ASMS, 72, May.

3. (1953) A look at Hydrostatic Thrust

.
Bearing, machine Design *, 170,

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FIGURE 1.1 *

FLOW CURVES FOR VISCO-* INELASTIC FLUIDS,