1701gex03 Programming in C

E.G.
SPILLAY ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF CSE
1701GEX03-PROGRAMMING IN C
Reviewed by Prepared by
Dr.T.Ganesan ASP/CSE
Mr.J.Noorul Ameen Ap/CSE S.Aravindan ap/cse
Mr.R.Manivannan ap/cse
E.G.S PILLAY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF CSE
PROGRAMMING USING C
OBJECTIVES
Prepare students to comprehend the fundamental concepts in Computer Science and
Engineering
To demonstrate fine grained operations in number system
To gain exposure in programming language using C
To develop programming skills using the fundamentals and basics of C Language.
PROGRAMMING USING C
UNIT 1 -BASIC CONCEPTS 8
Organization and Classifications of Computer- Generations of Computers- Number System-
Problem Solving Techniques Development of Algorithm - Flowchart
UNIT 2-INTRODUCTION TO C LANGUAGE 10
Overview of C - Constants, Variables and Data Types- Compilation and Linking - Operators and
Expressions- Decision Making and Branching Looping statements
UNIT 3-ARRAYS AND STRINGS 9
Arrays-One Dimensional Array- Declaration and Initialization-Two Dimensional Array-
Declaration and Initialization- Programs using Arrays- Strings- String Handling Functions,
Programs using Strings- Managing I/O Operations
UNIT-4 FUNCTIONS & STRUCTURES 10
Functions-Function Prototypes-Declaring, Defining and Calling Functions-Call by value and
Call by Reference-Recursive Functions-Structures- Declaration and Definition -Accessing
Structure Members-Arrays of Structures-Unions- Programs using Structures and Unions
UNIT - 5- POINTERS & FILES 8
Pointers-Dynamic Memory Allocation-Arithmetic Operations using Pointers, Files File
Manipulation-I/O Operations, Preprocessor Directives, Storage Classes
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
REFERENCES:
1. E. Balagurusamy- Programming in ANSI C-McGraw Hill Education India Private Limited;
Seventh edition (1 Jul 2017).
2. Pradip Dey, Manas Ghosh, Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C, Second
Edition, Oxford University Press, 2013.
3. Ashok N. Kamthane, Programming in C Pearson Education India; 3 edition (2015).
4. Yashavant P. Kanetkar. Let Us C, BPB Publications; 15th Revised and Updated edition (13
July 2016)
OUTCOME
To describe basic concepts of computers
To paraphrase the operations of number system
To describe about basic concepts of C-Language
To understand the code reusability with the help of user defined functions
To analyze the basics of structures, unions, file management and preprocessor in C
language
UNIT 1 -BASIC CONCEPTS
UNIT 1 -BASIC CONCEPTS 8

Organization and Classifications of Computer- Generations of Computers-
Number System- Problem Solving Techniques Development of Algorithm -
Flowchart
What is computer?
Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with

Information. The term computer is derived from the Latin term computare,
this means to calculate or programmable machine.
Characteristics of computer
Speed
The computer process the data extremely fast. (i.e.) in millions (1,000,000)
of instructions and even more per second. A computer can perform a huge
task in few sec where a human being may take hours or even days to
complete the same task.
Accuracy
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every

calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is
determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are
due to human and inaccurate data.
Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration etc. It

can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are
to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same
accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of
work.
Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of

work. For example At a moment a computer can be used to draft a letter.
Next moment it can be used print a document or play a music file etc.,
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Reliability
It produces results without any error. Only human made errors can occur
So they are trustworthy machines.
Storage
Computers are capable of storing huge amount of data and it can be located
and retrieved very quickly. It uses storage devices such as hard disk to store
huge amount of data.
Hardware
The physical components that make up a computer system. Eg Mouse
Software
The programs (instructions) that tell the computer what to do.
There are two main types of software: systems software and application
software. Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to
managing the computer itself, such as the operating system, file
management utilities, and disk. Application Software Performs specific tasks
like Word processing, Calculations Information storage and retrieval and
Accounting
Parts of computer
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Mouse
A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two-

dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated
into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows a smooth control of
the graphical user interface.
Keyboard
A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a

computer that looks similar to those found on electric typewriters, but with
some additional keys. Keyboards allow you to input letters, numbers, and
other symbols into a computer that can serve as commands or be used to
type text.
Monitor
A computer monitor is an output device which displays the information in

pictorial form. A monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry,
casing, and power supply.
Central processing unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the computer component that's

responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the
computer's other hardware and software.
All sorts of devices use a CPU, including desktop, laptop, and tablet
computers, smartphones...even your flat-screen television set.
Speakers
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers sold for use with
computers, although usually capable of other audio uses, e.g. for an MP3
player. Most such speakers have an internal amplifier and consequently
require a power source, which may be by a mains power supply often via an
AC adapter, batteries, or a USB port
Printer
A printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output from a computer
and transfers the information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of
paper. Printers vary in size, speed, sophistication, and cost
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ORGANISTATION OF COMPUTER
The memory unit that holds both data and instructions.

The arithmetic/logic gate unit that is capable of performing arithmetic
and logic operations on data.
The input unit that moves data from the outside world into the
computer.
The output unit that moves results from inside the computer to the
outside world.
The control unit that acts as the stage unit to ensure that all the other
components act in concert.
Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information

temporarily or permanently. For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is
a volatile memory that stores information on an integrated circuit used by
the operating system, software, and hardware.
Types of memory
Volatile
Non volatile memory
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Volatile vs. non-volatile memory
Memory can be either volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is a

memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses
power. Computer RAM is an example of a volatile memory and is why if your
computer freezes or reboots when working on a program, you lose anything
that hasn't been saved. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as
NVRAM, is a memory that keeps its contents even if the power is
lost. EPROM is an example of a non-volatile memory.
Control unit
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input
and output flow, fetches code for instructions from microprograms and
directs other units and models by providing control and timing signals. A CU
component is considered the processor brain because it issues orders to just
about everything and ensures correct instruction execution.
Arithmetic logic unit
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central

processing unit of a computer system. It does all processes related to
arithmetic and logic operations that need to be done on instruction words. In
some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is divided into the arithmetic
unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
An ALU can be designed by engineers to calculate any operation. As the

operations become more complex, the ALU also becomes more expensive,
takes up more space in the CPU and dissipates more heat. That is why
engineers make the ALU powerful enough to ensure that the CPU is also
powerful and fast, but not so complex as to become prohibitive in terms of
cost and other disadvantages.
An arithmetic logic unit is also known as an integer unit (IU)
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Classification of computers
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of

the following types: -
Digital Computers
Analog Computers
Hybrid Computers
Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are

expressed as discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful for
evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data (such as
preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations etc)
Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses

the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such
as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities
symbolically, as their numerical values change.
Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as
the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component
normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AREA OF APPLICATION
Classification based on area of applications
Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as: -
Special Purpose Computers

General Purpose Computers
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Special Purpose Computers: - A special purpose computer is designed

only to meet the requirements of a particular task or application. The
instructions needed to perform a particular task are permanently stored into
the internal memory, so that it can perform the given task on a single
command. It therefore doesnt posses unnecessary options and is less
expensive.
General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are

designed to meet the needs of many different applications. In these
computers, the instructions needed to perform a particular task are wired
permanently into the internal memory. When one job is over, instructions for
another job can be loaded into the internal memory for processing. This, a
general purpose machine can be used to prepare pay-bills, manage
inventories, print sales report and so on.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND CAPABILITY
Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
Microcomputers(Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The

older pc started 8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit
processor with speed of 4.66 GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types :
1.Desktops
2.Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops

computers cannot be carried around.
The different portable computers are: -
Laptop
Notebooks
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Palmtop (hand held)
Wearable computers
Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is

smaller. They are expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3
to 5 kg.
Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these

computers are comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2
to 3 kg. They are more costly than laptop.
Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant
(PDA). These computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is
capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets and hand writing
recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These computers are not as
powerful as desktop computers
Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can
be worn on the body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field
of medicine. For example pace maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin
meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.
Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more

powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to
serve multiple users simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more
expensive than microcomputers.
Mainframe computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and very

high speed of processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known
as mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for
simultaneous use by a number of users like ATM transactions. They are also
used as central host computers in distributed data processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
Supercomputer: -Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity

and computing speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A
supercomputer is measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per
second (mips), an operation is made up of numerous instructions. The
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supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems in scientific
and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
Examples: - IBM Deep Blue
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
First Generation Computers(1940-1956):
These computers were vacuum tube based machines.
They used magnetic drums for memory.
Input were fed into the computer using Punched cards
The size of these computers were very large and it produce more heat.
They lacked in versatility and speed.
They were more expensive.
Speed: Fastest computing device of its time
Technology: Vacuum Tubes :
Made up of glass contains filaments, when heated generates

electrons which helps in amplification and de amplification of
signals
I/p & O/p : Punched card and print out
Programming language: Machine level language
Example:
EDSAC: Electronic delay storage automatic calculator
EDVAC: Electronic discrete variable automatic computer
Advantages:
Fastest computing device of their time
Execute complex mathematical problems in an efficient manner
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Disadvantages:
Large & Bulky
Difficult to program
Cannot be transferred from one place to another
These are special purpose computers
Generates huge amount of heat and hence prone to hardware

faults
Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
Here the Transistor replaced the bulky vacuum tubes.
Transistors are smaller than vacuum tubes and have higher operating
speed.
Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
Manufacturing cost was also very low
Speed: Faster than first generation
Technology: Transistor :
Used to increase the power of incoming signals.
It has 3 connections:
Base : Through which incoming signals are sent
Collector : Collects amplified signal
Emitter : Emits amplified signal
I/p & O/p : Punched card and print out
Programming language: Assembly language
Example:
IBM 1401
IBM 1620
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Advantages:
Fastest computing device of their time
Easy to program
Light weight
Low power consumption
Low maintenance
Transferred from one place to another easily
Disadvantages:
High cost
Limited to special purpose tasks
Generates considerable amount of heat
Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)
These computers were based on Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Technology.
A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a

single thin slice of silicon.
So that the size of the computer got further reduced.
These Computers were small in size, low cost, large memory and
processing speed is very high.
Technology: Integrated Circuits : Also known as micro electronics

technology
Programming language: High level language
Example:
IBM 360
Honeywell 6000
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Advantages:
Computational time was measured in nano seconds
Requires low power to operate
Small size
Installation is very easy
Able to execute any type of applications
More reliable & requires less maintenance
Easily transportable
Disadvantages:
Storage capacity was very small
Performance will get degrade while executing large applications
Cost is very high
Required to be placed in air conditioned plates
Fourth Generation Computers(1975-1989)
It uses very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI) built on a single

silicon chip called microprocessors .
These computers are called microcomputers.
Thus the size of the computer got reduced.
The personal computer (PC) are comes under the Fourth Generation.
Technology: VLSI : Very large scale Integration
It leads to the development of GUI, Operating Systems, Various

storage devices, I/O devices and LAN
It has 3 components:
Microprocessors
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Memory
I/O Controls
Programming language: High level language
Example:
IBM PC series
Apple Series
Advantages:
Very powerful in terms of speed & time
Storage capacity is very high & it is very fast
Highly reliable and requires low maintenance
Provides user friendly environment using GUI(Graphical user

interface)
Programs are highly portable
Highly versatile and requires less power
Disadvantages:
The soldering of VLSI chips on the wiring board was not an easy
task
Working of these computers depends on instructions given by

the programmer
Fifth Generation Computer(1989-Till date)
The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer.
The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the

computer to take its own decision.
It is still in a developmental stage .
Speed: Faster of all times

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Technology: ULSI : Ultra large scale Integration
It has more than10 million electronic components
It increases the power & speed of the microprocessor
Programming language:
High level language
Integrated development environment
Example:
Laptop ,PDA
Advantages:
Fastest & powerful computers till date
Able to execute a large no of application at very high speed.
ULSI Technology helps in decreasing the size of computers.
Multimedia features are available
Resource sharing is possible & is highly versatile
Disadvantages:
Lack of human like Intelligence
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NUMBER SYSTEM
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in

numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using
The digit
The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system)
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number
system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to
9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its
value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
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S.No. Number System and Description
Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1
Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F
Binary Number System
Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows
Uses two digits, 0 and 1
Also called as base 2 number system
Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).

Example 20
Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2).

Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent
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Step Binary Decimal Number

Number
Step 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) +

1 (1 x 20))10
Step 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

2
Step 101012 2110

3
Note 101012 is normally written as 10101.
Octal Number System
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows
Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8).

Example 80
Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8).

Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
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Step Octal Decimal Number

Number
Step 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) +

1 (0 x 80))10
Step 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

2
Step 125708 549610

3
Note 125708 is normally written as 12570.
Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D
= 13, E = 14, F = 15
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base

(16). Example, 160
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base

(16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
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Step Binary Decimal Number

Number
Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) +

1 (E x 160))10
Step ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161)

19FDE16
2 + (14 x 160))10
Step 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

3
Step 19FDE16 10646210

4
Note 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
here are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert

numbers from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following
Decimal to Other Base System
Other Base System to Decimal
Other Base System to Non-Decimal
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the
new base.
Step 2 Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.
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Step 3 Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of
the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.
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Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this
depends on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in
the corresponding columns.
Step 3 Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.
Example
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base

number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
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Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10
Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110
Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012
Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012
Shortcut Method Binary to Octal

Step 1 Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the
right).
Step 2 Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
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Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258
Shortcut Method Octal to Binary

Step 1 Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a
single binary number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
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Shortcut Method Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the
right).
Step 2 Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal

symbol.
Example
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
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Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert

numbers from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following

Other Base System to Decimal
Other Base System to Non-Decimal
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Step 1 Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the
new base.
Step 2 Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.
Step 3 Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of
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Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.
Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this
depends on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in
the corresponding columns.
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Step 3 Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.
Example
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base

number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10
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Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110
Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012
Shortcut Method Binary to Octal

Step 1 Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the
right).
Step 2 Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Calculating Octal Equivalent
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
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Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258
Shortcut Method Octal to Binary

Step 1 Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Example
Octal Number : 258
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
Shortcut Method Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the
right).
Step 2 Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal

symbol.
Example
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Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012
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PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
Introduction
Procedure (steps involved in problem solving)
Algorithm
Flow Chart
Symbols used in Flow Charts
Pseudo Code
Introduction
A computer is a very powerful and versatile machine capable of performing

a multitude of different tasks, yet it has no intelligence or thinking power.
The intelligence Quotient (I.Q) of a computer is zero. A computer performs
many tasks exactly in the same manner as it is told to do. This places
responsibility on the user to instruct the computer in a correct and precise
manner, so that the machine is able to perform the required job in a proper
way. A wrong or ambiguous instruction may sometimes prove disastrous.
In order to instruct a computer correctly, the user must have clear

understanding of the problem to be solved. A part from this he should be
able to develop a method, in the form of series of sequential steps, to solve
it. Once the problem is well-defined and a method of solving it is developed,
then instructing The computer to solve the problem becomes relatively
easier task. Thus, before attempt to write a computer program to solve a
given problem. It is necessary to formulate or define the problem in a
precise manner. Once the problem is defined, the steps required to solve it,
must be stated clearly in the required order.
Procedure (Steps Involved in Problem Solving)
A computer cannot solve a problem on its own. One has to provide step
by step solutions of the problem to the computer. In fact, the task of
problem solving is not that of the computer. It is the programmer who has
to write down the solution to the problem in terms of simple operations
which the computer can understand and execute.
In order to solve a problem by the computer, one has to pass though certain
stages or steps. They are
1. Understanding the problem
2. Analyzing the problem
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3. Developing the solution
4. Coding and implementation.
1. Understanding the problem: Here we try to understand the problem

to be solved in totally. Before with the next stage or step, we should be
absolutely sure about the objectives of the given problem.
2. Analyzing the problem: After understanding thoroughly the problem

to be solved, we look different ways of solving the problem and evaluate
each of these methods. The idea here is to search an appropriate solution to
the problem under consideration. The end result of this stage is a broad
overview of the sequence of operations that are to be carries out to solve
the given problem.
3. Developing the solution: Here the overview of the sequence of
operations that was the result of analysis stage is expanded to form a
detailed step by step solution to the problem under consideration.
4. Coding and implementation: The last stage of the problem solving is

the conversion of the detailed sequence of operations in to a language that
the computer can understand. Here each step is converted to its equivalent
instruction or instructions in the computer language that has been chosen
for the implantation.
Algorithm
Definition
A set of sequential steps usually written in Ordinary Language to solve a
given problem is called Algorithm.
It may be possible to solve to problem in more than one ways, resulting in

more than one algorithm. The choice of various algorithms depends on the
factors like reliability, accuracy and easy to modify. The most important
factor in the choice of algorithm is the time requirement to execute it, after
writing code in High-level language with the help of a computer. The
algorithm which will need the least time when executed is considered the
best.
Steps involved in algorithm development

An algorithm can be defined as a complete, unambiguous, finite number of
logical steps for solving a specific problem
Step1. Identification of input: For an algorithm, there are quantities to be

supplied called input and these are fed externally. The input is to be
indentified first for any specified problem.
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Step2: Identification of output: From an algorithm, at least one quantity
is produced, called for any specified problem.
Step3 : Identification the processing operations : All the calculations to be

performed in order to lead to output from the input are to be identified in an
orderly manner.
Step4 : Processing Definiteness : The instructions composing the algorithm

must be clear and there should not be any ambiguity in them.
Step5 : Processing Finiteness : If we go through the algorithm, then for all

cases, the algorithm should terminate after a finite number of steps.
Step6 : Possessing Effectiveness : The instructions in the algorithm must be

sufficiently basic and in practice they can be carries out easily.
An algorithm must possess the following properties
1. Finiteness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite number of steps

2. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be precisely and
unambiguously stated
3. Effectiveness: Each step must be effective, in the sense that it should
be primitive easily convert able into program statement) can be performed
exactly in a finite amount of time.
4. Generality: The algorithm must be complete in itself so that it can be
used to solve problems of a specific type for any input data.
5. Input/output: Each algorithm must take zero, one or more quantities as
input data produce one or more output values. An algorithm can be written
in English like sentences or in any standard representation sometimes,
algorithm written in English like languages are called Pseudo Code
Example
Suppose we want to find the average of three numbers, the algorithm is

as follows
Step 1 Read the numbers a, b, c

Step 2 Compute the sum of a, b and c
Step 3 Divide the sum by 3
Step 4 Store the result in variable d
Step 5 Print the value of d
Step 6 End of the program
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Algorithm for Simple Problems
Write an algorithm to calculate the simple interest using the formula.

Simple interest = P*N* R/100.
Where P is principle Amount, N is the number of years and R is the rate

of interest.
Step 1: Read the three input quantities P, N and R.
Step 2 : Calculate simple interest as
Simple interest = P* N* R/100
Step 3: Print simple interest.
Step 4: Stop.
Area of Triangle
Write an algorithm to find the area of the triangle.
Let b, c be the sides of the triangle ABC and A the included angle between
the given sides.
Step 1: Input the given elements of the triangle namely sides b, c and angle
between the sides A.
Step 2: Area = (1/2) *b*C* sin A
Step 3: Output the Area
Step 4: Stop.
3. Write an algorithm to find the largest of three numbers X, Y,Z.
Step 1: Read the numbers X,Y,Z.

Step 2: if (X > Y)
Big = X
else BIG = Y
Step 3 : if (BIG < Z)
Step 4: Big = Z
Step 5: Print the largest number i.e. Big
Step 6: Stop.
Write an algorithm which will test whether a given integer value is

prime or not.
Algorithm prime testing:
Step 1: M 2
Step 2: read N
Step 3: MAX SQRT (N)
Step 4: While M < = MAX do
4.1 if (M* (N/M) = N
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4.1.1 then
4.1.1.1 go to step 7
4.2. M M + 1
Step 5: Write number is prime
Step 6: go to step 8
Step 7: Write number is not a prime
Step 8: end.
Write algorithm to find the factorial of a given number N
Step 1: PROD 1
Step 2: I 0
Step 3: read N
Step 4: While I < N do
4.1 I I + 1
4.2. PROD PROD* I
Step 5: Write Factorial of, N, is, PROD
Step 6: end.
Write an algorithm to find sum of given data values until negative

value is entered.
Algorithm Find Sum

Step 1: SUM 0
Step 2: I 0
Step 3: read NEW VALUE
Step 4: While NEW VALUE < = 0 do
4.1 SUM SUM + NEW VALUE
4.2 1 I + 1
4.3 read NEW VALUE
Step 5: Write Sum of, I, data value is, SUM Step 6: END
Write an algorithm to calculate the perimeter and area of rectangle.

Given its length and width.
Step 1: Read length of the rectangle.

Step 2: Read width of the rectangle.
Step 3: Calculate perimeter of the rectangle using the formula perimeter =
2* (length + width)
Step 4: Calculate area of the rectangle using the formula area = length
*width.
Step 5: Print perimeter.
Step 6: Print area.
Step 7: Stop.
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Flowchart
A flow chart is a step by step diagrammatic representation of the logic paths

to solve a given problem. Or A flowchart is visual or graphical representation
of an algorithm.
The flowcharts are pictorial representation of the methods to b used to solve

a given problem and help a great deal to analyze the problem and plan its
solution in a systematic and orderly manner. A flowchart when translated in
to a proper computer language, results in a complete program.
Advantages of Flowcharts
1. The flowchart shows the logic of a problem displayed in pictorial fashion

which felicitates easier checking of an algorithm.
2. The Flowchart is good means of communication to other users. It is also
a compact means of recording an algorithm solution to a problem.
3. The flowchart allows the problem solver to break the problem into parts.
These parts can be connected to make master chart.
4. The flowchart is a permanent record of the solution which can be
Consulted at a later time.
Symbols
Symbol Purpose Description
Used to indicate the flow of logic by connecting

Flow line
symbols.
Terminal(Stop/Start) Used to represent start and end of flowchart.
Input/Output Used for input and output operation.
Used for airthmetic operations and data-

Processing
manipulations.
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Symbol Purpose Description
Used to represent the operation in which there are

Desicion
two alternatives, true and false.
On-page Connector Used to join different flowline
Off-page Connector Used to connect flowchart portion on different page.
Predefined Used to represent a group of statements performing

Process/Function one processing task.
Examples of flowcharts
Draw a flowchart to add two numbers entered by user.
Draw flowchart to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.
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Pseudo code
The Pseudo code is neither an algorithm nor a program. It is an abstract

form of a program. It consists of English like statements which perform the
specific operations. It is defined for an algorithm. It does not use any
graphical representation. In pseudo code, the program is represented in
terms of words and phrases, but the syntax of program is not strictly
followed.
Advantages:
* Easy to read
* Easy to understand
* Easy to modify.
Example:
Write a pseudo code to perform the basic arithmetic operations.
Read n1, n2
Sum = n1 + n2
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Diff = n1 n2
Mult = n1 * n2
Quot = n1/n2
Print sum, diff, mult, quot
End.
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UNIT 2-INTRODUCTION TO C LANGUAGE
UNIT 2-INTRODUCTION TO C LANGUAGE 10
Overview of C - Constants, Variables and Data Types- Compilation and

Linking - Operators and Expressions- Decision Making and Branching
Looping statements
Overview of C
The C Language is developed for creating system applications that direct

interacts to the hardware devices such as drivers, kernals etc.
C programming is considered as the base for other programming languages,

that is why it is known as mother language.
It can be defined by following ways:
1. Mother language
2. System programming language
3. Procedure-oriented programming language
4. Structured programming language
5. Mid level programming language
1) C as a mother language
C language is considered as the mother language of all the modern

languages because most of the compilers, JVMs, Kernals etc. are
written in C language and most of languages follows c syntax e.g. C++,
Java etc.
It provides the core concepts like array, functions, file handling etc. that is
being used in many languages like C++, java, C# etc.
2) C as a system programming language
A system programming language is used to create system softwares. C

language is a system programming language because it can be used to do
low level programming (e.g. driver and kernel). It is generally used to
create hardware devices, OS, drivers, kernels etc. For example, linux kernel
is written in C.
It cant be used in internet programming like java, .net, php etc.
3) C as a procedural language
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A procedure is known as function, method, routine, subroutine etc. A

procedural language specifies a series of steps or procedures for the
program to solve the problem.
A procedural language breaks the program into functions, data structures

etc.
C is a procedural language. In C, variables and function prototypes must be

declared before being used.
4) C as a structured programming language
A structured programming language is a subset of procedural

language. Structure means to break a program into parts or blocks so
that it may be easy to understand.
In C language, we break the program into parts using functions. It makes

the program easier to understand and modify.
5) C as a mid-level programming language
C is considered as a middle level language because it supports the feature

of both low-level and high level language. C language program is
converted into assembly code, supports pointer arithmetic (low level), but it
is machine independent (feature of high level).
Low level language is specific to one machine i.e. machine dependent. It is

machine dependent, fast to run. But it is not easy to understand.
High Level language is not specific to one machine i.e. machine

independent. It is easy to understand.
History of C Language
C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at bell

laboratories of AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in U.S.A.
Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of c language.
It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as

B, BCPL etc.Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX
operating system. It inherits many features of previous languages such as
B and BCPL.Let's see the programming languages that were developed
before C language.
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Language Year Developed By
Algol 1960 International Group
BCPL 1967 Martin Richard
B 1970 Ken Thompson
Traditional C 1972 Dennis Ritchie
K&RC 1978 Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie
ANSI C 1989 ANSI Committee
ANSI/ISO C 1990 ISO Committee
C99 1999 Standardization Committee
Features of C Language
C is the widely used language. It provides a lot of featuresthat are given

below.
1. Simple
2. Machine Independent or Portable
3. Mid-level programming language
4. structured programming language
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5. Rich Library
6. Memory Management
7. Fast Speed
8. Pointers
9. Recursion
10. Extensible
1) Simple
C is a simple language in the sense that it provides structured

approach (to break the problem into parts), rich set of library
functions, data types etc.
2) Machine Independent or Portable
Unlike assembly language, c programs can be executed in many

machines with little bit or no change. But it is not platform-independent.
3) Mid-level prorgramming language
C is also used to do low level programming. It is used to develop system

applications such as kernel, driver etc. It also supports the feature of
high level language. That is why it is known as mid-level language.
4) Structured prorgramming language
C is a structured programming language in the sense that we can break

the program into parts using functions. So, it is easy to understand and
modify.
5) Rich Library
C provides a lot of inbuilt functions that makes the development fast.
6) Memory Management
It supports the feature of dynamic memory allocation. In C language, we

can free the allocated memory at any time by calling the free() function.
7) Speed
The compilation and execution time of C language is fast.
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8) Pointer
C provides the feature of pointers. We can directly interact with the memory
by using the pointers. We can use pointers for memory, structures,
functions, array etc.
9) Recursion
In c, we can call the function within the function. It provides code

reusability for every function.
10) Extensible
C language is extensible because it can easily adopt new features.
First C Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
printf("Hello C Language");
getch();
}
#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions.

The printf() function is defined in stdio.h .
#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions.

The getch() function is defined in conio.h file.
void main() The main() function is the entry point of every

program in c language. The void keyword specifies that it returns no value.
printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.
getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press
any key, it blocks the screen.
How to compile and run the c program
There are 2 ways to compile and run the c program, by menu and by
shortcut.
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Flow of C Program
The C program follows many steps in execution. To understand the flow of C

program well, let us see a simple program first.
Simple .c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
clrscr();
printf("Hello C Language");
getch();
}
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1) C program (source code) is sent to preprocessor first. The preprocessor is

responsible to convert preprocessor directives into their respective values.
The preprocessor generates an expanded source code.
2) Expanded source code is sent to compiler which compiles the code and
converts it into assembly code.
3) The assembly code is sent to assembler which assembles the code and
converts it into object code. Now a simple.obj file is generated.
4) The object code is sent to linker which links it to the library such as
header files. Then it is converted into executable code. A simple.exe file is
generated.
5) The executable code is sent to loader which loads it into memory and
then it is executed. After execution, output is sent to console.
printf and scanf in C
The printf() and scanf() functions are used for input and output in C
language. Both functions are inbuilt library functions, defined in stdio.h
(header file).
printf() function
The printf() function is used for output. It prints the given statement to
the console.
The syntax of printf() function is given below:
printf("format string",argument_list);
scanf() function
The scanf() function is used for input. It reads the input data from the
console.
1. scanf("format string",argument_list);
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Program to print cube of given number
Let's see a simple example of c language that gets input from the user and
prints the cube of the given number.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int number;
clrscr();
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
printf("cube of number is:%d ",number*number*number);
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:5
cube of number is:125
The scanf("%d",&number) statement reads integer number from the

console and stores the given value in number variable.
The printf("cube of number

is:%d",number*number*number) statement prints the cube of number
on the console.
VARIABLES IN C
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value

can be changed and it can be reused many times.
It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be

easily identified.
Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:
1. type variable_list;
The example of declaring variable is given below:
int a;
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float b;
char c;
Here, a, b, c are variables and int,float,char are data types.
We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:
int a=10,b=20;//declaring 2 variable of integer type

float f=20.8;
char c='A';
Rules for defining variables
o A variable can have alphabets, digits and underscore.

o A variable name can start with alphabet and underscore only. It can't
start with digit.
o No white space is allowed within variable name.
o A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword e.g. int,
float etc.
Valid variable names:
1. int a;
2. int _ab;
3. int a30;
Invalid variable names:
int 2;
int a b;
int long;
Types of Variables in C
There are many types of variables in c:
1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable
4. automatic variable
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5. external variable
Local Variable
A variable that is declared inside the function or block is called local variable.
It must be declared at the start of the block.
void function1(){
int x=10;//local variable
}
You must have to initialize the local variable before it is used.
Global Variable
A variable that is declared outside the function or block is called global

variable. Any function can change the value of the global variable. It is
available to all the functions.
It must be declared at the start of the block.
int value=20;//global variable

void function1(){
}
Static Variable
A variable that is declared with static keyword is called static variable.
It retains its value between multiple function calls.
void function1(){
static int y=10;//static variable
x=x+1;
y=y+1;
printf("%d,%d",x,y);
}
If you call this function many times, local variable will print the same
value for each function call e.g, 11,11,11 and so on. But static variable
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will print the incremented value in each function call e.g. 11, 12, 13 and
so on.
Automatic Variable
All variables in C that is declared inside the block, are automatic variables by
default. By we can explicitly declare automatic variable using auto
keyword.
void main(){
int x=10;//local variable (also automatic)
auto int y=20;//automatic variable
}
External Variable
We can share a variable in multiple C source files by using external variable.

To declare a external variable, you need to use extern keyword.
myfile.h
extern int x=10;//external variable (also global)

program1.c
#include "myfile.h"
#include <stdio.h>
void printValue(){
printf("Global variable: %d", global_variable); }
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DATA TYPES IN C
A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as
integer, floating, character etc.
There are 4 types of data types in C language.
Types Data Types
Basic Data Type int, char, float, double
Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union
Enumeration Data Type Enum
Void Data Type Void
Basic Data Types
The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language
supports both signed and unsigned literals.
The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system.
Let's see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit
architecture.
Data Types Memory Size Range
Char 1 byte 128 to 127
signed char 1 byte 128 to 127
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255
Short 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
signed short 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
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unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 65,535
Int 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
signed int 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 65,535
short int 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
signed short int 2 byte 32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 65,535
long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
signed long int 4 byte -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
unsigned long int 4 byte 0 to 4,294,967,295
Float 4 byte
double 8 byte
long double 10 byte
OPERATORS
operators are the symbols which tell the computer to execute certain
mathematical or logical operations. A mathematical or logical expression is
generally formed with the help of an operator. C programming offers a
number of operators which are classified into 8 categories viz.
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Assignment operators
5. Increment and Decrement operators
6. Conditional operators
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7. Bitwise operators
8. Special operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
C programming language provides all basic arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /
and %.
Note: / is integer division which only gives integer part as result

after division. % is modulo division which gives the remainder of
integer division as result.
Some examples of arithmetic operators are:
a+b
ab
a*b
a /b
a%b
In these examples, a and b are variables and are called operands.

Note: % cannot be used on floating data type.
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Example Program using Arithmetic Operators
#include<stdio.h> // Header File

#include <conio.h>
void main ( ) /* main is the starting of every c program */
{
int a=5,b=2; //Local Declaration
clrscr( );
printf(Addition : %d\n,(a+b));
printf(Subtraction : %d\n,(a-b));
printf(Multiplication : %d\n,(a*b));
printf(Division : %d\n,(a/b));
printf(Modulus(remainder): %d,(a%b));
getch( );
}
Output
Addition :7
Subtraction :3
Multiplication : 10
Division :2
Modulus(remainder): 1
2. Relational Operators
Relational operators are used when we have to make comparisons. C
programming offers 6 relational operators.
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Relational expression is an expression which contains the relational operator.

Relational operators are most commonly used in decision statements
like if, while, etc. Some simple relational expressions are:
1<5 9 != 8 2 > 1+3
Note: Arithmetic operators have higher priority than relational

operators meaning that if arithmetic expressions are present on two
sides of a relational operator then arithmetic expressions will be
calculated first and then the result will be compared.
Example Program using Relational Operators

#include<stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf(\n5!=3:%d,(5!=3));
printf(\n5<=3:%d,(5<=3));
printf(\n5>=3:%d,(5>=3));
printf(\n5<7 :%d,(5<7));
printf(\n5>4 :%d,(5>4));
getch();
}
Output
5!=3 :1
5<=3 :0
5>=3 :1
5<7 :1
5>4 :1
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3. Logical Operators
Logical operators are used when more than one conditions are to be tested
and based on that result, decisions have to be made. C programming offers
three logical operators. They are:
For example:
a < 18 || a> 60
An expression which combines two or more relational expressions is known

as logical expression.
Example Program using Logical Operators

#include<stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main ( )
{
clrscr( );
printf(\n(5<=8)&&(4>=2):%d,((5<=8)&&(4>=2)));
printf(\n(5>=3)||(6<4):%d,((5>=3)||(6<4)));
printf(\n!(7==7):%d,!(7==7));
getch( );
}
Output
(5<=8)&&(4>=2) : 1
(5>=3)||(6<4) : 1
!(7==7) : 0
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4. Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign result of an expression to a
variable. = is the assignment operator in C. Furthermore, C also allows the
use of shorthand assignment operators. Shorthand operators take the form:
var op = exp;
where var is a variable, op is arithmetic operator, exp is an expression. In

this case, op= is known as shorthand assignment operator.
The above assignment
var op = exp;
is the same as the assignment
var = var op exp;
Consider an example:
x += y;
Here, the above statement means the same as
x = x + y;
Note: Shorthand assignment can be used with all arithmetic

operators.
5. Increment and Decrement Operators

C programming allows the use of ++ and operators which are increment
and decrement operators respectively. Both the increment and decrement
operators are unary operators. The increment operator ++ adds 1 to the
operand and the decrement operator subtracts 1 from the operand. The
general syntax of these operators are:
Increment Operator: m++ or ++m;
Decrement Operator: m--or --m;
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In the example above, m++ simply means m=m+1; and m-- simply
means m=m-1;
Increment and decrement operators are mostly used in for and while loops.
++m and m++ performs the same operation when they form statements
independently but they function differently when they are used in right hand
side of an expression.
++m is known as prefix operator and m++ is known as postfix operator. A
prefix operator firstly adds 1 to the operand and then the result is assigned
to the variable on the left whereas a postfix operator firstly assigns value to
the variable on the left and then increases the operand by 1. Same is in the
case of decrement operator.
For example,
X=10;
Y=++X;
Example Program using Increment and Decrement Operators
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(Enter a & b value : \n);
scanf(%d%d,&a,&b);
printf(Value of a & b before increment : %d %d\n,a,b);
printf(Value of a & b after increment : %d %d\n,a++,b++);
printf(Value of a & b after decrement : %d %d\n,a--,b--);
getch();
}
Output
Enter a & b value :
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Value of a & b before increment : 6 9
Value of a & b after increment :7 10
Value of a & b after decrement :5 8
6. Conditional Operator
The operator pair ? and : is known as conditional operator. These pair of
operators are ternary operators. The general syntax of conditional operator
is:
expression1 ? expression2 : expression3 ;
This syntax can be understood as a substitute of if else statement.
For example,
a=3;
b=5;
Consider an if else statement as:
if (a > b)
x=a;
else
x=b;
Now, this if else statement can be written by using conditional operator as:
x = (a > b) ? a : b ;
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Example Program using Conditional Operator
#include<stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main ( )
{
int a=5,b=8,c;
clrscr( );
c = a>b?a:b; //Conditional operator
printf(" \n The Larger Value is %d",c);
getch( );
}
Output
The Larger Value is 8
7. Bitwise Operator
In C programming, bitwise operators are used for testing the bits or shifting
them left or right. The bitwise operators available in C are:
8. Special Operators
C programming supports special operators like comma operator, sizeof
operator, pointer operators (& and *) and member selection operators (. and
->). The comma operator and sizeof operator are discussed in this section
Page 60
whereas the pointer and member selection operators are discussed in later
sections.
1. Comma Operator
The comma operator can be used to link the related expressions together. A
comma linked expression is evaluated from left to right and the value of the
right most expression is the value of the combined expression.
For example:
x = (a = 2, b = 4, a+b)
In this example, the expression is evaluated from left to right. So at first,

variable a is assigned value 2, then variable b is assigned value 4 and then
value 6 is assigned to the variable x. Comma operators are commonly used
in for loops, while loops, while exchanging values, etc.
2 .Sizeof() operator
The sizeof operator is usually used with an operand which may be variable,
constant or a data type qualifier. This operator returns the number of bytes
the operand occupies. Sizeof operator is a compile time operator. Some
examples of use of sizeof operator are:
x = sizeof (a);
y = sizeof(float);
The sizeof operator is usually used to determine the length of arrays and
structures when their sizes are not known. It is also used in dynamic
memory allocation.
9.C Expressions
Arithmetic expression in C is a combination of variables, constants and
operators written in a proper syntax. C can easily handle any complex
mathematical expressions but these mathematical expressions have to be
Page 61
written in a proper syntax. Some examples of mathematical expressions

written in proper syntax of C are:
Note: C does not have any operator for exponentiation.
10.C Operator Precedence

At first, the expressions within parenthesis are evaluated. If no parenthesis
is present, then the arithmetic expression is evaluated from left to right.
There are two priority levels of operators in C.
High priority: * / %
Low priority: + -
The evaluation procedure of an arithmetic expression includes two left to
right passes through the entire expression. In the first pass, the high priority
operators are applied as they are encountered and in the second pass, low
priority operations are applied as they are encountered.
Suppose, we have an arithmetic expression as:
x = 9 12 / 3 + 3 *2 - 1
This expression is evaluated in two left to right passes as:
First Pass
Step 1: x = 9-4 + 3 * 2 1
Step 2: x = 9 4 + 6 1
Second Pass
Step 1: x = 5 + 6 1
Step 2: x = 11 1
Step 3: x = 10
But when parenthesis is used in the same expression, the order of
evaluation gets changed.
For example,
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x = 9 12 / (3 + 3) * (2 1)
When parentheses are present then the expression inside the parenthesis
are evaluated first from left to right. The expression is now evaluated in
three passes as:
First Pass
Step 1: x = 9 12 / 6 * (2 1)
Step 2: x= 9 12 / 6 * 1
Second Pass
Step 1: x= 9 2 * 1
Step 2: x = 9 2
Third Pass
Step 3: x= 7
There may even arise a case where nested parentheses are present (i.e.
parenthesis inside parenthesis). In such case, the expression inside the
innermost set of parentheses is evaluated first and then the outer
parentheses are evaluated.
For example, we have an expression as:
x = 9 ((12 / 3) + 3 * 2) 1
The expression is now evaluated as:
First Pass:
Step 1: x = 9 (4 + 3 * 2) 1
Step 2: x= 9 (4 + 6) 1
Step 3: x= 9 10 -1
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Second Pass
Step 1: x= - 1 1 Step 2: x = -2
DECISION MAKING AND BRANCHING
if else Statement
The if statement in C language is used to perform operation on the basis of

condition. By using if-else statement, you can perform operation either
condition is true or false.
There are many ways to use if statement in C language:
o If statement
o If-else statement
o If else-if ladder
o Nested if
If Statement
The single if statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition

is true. The syntax of if statement
is given below:
1. if(expression){
2. //code to be executed
3. }
Flowchart of if statement in C
Let's see a simple example of c

language if statement.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
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}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
4 is even number
If-else Statement
The if-else statement in C language is used to execute the code if condition

is true or false. The syntax of if-else statement is given below:
if(expression){
//code to be executed if condition is true
}else{
//code to be executed if condition is false
}
Flowchart of if-else statement in C

Let's see the simple example of even and odd number using if-else statement in C
language.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",
number);
}
else{
printf("%d is odd number",number);
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
Page 65
4 is even number
enter a number:5
5 is odd number
If else-if ladder Statement
The if else-if statement is used to execute one code from multiple conditions.
The syntax of if else-if statement is given below:
if(condition1){
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}else if(condition2){
}
else if(condition3){
}
...
else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}
Flowchart of else-if ladder statement in C
The example of if-else-if statement in C language is given below.
Page 66
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
SWITCH STATEMENT
The switch statement in C language is used to execute the code from

multiple conditions. It is like if else-if ladder statement.
The syntax of switch statement in c language is given below:
switch(expression){
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
case value2:
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//code to be executed;
break; //optional
......
default:
code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
}
Rules for switch statement in C language
1) The switch expression must be of integer or character type.
2) The case value must be integer or character constant.
3) The case value can be used only inside the switch statement.
4) The break statement in switch case is not must. It is optional. If there is

no break statement found in switch case, all the cases will be executed after
matching the case value. It is known as fall through state of C switch
statement.
Let's try to understand it by the examples. We are assuming there are

following variables.
1. int x,y,z;
2. char a,b;
3. float f;
Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case
switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;
switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;
switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;
switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;
Page 68
Flowchart of switch statement in C
Let's see a simple example of c language switch statement.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
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switch(number){
case 10:
printf("number is equals to 10");
break;
case 50:
break;
case 100:
break;
default:
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:4
enter a number:50
C Switch statement is fall-through
In C language, switch statement is fall through, it means if you don't use

break statement in switch case, all the case after matching case will be
executed.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
Page 70
switch(number){
case 10:
printf("number is equals to 10\n");
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50\n");
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100\n");
default:
}
getch();
}
Output
enter a number:10
number is equals to 10
enter a number:50
LOOPING STATEMENT
The loops in C language are used to execute a block of code or a part of the
program several times.
In other words, it iterates a code or group of code many times.
Why use loops in C language?
Suppose that you have to print table of 2, then you need to write 10 lines of
code.
By using the loop statement, you can do it by 2 or 3 lines of code only.
Advantage of loops in C
1) It saves code.
2) It helps to traverse the elements of array (which is covered in next

pages).
Page 71
types of C Loops
There are three types of loops in C language that is given below:
1. do while
2. while
3. for
do while loop
To execute a part of program or code several times, we can use do-while

loop of C language. The code given between the do and while block will be
executed until condition is true.
In do while loop, statement is given before the condition, so statement or

code will be executed at lease one time. In other words, we can say it is
executed 1 or more times.
It is better if you have to execute the code at least once.
do while loop syntax
syntax
do{
//code to be executed
}while(condition);
Flowchart of do while loop
Page 72
do while example
There is given the simple program of c language do while loop where we are
printing the table of 1.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1;
clrscr();
do{
printf("%d \n",i);
i++;
}while(i<=10);
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Program to print table for the given number using do while loop
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1,number=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number: ");
do{
printf("%d \n",(number*i));
i++;
Page 73
}while(i<=10);
getch();
}
Output
Enter a number: 5
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Enter a number: 10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
infinitive do while loop
If you pass 1 as a expression in do while loop, it will run infinite number of

times.
do{
//statement
}while(1);
while loop
The while loop in C language is used to iterate the part of program or

statements many times.
In while loop, condition is given before the statement. So it is different from

the do while loop. It can execute the statements 0 or more times.
Page 74
When use while loop in C
The C language while loop should be used if number of iteration is uncertain

or unknown.
Syntax
The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:
while(condition){
}
Flowchart of while loop in C
Example of while loop in C language
Let's see the simple program of while loop that prints table of 1.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10){
printf("%d \n",i);
Page 75
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Program to print table for the given number using while loop in C
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1,number=0;
clrscr();
while(i<=10){
i++;
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter a number: 50
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Page 76
500
Enter a number: 100
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Infinitive while loop
If you pass 1 as a expression in while loop, it will run infinite number of

times.
while(1){
//statement
}
FOR LOOP
The for loop in C language is also used to iterate the
statement or a part of the program several times, like
while and do-while loop.
But, we can initialize and increment or decrement the variable also at the
time of checking the condition in for loop.
Unlike do while loop, the condition or expression in for loop is given before
the statement, so it may execute the statement 0 or more times.
When use for loop in C
For loop is better if number of iteration is known by the programmer.
Syntax
The syntax of for loop in c language is given below:
for(initialization;condition;incr/decr){
Page 77
}
Flowchart of for loop in C
Example of for loop in C language
Let's see the simple program of for loop that prints table of 1.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=0;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
printf("%d \n",i);
}
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
Page 78
6
7
8
9
10
C Program : Print table for the given number using C for loop
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1,number=0;
clrscr();

for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter a number: 2
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Enter a number: 1000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Page 79
9000
10000
Infinitive for loop
If you don't initialize any variable, check condition and increment or

decrement variable in for loop, it is known as infinitive for loop.
In other words, if you place 2 semicolons in for loop, it is known as infinitive

for loop.
for(;;){
printf("infinitive for loop example by javatpoint");
}
If you run this program, you will see above statement infinite times.
C break statement
The break statement in C language is used to break the execution of loop

(while, do while and for) and switch case.
In case of inner loops, it terminates the control of inner loop only.
There can be two usage of C break keyword:
1. With switch case

2. With loop
Syntax:
jump-statement;
break;
The jump statement in c break syntax can be while loop, do while loop, for
loop or switch case.
Flowchart of break in c
Example of C break statement with switch case
Click here to see the example of C break with switch statement.
Example of C break statement with loop
Page 80
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1;//initializing a local variable
clrscr();
//starting a loop from 1 to 10

for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
printf("%d \n",i);
if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will break the loop
break;
}
}//end of for loop
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
As you can see on console output, loop from 1 to 10 is not printed after
i==5.
C break statement with inner loop
In such case, it breaks only inner loop, but not outer loop.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
printf("%d &d\n",i,j);
if(i==2 && j==2){
break;//will break loop of j only
}
Page 81
}
}//end of for loop
getch();
}
Output
11
12
13
21
22
31
32
33
As you can see the output on console, 2 3 is not printed because there is
break statement after printing i==2 and j==2. But 3 1, 3 2 and 3 3 is
printed because break statement works for inner loop only.
continue statement
The continue statement in C language is used to continue the execution of

loop (while, do while and for). It is used with if condition within the loop.
In case of inner loops, it continues the control of inner loop only.
Syntax:
jump-statement;
continue;
The jump statement can be while, do while and for loop.
Example of continue statement in c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1;//initializing a local variable
clrscr();
//starting a loop from 1 to 10

for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
Page 82
if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop

continue;
}
printf("%d \n",i);
}//end of for loop
getch();
}
Output
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
As you can see, 5 is not printed on the console because loop is continued at
i==5.
continue statement with inner loop
In such case, C continue statement continues only inner loop, but not outer
loop.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=1,j=1;//initializing a local variable
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=3;i++){
for(j=1;j<=3;j++){
if(i==2 && j==2){
continue;//will continue loop of j only
}
printf("%d &d\n",i,j);
}
}//end of for loop
Page 83
getch();
}
Output
11
12
13
21
23
31
32
33
As you can see, 2 2 is not printed on the console because inner loop is
continued at i==2 and j==2.
goto statement
The goto statement is known as jump statement in C language. It is used to

unconditionally jump to other label. It transfers control to other parts of the
program.
It is rarely used today because it makes program less readable and complex.
Syntax:
goto label;
goto example
Let's see a simple example to use goto statement in C language.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
clrscr();
ineligible:
printf("You are not eligible to vote!\n");
break;
printf("Enter you age:\n");
scanf("%d", &age);
if(age<18)
goto ineligible;
Page 84
else
printf("You are eligible to vote!\n");
getch();
}
Output:
You are not eligible to vote!

Enter you age:
11
You are not eligible to vote!
Enter you age:
44
You are eligible to vote!
Page 85
UNIT 3-ARRAYS AND STRINGS
UNIT 3-ARRAYS AND STRINGS 9
Arrays-One Dimensional Array- Declaration and Initialization-Two

Dimensional Array-Declaration and Initialization- Programs using Arrays-
Strings- String Handling Functions, Programs using Strings- Managing I/O
Operations
Array
Array in C language is a collection or group of elements (data). All the

elements of c array are homogeneous (similar). It has contiguous
memory location.
C array is beneficial if you have to store similar elements. Suppose you

have to store marks of 50 students, one way to do this is allotting 50
variables. So it will be typical and hard to manage. For example we can
not access the value of these variables with only 1 or 2 lines of code.
Another way to do this is array. By using array, we can access the

elements easily. Only few lines of code is required to access the elements
of array.
Advantage of Array
1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.
2) Easy to traverse data: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the
elements of an array easily.
3) Easy to sort data: To sort the elements of array, we need a few lines
of code only.
4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the

array.
Page 86
Disadvantage of C Array
1) Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of

array, we can't exceed the limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically
like LinkedList which we will learn later.
Declaration of C Array
We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.
data_type array_name[array_size];
Now, let us see the example to declare array.
int marks[5];
Here, int is the data_type, marks is the array_name and 5 is

the array_size.
Initialization of Array
A simple way to initialize array is by index. Notice that array index

starts from 0 and ends with [SIZE - 1].
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;
Page 87
Array example Program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=0;
int marks[5];//declaration of array
clrscr();
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}//end of for loop
getch();
}
Output
80
60
70
85
75
Array: Declaration with Initialization
We can initialize the c array at the time of declaration. Let's see the code.
int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};
In such case, there is no requirement to define size. So it can also be

written as the following code.
int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};
Page 88
Let's see the full program to declare and initialize the array in C.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
int i=0;
int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
clrscr();
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output
20
30
40
50
60
Program to get values of array from users and display it
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5],i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter five values : \n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("\nThe value in a[%d] is %d",i,a[i]);
}
getch();
Page 89
}
OUTPUT
Enter five values :
10
20
30
40
50
The value in a[0] is 10
Program to find maximum number in an array
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5],i,max;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
max=a[0];
for(i=1;i<5;i++)
{
if(max<a[i])
{
max=a[i];
}
Page 90
}
printf(Maximum no is %d,max);
getch(); }
OUTPUT
Enter five values :
10
20
30
40
50
Maximum no is 50
Program to find the sum of the elements in an array
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5],i,sum=0;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
sum=sum+a[i];
}
printf(The sum of elements in array is : %d,sum);
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Enter five values :
Page 91
2
The sum of elements in array is : 15
Program to sort the numbers in ascending order
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[80],i,j,t,n; // maximum elements in the array is 80
clrscr();
printf(Enter the number of elements to be sorted \n);
scanf(%d,&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter %d element : \n",i+1);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=t;
}
}
}
printf(Ascending order : \n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(%d\t,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Page 92
OUTPUT
Enter the number of elements to be sorted
Enter 1 element :
40
Enter 2 element :
10
Enter 3 element :
30
Enter 4 element :
50
Enter 5 element :
20
Ascending order :
10 20 30 40 50
Program to search element in array(Linear Search)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50};
int key;
clrscr();
printf("Enter search value:\n");
scanf("%d",&key);
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
if(key==a[i])
{
printf(Value found);
break;
}
Page 93
else
{
printf(Value not found);
}
}
getch();
}
OUTPUT
Enter search value : 40
Value found
Two Dimensional Array
The two dimensional array in C language is represented in the form of

rows and columns, also known as matrix. It is also known as array of
arrays or list of arrays.
The two dimensional, three dimensional or other dimensional arrays are

also known as multidimensional arrays.
Declaration of two dimensional Array in C
We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.
data_type array_name[size1][size2];
A simple example to declare two dimensional array is given below.
int twodimen[4][3];
Here, 4 is the row number and 3 is the column number.
Initialization of 2D Array
A way to initialize the two dimensional array at the time of declaration is

given below.
int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
Two dimensional array example in C
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main(){
Page 94
int i=0,j=0;
int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
clrscr();
//traversing 2D array
for(i=0;i<4;i++){
for(j=0;j<3;j++){
printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
}//end of j
}//end of i
getch();
}
Output
arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6
Program to assign values to array from user and to display it
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3][3],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(Enter 9 values in array : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&a[i][j]);
Page 95
}
}
printf(Values in array : \n);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf(a[%d][%d] = %d\n,i,j,a[i][j]);
}
}
getch();
Output
Enter 9 values in array :
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Values in array :
a[0][0]=10
a[0][1]=20
a[0][2]=30
a[1][0]=40
a[1][1]=50
a[1][2]=60
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a[2][0]=70
a[2][1]=80
a[2][2]=90
Program to implement Matrix addition
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3][3],b[3][3],c[3][3],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(Enter values of Matrix A : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf(Enter values of Matrix B : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&b[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
}
}
printf(Added Matrix\n);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf(%d\t,c[i][j]);
}
printf(\n);
}
Page 97
getch();
}
Output
Enter values of Matix A :
Enter values of Matix B :
Addded Matrix
2 4 6
8 10 12
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14 16 18
Program to implement Matrix multiplication
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3][3],b[3][3],c[3][3],i,j,k;
clrscr();
printf(Enter values of Matix A : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf(Enter values of Matix B : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&b[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
c[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
c[i][j]=c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j];
}
}
}
printf(Multiplied Matrix\n);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
Page 99
printf(%d\t,c[i][j]);
}
printf(\n);
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter values of Matrix A :
Enter values of Matrix B :
Page 100
Multiplied Matrix
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
Program to find transpose of Matrix
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[3][3],i,j;
clrscr();
printf(Enter values in matrix : \n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(%d,&a[i][j]);
}
}
printf(\nTranspose of given Matrix : \n);
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf(%d\t,i,j,a[j][i]);
}
printf(\n);
}
getch();
}
Output
Enter values in matrix :
Page 101
5
Transpose of given Matrix :
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
STRINGS
String in C language is an array of characters that is terminated by \0

(null character).
There are two ways to declare string in c language.
1. By char array
2. By string literal
Let's see the example of declaring string by char array in C language.
1. char ch[10]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};
As you know well, array index starts from 0, so it will be represented as in

the figure given below.
While declaring string, size is not mandatory. So you can write the above
code as given below:
1. char ch[]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};
You can also define string by string literal in C language. For example:
Page 102
1. char ch[]="javatpoint";
In such case, '\0' will be appended at the end of string by the compiler.
Difference between char array and string literal
The only difference is that string literal cannot be changed whereas string
declared by char array can be changed.
String Example in C
#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char ch[11]={'j', 'a', 'v', 'a', 't', 'p', 'o', 'i', 'n', 't', '\0'};
char ch2[11]="javatpoint";
printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);

printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);
}
Output:
Char Array Value is: javatpoint

String Literal Value is: javatpoint
C gets() and puts() functions
The gets() function reads string from user and puts() function prints the
string. Both functions are defined in <stdio.h> header file.
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char name[50];
clrscr();
printf("Enter your name: ");
gets(name); //reads string from user
printf("Your name is: ");
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puts(name); //displays string

getch();
}
Output:
Enter your name: Sonoo Jaiswal

Your name is: Sonoo Jaiswal
C String Functions
There are many important string functions defined in "string.h" library.
No. Function Description
1) strlen(string_name) returns the length of string name.
2) strcpy(destination, copies the contents of source string to

source) destination string.
3) strcat(first_string, concats or joins first string with second

second_string) string. The result of the string is stored in
first string.
4) strcmp(first_string, compares the first string with second

second_string) string. If both strings are same, it returns
0.
5) strrev(string) returns reverse string.
6) strlwr(string) returns string characters in lowercase.
7) strupr(string) returns string characters in uppercase.
C String Length: strlen() function
The strlen() function returns the length of the given string. It doesn't
count null character '\0'.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
Page 104
{
printf("Length of string is: %d",strlen(ch));
}
Output:
Length of string is: 10
Copy String: strcpy()
The strcpy(destination, source) function copies the source string in

destination.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char ch2[20];
strcpy(ch2,ch);
printf("Value of second string is: %s",ch2);
}
Output:
Value of second string is: javatpoint
String Concatenation: strcat()
The strcat(first_string, second_string) function concatenates two strings

and result is returned to first_string.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char ch[10]={'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
char ch2[10]={'c', '\0'};
strcat(ch,ch2);
printf("Value of first string is: %s",ch);
}
Output:
Page 105
Value of first string is: helloc
Compare String: strcmp()
The strcmp(first_string, second_string) function compares two string and

returns 0 if both strings are equal.
Here, we are using gets() function which reads string from the console.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
printf("Enter 1st string: ");
gets(str1);//reads string from console
printf("Enter 2nd string: ");
gets(str2);
if(strcmp(str1,str2)==0)
printf("Strings are equal");
else
printf("Strings are not equal");
}
Output:
Enter 1st string: hello

Enter 2nd string: hello
Strings are equal
Reverse String: strrev()
The strrev(string) function returns reverse of the given string. Let's see a
simple example of strrev() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf("Enter string: ");
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gets(str);//reads string from console

printf("String is: %s",str);
printf("\nReverse String is: %s",strrev(str));
getch(); }
Output:
Enter string: javatpoint

String is: javatpoint
Reverse String is: tnioptavaj
String Lowercase: strlwr()
The strlwr(string) function returns string characters in lowercase. Let's

see a simple example of strlwr() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf("\nLower String is: %s",strlwr(str));
getch();
}
Output:
Enter string: JAVATpoint

String is: JAVATpoint
Lower String is: javatpoint
String Uppercase: strupr()
The strupr(string) function returns string characters in uppercase. Let's

see a simple example of strupr() function.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
Page 107
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf("\nUpper String is: %s",strupr(str));
getch();
}
Output:
Enter string: javatpoint

String is: javatpoint
Upper String is: JAVATPOINT
String strstr()
The strstr() function returns pointer to the first occurrence of the matched
string in the given string. It is used to return substring from first match
till the last character.
Syntax:
char *strstr(const char *string, const char *match)
String strstr() parameters
string: It represents the full string from where substring will be searched.
match: It represents the substring to be searched in the full string.
String strstr() example printf("\nSubstring is: %s",sub);
#include<stdio.h> getch();
#include<conio.h> }
#include<string.h>
void main(){ Output:
char str[100]="this is javatpoin
javatpoint with c and java
t with c and java";
char *sub;
clrscr();
sub=strstr(str,"java");
Page 108
UNIT-4 FUNCTIONS & STRUCTURES
UNIT-4-FUNCTIONS & STRUCTURES 10
Functions-
Function Prototypes-Declaring, Defining and Calling Functions-Call by value

and Call by Reference-Recursive Functions-Structures- Declaration and
Definition -Accessing Structure Members-Arrays of Structures-Unions-
Programs using Structures and Unions
FUNCTION
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C

program has at least one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial
programs can define additional functions.
You can divide up your code into separate functions. How you divide up
your code among different functions is up to you, but logically the division is
such that each function performs a specific task.
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return

type, and parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the
function.
The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your

program can call. For example, strcat() to concatenate two
strings, memcpy() to copy one memory location to another location, and
many more functions.
A function definition in C programming consists of a function header and

a function body. Here are all the parts of a function
Return Type A function may return a value. The return_type is the data
type of the value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired
operations without returning a value. In this case, the return_type is the
keyword void.
Function Name This is the actual name of the function. The function name
and the parameter list together constitute the function signature.
Page 109
Parameters A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked,

you pass a value to the parameter. This value is referred to as actual parameter
or argument. The parameter list refers to the type, order, and number of the
parameters of a function. Parameters are optional; that is, a function may
contain no parameters.
Function Body The function body contains a collection of statements that

define what the function does.
EXAMPLE
#include <stdio.h>
int addNumbers(int a, int b); // function prototype
int main()
{
int n1,n2,sum;
printf("Enters two numbers: ");

scanf("%d %d",&n1,&n2);
sum = addNumbers(n1, n2); // function call
printf("sum = %d",sum);
return 0;
}
int addNumbers(int a,int b) // function definition

{
int result;
result = a+b;
return result; // return statement
}
Page 110
Function prototypes
Function with no arguments and no return value

Function with no arguments and a return value
Function with arguments and no return value
Function with arguments and a return value.
Function with no arguments and no return value
Example
#include <stdio.h>
void checkPrimeNumber();
int main()
{
checkPrimeNumber(); // no argument is passed to prime()
return 0;
}
// return type of the function is void becuase no value is returned from the
function
void checkPrimeNumber()
{
int n, i, flag=0;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=2; i <= n/2; ++i)
{
if(n%i == 0)
{
flag = 1;
}
}
if (flag == 1)
printf("%d is not a prime number.", n);
else
printf("%d is a prime number.", n);
}
Page 111
The checkPrimeNumber() function takes input from the user, checks

whether it is a prime number or not and displays it on the screen.
The empty parentheses in checkPrimeNumber(); statement inside the

main() function indicates that no argument is passed to the function.
The return type of the function is void. Hence, no value is returned from the
function.
No arguments passed but a return value
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int getInteger();
int main()
{
int n, i, flag = 0;
// no argument is passed to the function
// the value returned from the function is assigned to n
n = getInteger();
for(i=2; i<=n/2; ++i)
{
if(n%i==0){
flag = 1;
break;
}
}
if (flag == 1)
printf("%d is not a prime number.", n);
else
return 0;
}
// getInteger() function returns integer entered by the user
int getInteger()
{
int n;
scanf("%d",&n);
return n;
Page 112
The empty parentheses in n = getInteger(); statement indicates that no

argument is passed to the function. And, the value returned from the
function is assigned to n.
Here, the getInteger() function takes input from the user and returns it.
The code to check whether a number is prime or not is inside the main()
function.
Argument passed but no return value
Example
#include <stdio.h>
void checkPrimeAndDisplay(int n);
int main()
{
int n;
scanf("%d",&n);
// n is passed to the function
checkPrimeAndDisplay(n);
return 0;
}
// void indicates that no value is returned from the function
void checkPrimeAndDisplay(int n)
{
int i, flag = 0;
for(i=2; i <= n/2; ++i)
PROGRAMMING USING C (prepared by S.Aravindan AP/CSE) Page 15
{
if(n%i == 0){
flag = 1;
break;
}
}
if(flag == 1)
printf("%d is not a prime number.",n);
else
Page 113
The integer value entered by the user is passed to checkPrimeAndDisplay()

function.
Here, the checkPrimeAndDisplay() function checks whether the argument

passed is a prime number or not and displays the appropriate message.
Argument passed and a return value
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int checkPrimeNumber(int n);
int main()
{
int n, flag;
scanf("%d",&n);
// n is passed to the checkPrimeNumber() function
// the value returned from the function is assigned to flag variable
flag = checkPrimeNumber(n);
if(flag==1)
printf("%d is not a prime number",n);
else
printf("%d is a prime number",n);
return 0;
}
// integer is returned from the function
int checkPrimeNumber(int n)
{
/* Integer value is returned from function checkPrimeNumber() */
int i;
for(i=2; i <= n/2; ++i)
{
if(n%i == 0)
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
Page 114
The input from the user is passed to checkPrimeNumber() function.
The checkPrimeNumber() function checks whether the passed argument is

prime or not. If the passed argument is a prime number, the function
returns 0. If the passed argument is a non-prime number, the function
returns 1. The return value is assigned to flag variable.
Then, the appropriate message is displayed from the main() function.
FUNCTION CALLING TYPES
1. call by value
2. call by reference
CALL BY VALUE
The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the

actual value of an argument into the formal parameter of the function. In
this case, changes made to the parameter inside the function have no effect
on the argument.
By default, C programming uses call by value to pass arguments. In

general, it means the code within a function cannot alter the arguments
used to call the function. Consider the function swap() definition as
follows.
/* function definition to swap the values */
void swap(int x, int y) {
int temp;
temp = x; /* save the value of x */
x = y; /* put y into x */
y = temp; /* put temp into y */
Page 115
return;
Now, let us call the function swap() by passing actual values as in the
following example
#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
void swap(int x, int y);
int main () {
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
/* calling a function to swap the values */
swap(a, b);
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
return 0;
OUTPUT
Before swap, value of a :100
Page 116
Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :100
After swap, value of b :200
CALL BY REFERENCE
The call by reference method of passing arguments to a function copies the

address of an argument into the formal parameter. Inside the function, the
address is used to access the actual argument used in the call. It means the
changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument.
To pass a value by reference, argument pointers are passed to the functions

just like any other value. So accordingly you need to declare the function
parameters as pointer types as in the following function swap(), which
exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to, by their
arguments.
Example
/* function definition to swap the values */
void swap(int *x, int *y) {
int temp;
temp = *x; /* save the value at address x */
*x = *y; /* put y into x */
*y = temp; /* put temp into y */
return;
Page 117
Let us now call the function swap() by passing values by reference

as in the following example
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *x, int *y);
int main () {
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
/* calling a function to swap the values.
* &a indicates pointer to a ie. address of variable a and
* &b indicates pointer to b ie. address of variable b.
*/
swap(&a, &b);
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
return 0;
Page 118
OUTPUT
Before swap, value of a :100
Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :200
After swap, value of b :100
RECURSION
A function that calls itself is known as a recursive function. And, this

technique is known as recursion.
How recursion works?

void recurse()
... .. ...
recurse();
... .. ...
int main()
... .. ...
recurse();
Page 119
... .. ...
Example: Sum of Natural Numbers Using Recursion
#include <stdio.h>
int sum(int n);
int main()
int number, result;
Page 120
scanf("%d", &number);
result = sum(number);
printf("sum=%d", result);
int sum(int num)
if (num!=0)
return num + sum(num-1); // sum() function calls itself
else
return num;
Output
Enter a positive integer:

3
6
Initially, the sum() is called from the main() function with number passed
as an argument.
Suppose, the value of num is 3 initially. During next function call, 2 is

passed to the sum() function. This process continues until num is equal to
0.
When num is equal to 0, the if condition fails and the else part is executed
returning the sum of integers to the main() function.
Page 121
EXPLANATION
Page 122
Factorial program using recursion
#include<stdio.h>
long factorial(int);
int main()
{
int n;
long f;
printf("Enter an integer to find factorial\n");

scanf("%d", &n);
if (n < 0)
printf("Negative integers are not allowed.\n");
else
{
f = factorial(n);
printf("%d! = %ld\n", n, f);
}
return 0;
}
long factorial(int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return(n * factorial(n-1));
}
Page 123
STRUCTURES
Arrays allow to define type of variables that can hold several data items of
the same kind. Similarly structure is another user defined data type
available in C that allows to combine data items of different kinds.
Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep track
of your books in a library. You might want to track the following attributes
about each book
Title
Author
Subject
Book ID
To define a structure, you must use the struct statement. The struct
statement defines a new data type, with more than one member. The
format of the struct statement is as follows
Syntax
struct [structure tag] {
member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more structure variables];
Page 124
The structure tag is optional and each member definition is a normal

variable definition, such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable
definition. At the end of the structure's definition, before the final
semicolon, you can specify one or more structure variables but it is
optional. Here is the way you would declare the Book structure
struct Books {
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
} book;
Accessing Structure Members
To access any member of a structure, we use the member access operator

(.). The member access operator is coded as a period between the structure
variable name and the structure member that we wish to access. You would
use the keyword struct to define variables of structure type. The following
example shows how to use a structure in a program
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct Books {
char title[50];
char author[50];
Page 125
char subject[100];
int book_id;
};
int main( ) {
struct Books Book1; /* Declare Book1 of type Book */
/* book 1 specification */
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
Book1.book_id = 6495407;
strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
/* print Book1 info */
printf( "Book 1 title : %s\n", Book1.title);
printf( "Book 1 author : %s\n", Book1.author);
printf( "Book 1 subject : %s\n", Book1.subject);
Page 126
printf( "Book 1 book_id : %d\n", Book1.book_id);
printf( "Book 2 title : %s\n", Book2.title);
printf( "Book 2 author : %s\n", Book2.author);
printf( "Book 2 subject : %s\n", Book2.subject);
printf( "Book 2 book_id : %d\n", Book2.book_id);
return 0;
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result
Book 1 title : C Programming
Book 1 author : Nuha Ali
Book 1 subject : C Programming Tutorial
Book 1 book_id : 6495407
Book 2 title : Telecom Billing
Book 2 author : Zara Ali
Book 2 subject : Telecom Billing Tutorial
Book 2 book_id : 6495700
Structures as Function Arguments
You can pass a structure as a function argument in the same way as

you pass any other variable or pointer.
Page 127
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
struct Books {
char title[50];
char author[50];
char subject[100];
int book_id;
};
void printBook( struct Books book );
int main( ) {
strcpy( Book1.title, "C Programming");
strcpy( Book1.author, "Nuha Ali");
strcpy( Book1.subject, "C Programming Tutorial");
strcpy( Book2.title, "Telecom Billing");
Page 128
strcpy( Book2.author, "Zara Ali");
strcpy( Book2.subject, "Telecom Billing Tutorial");
printBook( Book1 );
/* Print Book2 info */
printBook( Book2 );
return 0;
void printBook( struct Books book ) {
printf( "Book title : %s\n", book.title);
printf( "Book author : %s\n", book.author);
printf( "Book subject : %s\n", book.subject);
printf( "Book book_id : %d\n", book.book_id);
Output
Book title : C Programming
Book author : Nuha Ali
Book subject : C Programming Tutorial
Book book_id : 6495407
Page 129
Book title : Telecom Billing
Book author : Zara Ali
Book subject : Telecom Billing Tutorial
Book book_id : 6495700
ARRAY OF STRUCTURES
There can be array of structures in C programming to store many

information of different data types. The array of structures is also known as
collection of structures.
Let's see an example of structure with array that stores information

of 5 students and prints it.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
struct student{
int rollno;
char name[10];
};
void main(){
int i;
struct student st[5];
clrscr();
Page 130
printf("Enter Records of 5 students");
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("\nEnter Rollno:");
scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);
printf("\nEnter Name:");
scanf("%s",&st[i].name);
printf("\nStudent Information List:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);
getch();
OUTPUT:
Enter Records of 5 students
Enter Rollno:1
Enter Name:Sonoo
Enter Rollno:2
Enter Name:Ratan
Enter Rollno:3
Page 131
Enter Name:Vimal
Enter Rollno:4
Enter Name:James
Enter Rollno:5
Enter Name:Sarfraz
Student Information List:
Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo
Rollno:2, Name:Ratan
Rollno:3, Name:Vimal
Rollno:4, Name:James
Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz
Page 132
UNION
A union is a special data type available in C that allows to store different

data types in the same memory location. You can define a union with many
members, but only one member can contain a value at any given time.
Unions provide an efficient way of using the same memory location for
multiple-purpose.
Defining a Union
To define a union, you must use the union statement in the same way as
you did while defining a structure. The union statement defines a new data
type with more than one member for your program. The format of the
union statement is as follows
SYNTAX
union [union tag] {
member definition;
member definition;
...
member definition;
} [one or more union variables];
The union tag is optional and each member definition is a normal variable
definition, such as int i; or float f; or any other valid variable definition. At
the end of the union's definition, before the final semicolon, you can specify
one or more union variables but it is optional. Here is the way you would
define a union type named Data having three members i, f, and str
union Data {
Page 133
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
} data;
Now, a variable of Data type can store an integer, a floating-point number,

or a string of characters. It means a single variable, i.e., same memory
location, can be used to store multiple types of data. You can use any built-
in or user defined data types inside a union based on your requirement.
The memory occupied by a union will be large enough to hold the largest
member of the union. For example, in the above example, Data type will
occupy 20 bytes of memory space because this is the maximum space
which can be occupied by a character string. The following example displays
the total memory size occupied by the above union
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union Data {
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
};
int main( ) {
union Data data;
printf( "Memory size occupied by data : %d\n", sizeof(data));
Page 134
return 0;
Accessing Union Members
To access any member of a union, we use the member access operator (.).
The member access operator is coded as a period between the union
variable name and the union member that we wish to access. You would
use the keyword union to define variables of union type. The following
example shows how to use unions in a program
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union Data {
int i;
float f;
char str[20];
};
int main( ) {
union Data data;
data.i = 10;
data.f = 220.5;
strcpy( data.str, "C Programming");
printf( "data.i : %d\n", data.i);
Page 135
printf( "data.f : %f\n", data.f);
printf( "data.str : %s\n", data.str);
return 0;
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the

following result
data.i : 1917853763
data.f : 4122360580327794860452759994368.000000
data.str : C Programming
Page 136
UNIT - 5- POINTERS & FILES
UNIT - 5- POINTERS & FILES 8
Pointers-Dynamic Memory Allocation-Arithmetic Operations using Pointers, Files

File Manipulation-I/O Operations, Preprocessor Directives, Storage Classes
POINTERS
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable, i.e., direct
address of the memory location. Like any variable or constant, you must declare a
pointer before using it to store any variable address. The general form of a pointer
variable declaration is
datatype *var-name;
Here, datatype is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-
name is the name of the pointer variable. The asterisk * used to declare a pointer is
the same asterisk used for multiplication. However, in this statement the asterisk is
being used to designate a variable as a pointer. Take a look at some of the valid
pointer declarations
int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */
double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */
The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float, character,
or otherwise, is the same, a long hexadecimal number that represents a memory
address. The only difference between pointers of different data types is the data
type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to.
How to Use Pointers?
There are a few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers
very frequently. (a) We define a pointer variable, (b) assign the address of a
variable to a pointer and (c) finally access the value at the address available in the
pointer variable. This is done by using unary operator * that returns the value of
the variable located at the address specified by its operand. The following
example makes use of these operations
Page 137
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int var = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */
ip = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/
printf("Address of var variable: %x\n", &var );
/* address stored in pointer variable */
printf("Address stored in ip variable: %x\n", ip );
/* access the value using the pointer */
printf("Value of *ip variable: %d\n", *ip );
return 0;
OUTPUT
Address of var variable: bffd8b3c
Address stored in ip variable: bffd8b3c
Value of *ip variable: 20
NULL Pointers
It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you
do not have an exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable
declaration. A pointer that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer.
The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard
libraries. Consider the following program
Page 138
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
int *ptr = NULL;
printf("The value of ptr is : %x\n", ptr );
return 0;
OUTPUT
The value of ptr is 0
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS USING POINTERS
A pointer in c is an address, which is a numeric value. Therefore, you can perform

arithmetic operations on a pointer just as you can on a numeric value. There are
four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers: ++, --, +, and -
To understand pointer arithmetic, let us consider that ptr is an integer pointer

which points to the address 1000. Assuming 32-bit integers, let us perform the
following arithmetic operation on the pointer
ptr++
After the above operation, the ptr will point to the location 1004 because each time
ptr is incremented, it will point to the next integer location which is 4 bytes next to
the current location. This operation will move the pointer to the next memory
location without impacting the actual value at the memory location. If ptr points to
a character whose address is 1000, then the above operation will point to the
location 1001 because the next character will be available at 1001.
Incrementing a Pointer
We prefer using a pointer in our program instead of an array because the variable
pointer can be incremented, unlike the array name which cannot be incremented
because it is a constant pointer. The following program increments the variable
pointer to access each succeeding element of the array
Page 139
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have array address in pointer */
ptr = var;
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
/* move to the next location */
ptr++;
return 0;
result
Address of var[0] = bf882b30
Value of var[0] = 10
Page 140
Decrementing a Pointer
The same considerations apply to decrementing a pointer, which decreases its value
by the number of bytes of its data type as shown below
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have array address in pointer */
ptr = &var[MAX-1];
for ( i = MAX; i > 0; i--) {
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i-1, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i-1, *ptr );
/* move to the previous location */
ptr--;
return 0;
result
Address of var[2] = bfedbcd8
Page 141
Array of pointers
An array of pointers is an indexed set of variables in which the variables are

pointers (a reference to a location in memory). Pointers are an important tool in
computer science for creating, using, and destroying all types of data structures
Before we understand the concept of arrays of pointers, let us consider the following
example, which uses an array of 3 integers
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i;
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, var[i] );
return 0;
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
There may be a situation when we want to maintain an array, which can store
pointers to an int or char or any other data type available. Following is the
declaration of an array of pointers to an integer
int *ptr[MAX];
Page 142
It declares ptr as an array of MAX integer pointers. Thus, each element in ptr, holds
a pointer to an int value. The following example uses three integers, which are
stored in an array of pointers, as follows
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main () {
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr[MAX];
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
ptr[i] = &var[i]; /* assign the address of integer. */
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr[i] );
return 0;
You can also use an array of pointers to character to store a list of strings as
follows
Page 143
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 4;
int main () {
char *names[] = {
"Zara Ali",
"Hina Ali",
"Nuha Ali",
"Sara Ali"
};
int i = 0;
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
printf("Value of names[%d] = %s\n", i, names[i] );
return 0;
Value of names[0] = Zara Ali
Value of names[1] = Hina Ali
Value of names[2] = Nuha Ali
Value of names[3] = Sara Ali
Page 144
Passing pointers to functions
C programming allows passing a pointer to a function. To do so, simply declare the

function parameter as a pointer type.
Following is a simple example where we pass an unsigned long pointer to a function

and change the value inside the function which reflects back in the calling function
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par);
int main () {
unsigned long sec;
getSeconds( &sec );
/* print the actual value */
printf("Number of seconds: %ld\n", sec );
return 0;
void getSeconds(unsigned long *par) {
/* get the current number of seconds */
*par = time( NULL );
return;
Number of seconds :1294450468
Page 145
The function, which can accept a pointer, can also accept an array as shown in the
following example
#include <stdio.h>
double getAverage(int *arr, int size);
int main () {
/* an int array with 5 elements */
int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50};
double avg;
/* pass pointer to the array as an argument */
avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ;
/* output the returned value */
printf("Average value is: %f\n", avg );
return 0;
double getAverage(int *arr, int size) {
int i, sum = 0;
double avg;
for (i = 0; i < size; ++i) {
sum += arr[i];
avg = (double)sum / size;
return avg;
Page 146
When the above code is compiled together and executed, it produces the following
result
Average value is: 214.40000
Page 147
DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION
The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer

to allocate memory at runtime. Dynamic memory allocation in c language is
possible by 4 functions of stdlib.h header file.
1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()
Before learning above functions, let's understand the difference between static
memory allocation and dynamic memory allocation.
static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation
memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.
memory can't be increased while memory can be increased while

executing program. executing program.
used in array. used in linked list.
malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.
calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.
realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.
free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.
Page 148
malloc() function
The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory.
It doesn't initialize memory at execution time, so it has garbage value

initially.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of malloc() function is given below:
ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size);
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
}
Output
Enter elements of array: 3
10
10
Sum=30
Page 149
calloc() function
The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.
It initially initialize all bytes to zero.
It returns NULL if memory is not sufficient.
The syntax of calloc() function is given below:
ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(number, byte-size)
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main(){
int n,i,*ptr,sum=0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
ptr=(int*)calloc(n,sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using calloc
if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("Sorry! unable to allocate memory");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i=0;i<n;++i)
{
scanf("%d",ptr+i);
sum+=*(ptr+i);
}
printf("Sum=%d",sum);
free(ptr);
}
Output:
10
10
Sum=30
Page 150
realloc() function
If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory
by realloc() function. In short, it changes the memory size.
Let's see the syntax of realloc() function.
ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)
free() function
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling

free() function. Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.
free(ptr)
Page 151
FILE HANDLING IN C
A file represents a sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data is
stored. File is created for permanent storage of data. It is a ready made structure.
In C language, we use a structure pointer of file type to declare a file.
FILE *fp;
Function Description
fopen() create a new file or open a existing file
fclose() closes a file
getc() reads a character from a file
putc() writes a character to a file
fscanf() reads a set of data from a file
fprintf() writes a set of data to a file
getw() reads a integer from a file
putw() writes a integer to a file
fseek() set the position to desire point
ftell() gives current position in the file
rewind() set the position to the begining point
Page 152
Opening a File or Creating a File
The fopen() function is used to create a new file or to open an existing file.
General Syntax :
*fp = FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
Here filename is the name of the file to be opened and mode specifies the purpose
of opening the file. Mode can be of following types,
*fp is the FILE pointer (FILE *fp), which will hold the reference to the opened(or
created) file.
mode Description
r opens a text file in reading mode
w opens or create a text file in writing mode.
a opens a text file in append mode
r+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode
w+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode
a+ opens a text file in both reading and writing mode
Closing a File
The fclose() function is used to close an already opened file.
General Syntax :
int fclose( FILE *fp );
Page 153
Here fclose() function closes the file and returns zero on success, or EOF if there is
an error in closing the file. This EOF is a constant defined in the header file stdio.h.
Input/Output operation on File
Using getc and putc
getc is one of the character input functions. getc reads the next character from a
file, it takes a file pointer to the file. It is the simplest function to read a file
putc is the function in stdio.h. It is simplest way to write the file once it is open
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
fp = fopen("one.txt", "w");
printf("Enter data");
while( (ch = getchar()) != EOF) {
putc(ch,fp);
}
fclose(fp);
fp = fopen("one.txt", "r");
while( (ch = getc(fp)! = EOF)

printf("%c",ch);
fclose(fp);
}
Reading and Writing from File using fprintf() and fscanf()
The fprintf() function is used to write set of characters into file. It sends formatted
output to a stream
fscanf reads from a file pointed by the FILE pointer (ptr), instead of reading from
the input stream.
Page 154
Example
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct emp
{
char name[10];
int age;
};
void main()
{
struct emp e;
FILE *p,*q;
p = fopen("one.txt", "a");
q = fopen("one.txt", "r");
printf("Enter Name and Age");
scanf("%s %d", e.name, &e.age);
fprintf(p,"%s %d", e.name, e.age);
fclose(p);
do
{
fscanf(q,"%s %d", e.name, e.age);
printf("%s %d", e.name, e.age);
}
while( !feof(q) );
getch();
}
In this program, we have create two FILE pointers and both are refering to the
same file but in different modes. fprintf() function directly writes into the file, while
fscanf() reads from the file, which can then be printed on console usinf standard
printf() function.
Difference between Append and Write Mode
Write (w) mode and Append (a) mode, while opening a file are almost the same.
Both are used to write in a file. In both the modes, new file is created if it doesn't
exists already.
The only difference they have is, when you open a file in the write mode, the file is
reset, resulting in deletion of any data already present in the file. While in append
mode this will not happen. Append mode is used to append or add data to the
existing data of file(if any). Hence, when you open a file in Append(a) mode, the
cursor is positioned at the end of the present data in the file
Page 155
PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES
The C Preprocessor is not a part of the compiler, but is a separate step in the
compilation process. In simple terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution
tool and it instructs the compiler to do required pre-processing before the actual
compilation. We'll refer to the C Preprocessor as CPP.
All preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#). It must be the first
nonblank character, and for readability, a preprocessor directive should begin in the
first column. The following section lists down all the important preprocessor
directives
Directive Description
#define Substitutes a preprocessor macro.
#include Inserts a particular header from another file.
#undef Undefines a preprocessor macro.
#ifdef Returns true if this macro is defined.
#ifndef Returns true if this macro is not defined.
#if Tests if a compile time condition is true.
#else The alternative for #if.
#elif #else and #if in one statement.
#endif Ends preprocessor conditional.
#error Prints error message on stderr.
#pragma Issues special commands to the compiler, using a

standardized method.
Page 156
Example 1:-
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
int main()
{
float radius, area;
printf("Enter the radius: ");
scanf("%d", &radius);
// Notice, the use of PI
area = PI*radius*radius;
printf("Area=%.2f",area);
return 0;
}
Example 2:-
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
#define circleArea(r) (PI*r*r)
int main()
{
int radius;
float area;
printf("Enter the radius: ");

scanf("%d", &radius);
area = circleArea(radius);
printf("Area = %.2f", area);
return 0;
}
Page 157
Macros
A macro is a name given to a block of C statements as a pre-processor directive.

Being a pre-processor, the block of code is communicated to the compiler before
entering into the actual coding (main () function). A macro is defined with the
preprocessor directive, #define.
There are some predefined macros which are readily for use in C programming.
Predefined macro Value
__DATE__ String containing the current date
__FILE__ String containing the file name
__LINE__ Integer representing the current line number
__STDC__ If follows ANSI standard C, then value is a nonzero integer
__TIME__ String containing the current date.
Example 3:-
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Current time: %s",__TIME__); //calculate the current time
}
Page 158
STORAGE CLASSES
Storage classes
In C language, each variable has a storage class which decides the

following things:
scope i.e in which all functions, the value of the variable would be available.
default initial value i.e if we do not explicitly initialize that variable, what will
be its default initial value.
lifetime of that variable i.e for how long will that variable exist.
The following storage classes are most oftenly used in C programming,
Automatic variables
External variables
Static variables
Register variables
Automatic variables
Scope: Local to the method block in which the variable is defined.
Default Initial Value: Any random value i.e garbage value.
Lifetime: Till the end of method block where the variable is defined.
A variable declared inside a function without any storage class specification, is by

default an automatic variable. They are created when a function is called and are
destroyed automatically when the function exits. Automatic variables can also be
called local variables because they are local to a function. By default they are
assigned garbage value by the compiler.
void main()
{
int detail;
or
auto int detail; //Both are same
}
Page 159
External or Global variable
Scope: Global i.e everywhere in the program.

Default initial value: 0(zero).
Lifetime: Till the whole program doesn't finish its execution.
A variable that is declared outside any function is a Global Variable. Global variables
remain available throughout the entire program.By default, initial value of the
Global variable is 0(zero). One important thing to remember about global variable
is that their values can be changed by any function in the program.
#include
int number; //global variable
void main()
{
number=10;
printf("I am in function main. My value is %d\n",number);
fun1(); //function calling, discussed in next topic
fun2(); //function calling, discussed in next topic
}
fun1()
{
number=20;
printf("I am in function fun1. My value is %d",number);
}
fun2()
{
printf("\nI am in function fun2. My value is %d",number);
}
Output:
I am in function main. My value is 10

I am in function fun1. My value is 20
I am in function fun2. My value is 20
Here the global variable number is available to all three functions and thus, if one
function changes the value of the variable, it gets changed in every function.
Note: Declaring storage class of all the variables in the program as global or
external can waste a lot of memory space because these variables has a lifetime till
the end of the whole program.Thus, variables, which are not needed till the end of
the program, still occupies the memory and thus , memory is wasted
Page 160
extern keyword
The extern keyword is used before a variable to inform the compiler that this
variable is declared somewhere else. The extern declaration does not allocate
storage for variables.
Problem when extern is not used

main()
{
a = 10; //Error:cannot find variable a
printf("%d",a);
}
int a;
Example Using extern in same file
main()
{
extern int a; //Tells compiler that it is defined somewhere else
a = 10;
printf("%d",a);
}
int x; //Global variable x
Page 161
Static variables
Scope: Local to the block in which the variable is defined
Default initial value: 0(Zero).
Lifetime: Till the whole program doesn't finish its execution.
A static variable tells the compiler to persist the variable until the end of program.
Instead of creating and destroying a variable every time when it comes into and
goes out of scope, static is initialized only once and remains into existence till the
end of program. A static variable can either be internal or external depending upon
the place of declaraction. Scope of internal static variable remains inside the
function in which it is defined. External static variables remain restricted to scope of
file in each they are declared.
They are assigned 0 (zero) as default value by the compiler.
void test(); //Function declaration (discussed in next topic)
main()
{
test();
test();
test();
}
void test()
{
static int a = 0; //Static variable
a = a+1;
printf("%d\t",a);
}
output :
1 2 3
Register variable
Scope: Local to the function in which it is declared.
Default initial value: Any random value i.e garbage value
Lifetime: Till the end of method block, where the variable is defined, doesn't finish
its execution.
Register variable inform the compiler to store the variable in CPU register instead of
memory. Register variable has faster access than normal variable. Frequently used
Page 162
variables are kept in register. Only few variables can be placed inside register. An
application of register storage class can be in using loops, where the variable gets
used a number of times in the program.
NOTE : We can never get the address of such variables.
syntax
register int number;
Page 163

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UNIT 1 -BASIC CONCEPTS 8

Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every

A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration etc. It

It means the capacity to perform completely different type of

So they are trustworthy machines.

The physical components that make up a computer system. Eg Mouse

The programs (instructions) that tell the computer what to do.

A computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects two-

A computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices used with a

A computer monitor is an output device which displays the information in

Central processing unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is the computer component that's

The memory unit that holds both data and instructions.

Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information

Memory can be either volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is a

Arithmetic logic unit

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central

An ALU can be designed by engineers to calculate any operation. As the

An arithmetic logic unit is also known as an integer unit (IU)

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of

Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are

Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses

Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AREA OF APPLICATION

Classification based on area of applications

Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as: -

Special Purpose Computers

Special Purpose Computers: - A special purpose computer is designed

General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND CAPABILITY

Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into

A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The

Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers

Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types :

The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops

The different portable computers are: -

Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is

Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these

Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more

Mainframe computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and very

Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.

Supercomputer: -Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity

Examples: - IBM Deep Blue

First Generation Computers(1940-1956):

These computers were vacuum tube based machines.

They used magnetic drums for memory.

Input were fed into the computer using Punched cards

They lacked in versatility and speed.

They were more expensive.

Speed: Fastest computing device of its time

Technology: Vacuum Tubes :

Made up of glass contains filaments, when heated generates

I/p & O/p : Punched card and print out

Programming language: Machine level language

EDSAC: Electronic delay storage automatic calculator

EDVAC: Electronic discrete variable automatic computer

Fastest computing device of their time

Execute complex mathematical problems in an efficient manner

Large & Bulky

Cannot be transferred from one place to another

These are special purpose computers