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NotesonLongleyRicePropagation
NotesonThePredictionofTroposphericRadioTransmissionLossOverIrregularTerrain(theLongley
RiceModel)

Overview
ThisdocumentdescribestheassumptionsandmethodsusedinSoftWright'simplementationofthe
"LongleyRice"pointtopointmodelforradiopropagationintheTerrainAnalysisPackage(TAP).

TheLongleyRicemodelpredictslongtermmediantransmissionlossoverirregularterrainrelativeto
freespacetransmissionloss.Themodelwasdesignedforfrequenciesbetween20MHzand40GHzand
forpathlengthsbetween1kmand2000km.

NotethatSoftWrighthasimplementedthe"pointtopoint"moderatherthanthe"area"modebecause
requiredpathspecificparameterscanbedeterminedfromdetailedterrainpathprofilesavailableinTAP.
ThepointtopointmodeimplementedbySoftWrightusesdetailedterrainprofilestodeterminethe
distancestoradiohorizons,thehorizonelevationanglesandeffectiveantennaheightsneededbythe
model.AswithotherSoftWrightpropagationmodels,coveragestudiesoflargeareasareaccomplished
usingalargenumberofindividualpathstudiestomultiplepointsalongmultipleradialsfromthecentral
transmittingsite.

ThisimplementationisbasedonVersion1.2.2ofthemodel,datedSeptember1984.Alaterseries
(beginningwithVersion2.0,datedMay1970)uses"considerablymodifieddiffractioncalculations"and
is"notnowrecommendedandisnolongermaintainedbyitsdevelopers."("AGuidetotheUseofthe
ITSIrregularTerrainModelintheAreaPredictionMode",NTIAReport82100,page17).Notealsothat
theversion1.2.2implementedbySoftWrightdoesnotutilizeseveralothercorrectionstothemodel
proposedsincethemethodwasfirstpublished(seeA.G.Longley,"Radiopropagationinurbanareas,"
OTRep.78144,Apr.1978andA.G.Longley,"Localvariabilityoftransmissionlosslandmobileand
broadcastsystems,"OTRep.,May1976).

TechnicalFoundation
TAPusersshouldconsultthefollowingtechnicalpublicationsforadetaileddiscussionofthetheoretical
andempiricalbasesofthemodel:

"TechNote101":P.L.Rice,A.G.Longley,K.A.Norton,andA.P.Barsis,"Transmissionloss
predictionsfortroposphericcommunicationcircuits,"U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington,
DC,NBSTech.Note101,issuedMay1965revisedMay1966andJan.1967.

"LongleyRice":A.G.LongleyandP.L.Rice,"PredictionofTroposphericradiotransmissionover
irregularterrain,AComputermethod1968."ESSATech.Rep.ERL79ITS67,U.S.Government
PrintingOffice,Washington,DC,July1968.

"NTIAReport":G.A.Hufford,A.G.Longley,andW.A.Kissick,"AguidetotheuseoftheITS
irregularterrainmodelintheareapredictionmode,"NTIARep.82100,Apr.1982.

"ITSReport":"TelecommunicationsAnalysisServicesReferenceGuide",Institutefor
TelecommunicationsServices,SpectrumDivision,Dec7,1983.

Abriefbuthelpfuloverviewofthemodel,aswellasacomparisontoothermodels,isfoundinIEEE
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publication"CoveragePredictionforMobileRadioSystemsOperatinginthe800/900MHzFrequency
Range,"IEEETrans.Vehicular.Technology,vol.VT37,p.21,2735,1988.

Implementation
TheSoftWrightimplementationoftheLongleyRicemodelpreservesthemethodsandcalculationsofthe
originalVersion1.2.2sourcecode,and,asmuchaspossible,integratesthemodelintotheexisting
TerrainAnalysisPackage(TAP)softwaresystem.However,asdescribed,below,certainconstraints
imposedbytheLongleyRicemodelrequireslightmodificationsintheuseoftheTAPsystem.These
modificationsarethoroughlydiscussedbelow.

GeneralParameters
LiketheothermodelsavailableintheTAPsystem(e.g.,Carey,Bullington,Okumura)theLongleyRice
modelrequirestheinputofcertaingeneralparameterstosetuptheprogramforpropagationcalculations:

FrequencyThenominalfrequencyrangefortheLongleyRicemodelislistedas20MHzto
40GHzintheoriginalpaper.Theupperlimitismodifiedto20GHzinsomelater
documentation.

ERPEffectiveRadiatedPowerisenteredintheunitssetbytheuserintheSystem
ConfigurationScreen(mW,W,kW,dBm,dBW,dBk).

AntennaOmnidirectionaltransmitteroperationisassumedunlessadirectionalantennais
specified.

HeightsAntennaheightsabovegroundfortransmitandreceivefacilitiesareenteredinthe
userspecifiedunits(feetormeters).Theprogramwillcomputetheeffectiveheightsneeded
forLongleyRicecalculations.

LongleyRiceParameters
ThenatureoftheLongleyRicemodelrequirescertainadditionalparameters:

Polarization:Eitherhorizontalorverticalpolarizationmustbespecified.TheLongleyRice
modelassumesthatbothantennashavethesamepolarization,eitherverticalorhorizontal.

Refractivity:Therefractivityoftheatmospheredeterminestheamountof"bending"ofthe
radiowaves.InotherTAPmodels,theeffectofrefractivityisenteredaseffectiveearth
curvature,typically"4/3earth"(1.333).IntheLongleyRicemodel,therearethreewaysof
specifyingrefractivity:

Youcanenterthe"SurfaceRefractivity"valuedirectly,typicallyintherangeof250to400
Nunits(correspondingtoearthcurvaturevaluesfrom1.232to1.767).Aneffectiveearth
curvatureof4/3(=1.333)correspondstoasurfacerefractivityvalueofapproximately301
Nunits.LongleyandRicerecommendanNsequalto301Nunitsforaverageatmospheric
conditions.

YoucanentertheeffectiveearthcurvaturevalueK(suchas1.333for4/3earth)andthe
surfacerefractivityNswillbecomputedfrom:

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YoucanentertherefractivityreferencedtosealevelNoandthesurfacerefractivityNswill
becomputedbasedontheelevationofthepath.ValuesofNocanbereadfrommaps,such
asFigure1onpage5ofthe1968LongleyRicepaper.

Permittivity:Therelativepermittivity()ordielectricconstantoftheground.Typical
valuesareshownbelow.

ConductivityThesoilconductivity(inSiemenspermeter)oftheground.Typicalvaluesare
shownbelow.

Relative Conductivity
Permittivity (Siemenspermeter)

Average 15 0.005
ground

Poorground 4 0.001

Goodground 25 0.020

Freshwater 81 0.010

Seawater 81 5.000

ClimateSevenclimatecodesarecategorizedintheLongleyRicemodelasshown:

1 Equatorial(Congo)

2 ContinentalSubtropical(Sudan)

3 MaritimeSubtropical(WestcoastofAfrica)

4 Desert(Sahara)

5 ContinentalTemperate

6 MaritimeTemperate,overland(UnitedKingdomand
continentalwestcoasts)

7 MaritimeTemperate,oversea

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AccordingtoLongley&Rice,"TheContinentalTemperateclimateiscommontolargeland
massesinthetemperatezone.Itischaracterizedbyextremesoftemperatureandpronounced
diurnalandseasonalchangesinpropagation.Inmidlatitudecoastalareaswhereprevailing
windscarrymoistmaritimeairinland,aMaritimeTemperateclimateprevails.Thissituation
istypicaloftheUnitedKingdomandofthewestcoastsoftheUnitedStatesandEurope.For
pathsthatarelessthan100kmlong,thereislittledifferencebetweentheContinentaland
MaritimeTemperateclimates,butforlongerpathsthegreateroccurrenceofsuperrefraction
andductinginmaritimeareasmayresultinmuchhigherfieldsforperiodsof10percentor
lessoftheyear."(seeNTIAReport)

Variability:LongleyRicedefinesfourmodesofvariability.Themodeselecteddetermines
themeaningofthereliabilityandconfidencevaluesusedinthemodel.Themodeof
variabilitycanbeconsideredthe"pointofview"forconsideringthemeaningof"reliability"
and"confidence"inthecalculations.

ThemodesofvariabilitydefinedbyLongleyRiceare:Singlemessagemode,Individual
mode,Mobilemode,andBroadcastmode.ThesemodesaredefinedinmoredetailinNTIA,
p.37.

InearlierversionsoftheSoftWrightimplementation(uptoandincludingTAP4.0)all
calculationsusethepointtopointmodeofLongleyRicetocomputethefieldatindividual
locations(multiplepointsalongmultipleradialsfromatransmittersite).Therefore,themode
ofvariabilitywasfixedas"Individual"mode(called"Accidental"modeinsomeofthe
literature).Furthermore,sinceweareexactlydefiningthereceivelocationforeach
calculation,theprogramdidnotconsiderlocationvariability.BeginningwithTAP4.1,both
themodeofvariabilityandtheoptionforlocationvariabilitycanbeselectedbytheuser.
Thedefaultvaluesfortheseparametersare"Individual"and"IgnoreLocationVariability"
forcompatibilitywiththeearlierversionsofTAP.

ThetypesofvariabilitydescribedinLongleyRicearetime,location,andsituation
variability.Thesethree"dimensionsofvariability"weredevelopedtoaccountforand
categorizevariationsinmeasuredmediansignallevels(seeNTIAReport,pp.2831):(Note
thatshorttermvariabilityofthetypeassociatedwithmultipathpropagationisnotcovered
bythemodel.)

Timevariabilityaccountsforvariationsofhourlymedianvaluesofattenuationdueto,for
example,slowchangesinatmosphericrefractionorintheintensityofatmospheric
turbulence.Thecomputedfieldstrengthvalueisanhourlymedianvaluetheactualfield
strengthatthereceiverlocationwouldbeexpectedtobeabovethatvalueduringhalfofeach
hourandbelowthatvalueforhalfofeachhour.Timevariabilitydescribestheeffectsof
thesechangesovertime.Thetimevariabilityforthecalculationisexpressedasapercentage
from0.1%to99.9%.Thisvaluegivesthefractionoftimeduringwhichactualreceivedfield
strengthisexpectedtobeequaltoorhigherthanthehourlymedianfieldcomputedbythe
program.Thisvariableallowsyoutospecifyhowyouwanttodealwiththetimevariability
ofchangingatmospheric(andother)effectsasdescribedabove.Enteringhigherpercentage
reliabilityvalueseffectivelyreducesthevariabilityresultingfromthesefactors.The
resultingfieldstrengthpredictedbytheprogramwillbelower,butwithincreasedreliability
thattheactualfieldthatcouldbemeasuredwouldequalorexceedthecomputedvalueatany
giventime.

Locationvariabilityaccountsforvariationsinlongtermstatisticsthatoccurfrompathto
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pathdueto,forexample,differencesintheterrainprofilesorenvironmentaldifferences
betweenthepaths.Thelocationvariabilityforthecalculationisexpressedasapercentage
from0.1%to99.9%.Thisvaluegivesthefractionoflocationswhereactualreceivedfield
strengthisexpectedtobeequaltoorhigherthanthemedianfieldcomputedbytheprogram.
Thisvariableallowsyoutospecifyhowyouwanttodealwiththelocationvariability.
Enteringhigherpercentagereliabilityvalueseffectivelyreducesthevariabilityresulting
fromthesefactors.Theresultingfieldstrengthpredictedbytheprogramwillbelower,but
withincreasedreliabilitythattheactualfieldthatcouldbemeasuredwouldequalorexceed
thecomputedvalueatanygiventime.

Situationvariabilityaccountsforvariationsbetween"likeappearing"(NTIA,p.30)
systemswiththesamesystemparametersandenvironmentalconditions,including
differencesintheabilityofindividualstoaccuratelytakefieldstrengthreadings."Itisatthis
pointthat'hiddenvariables'enter,variableswhoseeffectswedonotunderstandorwhichwe
simplyhavenotchosentocontrol.Thevaluesofthesevariablesareatthewhimofnature
anddifferbetweenwhatwouldotherwisebeidenticalsituations.Theeffectsofthese
differencesproducethechangesinobservedstatistics"(NTIA,p.30).Situationvariability
describestheeffectsofthechangingconditionsresultingfromthese"hiddenvariables."The
situationvariabilityforthecalculationisexpressedasapercentagefrom0.1%to99.9%.
Thisvaluegivesthefractionof"identical"pathsonwhichactualreceivedfieldstrengthis
expectedtobeequaltoorhigherthanthefieldcomputedbytheprogram.Thisvariable
allowsyoutospecifyhowyouwanttodealwiththe"hiddenvariables"thatare"atthewhim
ofnature"asdescribedabove.Enteringhigherpercentageconfidencevalueseffectively
reducesthevariabilityresultingfromthesefactors.Theresultingfieldstrengthpredictedby
theprogramwillbelower,butwithincreasedconfidencethattheactualfieldthatcouldbe
measuredwouldequalorexceedthecomputedvalue.

InthedefaultsettingsoftheSoftWrightimplementationofLongleyRice,thesedimensions
ofvariabilityareexpressedintermsof"reliability"and"confidence".Thetermsare
introducedintheNTIAReportat36.Accordingtothisreport,reliabilityreferstoameasure
ofthevariabilitythataradiosystemwillobserveduringitsuse.Confidencereferstothe
variabilitythatremainsafterspecifyingreliability,measurableintheaggregateofalarge
numberofradiosystems.

TerrainProfileCharacteristics
TheLongleyRicemodel,asimplementedbySoftWright,usestheelevationvaluestocreateadetailed
profileofapathforanalysisbytheprogram.InthecaseoftheLongleyRiceprogram,theelevation
valuesarereadfromtheTAPelevationdatabase.AswithotherpropagationmodelsintheTAPsystem,
thefilecancontainmultipleradialsandpathstudiescanbeperformedformultiplepointsalongeach
radial.

Notethatthemodelasitwasoriginallydesignedexpectsterrainprofileinformationatequalincrements
alongaspecificpath.AlthoughotherpropagationmodelsavailableintheTAPsystempermitunequal
elevationpointspacing(suchaswhenaradialelevationdatafileiseditedtoinsertaparticularpeakor
ridge),suchfilesposeapotentialproblemfortheLongleyRiceprogram.Elevationdataextraction
parametersthatarespecifiedforusewiththeLongleyRicefieldcalculationprogramarefirstreadto
determinecompliancewiththeuniformspacingrequirement.(Thespacingofelevationpointson
differentradialsdoesnothavetobethesame,butthespacingbetweenpointsonanygivenradialmustbe
uniform.)Thespacingbetweenpointsisassumedtobethedistancefromthesitetothefirstelevation
pointontheradial.Anyintermediatepoints(i.e.,successivepointsspacedatlessthanthatdistancefrom
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theprecedingpoint)thatarefoundareignored.Ifthespacingbetweensuccessivepointsisgreaterthan
thedetermineduniformspacinganyremainingelevationdataontheradialcannotbeprocessedbythe
modelandthatportionoftheradialisskipped.Theprogramwillcomputefieldstrengthvaluesouttothe
lastuniformlyspacedpointontheradial.

PathParameterCalculations
1.EffectiveAntennaHeights:Effectiveantennaheightisdefinedastheheightoftheantennaabovethe
"effectivereflectingplane"(seeIEEEat28).Themodelfirstdeterminesa"rangeofinterest"basedupon
abovegroundelevationandthehorizondistanceofeachantenna,andthenusesoneoftwomethodsto
determinetheeffectiveheightsfromthegroundlevelsandleastsquareselevationvalues.

2.HorizonDistancesandElevationAngles:Thehorizonelevationanglereferstotheanglebywhichthe
horizonraysareelevatedordepressedrelativetothehorizontalateachantenna(seeLongleyRiceat3
1).Usingdetailedterrainprofileinformation,themodelcalculateshorizonelevationanglesasafunction
ofantennaheightsabovesealevel,theeffectiveearth'sradiusandthegreatcircledistancesfromeach
antennatoitshorizon.

3.TerrainIrregularity:Themodelfirstuseslinearinterpolationtofitastraightlinewithintherangeof
interestandthendeterminesaninterdecilerangeh(d)aboveandbelowthisline(seeIEEEat28).The
terrainirregularityparameterhisthencomputed.

4.ReferenceAttenuation:Thehorizonelevationsanddistancesgeneratedbythemodelareusedto
calculatetransmissionlossrelativetofreespace.Themodeldividestotaltransmissionlossinto"free
spacebasictransmissionloss"andreferenceattenuationrelativetofreespace.Thefreespacebasic
transmissionlossiscalculatedasafunctionoffrequencyanddistance.Thenetreceivedfieldatanypoint
iscomputedfromthefreespacefieldreducedbythecomputedreferenceattenuationrelativetofree
space.OneofthreepredictionmethodsdescribedinAnnex3ofLongleyRiceisusedtocalculatethe
referenceattenuationbaseduponthedistancefromthetransmittingantenna.

LineofSightAttenuation:Withinradiolineofsight,attenuationrelativetofreespaceis
calculatedusingtworayopticsformulas.
DiffractionAttenuation:Adiffractionmethodisusedjustbeyondlineofsightthatcomputes
aweightedaverageofestimatesofdiffractionattenuationoveradoubleknifeedgeandover
irregularterrain.
ForwardScatterAttenuation:Forwardscatterattenuationiscomputedwhenthepathlength
and/ortheangulardistanceexceedscertainlimitsdeterminedbythemodel.

ParameterChecking
TheLongleyRiceprogramsdescribedinNTIAandotherliteratureincludevalidationofvarious
parameters.Thewarningsarecategorizedintofour"levels"accordingtotheseverityoftheerror:

Level Description(NTIA,p.70)

1 Caution,parametersareclosetolimits

2 Impossibleparametersdefaultvalueshavebeensubstituted

3 Internalcalculationsshowparametersoutofrange
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4 Parametersoutofrange

Thelevelrecordedbytheprogramiscumulativeinthesensethatifbothalevel1errorandalevel3
errorareencountered,theerrorreportedislevel3.

ExamplesofthewarningsdetectedintheLongleyRicemodelhelptoillustratetheselevels:

Level Exampleofthewarning

1 Aspecifiedfrequencybelow40MHzis"closetolimits"
ofstatedLongleyRicerangeof2040GHz.

2 Aclimatecodeof1isan"impossibleparameter"since
therangeis17.Adefaultvalueof5("continental
temperate")willbesubstituted.

3 Internalcalculationsbasedonthepathelevationdatacan
showthatahorizonelevationangleisbeyondtherange
consideredvalidfortheLongleyRicecalculations.

4 Aspecifiedfrequencybelow20MHzis"outofrange"
sincethestatedLongleyRicerangeis2040GHz.

TheoriginalLongleyRiceprogramsincludethefollowingmessagesforthewarnings:

Level Message

1 **WARNINGSOMEPARAMETERSARENEARLY
OUTOFRANGE.RESULTSSHOULDBEUSED
WITHCAUTION.

2 **NOTEDEFAULTPARAMETERSHAVEBEEN
SUBSTITUTEDFORIMPOSSIBLEONES.

3 **WARNINGACOMBINATIONOF
PARAMETERSISOUTOFRANGE.RESULTS
AREPROBABLYINVALID.

4 **WARNINGSOMEPARAMETERSAREOUTOF
RANGE.RESULTSAREPROBABLYINVALID.

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Theseratherbriefandgeneralmessagesrepresentanumberofdifferentconditions.TheSoftWright
implementationoftheLongleyRicemodelexpandsthesemessagestoincludemoreinformationabout
thespecificconditionthatresultedinthewarninglevelsetbytheprogram.Ifmorethanonewarningor
errorwasencountered,allmessageswillberecordedasdescribedlaterinthissection.TheSoftWright
messagesarelistedbelow.

DetailedMessage Level

Horizondistance(s)maybetooshort.1 3

Horizondistance(s)maybetoolong.2 3

Horizonelevationanglegreaterthan11.5degrees.3 3

Frequencybelow40MHz. 1

Frequencyabove10GHz. 1

Antennaheight(s)lessthan1meterAGL. 1

Antennaheight(s)greaterthan1000metersAGL. 1

Surfacerefractivitybelow250. 4

Surfacerefractivityabove400. 4

Earthcurvaturelessthan75E9. 4

Earthcurvaturegreaterthan250E9. 4

Realsurfacetransferimpedancelessthanimaginarypart. 4

Frequencybelow20MHz. 4

Frequencyabove20GHz. 4

Antennaheight(s)lessthan.5meterAGL. 4

Antennaheight(s)greaterthan3000metersAGL. 4

Distanceforcalculationisgreaterthan1000km. 1

Distancelessthan5xdifferencebetweeneffantheights.4 3

Distanceforcalculationislessthan1km. 4

Distanceforcalculationisgreaterthan2000km. 4

Invalidclimatecodeclimatecodesetto5. 2

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Invalidvariabilitymodemodesetto0. 2

Timeprobabilitysetlessthan0.1%. 1

Locationprobabilitysetlessthan0.1%. 1

Situationprobabilitysetlessthan0.1%. 1

Notes:

1ThisconditionoccursinLongleyRiceifthecomputedhorizondistanceislessthan:

whereHEisthecomputedeffectiveantennaheightoftheantenna
GMEistheeffectiveearthcurvature

2ThisconditionoccursinLongleyRiceifthecomputedhorizondistanceislessthan:

whereHEisthecomputedeffectiveantennaheightoftheantenna
GMEistheeffectiveearthcurvature

3ThisconditionoccursinLongleyRiceifthecomputedhorizonelevationangleisgreaterthan0.2
radians(11.5).

4ThisconditionoccursinLongleyRiceifthedistanceforthecomputedfieldstrengthislessthan:

whereHE(1)isthecomputedeffectiveantennaheightoftheTXantenna
HE(2)isthecomputedeffectiveantennaheightoftheTXantenna

WhenevertheLongleyRiceprogramencountersanyoftheseconditionsthewarning(s)arerecordedin
theTAPResultsDataBasefileforthestudy.

Conclusion
Thediscussioninthisarticleisintendedtobeacursoryoverviewofthemodel'streatmentofthe
parametersandstatisticsofradiopropagationastreatedbytheLongleyRicemodel.Youareencouraged
torefertotheliteraturetodevelopyourownunderstandingandinterpretationoftheLongleyRice

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concepts.

GivenyoursystemparametersandstatisticalchoicesthatyouhavesuppliedinTAP'sLongleyRice
module,ourimplementationofthemodelwillgenerateafileoffieldstrengthvaluescomputedfromthe
longtermmediantransmissionlossesateachincrementandalongeachradialyouhaveselected.This
filecanthenbeusedjustasotherTAPfieldstrengthfileswithTAP'sgraphicalfeatures(suchasthe
thresholdplotting).

OrderingInformationForLongleyRicePropagationModelDocumentation
ThefollowingdocumentsareavailablefromNationalTechnicalInformationService(phone1800553
6847,or17034874656).Theabbreviatedtitlesrefertothenotationusedforthedocumentsinthe
TerrainAnalysisPackage(TAP)TechnicalReferenceManualsectionontheLongleyRicemodel.

"TechNote101":P.L.Rice,A.G.Longley,K.A.Norton,andA.P.Barsis,
"Transmissionlosspredictionsfortroposphericcommunicationcircuits,"U.S.
GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington,DC,NBSTech.Note101,issued
May1965revisedMay1966andJan.1967.

Volume1:OrderNumberAD687820
Volume2:OrderNumberAD687821

"LongleyRice":A.G.LongleyandP.L.Rice,"PredictionofTropospheric
radiotransmissionoverirregularterrain,AComputermethod1968."ESSA
Tech.Rep.ERL79ITS67,U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington,DC,
July1968.

OrderNumberAD676874

"NTIAReport":G.A.Hufford,A.G.Longley,andW.A.Kissick,"Aguideto
theuseoftheITSirregularterrainmodelintheareapredictionmode,"NTIA
Rep.82100,Apr.1982.

OrderNumberPB82217977

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