2072
4, OCTOBER 2007
New Method for Detecting Low Current Faults in
Electrical Distribution Systems
I. Zamora, Member, IEEE, A. J. Mazn, Member, IEEE, K. J. Sagastabeitia, and J. J. Zamora
AbstractIn electrical distribution systems, low current faults
may be caused by a high impedance fault or by the fault current
limitation caused by the neutral to ground connection. In the
former case, an indirect contact or insulation degradation give
a high value of the fault impedance. In the latter, the neutral
grounding may be either isolated or compensated. Nevertheless,
these types of faults do not produce enough current so that the
traditional overcurrent relays or fuses are not able to detect the
fault. This paper presents a new methodology, based on the super-
position of voltage signals of certain frequency, for the detection of
low current single phase faults in radial distribution systems. The
simulation analysis and laboratory tests carried out have proved
the validity of the methodology for any type of grounding method.
Index TermsDistribution systems, fault diagnosis, grounding,
low current faults, signal superposition.
NOMENCLATURE
Fault resistance of phase p, feeder i.
Residual current of feeder i.
Neutral voltage.
Voltage of phase p.
Homopolar voltage.
Asymmetry of feeder i.
Relative variation of the asymmetry of feeder
i.
(a) Prefault situation.
(b) Superposition situation.
I. INTRODUCTION
UBLIC security and quality in the service constitute two
P key aspects within the designmaintenance and operation
of electrical distribution systems. Electrical power must be pro-
vided under the best possible conditions, taking care of a com-
mitment between the appropriate quality of service and the exi-
gible safety limits. All of this must take place under the new leg-
islative situation and while looking for a correct balance among
necessary technical improvements and maintenance of the eco-
nomic costs within satisfactory parameters.
Manuscript received June 6, 2006; revised October 25, 2006. This work was
supported by the MCYT-Spanish Government under Project DPI 2002-01248.
Paper no. TPWRD-003082006.
I. Zamora, A. J. Mazn, and K. J. Sagastabeitia are with the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao
48013, Spain (e-mail: inmaculada.zamora@ehu.es; javier.mazon@.ehu.es;
koldo.sagastabeitia@ehu.es).
J. J. Zamora is with Department of Electronic and Telecmmnication Engi-
neering, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao 48013, Spain (e-mail: juan-
jose.zamora@ehu.es).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.905273
0885-8977/$25.00 2007 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO.
Nevertheless, the impossibility to design a completely reli-
able system has demanded the development of numerous tech-
nologies destined to detect shortcomings and to restore the elec-
tric power supply as soon as possible. In case of short-circuit
faults, the important increase in the current level makes these
faults easily detectable. However, and due to their special char-
acteristics, low current faults (LCF) in distribution systems do
not originate enough current to be detected by conventional pro-
tection systems.
LCF can be caused by the existence of high impedance faults
(HIF) or due to the fault current limitation produced by the neu-
tral grounding connection. In the first case, indirect contacts
or insulation failures produce fault impedances with very high
values that limit the circulation of fault currents. In the second
case, isolated systems or those grounded by means of a compen-
sation reactance can allow to maintain the power supply without
significant variations in currents, despite the fault situation.
Anyway, no-detection of LCF can cause that an energized
conductor is within reach of people, with the consequent risk
of accident. Although current levels are small and they do not
suppose a problem for equipment, their voltage levels can be
dangerous for the security of people. Therefore, LCF detection
must be considered as practice of public security.
Currently, there are multiple research works trying to achieve
the best solution for this problem. Methods based on neural net-
works [1], [2], wavelet transform [3][5], and intelligent sys-
tems [6], [7] are becoming more and more important. Low fre-
quency signal analysis is also being used for the characteriza-
tion of these faults [8]. In compensated systems, new methods
are being developed based on the change of the coil mismatch or
on the injection of industrial frequency current (50/60 Hz) in the
neutral, by means of an injection system placed in parallel with
the grounding reactor [9][12]. However, most of these tech-
niques only identify some types of LCFs or just are applicable
in certain conditions and types of distribution networks.
In this paper, a method based on the superposition of voltage
signals, in order to detect low current faults in distribution net-
works with any grounding method, is presented.
II. METHODOLOGY FOR LCF DETECTION
A. Fault Detection Based on Superposed Voltages
A single phase fault changes the parameters and the steady
state electrical magnitudes of the network. The phase to ground
admittance of the faulted phase changes and the feeder increases
its asymmetry. Therefore, the value of the phase to ground ad-
mittance can be used as fault detection parameter. The fault
impedance value of sound phases is very high; however, in case
of fault, this value decreases and the fault can be detected.
ZAMORA et al.: NEW METHOD FOR DETECTING LOW CURRENT FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 2073

This approach is being used for the detection of single phase

faults in compensated systems [9][11]. In order to calculate the
admittance value, a current of the main frequency is injected
in the neutral. This method is valid only for compensated or
impedance grounded distribution systems.
The methodology proposed in this paper is that instead of in-
jecting current through the neutral grounding, a voltage of cer-
tain frequency is superposed in the bus. Furthermore, the elec-
trical magnitudes measured to detect the fault situation differ
from the 50/60 Hz main frequency value. The reason is to have
a detection method that works independently of the network
normal operation, because a superposition of a voltage signal
with the main frequency may affect the consumers. Therefore,
a higher frequency value has been chosen for the application.
These changes extend the application of this new method to
all types of ground connection methods:
resonant grounded systems;
isolated systems; Fig. 1. System configuration with a single phase fault.
solid grounded systems;
impedance grounded systems.
The development of the proposed methodology is based on and currents with the frequency value of the added voltage. The
the fault resistance calculation of each phase and feeder. The measurements needed are the following:
value of this resistance can be obtained by means of the variation voltage of each of the three phases at the substation (super-
registered in the neutral voltage to earth and in the residual cur- posed frequency);
rents derived by the feeders, as a result of the fault appearance residual current in each feeder (superposed frequency);
in the system. This way, for the system represented in Fig. 1, the neutral voltage (superposed frequency).
fault resistance to earth of the phase p corresponding to feeder The value of these measurements depends on the network
is defined in (1) [9], [13] topology, the state of the system (with or without fault), and
the added signal. The two first circumstances are given by the
network operation, whereas superposed signal is controlled by
the detection system.
In order to carry out the fault detection, a superposition of two
(1)
different signals is used, both of the same frequency:
where all magnitudes can be measured directly, except the
positive-sequence three-phase signal;
residual currents. These residual currents are calculated as the
zero-sequence three-phase signal.
sum of the currents derived by each phase of the feeder i, as
During the detection process, these signals are generated fol-
shown in (2)
lowing superposition cycles in which measures of voltages and
currents are taken, at the superposed frequency, for three dif-
(2)
ferent situations.
1) Prefault situation. It corresponds to a normal operation of
the system, without fault, in which only positive-sequence
In order to carry out the fault resistance calculation, it is re-
signal is superposed. This stage is identified in (1) with
quired to know the phase voltage , the neutral voltage
super index (a) and is just the previous one to the addition
and the residual current of feeder at the moment
of zero-sequence signal.
for which this calculation is made. In addition, previously and
2) Superposition situation. At the beginning of each superpo-
in fault absence, the network must be characterized measuring
sition cycle, with the network in sound operation, both pos-
these magnitudes in two independent situations, (a) and (b), that
itive-sequence and zero-sequence signals are superposed.
provide different values of neutral voltage and residual currents.
In (1), this stage is identified with the super index (b).
This way, it is possible to detect low current faults by an-
3) Present situation. Moment for which the calculation of
alyzing the value of fault resistance for all phases and for all
fault resistance is made. Depending on the result of this cal-
feeders. Since this resistance must have a very high value in
culation, a fault or a normal situation will be established.
sound phases, to obtain a resistive fault impedance manifestly
Only positive-sequence signal is added. In (1), the magni-
smaller turns out to be a trustworthy indicator for detecting the
tudes corresponding to this stage are denoted without any
presence of a fault in the corresponding phase and feeder.
super index.
In this way, in a first step, two different stages of the sound
B. Fault Detection Procedure
system (prefault and superposition) give its characterization. In
In the proposed methodology, the calculation of the fault re- order to get the magnitudes of the first stage, the positive-se-
sistance value is carried out from the measurement of voltages quence signal with the chosen frequency is superposed. The
2074
second stage is achieved adding the zero-sequence to the signal
superposed for the first stage.
The measures taken in these two situations are memorized
and used for the calculation of fault resistance, until a new su-
perposition cycle provides another image of the system.
In a second step, the fault resistances are calculated for each
phase and feeder, using previously taken system image and ac-
tual values of system voltages and currents. In case a fault has
occurred, the feeder and phase are directly identified. This op-
eration is repeated until a new superposition cycle begins.
Therefore, whereas positive-sequence signal is permanently
applied, addition of zero-sequence signal is only carried out at
the beginning of each new cycle.
In order to assure the reliability of the detection system, cal-
culation of the fault resistance should always be carried out with
a system image properly updated. For that reason, the duration
of superposition cycles must be defined taking care of real ne-
cessities of each distribution system. Nevertheless, these cycles
can also be triggered externally by an operator or, automati-
cally, when significant variations in measures are detected, cor-
responding with a change in the network topology.
For that reason, besides the fault resistance, relative variation
of the asymmetry of each feeder must also be calculated, as
shown in (3)
(3)
where reference asymmetry (corresponding to the system image
acquired at the beginning of the superposition cycle) is com-
pared with the present asymmetry. In (4) and (5), the equations
of both asymmetries are presented
(4)
(5)
C. Particularities Due to the Grounding Method
Up to now, the proposed methodology has been described
in a generic way, without making distinction about the neutral
grounding connection type. In fact, as it has been verified, the
detection of these resistive single-phase faults based on voltage
superposition is applicable in all types of distribution systems,
independently of the neutral grounding: isolated, resonant,
solid, or through an impedance.
However, according with the grounding method, it is neces-
sary to make certain appreciations. Thus, when the neutral is
solidly grounded, it is clear that the neutral voltage cannot be
obtained . ferent types of neutral connection and a great number of faults
In this case, when calculating the fault resistance, neutral to
earth voltage must be replaced by homopolar voltage of the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2007
system, for each one of the outlined situations (prefault, super-
position, and present). Homopolar voltage can easily be calcu-
lated from phase to earth voltages as shown in (6)
(6)
The process followed for fault detection do not have anymore
variations for this grounding method.
III. SIGNAL SUPERPOSITION
Signal superposition in the electrical network started to be
used long time ago for applications related to information trans-
mission. These applications have had to overcome many diffi-
culties due to the nature of the electrical systems. Hence, a revi-
sion of signal superposition for applications related to commu-
nication systems is presented in order to throw some light on the
implementation of signal superposition for protection purposes.
The medium and low voltage electrical networks are used for
communication with three differentiated frequency ranges.
Frequency range of 30 to 1000 Hz, used by ripple control
systems for the remote on or off switching of loads.
Frequency range of 3 kHz to 145.8 kHz, used for the trans-
mission of information of the network operator or the con-
sumer.
Frequency range of several megahertz, used for the digital
communication and data transmission mainly as an access
technology for Internet provider.
Power line signaling is affected by signal attenuation and this
attenuation depends on frequency. Thus, low frequency shows
lower attenuation and seems more suitable for protection pur-
poses. Besides, high frequency values find some technical ob-
stacles. The network is designed to carry power signals at 50/60
Hz and is optimized for this task. At higher frequencies, power
transformers are modelled by their leakage reactance and tend to
block the signals. Capacitor banks used for power factor correc-
tion present a low impedance path to ground and sink the signals
unless they are trapped out with reactors. If the frequency value
is kept low, these obstacles are overcome.
Anyway, in order to implement the methodology in a real
distribution system, it is necessary to analyze the existing level
of noise and its frequencies. The frequency value chosen for
the superposed signal will depend on the characteristics of the
particular network and must be different to the frequency values
of the noise.
In addition, it is necessary to consider that the maximum
value of superposed voltage signal comes limited by the fre-
quency used. Thus, values recommended for frequencies be-
tween 110 Hz and 485 Hz are shown in Table I [14].
IV. VERIFICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY
In order to verify the reliability of the proposed methodology
a complete series of tests has been made, using the software
tool RESFAL [15] developed with Matlab/Simulink. The cor-
rect operation of this methodology has been verified with dif-
with different characteristics have been chosen, both because of
value of the fault resistance and/or because of its location. For
ZAMORA et al.: NEW METHOD FOR DETECTING LOW CURRENT FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
TABLE I
MAXIMUM VALUE OF THE SIGNAL
Fig. 2. Model of a simplified distribution system.
this aim, first a model of a simplified distribution system has
been used. Later, we have worked on the model of a real distri-
bution system.
Next, the most outstanding data from these tests is described
and a representative summary of the results is presented.
A. Simplified Distribution System
In order to carry out the first tests to verify the validity of the
methodology, a model of a simplified distribution system, of 20
kV, with two feeders has been used (see Fig. 2).
In this model, besides the superposition system and mea-
suring devices, only line to earth capacitances of each feeder and
the equivalent system for power supply have been considered.
In order to develop the simulation of different grounding
methods, in this model the neutral connection is made through
a variable admittance whose value can be modified and defined
according to the grounding method analyzed (isolated, reso-
nant, solid, or through an impedance).
Table II provides a summary of the results obtained with the
system shown in Fig. 2.
B. Real Distribution System
Second, the methodology has been verified using the model
of a real distribution system. The modelled system, located in
the Basque Country (Spain), is a medium voltage network that
2075
TABLE II
RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THE SIMPLIFIED MODEL
consists of a substation and five distribution feeders with radial
configuration.
The following system elements have been considered to be
the most relevant (see Fig. 3).
A three-phase transformer with three columns, delta-wye
connection with accessible neutral, voltage ratio of 30/13.8
kV and 12 MVA of rated power.
Five feeders that consist of 35.7 km of overhead lines and
8.9 km of underground cables. The overhead lines are made
up of ACSR and copper conductors. The underground ca-
bles are composed of aluminum or copper conductors with
EPR insulation.
The system supplies a set of 98 loads. Because of the large
number of loads, they have been concentrated on the basis
of the type of conductor. As it has been proved, this con-
centration of loads have not affected the reliability of the
results obtained in the study.
The model of this real distribution system has been validated
with two different software tools (ATP and Matlab/Simulink)
and with real data, provided by the electrical utility Iberdrola
S.A. Both real and simulated numerical results appear in
Table III.
The proposed methodology has been verified adding voltage
signals with different values and frequencies, that include a
spectrum from 60 Hz to 500 Hz. Based on the results, the
following conclusions can be established.
When increasing the frequency of superposition, the mag-
nitude of the errors in fault resistance calculation increases.
So, calculation precision is lower.
When increasing the frequency of superposition, the angle
of the fault impedance increases, raising the influence of
its imaginary component. For this reason the reliability in
fault detection decreases.
An optimal range of frequencies, for fault detection and for
resistance calculation, can be considered between 100 Hz
and 300 Hz.
This methodology has been verified for all types of ground
connection methods and with a large number of faults, to sup-
port its correct operation. Thus, fault resistances from a few
ohms to more than 15 have been used.
Also, the influence of the fault location in the detection
process has been considered. For that reason, fault located in
different points of the modelled distribution system have been
2076
Fig. 3. Model of the real distribution system.
TABLE III
REAL VERSUS SIMULATED SYSTEM
analyzed: in all phases and feeders, near and far from substa-
tion, and in ramified areas with more or less loads between fault
point and substation.
As an example, in Tables IVVII, a summary of the results
obtained in tests, for each grounding method, is presented.
In these tables, values of the simulated fault resistances are
compared with those obtained by means of the proposed detec-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2007
TABLE IV
ISOLATED GROUNDING
TABLE V
RESONANT GROUNDING
tion method. Additionally, the feeder, the phase and an approx-
imate localization of the fault are specified for each case.
The proposed fault detection method has detected the fault in
all the simulated cases, identifying correctly the feeder and the
phase where the fault has taken place.
ZAMORA et al.: NEW METHOD FOR DETECTING LOW CURRENT FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 2077

TABLE VI (since the method is thought initially for low current faults) and,
SOLID GROUNDING generally, located in areas far away from the substation. But
these deviations do not jeopardize in any case the detection of
the fault.
Finally, it has been verified that the methodology is able to
discern between fault situations and other normal circumstances
in the distribution system operation. Thus, multiple topology
changes in each feeder have been simulated and it has been veri-
fied that false fault detections do not take place. In all the simula-
tion tests carried out topology changes have been correctly iden-
tified when detecting that, in the absence of a fault, the asym-
metry of corresponding feeder varies in a significant way (see
Table VIII).
In fact, the surveillance of each feeder asymmetry takes a spe-
cial relevance in the fault detection process. Since all variation
in feeder topology has to imply starting another superposition
cycle that provides the new system image.

V. HARDWARE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Because there is not a device able to generate the voltage sig-

TABLE VII
IMPEDANCE GROUNDING (Z = 4
) components.
Also, it can be appreciated that the difference between cal-
culated resistance and the one used in the simulation is always
very small. Logically, the greater percentage differences be-
tween both values are registered for very small fault resistances
nals required to verify the methodology with actual data, a new
hardware device has been developed by the research team [16].
This device allows to add the voltage signals, with frequencies
higher than 50/60 Hz, in the bus (Fig. 4).
As its block diagram shows (Fig. 5), the electronic circuit de-
veloped for carry out the voltage superposition has the following
A control unit, based on a microprocessor. It generates the
prefault, superposition and present tones, with the positive-
sequence and zero-sequence signals. As auxiliary func-
tions, this unit controls a keyboard, a display, and commu-
nications with the computer.
A filtering and adjustment stage. It accommodates the am-
plitude, frequency precision and phase of the tones for their
analogical use.
A power stage. It supplies the necessary power to the tones,
guaranteeing a lineal transfer of the signals.
A keyboard, which is used to introduce data in the micro-
processor (frequency and amplitude of tones).
A digital display to show the methodology steps and the
amplitude and frequency values used in the detection
process.
A series communication interface, which allows external
control and monitoring.
A coupling stage. It connects the injection device with
the electric power network and its function is double. On
one hand, it isolates and protects the electronic circuit. For
other, by means of an optimized coupling, generated tones
are superposed without being deformed. Depending on the
voltage level of the network, it will be necessary to use an
external coupling stage.
This circuit has been used in a laboratory environment with
several networks to verify the proposed methodology. This way,
we have been able to emulate low current faults, registering
voltage and current values (measured at superposed frequency)
2078
TABLE VIII
CHANGE IN THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Fig. 4. Electronic circuit for the voltage superposition.
Fig. 5. Block diagram of the injection system/equipment.
for each step of the detection methodology. Fig. 6 shows the re-
sultant voltage signal after superimposing a tone of 217 Hz and
3% (see Table I) to the fundamental frequency voltage.
Applying the proposed methodology in these laboratory tests,
low current faults have been detected in all cases, identifying
correctly the faulty phase. Moreover, the measures taken have
allowed determination of the fault resistance value with an error
similar to that obtained in the simulation process.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2007
Fig. 6. Voltage signal: fundamental frequency voltage plus the tone one.
VI. CONCLUSION
The new methodology presented in this paper allows to detect
single-phase faults with values of fault resistance up to 15 ,
in radial distribution systems, independently of its neutral con-
figuration. This method is based on the superposition of voltage
signals with a frequency different from the main frequency value
(50/60 Hz).
As it has been shown, the faulty feeder and phase are correctly
identified and an approximated value of the fault resistance is
provided.
The results of the simulation tests carried out by the software
RESFAL have allowed to verify the validity of the proposed
methodology, even for high impedance faults in distribution
systems, with isolated or resonant grounding. Also, topology
changes in the system are correctly identified and false detec-
tions do not take place for this reason.
Furthermore, the results obtained in laboratory tests with a
new developed injection device have reaffirmed the validity of
this methodology and the values obtained by means of simula-
tion with Matlab and ATP.
REFERENCES
[1] A. F. Sultan, G. W. Swift, and D. J. Fedirchuk, Detection of high
impedance arcing faults using a multi-layer perceptron, IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 18711877, Oct. 1992.
ZAMORA et al.: NEW METHOD FOR DETECTING LOW CURRENT FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
[2] J. H. Ko, J. C. Shin, C. W. Ryu, C. G. Park, and W. Y. Yim, Detection
of high impedance faults using neural nets and chaotic degree, in Proc.
EMPD Int. Conf. Energy Management and Power Delivery, Mar. 1998,
vol. 2, pp. 399404.
[3] A. Lazkano, J. Ruiz, E. Aramendi, and L. A. Leturiondo, Evaluation
of a new proposal for an arcing fault detection method based on wavelet
packet analysis, Eur. Trans. Elect. Power, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 161174,
May/Jun. 2004.
[4] T. M. Lai, L. A. Snider, E. Lo, and D. Sutanto, High-impedance fault
detection using discrete wavelet transform and frequency range and
RMS conversion, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 397407,
Jan. 2005.
[5] M.-T. Yang and J.-C. Gu, Detecting high impedance faults utilizing
combined phase voltages with neutral line current, Int. J. Emerging
Elect. Power Syst., vol. 2, no. 2, 2005.
[6] P. R. S. Jota and F. G. Jota, Fuzzy detection of high impedance faults
in radial distribution feeders, Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 49, no. 3,
pp. 169174, Apr. 1999.
[7] Y. Sheng and S. M. Rovnyak, Decision tree-based methodology for
high impedance fault detection, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, no.
2, pp. 533536, Apr. 2004.
[8] T. Baldwin, F. Renovich, and L. F. Saunders, Directional ground-fault
indicator for high-resistance grounded system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 325332, Mar./Apr. 2003.
[9] V. Leitloff, R. Feuille, and D. Griffel, Detection of resistive single-
phase earth faults in a compensated power-distribution system, Eur.
Trans. Elect. Power, vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 6573, Jan./Feb. 1997.
[10] J. G. Druml, Dtection de dfauts la terre trs rsistants sur les
rseaux compenss, REE 1265-6534, no. 2, pp. 6875, Feb. 1996 (in
French).
[11] T. Welfonder, V. Leitloff, R. Teuillet, and S. Vitet, Location strategies
and evaluation of detection algorithms for earth faults in compensated
MV distribution systems, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 4, pp.
11211128, Oct. 2000.
[12] F. Ruz, A. Quijano, and E. Gmez, DSTRP: A new algorithm for
high impedance fault detection in compensated neutral grounded M. V.
Power Systems, Eur. Trans. Elect. Power, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 2328,
Jan./Feb. 2003.
[13] I. Zamora, A. J. Mazn, K. J. Sagastabeitia, and I. Albizu, Application
of superimposed voltage in the detection of faults in resonant distribu-
tion systems, in Proc. IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conf., Bologna, Italy,
2003.
[14] HD-Comsys & ltd tim, Riple Control Systems and Load Control in
Electricity Supply Networks [Online]. Available: http://www.hdc-itd.
htnet.hr/Engleski/RCS.htm.
[15] I. Zamora, A. J. Mazn, K. J. Sagastabeitia, O. Pic, and J. R. Saenz,
Verifying resonant grounding in distribution systems, IEEE Comput.
Appl. Power, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 4550, Oct. 2002.
2079
[16] A. J. Mazon, J. J. Zamora, I. Zamora, I. Albizu, and M. Diez,
Electronic circuits tests in laboratory for superimposing voltages
techniques, in Proc. 12th IEEE Mediterranean Electrotechnical
Conf., Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 1215, 2004.
I. Zamora (M03) was born in Zamora, Spain. She received the electrical engi-
neering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao,
Spain, in 1989 and 1993, respectively.
Currently, she is a Full-Time Professor and Dean in the Department of Elec-
trical Engineering, University of the Basque Country. Her research activities
are concentrated in transients simulation, fault analysis, and transmission-line
thermal rating.
A. J. Mazn (M03) was born in Bilbao, Spain, in 1965. He received the Elec-
trical Engineering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of the Basque Country,
Bilbao, in 1990 and 1994, respectively.
In 1992, he worked in Labein Research Laboratories. He is currently a Full
Time Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Univer-
sity of the Basque Country. His research activities are concentrated in the area
of transients simulation, fault analysis, and transmission line thermal rating.
K. J. Sagastabeitia was born in Bilbao, Spain, in 1965. He received the elec-
trical engineering degree from the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, in
1990.
From 1991 to 1996, he worked in supplying complete turnkey electrical and
control systems for processes and machinery. Since 1996, he has been a Full
Time Lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of the
Basque Country. His research activities are concentrated in the area of transients
simulation, fault analysis, electrical machinery, and control systems.
J. J. Zamora was born in Zamora, Spain, in 1963. He received the electrical en-
gineering and Ph.D. degrees from the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao,
Spain, in 1987 and 1992, respectively, and the Lawyer degree from the Univer-
sity of Deusto, Bilbao, in 2000.
Currently, he is a Full-Time Associate Professor in the Department of Elec-
tronic and Telecommunication, University of the Basque Country. His research
activities are concentrated in electronic systems applied to fault analysis in
power systems.