Mechanics of Material lab

Submitted by:
Adnan Murad
(2016-UET-CCET-MECH-30)

Submitted to:
Engr. Usman

Chenab College of Engineering and Technology

(Sialkot Road Opposite to Garden Town
Gujranwala)
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL-I
(LAB SESSION I)

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 Layout Mechanics of Material Lab

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CCET Mechanics of Materials Lab
List of apparatus

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 LAYOUT
DEFINATION
Layout is to organize the specific instruments or material available in space to locate with
an ease, so that information could be transferred or shared with a little material handling caste.
NEED FOR LAYOUT IN THE PLANT
Plant layout design has become a fundamental basis of todays industrial plants which can
influence parts of work efficiency. It is needed to appropriately plan and position employees,
materials, machines, equipments, and other manufacturing supports and facilities to create the
most effective plane layout.
IMPORTANCE OF LAYOUT
Higher utilization of space, equipment and people
Improved flow of information, people and material
Improve client information
Minimum Material, time and cost.
Easy production flow

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION FOR LAYOUT DESIGN

Good layout depending on:-
The type of establishment
Location
No of implies
Accessibility
Its client base
Building factors
Movement of people and equipment
Flow

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TYPES OF LAYOUT
There are many types of layout some of them are:
a) Process Layout:
Process layout is a design for the floor plan of a plant which aims to improve efficiency by
arranging equipment according to its function.
Advantages
The overhead costs are relatively low.
Supervision can be more effective and specialized.
Disadvantages
More skilled labor is required resulting in higher cost.
Time gap in production is higher.
b) Product Layout
Arrange activities in a line according to the sequence of operations that need to be
performed to assemble a particular product.

Advantages
Continuous flow of work.
Lower cost of manufacturing per unit.
Shorter processing time or quicker output.
Disadvantages
Difficulty in supervision.
This is an expensive layout.
c) Fixed position layout
In this type of layout the product produced is too heavy to move such as ships, houses
and aircraft are examples. In this layout, the product remains stationary for the entire
manufacturing cycle equipment, workers, materials and other resources are brought to
production site.
Advantages
Material movement is reduced.
It increase the product production.
Disadvantages
The work area may be crowded, so that little storage space.
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 The work area small and it is cause material handling problem.
d) Group layout
It is the type of layout where machines are group according to the process requirement
for a set of similar item that require similar processing.

Advantages
Reduced Material handling.
Reduced set-up time.
Disadvantages
Reduced shop flexibility.
Possible extended job flow time.
e) Combination layout
A combination layout combines the advantages the
advantages of both the process and product layout. It is used when the same item is being
manufactured in different types or sizes.
Advantages
A high rate of output.
Low unit cost due to high volume.
Disadvantages
Morale problems and to respective stress injuries.
Lack of maintaining equipment or quality of output.

Apparatus use in Mechanics of Materials Lab

1a) Hooks Law Apparatus
For providing Hooks of elasticity i.e. that
elongation of an object is directly proportional to
the load applied and demonstrating the
phenomenon of simple harmonic motion of a
vibrating weight potential energy etc.
Apparatus consist of an adjustable mirrored scale
15cm long graduated in millimeters mounted on a
support rod 30cm fitted on a base. A hook

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 attached to the rod supports a spring and indicator. Provided with a 50g brass hanger.
Required slotted weights can be ordered separately.

1b) Unsymmetrical Cantilever Beam

This apparatus allows the vertical and horizontal
deflections of the free end to a test specimen to be
measured. When loading occurs along a principle
axis o at a known angle. A solid base holds a rigid
vertical and support for the clamping of the test
cantilever.

2) Shear Force & Bending Moment Apparatus.

The apparatus is basically a beam which is
supported by the two vertical supports. These vertical
supports can be moved along the beam section
producing different support position. Three point loads
are available with hangers with which weights are
applied. One gauge provided on the upper side and
other on the lower side of the beam to measure the
deflection ignites Beam is capable of withstanding load
primarily by resisting bending.

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3) Strut Buckling Apparatus
All reverent buckling problems can be demonstrated with WP 120
test stand buckling, as oppose to simple strength problems such as drawing
pressure bending and shearing is primarily.

4) Torsion of bar apparatus

Measurement apparatus for investigating torsion as applied to bars with cylindrical geometry and
to determine both directivity values and shear modulus. With a scaled disc for torsion angle
measurement and a pendulum disc for transmission of tensional forces to the clamped material
samples in the case of static measurements as well as for the determining moment.

5) Pendulum Impact Tester

A metal may be very hard and therefore very strong and yet be
unsuitable for applications in which it is subjected to sudden loads in
service. Materials behave quite different when they are loaded suddenly
then, when they are loaded more slowly as in tensile testing because of
this fact, impact test is considered to be one of the basic mechanical tests.

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6) Rubber Shearing Apparatus

Rubber blocks in shear force are often use in engine and in

equipment mounting to isolate vibrations. They do this by
absorbing shock energy by deforming. This deformation leads to a
decrease in cross section as the block. Lengthens an effect
describe by poisons ratio.

7) Deflection of Beam Apparatus

The bench mounted apparatus has a steel base
with support at ends. The supports can be fitted with
knife edges or clamp plates. A steel beam and two
load hangers are supplied together with two dial
gauge for measuring beam deflection and slopes. This
equipment is part of a ranged to both, demonstrate
and experimentally confirm basic engineering
principles. Great care has been given to each item so
as to provide wide experimental scope without unduly
complicating or compromising the design. Each piece of apparatus is self-contained and
compact.

8) Fatigue Testing Apparatus

Fatigue testing is a dynamic testing mode and can be
used to simulate how a component/stress will behave/fail
under real life loading/stress conditions. They can
incorporate tensile, compressive, and/or torsion stresses and
are often applied to springs, suspension components and
biomedical implants.
Fatigue involves three stages.
1) Crack initiation
2) Crack propagation
3) Fast fracture
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL-I
(LAB SESSION II)

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 Stress strain curve for a tensile load

In thus diagram:
A= Proportional limit
B= Elastic limit
C= Yield stress / Upper yield stress
D= Lower yield stress
E= Ultimate stress
F= Fracture Point

Now we defined each one by one.

Proportional Limit:
Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain remains
proportional. From the diagram point A is the called the proportional limit point or it can also be
known as limit of proportionality.

Elastic Limit:

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Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress up to which the material is perfectly elastic. From the
curve, point B is the elastic limit point. Material will return back to its original position, if it is
unloaded before the crossing of point B.

Yield stress / Upper yield Stress:

The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials
science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
Upper Yield Point:
corresponds to the load that is required to initiate yielding.

Lower Yield Stress:

Lower yield point corresponds to the min load that is required to maintain yield.

Ultimate Stress:
Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength that material has to bear stress before breaking. It
can also be defined as the ultimate stress corresponding to the peak point on the stress strain
graph. On the graph point E is the ultimate stress point.

Fracture Point:
Breaking point or breaking stress is point where strength of material breaks. The stress
associates with this point known as breaking strength or rupture strength. On the stress strain
curve, point F is the breaking stress point

Hooks law:
A law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit
of that solid.

F=kx
F = restoring force of a spring (Newtons, N)
k = spring constant (N/m)
x = displacement of the spring (m)
The negative sign means the spring's restoring force is opposite the stretch
direction.
Modulus of elasticity
The ratio of the stress in a body to the corresponding strain called also coefficient of elasticity,
modulus of elasticity.

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Elasticity
The ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape after being stretched or
compressed.

Plastic Deformation:
The material does not return to its original shape when the force is removed.

Ultimate Tensile Stress:

The stress applied to a material is the force per unit area applied to the material. The
maximum stress a material can stand before it breaks is called the breaking stressor ultimate
tensile stress. Tensile means the material is under tension.

Strain Hardening:
Work hardening, also known as strain hardening is the strengthening of a metal by plastic
deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation
generation within the crystal structure of the material.

Cold working:
Deformation of a metal at a temperature << melting temperature of that body.

Necking:
After the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a localized region of the
specimen, instead of over its entire length. So, a neck is formed as the specimen elongated
further. This phenomenon known as necking.
Stiffness
The ability of a material to resist the against force is known as stiffness.
Toughness:
When we applied sudden load on a body and body break, this phenomenon is known as
toughness.
Resilience:
Resilience is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading to have this energy recovered.
Damping Capacity:
Damping capacity is the ability of a material to absorb energy by converting mechanical energy
into heat.

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Malleability:
Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be hammered, pressed, or
rolled into thin sheets without breaking. In other words, it is the property of a metal to deform
under compression.
Ductility:
Ductility is a solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by
the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
Brittleness:
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation.
Why the strength of material increases during cold working? Briefly explain?
In the process of cold working the temperature of that metal is to much low thats why atom
closes to each other and become harder as compare to room temperature. And thats why
strength of material increases during cold working. Ductility and tensile strength also increases.

Discuss Stress-Strain curve of a brittle material?

For a brittle material, the stress-strain curve is linear almost to failure. Because the brittle
materials do not show the behavior of plastic deformation. Therefore the failure occurs before
the yield strength is reached. Glass, high strength steel, and some polymers exhibit brittle
behavior

Compression Loading

When a specimen of material is loaded in such a way that it extends it is said to be in tension.
On the other hand, if the material compresses and shortens it is said to be in compression. On
An atomic level the molecules or atoms are forced apart when in tension whereas in compression
They are forced together. Since atoms in solids always try to find an equilibrium position and
Distance between other atoms forces arises throughout the entire material which oppose both
Tension or compression.
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to
Withstand loads tending to reduce size as opposed to tensile strength which withstands
Loads during to elongate.
b) HOOKS LAW
Theory:
An ideal spring is remarkable in the sense that it is a system where the generated force linearly
dependent on how for it is stretched. This behavior is described by hooks law. When a spring is extended
by an amount do from its previous position one needed a force F. Which is determined by, F-kdx. Have is
spring constant which is a quality of each spring. Therefore ..

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Hooks Law:
Hookes Law is a principle that states that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some
distance is proportional to that distance.

Hooks law derivation:

F = restoring force of a spring (Newtons, N)

k = spring constant (N/m)
x = displacement of the spring (m)
The negative sign means the spring's restoring force is direction.

Significance of hooks law

Hooks law give us the relationship b/w the force applied to an untreated spring and the amount of
stretched spring.

Youngs Modulus:
Young's modulus is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length when under
lengthwise tension or compression.

Derivation of youngs modulus:

According to hooks law
Stress strain

=E
E= E=youngs modulus
On what factors youngs modulus depend:
It depends upon:
Elongation
Temperature
Change in length
Apparatus:

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 Extension measuring scale
Pointer
Load hanger
Frame base
Load
Spring

Procedure:
Suspended the spring with hook law apparatus. One end of spring attaches with spring and at
other end of spring attaches the pointer. Place the ruler vertically that are crossrespond.the ruler is
readable note the reading of pointer and displacement of spring. And loaded the spring with weight and
note the spring displacement with the help of ruler and note the displacement of spring. And repeat the
above process with different weight and note the different reading with different weight.

Observations and calculations:

Initial length =L, = 205mm

Initial position =X, =140mm
Initial load=W, =0.5N
Diameter of wire =0.1mm
Cross section area of wire = /4 d^2 =3.14/4 (1.5)^2
=0.865mm^2

Table:

Sr.# Apparatus Load (N) Lading (mm) Unloading(mm) Average ( )

1 0.5 N 16.5 mm 13.5 mm 15
2 1.0 N 19.5 mm 16.5 mm 18
3 1.5 N 22.5 mm 19.0 mm 20.75
4 2.0 N 25.0 mm 22.0 mm 23.5
5 2.5 N 28.0 mm 24.5 mm 26.25

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Graph:

30
25
Average load

20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Apparatus load

Percentage error:
Percentage error =
= )*100

=85%

Precautions:
Ensure that the spring is in correct condition and when attach pointer with spring it will be sure that the
zero point of ruler is equal to the starting point of pointer. When we note the reading it will be seeing
from correct direction.

Conclusion:
Hooks law state that extraction of the spring is directly proportional to the applies load.
Students remarks:
When we applied on anybody the force. we apply on it will deform the body and anybody will be bear
some load if we cross the limit and continues applied load on it the will be deform, and cannot come
back to our real position, and after some time it will be break.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL-I
(LAB SESSION III)

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Apparatus:
Extension measuring scale
Pointer
Load hanger
Frame base
Load
Spring

Static loading:
Static is that which can exert with constant amount of force.

Dynamic loading
Dynamic load is that load which can exert varying with amount of force.

Fatigue loading
It is change in a material under the stress is applied on the material during cyclic loading. this is
represented by plot stress cycle curve.

Torsion
It is action of twisting of a object or the state of twisting being start when one end of the object is
relative to the other end of the material.

Shear stress
It is force that apply on the parts it will slide on each other in a oppsite direction.

Shear strain
It is ratio between deformation in a material or object and original length of the material

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Shear modulus
It is ratio of shear stress and shear strain. It is also know as modulus of rigidity.

Polar moment of inertia

It a quantity that tell us who much ability of a object to bear the torsion.

THEORY:
Derivation of shear stress:

Lrstrain =R
L=R

Stress=

F=A
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F=2rdr
Fr=2r2dr
t=2r2dr

t=2r2dr

t=

t=

t=

t= (

t= (

t= )

J=

t= J

= =

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Direct shear stress
1=

A=

1=

Torsional shear stress

t=Fr

= +

= =

Modulus of rigidity
=

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G=

G=

G=

G=

G=

Is maximum shear stress in helical spring dependent on axial deflection?

The design variables should be independent of each other as far as possible. If they are
dependent, there must be some equality constraints between them.
The number of active coils n is a dependent variable.. When the installed load F1, the operating
load F2, the installed deflection 1 and the operating deflection 2 are known, n is the dependent
variable of the wire diameter d and the mean diameter D. Once D and d are determined, n is the
only value that is determined. Therefore, the number
of active coils n should not be used as a design
variable in optimization design of helical spring. The
number of active coils n as the design variable not
only cannot meet the requirements of the design
objective of helical springs but also may get wrong
design results of helical springs without equality
constraint.
The wire diameter d and the mean diameter D are
independent variables. so that they can be used as
design variables in all optimization design of helical
springs. As design variables, D and d are more
reasonable in the actual optimization process of
helical springs design.
It is imperative to correct this prevalent error in the
optimal design of helical springs.

Shear stress is maximum at the surface of

spring wire and is zero at the inner surface.

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Justify.
Generally, coils of loaded spring are under combined stress (compression/tension, bending,
torsion and shear).
In most cases springs have relatively small helix angle and small spring index (C=D/d), therefore
compression stress and bending stress can be omitted. Maximum stress can be computed by
superposition of torsion stress and direct shear stress.

Procedure:
Suspended the spring with hook law apparatus. One end of spring attaches with spring and at
other end of spring attaches the pointer. Place the ruler vertically that are crossrespond.the ruler
is readable note the reading of pointer and displacement of spring. And loaded the spring with
weight and note the spring displacement with the help of ruler and note the displacement of
spring. And repeat the above process with different weight and note the different reading with
different weight.
OBSERVATION AND CAL CULATION
No of turn =104

Dia of spring=19.8mm r= = =9.9mm

Dia of wire =2.8mm

Initial length =205mm
Initial position =125mm
Initial Load =0.5N

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TABLE:
Sr. Force Extension Weight Shear modulus Shear
stress
No. (N) Loading Unloading Avg. W= G=
q=

1 7.5 130 125 127.5 0.76 626.3 1.756

2 15 170 130 150 1.5 1050 3.5

3 22.5 210 170 190 2.29 1268.4 5.27

4 30 255 210 232.5 3.06 1382 7.03

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4

Shear Stress and Axial Deflection

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6

Force Shear Stress

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Y-Axis: Force
X-Axis: Shear Stress
Percentage Error:
Unloaded/loaded= 635/735 *100=86.3%

1) G = = 626.3 N/mm2 q=

2) G = q=

=1050 N/mm2
q= 1.76 N/mm2
q=

q=3.5 N/mm2
Precautions:
Ensure that the spring is in correct condition and when attach pointer with spring it will
be sure that the zero point of ruler is equal to the starting point of pointer. When we
note the reading it will be seeing from correct direction.

Conclusion:
Hooks law state that extraction of the spring is directly proportional to the applies load.

Students remarks:
When we applied on anybody the force. we apply on it will deform the body and
anybody will be bear some load if we cross the limit and continues applied load on it the
will be deform, and cannot come back to our real position, and after some time it will be
break.

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 Assignment
What is Buckling?
Buckling is a failure mode of compressively loaded slender axial loaded members.including thin
shell think of a soda can collapsing under axial stress in your hands
If deflection of slender compression spring exceeds some critical value than the spring will
buckle.

Pcr = EI

L2

It means if length increases than load decreases because of its inversely relation.

Types of spring
Helical spring
Conical and volute springs
Torsion springs
Leaf spring
Disc spring

Helical spring
The helical spring are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix and is primarily intended
for compressive or tensile load. the cross section of the wire from which the spring is made may
be circle rectangle square.

Torsion spring
These are used to transit small torque a helical spring is rotate about an axis to create load and
releases the load in the area around the axis

Lead spring
A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used in the suspension vehicales.

Spiral spring

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It is made of a band of steel wrapped around itself a number of time to create a geometric
shape.its inner end attached to an arbor and end is attached to a retaining drum.

Conical spring
A cone shaped helical spring is what a conical spring is in certain situation the conical spring is
the best option compared to the compression spring or any other spring.

Disc spring
It is conical shaped washer designed to be loaded in the axial direction only.disc spring can be
statically loaded

Nomenclature of spring:
Active coils
Those coils which are free to deflect under load.

Angular relationship of ends

The relative position of the plane of the hooks or loops of extension spring to each other.

Buckling
Bowing or lateral deflection of compression springs when compressed, related to the slenderness ration
(l/d).

Closed ends
Ends of compression springs where the pitch of the end coils is reduced so that the end coils touch.

Closed and ground ends

As with closed ends, except that the end is ground to provide a flat plane.
Close-wound coiled with adjacent coils touching.

Deflection
Motion of the spring ends or arms under the application or removal of an external load.

Elastic limit
Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without permanent set.

Endurance limit
Maximum stress at which any given material may operate indefinitely without failure for a given
minimum stress.

Free angle
Angle between the arms of a torsion spring when the spring is not loaded.

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Free length
The overall length of a spring in the unloaded position.

Frequency (natural)
The lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring itself (usually in cycles per second) with ends
restrained.

Hysteresis
The mechanical energy loss that always occurs under cyclical loading and unloading of a spring,
proportional to the are between the loading and unloading load-deflection curves within the elastic range
of a spring.

Initial tension
The force that tends to keep the coils of an extension spring closed and which must be overcome before
the coil starts to open.

Loops
Coil-like wire shapes at the ends of extension springs that provide for attachment and force application.
Mean coil diameter outside wire diameter minus one wire diameter.

Modulus in shear or torsion

Coefficient of stiffness for extension and compression springs.

Modulus in tension or bending

Coefficient of stiffness used for torsion and flat springs. (young's modulus).
Open ends, not ground end of a compression spring with a constant pitch for each coil.
Open ends ground
"opens ends, not ground" followed by an end grinding operation.
Permanent set a material that is deflected so far that its elastic properties have been exceeded and it does
not return to its original condition upon release of load is said to have taken a "permanent set".

Pitch
The distance from center to center of the wire in adjacent active coils.
Spring rate (or) stiffness (or) spring constant changes in load per unit of deflection, generally given in kilo
newton per meter. (kn/m).
Remove set the process of closing to a solid height a compression spring which has been coiled longer
than the desired finished length, so as to increase the elastic limit.
Set permanent distortion which occurs when a spring is stressed beyond the elastic limit of the material.

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Slenderness ratio
Ratio of spring length to mean coil diameter.

Solid height
Length of a compression spring when under sufficient load to bring all coils into contact with adjacent
coils.

Spring index
Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter.

Stress range
The difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads.
Squareness of ends angular deviation between the axis o a compression spring and a normal to the plane
of the other ends.
Squareness under load as in squareness of ends, except with the spring under load.

Torque
A twisting action in torsion springs which tends to produce rotation, equal to the load
Multiplied by the distance (or moment arm) from the load to the axis of the spring body. Usually
expressed in inch-oz, inch-pounds or in foot-pounds.
Total number of coils number of active coils plus the coils forming the ends.

Spring index:
The ratio between mean diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire.

Solid length:
It is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of the wire when the spring is in the compressed
state. It is otherwise called as solid height also.

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