11

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

Concrete is remarkably strong in compression but it is equally weak in

tension. Hence, the use of plain concrete as a structural material is limited to

situations where significant tensile stresses and strains do not develop.

In the past, attempts have been made to impart improvement in tensile

properties of concrete members by way of using conventional reinforced steel bars

and also by applying restraining techniques. Although, both these methods provide

tensile strength to the concrete members but they do not increase the inherent tensile

strength of concrete itself. In plain concrete structural cracks develop even before

loading particularly due to drying shrinkage. It has been recognized that the addition

of small, closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibres to concrete would act as a

crack arrestor and would substantially improve its static and dynamic properties. Fibre

reinforced concrete is increasingly used on account of the advantages of increased

static and dynamic tensile strength, energy absorption characteristics and better

fatigue strength. The strength of composite largely depends on the quantity of fibres

used. The increase in the volume of fibres increases the tensile strength and toughness

of the concrete. But if a higher percentage of fibre i.e. more than 2% is used, it is

likely to cause segregation and balling in concrete and in mortar.

Slurry infiltrated fibre concrete (SIFCON) is a special type of fibre reinforced

composite containing as much as 20% (by volume) of steel fibres (Lankard, 1985). In

conventional FRC, the fibre volume fraction is generally limited to about 2%. Mixing

and placing becomes difficult if the fibre volume exceeds 2%. Hence, a different
 12

construction technique was devised to increase the fibre volume fraction, leading to

the development of SIFCON. Because of its high fibre content, SIFCON has unique

properties in the areas of both strength and ductility. Preparation techniques,

mechanical properties of this new composite are presented in the following sections.

Although infiltration of fiber mats by cement matrices was undertaken more

than three decades ago, Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON) as it is known

today was introduced in 1979 by Mr. D. R. Lankard. Lankard pioneered

investigations of SIFCON's material properties and published several basic papers

concerning the mechanical properties of SIFCON composites, viable slurry mix

designs, practical specimen preparation procedures, and the documentation of

common problems encountered in SIFCON preparation and testing. Since SIFCON is

a relatively new construction material, very little literature about it exists at the

present time. However, a brief review of the existing literature is presented here to

give the background information necessary to understand this study.

The idea that concrete can be strengthened by fibre inclusion was first put

forward by Porter in 1910, but little progress was made in its development till 1963,

when Roumaldi and Batson carried out extensive laboratory investigations and

published their classical paper on the subject. Since then, there has been a great wave

of interest in applications of SFRC in many parts of the world.

2.2 Preparation of SIFCON

SIFCON is cast using a pre-placing technique in which fibres are placed in the

mould or on a substratum and infiltrated with cement based slurry. The fibres can be

sprinkled by hand or by using fibre dispersing units. The amount of fibres that can

be incorporated depends on fibre aspect ratio, fibre geometry, and placement

technique. More fibres can be incorporated if aspect ratios are low. The volume
 13

fraction can also be increased by using mild vibration. The fibre volumes typically

range from 5% to 20%.

One of the important aspects in the fabrication of SIFCON is fibre orientation.

In thin sections (less than 1in. or 25mm), fibres tend to orient themselves in two

dimensions. If the fibres are long, the two dimensional effect can be witnessed even

in thick sections. The fibre density at the edges of the mould can be much less,

compared to other locations. This problem can be more significant when cylinders

are prepared using preplaced fibre techniques (Lankard, 1985). One way to avoid the

fibre orientation problem is to cast a slab and obtain the test specimens by a coring

technique. Here again, attention should be paid to the orientation of fibres. If fibres

are aligned along the diameter of the cylinder, a much higher strength can be expected

compared to a cylinder in which fibres are aligned along the axis of the cylinder.

Fibres tend to align perpendicular to the direction of placement (Lankard, 1985). Fibre

orientation has even more significance for specimens subjected to bending.

2.3 Constituent materials and mix proportions

The primary constituent materials of SIFCON are steel fibres and cement-

based slurry. The slurry can contain only cement, cement and sand, or cement and

other additives. In most cases, high range water-reducing admixtures are used in

order to improve the flowability of the slurry without increasing the water-cement

ratio.

2.3.1. Fibres

A large variety of fibres have been investigated for use in SIFCON. These

include fibres with hooked ends, crimped fibres, surface deformed fibres, and straight

fibres (Lankard, 1985; Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1987; Mandragon, 1987; Homrich

and Naaman, 1987; Reinhardt and Fritz, 1989). In most of the applications in the
 14

United States, steel fibres with hooked ends have been used. The fibre lengths vary

from 30mm to 60mm (1.2 to 2.4 in.). The length-diameter ratios range from 60 to

100. Crimped and straight fibres have also been used for some applications.

Typically, a higher volume fraction of straight fibres can be incorporated compared to

deformed fibres. However, these types of fibre are very costly and for Indian

applications they have to be imported. Hence, there is a need to investigate the means

and methods of producing SIFCON with locally available low tensile strength steel

fibres.

2.3.2 Matrix

The matrix of SIFCON does not contain coarse aggregates. The matrix

compositions investigated include cement, cement-fly ash, cement-silica fume,

cement-sand-fly ash, and cement-sand-silica fume. Matrices containing filler

materials were found to have better shrinkage characteristics. Typically, silica fume

addition increases the strength, whereas the addition of fly ash or sand results in no

change or a slight decrease in strength (Balaguru and Shah, 1992).

2.3.3. Mix proportions

The primary variables are fibre content and matrix composition. A fibre

volume fraction of about 10% seems to provide optimal strength values (Balaguru and

Shah, 1992). However, the volume fraction is commonly controlled by the

construction technique rather than by strength. Typically, fibres are sprinkled into the

mould until it is completely filled. The volume fraction of fibres could differ

depending on the fibre placement technique and the fibre geometry.

The recommended water-cement ratio for the slurry (matrix) is 0.3. High-

range water-reducing admixtures can be used to improve the flowability of the slurry,

which should be thin enough to flow through the fibre bed without leaving
 15

honeycombs. The cement-to-sand ratio should be limited to 1:2. Only fine sand

should be used. If fly ash is used as an admixture, about 20% of the cement could be

replaced with fly ash. If silica fume is used, the recommended dosage is 10% by

weight of cement. The typical matrix strength varies from 9 to 13 ksi (60 to 90 MPa)

(Balaguru and Shah, 1992).

2.4 Engineering properties

2.4.1 Unit weight

The unit weight of SIFCON is typically higher than normal fibre reinforced

concrete because of the high fibre content. The matrix density is about 120 lb/ft3 (1.9

g/cm3). The addition of fibres results in an increase of density varying from 130 to

200 lb/ft3 (2.1 to 3.2 g/cm3). The unit weight increase is almost linearly proportional

to the fibre content (Lankard, 1985).

2.4.2 Behaviour in compression

The compressive strength of SIFCON can be as high as three times the matrix

strength. Typical matrix strengths for plain cement slurry vary from 9 to 13 ksi (60 to

90 MPa). SIFCON prepared using plain cement slurries attained a compressive

strength up to 27 ksi (190 MPa). The highest compressive strength reported for

SIFCON is 30 ksi (210 MPa) (Lankard, 1985). The composite is also very ductile as

compared to a plain matrix.

2.4.2.1 Compressive strength

Compressive strength of SIFCON depends on matrix strength, fibre

orientation, fibre volume fraction, and fibre geometry. Since fibres themselves do-not

break, the tensile strength of fibres does not influence the compressive strength of

SIFCON. (Balaguru, 1992). Table 2.1 presents the range of compressive strengths

obtained for various SIFCON matrix mix proportions and Table 2.2 present properties
 16

of different types of fibres used in SIFCON (An Yan et al., 2002; Homrich and

Naaman, 1987). Fibre addition provides increase of strength ranging from 50 to

100%. An increase in matrix strength resulted in an increase of SIFCON compressive

strength. Fibre geometries showed less influence than matrix strength.

Table 2.1 Slurry mix designs and strength values

Strength
Mix Relative Weight Water
Mix No. range
Constituents of Constituents Cementitious ratio
(ksi)**
Type 1 cement 1.00
Fly ash 0.20 Water
1. 7.5 to 17.0
Water 0.36 Cement + fly ash
Superplasticizer 0.03

Type 1 cement 1.00 Water

Fly ash 0.20 Cement + fly ash + 6.0 to 13.5
2. Silica fume* 0.20 silica fume
Water 0.36
Superplasticizer 0.02

Type 1 cement Water

Sand Cement + fly ash +
1.00 Expansion agent
Fly ash
1.29
Water
3. 0.19 12.5
Expansion agent
0.33
(To reduce
0.10
shrinkage in
mortar)

* A slurry of approximately 50% water and 50% amorphous silica particles by weight

** (1 ksi = 6.89 MPa).

Table 2.2 Fibre properties

Diameter
S.No. Fibre type Length (mm) Volume fraction
(mm)
(Vf)
1. Crimped 25 0.9 20 to 23
2. Hooked end 30 0.5 10 to 12
3. Deformed 30 0.5 10 to 12
4. Hooked end 31 0.51 4 to 10
 17

The composite strength is higher when fibres are oriented perpendicular to the

loading axis. It should be noted that even though predominant alignment is

perpendicular to the loading axis a few fibres are still aligned in other directions.

The effects of the water-cementitious and flyash-cementitious ratios on the

compressive strength of the composite have been studied by Mandragon (1987). (See

Fig. 2.1) 11.6% volume of steel fibres with hooked ends were used. The fibres were

30 mm (1.2 in.) long and had a diameter of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.). It is reported that the

matrix strength is the influencing factor for the composite compressive strength.

Higher matrix strength could be obtained by using a lower water-cement ratio or

lower fly ash content. The strength of the composite also increases with age as the

matrix matures to attain higher strengths (Mandragon, 1987).

Fig. 2.1 Influence of fly ash content on compressive strength (Mandragon, 1987)
Cored specimens sustain 15% to 30% more failure load than cast specimens

(Homrich and Naaman, 1987). The difference could be the result of better fibre

packing in the cored specimens.

An experimental investigation has been carried out on slurry with high

penetrability for production of self consolidating slurry infiltrated fibrous concrete by

Mohammed Sonebi et al. (2004). In this factorial experimental design was adopted to
 18

asses the combined effects of five independent variables viz. mini slump tests, plate

cohesion meter, induced bleeding test, J-Fibre penetration test and compressive

strength at 7 and 28 days strength. The independent variables investigated were the

proportion of lime stone powder and sand, the dosages of high range water reducing

admixture (Super plasticizer) and viscosity agent, and water-binder ratio. A two level

fractional factorial statistical method was used to model the influence of key

parameter on properties affecting the behaviour of fresh cement slurry and

compressive strength. The models are valid for mixes with 10 to 50% lime stone

powder as replacement of cement, 0.0 to 0.06% viscosity agents by mass of cement,

0.6 to 1.2% super-plasticizer and 50 to 150% sand (percent mass of binder) and 0.4 to

0.48 water binder ratios. The influence of lime stone powder, super plasticizer,

viscosity agent, sand and water binder ratio were characterized and analyzed using

polynomial regression, which identifies the primary factors and their interactions on

the measured properties, Mathematical polynomials were developed for mini slump,

plate cohesion meter, J-fibre penetration test, induced bleeding and compressive

strength as function of limestone powder, super plasticizer, viscosity agent, sand and

water binder ratio. The estimated results of the mini slump induced bleeding tests and

compressive strengths from the derived models are compared with results obtained

from previously proposed models that were developed for cement paste. The proposed

response models of the self-consolidating SIFCON offer useful information regarding

the mixture optimization to secure a high penetration of slurry with low compressive

strength.

Sashidhar (2005) reported the compressive strength characteristics of SIFCON

produced with low tensile strength of steel fibre (ultimate tensile strength of 390

N/mm2) using mineral admixtures like silica fume and metakaoline in the cement
 19

mortar. Fibres with 8 to 12% volume fraction and with aspect ratio of 40 to 60 mm

were used. The study reported an 88% increase in compressive strength for SIFCON

when compared to M20 concrete. It is further reported that the use of mineral

admixtures like silica fume and metakaoline in the matrix resulted in an increase of 11

to 14% in the compressive strength of SIFCON. This study suggested the need of

investigation on the behaviour of different SIFCON structural elements such as slabs

beams etc.

2.4.2.2 Stress- strain behaviour in compression

Even though SIFCON has higher compressive strength than other cement

composites, its uniqueness is much more important in the area of energy absorption

and ductility. A great energy absorbing capacity and a ductile mode of failure make

SIFCON suitable for applications involving impact, blast and earthquake loading

(Balaguru, 1992). Typical stress-strain (load-deformation) behaviour of SIFCON in

compression is presented in Fig. 2.2 (Lankard, 1985; Homrich and Naaman, 1987).
 20

Fig. 2.2 Typical load deflection behaviour in compression for 10.2x17.8 cm (4 x

7in.) cylinder SIFCON specimens (28 day for curing) containing 5.6% to
11.5% volume hooked end steel fibres (Lankard 1985).

The study of this figure leads to the following observations.

SIFCON has a large strain capacity.

The energy absorption could be 1 to 2 orders of magnitude higher than that of

a plain matrix.

Homrich and Naaman (1987) have suggested two equations to model the stress-

strain curve in compression. The ascending portion of the curve can be modeled by

(Fig. 2.3) the following equation.

c = max (1 (1 / max) A )

Where:

c = Compressive stress at a given value of strain,

max = Maximum SIFCON compression stress from cylinder test

max = Strain occurring at max

A = Eo (max / max )

Eo = Secant modulus
 21

Fig. 2.3 Schematic representation of the stress-strain curve of SIFCON

in compression (Homrich and Naman 1987)

The descending branch can be modeled by (Fig. 2.3)

c =(max - flat ) e ( -b m ( / max 1 ) m )

Where:

flat = Constant stress reached at the end of a compression test

infl = Stress at which the compression curve reverses curvature

infl = Strain at which the compression curve reverses curvature

m = { 1 + ln ( (infl - flat ) ) } 1

b = ( m 1 ) / ( m( infl - max ) )

2.4.3 Behaviour in tension

The tensile strength of SIFCON is about 2 ksi (14 MPa), compared to the

matrix strength of 1 ksi (7 MPa). Tension tests were conducted primarily using thin,

long dog bone-shaped specimens (see Fig. 2.4 b). (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1987;

Reinhardt and Fritz, 1989; Naaman and Homrich, 1989).

 22

The variables investigated include:

Fibre type and geometry consisting of straight, hooked-end and surface deformed

fibres.

Fibre volume fraction ranging from 5% to 13.8%.

Matrix formulation using admixtures and water-cement ratios ranging from

0.26 to 0.45.

The test specimens were either cut from SIFCON plates (Balaguru and

Kendzlak, 1987; Reinhardt and Fritz, 1989) or cast using Plexiglas molds

(Naaman and Homrich, 1989). Fibres were oriented randomly in cut

specimens and were placed parallel (as much as possible) to the loading

direction in cast specimens. The fibres were placed by hand and subjected to

vibration to obtain compaction of fibres.

(b) Beam

Fig. 2.4 Test specimens (Balaguru, 1992)

The following sections provide a brief review of the results.

2.4.3.1 Tensile strength

As mentioned earlier, the tensile strength of SIFCON is about twice the

strength of the matrix. Table 2.3 presents the tensile strengths obtained for various

combinations of matrix composition, fibre types, and fibre volume fractions. The

results indicate the following trends.

 23

Table.2.3 Typical tensile strengths of SIFCON (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1987;

Reinhardt and Fritz, 1989; Naaman and Homrich, 1989)
Tensile
Water Volume
Sample Matrix strength
cement Fibre type, l/d fraction Remarks
No. constituents (MPa)
ratio %

1 C + 10% SF 0.3 HE, 50/.5 5 13.6 19mm thick

2 C + 10% SF 0.3 HE, 50/.5 8 15.7 specimen
3 C only 0.45 DF, 30/.5 8.5 7.0
4 C only 0.45 ST, 25/.4 8.5 4.0
5 C only 0.45 HE, 30/.5 8.5 9.2
6 C only 0.45 HE, 30/.5 13.5 14.1 35mm thick
7 C only 0.45 HE, 60/.8 7.4 6.7 specimen
8 C only 0.45 EE, 25/.5 9.9 7.8
9 C only 0.45 HE, 50/.8+E.E. 6.5+4.0 6.9
10 C only 0.45 HE, 60/.8+E.E. 6.1+4.2 10.7
11 C + 20% FA 0.35 HE, 30/.5 11.7 15.6
12 C + 20% FA 0.35 DF, 30/.5 12.6 10.9 37mm thick
13 C + 25% FA 0.26 HE, 30/.5 12.1 15.7 specimen
14 C + 25% FA 0.26 DF, 30/.5 13.8 16.1

Weight of fly ash was included with the weight of cement for water-cement ratio.

C = Cement FA = fly ash SF = silica fume

d = diameter of fibre (mm) l = length of fibre (mm) HE = hooked ends
DF = deformed EE = deformed ST = straight

A matrix containing either fly ash or silica fume provides higher strength than

a plain matrix. A matrix containing silica fume provides the highest strength. Since

failure occurs by the debonding of fibres and the spalling of matrix, a denser matrix

can be expected to provide a better strength.

Lower water-cement ratios result in better matrix bonding and hence provide

higher tensile strengths. The differences are higher for fibres with relatively weak

bond strength. Fox example, in the case of hooked fibres that have good mechanical
 24

bond, lower water-cement ratios do not improve the strength significantly. Overall,

tensile strengths higher than 2 ksi (14 MPa) can be expected for matrices containing

silica fume and a fibre content of about 8% and matrices containing fly ash and a fibre

content of about 12%.

Sashidhar (2005) reported a maximum increase of 306% in tensile strength for

SIFCON when compared to M20 concrete based on his study on 150 x 300mm

cylinders. He observed that fibre aspect ratio has marginal effect on tensile strength of

SIFCON. The study reported a modulus of elasticity of 22.7 to 26.8 GPa for SIFCON.

2.4.3.2 Stress-strain behaviour in tension

As in the case of compression, SIFCON exhibits high ductility in the tension

mode, typical stress-strain curves obtained using various volume fractions are

presented in Fig. 2.5(Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1987). Fig. 2.5 shows the stress-strain

curves for specimens containing hooked-end fibres and a matrix made with silica

fume. The strains were computed over a gauge length of 4 in. (100 mm).

Fig. 2.5 Stress-strain behaviour in axial tension (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1987)

It can be observed that the stress-strain (load-deformation) curves have three

distinct regions. The first part, which is primarily elastic, is very steep. After the
 25

initiation of micro cracks, the curve becomes nonlinear representing post-crack

behaviour. A well-defined descending branch exists for all the fibre and matrix

combinations investigated. The specimens could sustain peak load at strains as great

as 2%. The ductility measured as area under the stress-strain curve up to 2% strain

could be as much as 1000 times that of a plain matrix.

The model for the descending branch of the curve (Fig.2.6) was proposed by

Naaman et al. (1993) to be used for flexural analysis. The following equations were

proposed for this model.

Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of the stress elongation curve of

SIFCON in tension

Ascending: t = tmax (1 (1 - / tmax)D )

Where:

tmax = 1/3 flat (Max tension stress of SIFCON)

D = Eti tmax / tmax

Ei = Initial tension modulus

tmax = smax + K Vf l/d (Strain at max tensile stress)

smax = 0.0005 (Ultimate strain of unreinforced slurry)

K = 0.00174 for hooked fibres and 0.00097 for deformed fibres.

 26

Descending branch: t = tmax (1 2k / )2

Where: k =1

= h (crack opening)

l = fibre length

h = depth of member recommended

Homrich and Naaman, (1987) go on to give approximations for flat (compression

plateau stress) and Eti (initial tangent modulus) based solely on a simple compression

tests of a SIFCON specimen. The approximations proposed by Homrich and Naaman

are:

plat = Vf l / d (200 + 8 max ) psi

flat = Vf l / d (1.4 + 0.66 max ) MPa

Eti = k1 Vf Ef + (1 Vf ) Em

Where: K1 = 1/30

Em = 1000 ksi (modulus of unreinforced slurry)

Ef = Modulus of elasticity of fibres.

2.4.4 Behaviour under flexural loading

In the most field applications, SIFCON is subjected to bending stress, at least

partially. Hence, the behaviour under flexural loading plays an important role in field

applications. Flexural tests have been conducted using SIFCON beams both under

static and cyclic loading. (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1986; Balaguru and Kendzulak,

1987; Lankard, 1984). Extensive experimental results reported (Balaguru and

Kendzulak, 1987) deal with 0.75 in (19mm) thick SIFCON beam specimens cut from

a slab. The specimens were 3 in (75 mm) wide and 14 in (350 mm) long (Fig.2.7) and

were tested over a simply supported span of 12 in (300mm) using a centre point load.
 27

The variables investigated are shown in Table 2.4. The investigation was designed to

evaluate the various fibre lengths, fibre contents, and matrix compositions.

3 in 0.75

14 in

Fig. 2.7 Test Specimen

Table 2.4 Fibre content and slurry composition used for flexural test specimens
(Balaguru. and Kendzulak, 1986)

Type of Fibre length Fibre content

Type of Slurry
specimen (mm) (%)

30 6,8,10,12
40 4,6,8,10
50 4,5,6,8 Cement + 10% Silica Fume
60 5,6,8,10
Beam

30,40 8 Cement
50,60
30 8 Cement + Sand (1:1, 1:1.5, 1:2)
Freeze thaw
beam 30,40
7 Cement + 10% Silica Fume
specimens 50,60

For all mixes: Water-Cement ratio = 0.3

Amount of high-range water-reducing admixture = 4.8% by weight of

cement.

The beams were tested using a Universal Testing Machine equipped with

servo control. The load-deflection responses were obtained by using x-y plotters. For

each variable, three beams were tested. The first beam was subjected to monotonic
 28

loading. The load was applied in deflection control up to maximum deflection of 0.75

inches (19mm), which was the thickness of the beam. The typical load deflection

response is shown in Fig. 2.8a. The second beam was subjected to a cyclic loading

ranging from 10% to 100% of ultimate load. Since the beam is very ductile, for every

cycle, the load was increased until the peak load was reached, (Fig. 2.8b). The test

was terminated when the maximum deflection reached 0.75 in (19mm). The third

specimen was subjected to reverse cyclic loading, in which the load varied from the

peak load in one direction to the peak load in the other direction (Fig. 2.8c). The test

was terminated when the deflection in one direction reached 0.35 in. (9mm).

The strength and ductility characteristics observed in these tests are discussed

in the following two sections

2.4.4.1 Flexural strength

Table 2.5 presents the flexural strengths for four fibre lengths and various

fibre contents together with the compressive strengths of slurry obtained using

companion cube specimens. The flexural strength was computed using the average

maximum load of all three specimens. In the case of specimens subjected to cyclic

loading, the maximum load was taken as the maximum reached in the first cycle. The

flexural strength, ftmax was computed using the classical bending theory equation for a

M d
homogeneous elastic section. f t max x
I 2

Where M = maximum moment

I = moment of inertia

d = total thickness of the beam.

 29

Fig. 2.8: (a-c) Load deflection curves: 19mm thick specimens

(Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1986)

Fig.2.8 (a c) Load deflection curves 19mm thick specimens (Balaguru

and Kendzulak, 1986)
 30

The beam behaviour at ultimate load is neither elastic nor homogenous; hence the

apparent stresses should be used only as a relative indicator.

Table 2.5 Flexural strength of SIFCON (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1986)

Fibre Fibre Apparent Compressive

(Length / dia.) volume maximum strength
(mm) (%) stress (ksi) of slurry (ksi)
6 8.0 11.9
8 9.0 12.7
30/ .50 10 13.3 11.0
12 9.1 11.7
4 6.8 9.6
6 9.8 11.6
40/ .50 8 10.9 11.1
10 11.1 9.7
4 5.3 11.6
5 8.5 11.0
50/ .50 6 11.4 9.2
8 10.7 10.9
5 7.2 11.9
6 7.8 12.1
60/ .80 8 10.5 11.5
10 9.2 9.2

Fig. 2.9 presents the variation of flexural strength for the various fibre contents

and fibre lengths. A study of Table 2.5 and Fig. 2.9 leads to the following

observations.
 31

Fig. 2.9 Flexural strength vs. fibre content (Balaguru and Kendzulak, 1986)

The flexural strength of SIFCON is an order of magnitude greater than the

flexural strength of normal fibre reinforced concrete.

For a constant fibre length, the flexural strength increases with the volume

fraction of fibre only up to a certain limit. After a certain fibre loading, the

bond strength decreases because of the lack of matrix in between the fibres,

thus reducing the flexural strength. The optimum fibre content seems to be in

the range of 8% to 10%.

The optimum fibre volume seems to decrease with an increase in fibre length.

For the same fibre volume, longer fibres provide a slight increase in flexural

strength. The maximum apparent flexural strength seems to level off around

11 ksi (76 MPa).

Sashidhar (2005) reported a whopping 375% increase in flexural strength for

SIFCON when compared to M20 concrete based on his study on flexural beams of

150x150x 600mm size. It also reported that mineral admixtures like silicafume and

metakaoline contributed an increase of 17 to27% in flexural strength of SIFCON.

 32

2.4.4.2 Load deflection behaviour in flexure

The load deflection behaviour of SIFCON (Fig. 2.10a) is quite different from

the load deflection behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete. The curves have a short linear

elastic response and a considerable plateau at the peak. The beams can also sustain a

high percentage of peak loads (more than 80% of peak load) even at large deflections.

The load carrying capacity does not diminish even under reverse cyclic loading (Fig.

2.10 b).

Fig.2.10(a). Typical load deflection behaviour in flexure for SIFCON

containing 4.9% to 13.9% volume hooked and steel wire fibre
(deformed ends) and for conventional SFRC 10x10x35 cm
(4x4x14in.) beam specimens, third-point loading, 30 cm (12 in.)
span (Lankard, 1985)

While fibre length and fibre volume fraction influence flexural strength (Fig.

2.10) the ductility is not affected by either of the variables. (Fig. 2.10a), (Balaguru

and Kendzulak, 1987).

Plain cement slurry, cement plus silica fume slurry and cement plus sand

slurry when used as matrices resulted in the same type of load deflection response.

The beams made with all three matrix types were highly ductile. Specimens that were

4 in. (100 mm) and 6 in. (150 mm) thick show a lesser rotation capacity (Lankard,

1984; Mandragon, 1987) compared to 0.75 in. (19 mm) specimens. This results in a
 33

Fig. 2.10(b) Flexural strength comparison of SIFCON and reinforced concrete

(Marchand, 1988)

faster drop in load carrying capacity after peak load (Fig. 2.10). The explanation is

that higher strain capacities are needed for thicker beams to produce the same amount

of rotation.

The specific objectives of the present research as outlined in Section 1.4 is to

model SIFCON slab elements with and without different size and shape openings at

different locations and to investigate their behaviour under flexure. The literature

survey indicated that very little information is available on the behaviour of SIFCON

slab elements. However, few works are reported on behaviour of R.C.C, FRC and

Ferro cement slab panels. In the present work, it is proposed to study the behaviour of

SIFCON slab elements with different fibre volume fractions in comparison to other

slab elements. Accordingly brief review of state of art available on slab elements is

presented in the following section.

2.5 Literature review of slab elements

Wood (1961) was considered as the leader among researchers to develop a

rigorous mathematical solution for the analysis of membrane action in clamped and
 34

simply supported reinforced concrete circular slabs. The slabs were considered to be

isotropically reinforced in the radial and circumferential directions and subjected to

uniformly distributed loading. The analysis was based on establishing a yield criterion

containing the membrane stresses. The relationship between the bending moment (M)

and the membrane force (N), taken to act at mid-depth, was given in non-dimensional

form.

Wood also conducted some tests on reinforced concrete square slabs of

(1.727m) length and (57.1 mm) thickness, restrained at the boundaries and subjected

to 16 point loading distributed over the entire surface of the slab to represent the case

of uniform loading.

Aron Zaslavsky (1967) presented a yield line analysis for simply supported

rectangular concrete slabs (isotropically reinforced) with central rectangular openings,

under uniformly distributed load. The three possible yield line patterns (mechanisms)

are analyzed and design diagrams were derived for rapid determination of the correct

mechanism and the required ultimate moment. Numerical examples are also provided.

Adrian E Long (1975) presented formulae for isotropically reinforced square

slabs supported on square columns. Application to relevant test results reported in the

literature indicated that the formulae represent a significant improvement over

previous methods which are largely empirically based.

Al-Hassani (1978) outlined new concepts for the plastic behaviour of materials

with tension cracks based on flow rules and applied them to problems of axially

restrained concrete slabs. He presented a theoretical as well as experimental

investigation on the elastic plastic behaviour of R.C. slab strips including the effect of

the elastic shortening of the strips, the elastic deformation of the surrounding elements

in addition to the effect of physical gap at the supports.

 35

Mudhafar A Ghalib (1980) reported an analytical approach based on

experimental data to determine the ultimate moment capacity and the cracking

moment of fiber reinforced concrete slabs. Assuming a certain failure mechanism,

prediction equations were developed that give the moment capacities, once the split

tensile strength of the fiber reinforced concrete and the thickness of the slabs are

known. The analytical predictions matched well with the experimental data for both

the one way and two way slabs.

Parameswaren et al. (1990) reported the behaviour of high volume percentage

steel fibre mortar slab specimens subjected to flexure. Flexural and cyclic load tests

were conducted. In addition, comparison tests were made on conventional fibre

mortar and ferrocement specimens. Both strength and deflection characteristics were

studied. The results of the investigation indicate that with 8% high volume, steel fibre

mortar specimens posses a flexural strength of about 40 MPa.

Vecchio and Collins (1990) investigated the ultimate load carrying capacity of

an orthotropically reinforced concrete flat slab subjected to uniform loading. The

structure was analyzed by using a computer program taking into account material

non-linearity (for both concrete and reinforcement), geometric non-linearity,

membrane action, temperature degradation of material strength and various other

influencing factors. Results indicate that non-linear effects in reinforced concrete

slabs and most notably membrane action can result in affect floor load capacities

more than the design values.

Vecchio & Tank g (1990) discussed the formation and influence of

compressive membrane action in reinforced concrete slabs. An experimental program

is described, in which two large-scale slab specimens were tested under concentrated

mid span loads. One slab was restrained against lateral expansion at the ends, while
 36

the other was free to elongate. The laterally restrained specimen developed high axial

compressive forces, which resulted in a significant increase in flexural stiffness and

load capacity. A nonlinear analysis procedure was used to model specimen behaviour.

The analysis method was found to adequately represent important second-order

effects, and thus gave reasonably accurate predictions of load deformation response

and ultimate load.

Desayi et al. (1992) proposed a method to determine the span to effective

depth ratios of simply supported (as well as continuous) rectangular concrete slabs. In

this method they computed the total deflection of the slab as the sum of the short-term

deflection and long term deflection. The calculation of shor-term deflections proposed

by Desayi depends on the value of deflection coefficient which is given by

Timoshenko and Krieger (1959). However, in Timoshenko and Krieger the value of

deflection coefficient is given for one condition only. The design charts presented by

Desayi are suitable to different conditions.

Kuang Fang et al. (1994) reported the behaviour of 18 partially restrained

reinforced concrete slabs with isotropic reinforcements under concentrated load. The

primary variables included concrete strength, grade of steel reinforcement, thickness

of slab, and the degree of fixity at support. Test results indicated that all the slabs

finally failed by punching. The key elements determining the load capacity of thick

slabs (115mm) were concrete strength and thickness. The amount of steel did not

significantly affect the load capacity, whereas for thin slabs (75mm), the load capacity

was primarily dominated by flexural capacity. Slabs having lower reinforcement

content exhibited greater intensity and longer existence of the state of compressive

membrane action if they had the same span-to-depth ratio and thickness.
 37

Mayerhofer Chr (1994) reported the response of reinforced SIFCONslabs

under static and dynamic loading conditions. The bending capacity and energy

absorption were calculated. The bending capacity as well as the energy absorption

capacity proved to be much higher compared to normally reinforced concrete. The

increasing brittle behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs with increasing reinforcement

was not observed with reinforced SIFCON slabs.

Hideaki Saito et al. (1995) reported the loading capacities, deformations and

failure modes of various types of reinforced-concrete structures subjected to loads

applied at various rates. Flat slabs, slabs with beams and cylindrical walls were tested

under static, low speed and high speed loading. FE (finite element) analysis was

applied to estimate the test results using a layered shell element. The analysis closely

simulated the experimental results until punching shear failure occurred.

Maria Anna Polak (1996) presented a simple procedure for calculating

deflections of reinforced concrete two-way slab. The material model for reinforced

concrete based on the effective stiffness approach has been implemented in a finite-

element program incorporating Mindlin-plate-bending elements. Uncracked concrete

is treated as an isotropic linear elastic material, and after cracking, the concrete is

considered to be an orthotropic material. The reduced stiffness coefficients after

cracking are calculated from the effective moments of inertia in the x- and y-

directions. These effective moments of inertia are determined using the formula

proposed by Branson (1963). The influence of both bending and torsional moments is

included in the formulation. The proposed model has been verified by comparisons

with results from tests on slabs with various loading and boundary conditions.

Craig et al. (1998) presented test results of eight one way concrete slabs

reinforced with glass fibre, carbon fibre and conventional steel reinforcements. The
 38

slabs were tested under static loading conditions to determine their flexural and shear

limit states, including the behaviour prior to cracking, cracking, ultimate capacities

and modes of failure. Based on this investigation design recommendations and

guidelines were proposed.

Lok and Xiao (1999) derived the explicit expressions for steel fibre reinforced

concrete (SFRC) material to obtain first crack and ultimate flexural strengths. In the

analytical model, the direct tensile strength and the product of bond strength and fiber

aspect ratio (L/d) were used as parameters. The bond-aspect ratio index and fiber

volume fraction play important roles in influencing the flexural behaviour of SFRC.

Calculated flexural strengths using the derived explicit expressions were compared

with experimental data on SFRC beams and slabs. Good agreement between

calculated strengths and experimental data is obtained.

Manuel Alvarez et al. (2000) presented the results of bending tests on three

continuous reinforced concrete slab strips and compared them with calculations

according to linear, nonlinear, and limit analysis approaches, as well as with ACI 318

code. It is demonstrated that the reduced ductility properties of cold-deformed and

coiled small-diameter reinforcing bars and wires may result in dangerous strain

localizations, impairing rotation capacity, permissible moment redistribution, and

ultimate strength. A nonlinear analysis method for refined deformation investigations

is presented and minimum ductility requirements for reinforcing steel are suggested

Huang et al. (2002) studied the static behaviour of a new type of fibre

reinforced composite slab that spans in two directions. This new two-way slab uses a

particulate filled resin core and is capable of carrying high loads at a cost similar to

steel and concrete slabs. The slab is constructed using pre-fabricated modules. Both

small and large slab structures can be constructed using this manufacturing method.
 39

Results for a number of single module tests were presented in this paper together with

experimental results for two small-scale slabs.

Alavaro Vasquez and Karbhari (2003) investigated the flexural response of

reinforced concrete slabs with cutouts and strengthened through adhesive bonding of

prefabricated unidirectional carbon/epoxy composite strips. Large scale slabs of size 6

x 3.02 x 0.18 m were tested in two loading configurations, along and perpendicular to

the span, with central cutouts of size 1.0 x 1.6 m. Cutouts were formed after casting of

slabs to simulate actual field conditions, with two slabs being strengthened by the

application of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite strips around the cutout to

strengthen the area now lacking steel reinforcement and to redistribute stresses. It is

shown that the appropriate design of the strengthening measure enables capacity

reduced by the presence of the cutout to be regained while mitigating and retarding

crack growth. Ultimate failure was through a sequence of cracking and de-bonding of

the FRP composite reinforcing strips with a decrease in load capacity after de-

bonding.

Cabrillac et al. (2003) aimed at to remove the steel cages in reinforced

concrete structures, to simplify the realization of building by avoiding the transport of

voluminous and massive cages and by reducing the number of material handling

equipment. The use of short fibres introduced into the concrete during mixing is an

attractive but unsatisfactory solution. Indeed, the range of fibre volumes conferring an

acceptable workability on the freshly mixed concrete allows only a reduced

mechanical effectiveness. The use of continuous fibres has an unquestionable

advantage in term of resistance. In this article they have undertaken a study on

mortars reinforced by two main types of continuous fibres: epoxy carbon grids and

carbon or glass yarn.

 40

Masood et al. (2003) studied the performance of ferrocement panels under

normal, moderate, and hostile environments. These conditions were created using

potable and saline water for mixing and curing. Fly ash was also used as partial

replacement of cement. The ferrocement slab panels cast with varying number of

woven and hexagonal mesh layers were tested under flexure. Compressive and tensile

strength of control specimens and load carrying capacity of the panels under flexure

with and without fly ash were investigated. Addition of fly ash in different

environments affects the flexural strength of panel for both woven and hexagonal wire

fabric.

Pilakoutas and Lix (2003) studied about the validation of a patented shear

reinforcement system for reinforced concrete flat slabs. The system called shear band

consists of elongated thin steel strips punched with holes which undulate into the slab

from the top surface. The advantage of the new reinforcement system is structural

effectiveness, flexibility, simplicity and speed of construction. The slabs reinforced in

shear exhibited ductility behaviour after achieving the full flexural potential, thus

proving the effectiveness of the new reinforcement. The results were compared with

ACI 318 and BS 8110 codes, which confirm that the system enabled the slabs to avoid

punching shear failure and achieve their flexural potential. Both codes are shown to

lead to conservative estimates of flexural and punching shear capacities of reinforced

concrete slabs.

Magdy et al. (2004) carried out research concerns with experimental study of

repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete slabs using advanced techniques.

These techniques include Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), ferrocement mix

with expanded wire mesh, and steel strips. Twelve reinforced concrete slabs having

dimensions of 140506 cm with effective span of 120 cm are used to apply the
 41

evaluated repair and strengthening techniques. 6mm diameter bars are used to

reinforce the slabs. The spacing between bars was 6.25 cm in the main direction and

15.5 cm in the other direction. The tested slabs are divided into four groups. First

group was not subjected to any loads at first and then strengthened by three different

techniques. The fourth group was loaded till failure, then repaired and tested again

after repairing. The second and the third groups were loaded up to 60% and 80% of

the failure load, then repaired by the three mentioned methods of repair and then

tested to evaluate the efficiency of the repairing methods. The slabs strengthened and

repaired by carbon fiber reinforced polymer showed best results. The slabs repaired

by ferrocement with expanded wire mesh showed less result but they were better than

those repaired using steel strips. Comparisons for different techniques of repair and

strengthening regarding load-deflection curves are presented along with crack pattern

and deflection of slabs at load increments. This investigation proves and compares the

efficiency of strengthening and repair techniques for reinforced concrete slabs greatly

needed for repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures.

Marco Arduini et al. (2004) presented the experimental research conducted on

full-scale one way reinforced concrete (RC) slabs. The 26 slabs with and without an

overhang at one extremity were tested under simply supported conditions, the

geometry and loading configuration allowed for the study of positive and negative

moment regions. The slabs were strengthened with unidirectional carbon fibre

reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates installed by manual lay-up. Different failure

mechanisms namely concrete shear; concrete crushing, CFRP rupture, and CFRP

peeling were obtained by varying the CFRP laminate cross sectional area and amount

of internal steel reinforcement. The findings confirm the notion that peeling (that is,

delamination) of the CFRP laminate affects the system performance.

 42

Mukesh Shukla and Choubey (2004) carried out an experimental program to

investigate the behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete slabs under cyclic

compressive loading. Tests on cylindrical specimens, containing steel fibres in

different proportions i.e. 1 percent and 2 percent by volume of concrete have been

conducted to establish the stress-strain envelope curve, common point curve and

stability curve. An analytical expression was proposed to represent these curves. It

was also observed that the permissible stress level depends on the plastic strain

present in the material.

Ncmityongskul et al. (2004) investigated the structural performance of

ferrocement manhole covers by using a new type of galvanized crimped woven square

wire mesh as reinforcement and high strength motor as matrix. The load carrying

capacity of covers subjected to vertical patch load was investigated and the results

compared with those of existing cast iron manhole covers. A cost analysis was also

conducted. Twenty two ferrocement manhole covers were cast and tested. The

influence of number of wire mesh layers, diameter of skeletal steel and thickness of

ferrocement manhole covers was examined. The number of wire mesh layers and

diameter of skeletal steel had a significant effect on the load carrying capacities. It

was found that ferrocement manhole cover could be used to replace cast iron man-

hole covers with regard to their load carrying capacities. The performance compared

favorably with commercially available cast iron manholes covers. The proposed

ferrocement manhole covers are significantly cheaper and lighter than cast iron

manhole covers.

Sarat Kumar Das (2004) reviewed the design approach for RC slabs given in

the Indian standard code for design of plain and reinforced concrete structures (IS

456:2000) and a method for direct design of singly reinforced rectangular concrete
 43

slabs to simultaneously satisfy the condition of bending and the serviceability is

presented. Design charts are provided allowing practical application of this method to

enable the design engineer to adjust the steel reinforcement and depth. Design charts

are also provided to find out effective depth when the area of steel to resist the

bending is just adequate for deflection criteria.

Shruin Wang et al. (2004) reported the bending response of hybrid

ferrocement thin plates reinforced with meshes and fibers. They compared the results

with conventional ferrocement composite plates. Three types of meshes including two

expanded steel meshes and one FRP mesh, combined with two types of synthetic

fibers were investigated. The test results show that even at a high volume fraction of

6.73%, the expanded steel mesh can still be effectively used as reinforcement of

ferrocement slabs.

Umesh Dhargalkar (2004) derived a closed form solution for designing a

simply supported one way slab loaded by a strip load along the span. Young-Ju Kim

et al. (2004) investigated the contribution of the slabs and the effects of three types of

retrofit methods. The test result indicated that the strains near the bottom flange of the

composite beam connections were several times larger than those of the bare steel

beam connections, resulting in a higher potential of fracture. Therefore, the slab

effects are detrimental to the seismic behaviour of the connection and should be

considered in the design.

Al-shimmary (2005) studied the effect of membrane action in uniformly

loaded, isotropically reinforced concrete rectangular slabs either fixed along two

parallel edges with one edge simply supported and one edge free or simply supported

along two parallel edges with one edge fixed and one edge free. In either type, two

cases were investigated depending on whether the free edge of the slab is a short or a
 44

long edge; the slabs were found to carry loads more than the corresponding loads

predicted by Johansens simple yield line theory.

Ali R Khallo and Majid Afshari (2005) investigated the influence of length

and volumetric percentage of steel fibers on energy absorption of concrete slabs with

various concrete strengths by testing 28 small fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) slabs

under flexure. Variables included; fibre length, volumetric percentage of fibres and

concrete strength. Test results indicate that generally longer fibres and higher fibre

content provide higher energy absorption.

Gilbert and Guo (2005) described the experimental program of long-term

testing of large-scale reinforced concrete flat slab structures. The results from test on

seven continuous flat slab specimens are presented. Each specimen was subjected to

sustained service loads for periods up to 750 days and the deflection, strains, extent of

cracking and column loads were monitored throughout. The measured long-term

deflection is many times the initial short-term deflection. This effect is not accounted

for adequately in the current coded approaches for deflection calculation and control.

The results form a benchmark set of data from which more reliable deflection

calculation procedures can be developed and calibrated.

Sudarsana Rao et al. (2005) concluded through their experimental studies that

the absorption of impact energy is more in SIFCON slab specimens with conventional

steel reinforcement than the SIFCON slab specimens without reinforcement. Energy-

absorption capacity of SIFCON slabs increases with increase of fibre volume. The

SIFCON slabs absorb more energy when compared with the FRC and RCC slab

specimens both at first crack and at ultimate impact strengths. Energy-absorption

capacity of conventionally reinforced SIFCON slabs with 8%, 10% and 12% fibres is

300%, 185% and 194%higher, respectively, when compared to SIFCON slabs without
 45

conventional reinforcement at ultimate stage. At first crack stage, the energy-

absorption capacity of conventionally reinforced SIFCON slabs with 8%, 10% and

12% fibres is4125%, 8350% and 28066% higher, respectively, when compared to

SIFCON slabs without conventional reinforcement. Energy-absorption capacity of

unreinforced SIFCON slabs are1.32%, 451%, 253% and 415,809% higher,

respectively, when compared with unreinforced FRC, RCC and PCC slabs at ultimate

stage. The damage under impact in reinforced SIFCON slabs is less when compared

with SIFCON slabs without conventional reinforcement. The damage in FRC and

RCC slabs is comparatively more than that in SIFCON slabs.

Martin Lemieux et al. (2005) presented the results of comprehensive

experimental investigation to assess the suitability of using thin bonded concrete

overlays as an effective rehabilitation technique for concrete bridge decks. Nine 3.3 x

1.0 x 0.2m reinforced concrete slab panels with various configurations and different

types of repair concrete were investigated.

Salman (2006) studied the effect of membrane action in uniformly loaded

orthotropically reinforced concrete rectangular slabs having three fixed edges with

one simply supported edge, two cases were investigated depending on whether the

simply supported edge of the slab is short or long edge. The slabs were found to

sustain loads more than those predicted by Johansens yield line theory.

Sahagian (2006) studied the effect of membrane action in uniformly loaded,

isotropically reinforced concrete rectangular slabs either fixed along two adjacent

edges with one edge simply supported and one edge free; or simply supported along

two adjacent edges with one edge fixed and one edge free. In either type, two cases

were investigated depending on whether the free edge of the slab is short or a long
 46

edge; study showed that the slabs can sustain loads higher than those predicted by

Johansens yield line theory.

Venkata Ramana (2006) has reported the strength and stiffness characteristics

of SIFCON slabs under flexure, punching shear and Impact in his thesis (PhD). From

the experimental investigation it was noticed that, the SIFCON slabs with 8, 10, and

12% volume fraction of fibres shown the superiority when compared with FRC(2%

volume fraction of fibre) and PCC slabs. For evaluation of strengths of SIFCON

slabs Yield Line analysis has been carried out for Flexure and regression models were

developed for shear and impact. The results are made aggrement with experimental

values.

Yaseen (2006) studied the effect of membrane action in uniformly loaded

orthotropically reinforced concrete rectangular slabs restrained along two adjacent

edges and simply supported along the other two edges. The slabs were found to carry

loads higher than those predicted by Johansens simple yield line theory.

Abd AlRazaak (2006) studied the effect of membrane action in orthotropically

reinforced concrete rectangular slabs restrained on two opposite sides and simply

supported along the remaining sides, subjected to a uniformly distributed load. The

slabs were found to carry loads higher than those predicted by Johansens simple

yield line theory and the ratio of yield load to yield line theory collapse load was

greatest for thin slabs.

Sharma and Singh (2008) investigated the experimental program to study the

structural behaviour of SIFCON slabs. Thirty slab specimens corresponding to five

test series were tested to study load deformation behaviour, ductility associated

parameters, ultimate moment capacity and failure characteristics. The results are

compared with analytical results and a good agreement is exhibited. SIFCON slabs
 47

demonstrated improved strength and ductility related properties. The failure

characteristics present multicrack behaviour with densely packed cracking. An

appropriate design method to evaluate ultimate moment capacity is finally, presented.

Sudarsana Rao et al. (2009) investigated the influence of volume percentage of

steel fibres on strength and stiffness characteristics of slurry infiltrated fibrous

concrete (SIFCON) slabs by testing nine numbers of SIFCON slabs under flexural

loading. In order to compare the results, three numbers of fibre reinforced concrete

(FRC) slabs and three numbers of plain cement concrete (PCC) slabs are taken as

control specimens. The test results indicate that the SIFCON slabs exhibit high

strength, high energy absorption and more ductility characteristics compared to the

control specimens. SIFCON slabs with higher fibre volume fraction (12%fibre

volume) exhibit superior performance among other slab specimens. Analysing the

crack patterns noticed in the experimentation, yield line analysis has been performed

and the bending moment coefficients for SIFCON slabs are calculated.

Venkateshwara Rao et al. (2010) carried out some preliminary investigations

using different fiber resin ratios for preparing GFRP bars and an optimum fiber resin

ratio of 7:3 was arrived. The tensile strength of GFRP bars is comparable to that of

the mild steel as per the tests carried out, but the modulus of elasticity is about 25-30

percentage of that of steel bars. This paper deals with the preliminary investigations

carried out on small slab panels supported on all four edges with effective spans of

0.9m x 0.6m which is a part of large research problem undertaken with different ratios

of long span to short span with different support conditions. The test results are

compared with similar slab panels reinforced with conventional mild steel bars

Elsaigh, Robberts and Kearsley (2011) provided a modelling approach that

can be used to model the behaviour of SFRC concrete and SFRC ground slabs. An
 48

improved generalized analytical method is presented to determine the tensile stress-

strain (-) response using an inverse analysis. The tensile - response is determined

by using either the experimental moment-curvature (M-) or load-deflection (P-)

responses. The validity of the inverse analysis is evaluated by comparing calculated

and measured tensile - responses. The tensile - response is subsequently utilized

in nonlinear finite-element analysis of an SFRC beam with the purpose of examining

the tensile - relationship. The calculated results compare well with the experimental

observations.

2.6 Literature review on FE analysis of slabs

A brief review of previous studies on the application of the finite element

method to the analysis of concrete structures is presented is this section. A more

detailed description of the underlying theory and the application of the finite element

method to the analysis of linear and nonlinear reinforced concrete structures is

presented in excellent state of-the-art reports by the American Society of Civil

Engineers in 1982 (ASCE 1982) and 1985 (Meyer and Okamura, eds. 1985).

One of the earliest published works concerning the application of the finite

element method to reinforced concrete slabs was by Zienkiewicz in 1964. In this

work, Zienkiewicz extended the general finite element method to flat plates and

presented the formulation for boundary conditions typical to these systems. The linear

elastic isotropic analysis was extended to orthotropic slab systems with variable

thickness, and the ease with which a slab can be analytically coupled to frame

members or an elastic foundation was presented. Several examples demonstrate

excellent agreement between finite element solutions for deflections and moments and

those of available exact solutions.

 49

The earliest publication on the application of the finite element method to the

analysis of RC structures was presented by Ngo and Scordelis (1967). In their study,

simple beams were analyzed with a model in which concrete and reinforcing steel

were represented by constant strain triangular elements, and a special bond link

element was used to connect the steel to the concrete and describe the bond-slip

effect. A linear elastic analysis was performed on beams with predefined crack

patterns to determine principal stresses in concrete, stresses in steel reinforcement and

bond stresses. Since the publication of this pioneering work, the analysis of reinforced

concrete structures has enjoyed a growing interest and many publications have

appeared. Scordelis et al. (1974) used the same approach to study the effect of shear

in beams with diagonal tension cracks and accounted for the effect of stirrups, dowel

shear, aggregate interlock and horizontal splitting along the reinforcing bars near the

support.

Nilson (1972) introduced nonlinear material properties for concrete and steel

and a nonlinear bond-slip relationship into the analysis and used an incremental load

method of nonlinear analysis. Four constant strain triangular elements were combined

to form a quadrilateral element by condensing out the central node. Cracking was

accounted for by stopping the solution when an element reached the tensile strength,

and reloading incrementally after redefining a new cracked structure. The method was

applied to concentric and eccentric reinforced concrete tensile members which were

subjected to loads applied at the end of the reinforcing bars and the results were

compared with experimental data.

Franklin (1970) advanced the capabilities of the analytical method by

developing a nonlinear analysis which automatically accounted for cracking within

finite elements and the redistribution of stresses in the structure. This made it possible
 50

to trace the response of two dimensional systems from initial loading to failure in one

continuous analysis. Incremental loading with iterations within each increment was

used to account for cracking in the finite elements and for the nonlinear material

behaviour. Franklin used special frame-type elements, quadrilateral plane stress

elements, axial bar members, two-dimensional bond links and tie links to study

reinforced concrete frames and RC frames coupled with shear walls.

Plane stress elements were used by numerous investigators to study the

behaviour of reinforced concrete frame and wall systems. Nayak and Zienkiewicz

(1972) conducted two dimensional stress studies which include the tensile cracking

and the elasto-plastic behaviour of concrete in compression using an initial stress

approach. Cervenka (1970) analyzed shear walls and spandrel beams using an initial

stress approach in which the elastic stiffness matrix at the beginning of the entire

analysis is used in all iterations. Cervenka proposed a constitutive relationship for the

composite concrete-steel material through the un-cracked, cracked and plastic stages

of behaviour.

For the analysis of RC beams with material and geometric nonlinearities

Rajagopal (1976) developed a layered rectangular plate element with axial and

bending stiffness in which concrete was treated as an orthotropic material. RC beam

and slab problems have also been treated by many other investigators (Lin and

Scordelis 1975; Bashur and Darwin 1978; Rots et al. 1985; Barzegar and Schnobrich

1986; Adeghe and Collins 1986; Bergmann and Pantazopoulou 1988; Cervenka et al.

1990; Kwak 1990) using similar methods.

Bashur and Darwin (1978) developed a non-layered finite element reinforced

concrete model in which a nonlinear variation in material properties could be

represented through the depth of the slab. In this study, concrete was modeled as
 51

nonlinear in compression and linearly brittle in tension, and steel was treated

uniaxially with a bilinear stress-strain curve. Flat plates were modeled as anisotropic

plates that were incrementally elastic. Numerical results showed that representation of

cracking as a continuous process provides favorable results, and that smaller load

increments provide more accurate results after cracking and/or yielding begins. The

nonlinear aspects incorporated in this model allow for accurate determination of the

load-deflection behaviour of the flat plate.

Two basically different approaches have been used so far for the analysis of

RC slabs by the finite element method: the modified stiffness approach and the layer

approach. The former is based on an average moment-curvature relationship which

reflects the various stages of material behaviour, while the latter subdivides the finite

element into imaginary concrete and steel layers with idealized stress-strain relations

for concrete and reinforcing steel.

Experimental and analytical studies of RC slabs were conducted by Joffriet

and McNeice (1971). The analyses were based on a bilinear moment-curvature

relation which was derived from an empirically determined effective moment of

inertia of the cracked slab section including the effect of tension stiffening. The

change in bending stiffness of the elements due to cracking normal to the principal

moment direction is accounted for by reducing the flexural stiffness of the

corresponding element i.e. Jofriet and McNiece conducted some of the earliest

research in this area. Their work derived a slab analysis model based on the effects of

cracking, capable of representing the orientation of cracking with respect to the slabs

coordinate system, the rigidity of the cracked region when the section has exceeded

the cracking moment, and the rigidity of steel with relation to the crack direction.
 52

Dotroppe et al. (1973) used a layered finite element procedure in which slab

elements were divided into layers to account for the progressive cracking through the

slab thickness. Scanlon and Murray (1974) have developed a method of incorporating

both cracking and time-dependent effects of creep and shrinkage in slabs. They used

layered rectangular slab elements which could be cracked progressively layer by

layer, and assumed that cracks propagate only parallel and perpendicular to

orthogonal reinforcement. Lin and Scordelis (1975) utilized layered triangular finite

elements in RC shell analysis and included the coupling between membrane and

bending effects, as well as the tension stiffening effect of concrete between cracks in

the model.

In one of the pioneering early studies, Rashid (1968) introduced the concept of

a "smeared" crack in the study of the axisymmetric response of prestressed concrete

reactor structures. Rashid took into account cracking and the effects of temperature

creep and load history in his analyses. Today the smeared crack approach of

modelling the cracking behaviour of concrete is almost exclusively used by

investigators in the nonlinear analysis of RC structures, since its implementation in a

finite element analysis program is more straightforward than that of the discrete crack

model. Computer time considerations also favor the smeared crack model in analyses

which are concerned with the global response of structures. At the same time the

concerted effort of many investigators in the last 20 years has removed many of the

limitations of the smeared crack model (ASCE 1982; Meyer and Okamura, eds.

1985).

Gilbert and Warner (1978) used the smeared crack model and investigated the

effect of the slope of the descending branch of the concrete stress-strain relation on

the behaviour of RC slabs. They were among the first to point out that analytical
 53

results of the response of reinforced concrete structures are greatly influenced by the

size of the finite element mesh and by the amount of tension stiffening of concrete.

Several studies followed which corroborated these findings and showed the effect of

mesh size (Bazant and Cedolin 1980; Bazant and Oh 1983; Kwak 1990) and tension

stiffening (Barzegar and Schnobrich 1986; Leibengood et al. 1986) on the accuracy of

finite element analyses of RC structures with the smeared crack model. In order to

better account for the tension stiffening effect of concrete between cracks some

investigators have artificially increased the stiffness of reinforcing steel by modifying

its stress-strain relationship (Gilbert and Warner 1977). Others have chosen to modify

the tensile stress-strain curve of concrete by including a descending post-peak branch

(Lin and Scordelis 1975; Vebo and Ghali 1977; Barzegar and Schnobrich 1986; Abdel

Rahman and Hinton 1986).

While the response of lightly reinforced beams in bending is very sensitive to

the effect of tension stiffening of concrete, the response of RC structures in which

shear plays an important role, such as over-reinforced beams and shear walls, is much

more affected by the bond-slip of reinforcing steel than the tension stiffening of

concrete. To account for the bond slip of reinforcing steel two different approaches

are common in the finite element analysis of RC structures. The first approach makes

use of the bond link element proposed by Ngo and Scordelis (1967). This element

connects a node of a concrete finite element with a node of an adjacent steel element.

The link element has no physical dimensions, i.e. the two connected nodes have the

same coordinates.

The second approach makes use of the bond-zone element developed by de

Groot et al. (1981). In this element the behaviour of the contact surface between steel

and concrete and of the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the reinforcing bar is
 54

described by a material law which considers the special properties of the bond zone.

The contact element provides a continuous connection between reinforcing steel and

concrete, if a linear or higher order displacement field is used in the discretization

scheme. A simpler but similar element was proposed by Keuser and Mehlhorn (1987),

who showed that the bond link element cannot represent adequately the stiffness of

the steel-concrete interface.

Very little work has been done, so far, on the three-dimensional behaviour of

reinforced concrete systems using solid finite elements, because of the computational

effort involved and the lack of knowledge of the material behaviour of concrete under

three dimensional stress states. Suidan and Schnobrich (1973) were the first to study

the behaviour of beams with 20-node three-dimensional isoparametric finite elements.

The behaviour of concrete in compression was assumed elasto-plastic based on the

Von-Mises yield criterion. A coarse finite element mesh was used in these analyses

for cost reasons.

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Task Committee on Finite

Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures has been a driving factor in the

development and implementation of finite element modelling of reinforced concrete.

This committee has been responsible for consolidating much research and theory

concerning this topic, and published several volumes of conference proceedings.

These works contain extensive treatment of constitutive relations and failure theories,

modelling of reinforcement and bond, concrete cracking formulations, shear transfer,

viscoelastic effects, thermal effects, numerical optimization, and dynamic analysis of

reinforced concrete systems from a finite element perspective.[Nilson (1982); Meyer.

and Okamura (1985); Isenberg. ed., (1991)].

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Barzegar and Maddipudi (1994) extended many of the common nonlinear

finite element reinforced concrete techniques with respect to the simulation of

reinforcement in three dimensional solid elements. Instead of either a smeared or

layered approach, a model for spatially embedded reinforcement independent of the

finite element nodal coordinates was presented by which an entire reinforcement cage

is automatically mapped into a mesh of solid isoparametric concrete elements. This

technique was shown to be not only applicable to straight reinforcing bars, but also

readily applicable to prestressed systems in which the strand geometry can be

approximated using a piecewise linear tendon distribution.

Taher Ganaba (1985) investigated the behaviour of steel plates and reinforced

concrete slabs which undergo large deflections using the FEM. Geometric and

material nonlinearities are both considered in the study.

Vecchio and Collins (1990) presented the Finite-element formulations for the

analysis of reinforced concrete membrane structures. Cracked reinforced concrete is

treated as an orthotropic material based on a smeared, rotating crack model. Secant-

stiffness moduli are defined for concrete and reinforcement, and these are used in the

development of linear displacement rectangular and triangular membrane finite

elements. Procedures are discussed by which these elements can then be incorporated

into a nonlinear analysis algorithm. A numerical example is provided to illustrate the

simplicity of the calculation procedure and the good convergence characteristics and

numerical stability of the formulations. Corroboration with experimental data is also

discussed. Finally, the capabilities and application potential of the analysis procedure

are demonstrated in sample analyses.

Taan and Ezzadeen (1995) developed a numerical procedure based on the

FEM for the geometric and material nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete
 56

members containing steel fibres and subjected to monotonic loads. The proposed

procedure is capable of tracing the displacements, strains, stresses, crack propagation,

and member end actions of these structures up to their ultimate load ranges. A frame

element with a composite layer system is used to model the structure. An iterative

scheme based on Newton-Raphsons method is employed for the nonlinear solution

algorithm. The constitutive models of the nonlinear material behaviour are presented

to take into account the nonlinear stress-strain relationships, cracking, crushing of

concrete, debonding and pull-out of the steel fibres, and yielding of the reinforcement.

The geometric nonlinearity due to the geometrical change of both the structure and its

elements are also represented. The numerical solution of a number of reinforced

fibrous concrete members are compared with published experimental test results and

showed good agreement.

Fu-Ming Lin and Hsuan-Teh Hu (2004) presented a reasonable numerical

model for reinforced concrete structures strengthened by FRP. Proper constitutive

models are introduced to simulate the nonlinear behaviours of reinforced concrete and

FRP. The finite element program ABAQUS is used to perform the nonlinear failure

analysis of the discussed problems. The validity of proposed material models is

verified with experimental data and some strengthening schemes are discussed in

detail for engineering applications.

Smadi, and Belakhdar (2007), have developed a nonlinear finite element code

to suite the analysis of normal and high strength concrete slabs. The computer

program was built up using two computer languages, where the program interface part

was coded in Visual-Basic language, while the main part was coded using FORTRAN

language. A software called NLFEAS (Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of Slabs)

was developed to predicate and study the three dimensional response of reinforced
 57

concrete slabs of different grades, variables and boundary conditions under

monotonically increasing loads. Proper numerical material models for cracked

concrete were incorporated in the analysis. The efficiency and accuracy of the

developed code was verified through comparison with available test data, which

showed good agreement. The effects of some finite element parameters such as mesh

refinement and integral rule were also investigated.

Yu Liu1 and Susanto Teng (2008), proposed a non-layered approach for the

finite-element analysis of reinforced concrete _RC_ slabs to predict their strengths

including the case of combined in-plane and transverse loading. The non-layered form

is derived from the layered Mindlin-type shell element, and the material matrix is

derived from the assumed simple stress-strain curves of the materials. The proposed

non-layered approach is simpler than the layered approach. However, the numerical

examples show that it is capable of estimating the deflection as well as the strength of

RC slabs under both in-plane and out-of-plane loads with acceptable accuracy.

Leandro Vanalli (2010), proposed a a physical non-linear formulation to deal

with steel fiber reinforced concrete by the finite element method. The proposed

formulation allows the consideration of short or long fibers placed arbitrarily inside a

continuum domain (matrix). The most important feature of the formulation is that no

additional degree of freedom is introduced in the pre-existent finite element numerical

system to consider any distribution or quantity of fiber inclusions. Another important

characteristic of the formulation is the reduced work required by the user to introduce

reinforcements, avoiding "rebar" elements, node by node geometrical definitions or

even complex mesh generation. Bounded connection between long fibers and

continuum is considered, for short fibers a simplified approach is proposed to

consider splitting. Non-associative plasticity is adopted for the continuum and one
 58

dimensional plasticity is adopted to model fibers. Examples are presented in order to

show the capabilities of the formulation.

Zhu and Zhang, (2010), developed a simple and shear-flexible rectangular

composite layered plate element and nonlinear finite element analysis procedures for

nonlinear analysis of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP)-reinforced concrete slabs. The

composite layered plate element is constructed based on MindlinReissner plate

theory and Timoshenkos composite beam functions, and transverse shear effects and

membranes bending coupling effects are accounted for. Both geometric nonlinearity

and material nonlinearity of the materials, which incorporates tension, compression,

tension stiffening and cracking of the concrete, are included in the new model. The

developed element and the nonlinear finite element analysis procedures are validated

by comparing the computed numerical results of numerical examples with those

obtained from experimental investigations and from the commercial finite element

analysis package ABAQUS. The element is then employed to investigate the

nonlinear structural behaviour and the cracking progress of a clamped two-way FRP-

reinforced concrete slab. The influences of reinforcement with different materials,

ratio and layout in tension or compressive regions on structural behaviour of the

clamped slabs are investigated by parametric studies.

Ahmed Alwathaf et al (2011), proposed a nonlinear finite element (FE)

model to investigate the behaviour and failure mechanism of reinforced concrete

membrane structures. Proven accurate stress-strain relation is incorporated in the

model to describe the stress-strain behaviour of the concrete under compression for

uni-axial and biaxial stress system. The nonlinearity behaviour of the materials in the

compressive stress field is considered for the concrete in the orthogonal directions.

The effect of micro cracking confinement and softening on the stress-strain

 59

relationship under biaxial stresses are included by employing the equivalent uni-axial

strain concept. Tension stiffening effect by concrete in tension is modelled in the

ascending and descending parts. The model allows for the progressive local failure of

the reinforced concrete materials. The applicability of the proposed FE model is

investigated by demonstrating the nonlinear structural response and failure

mechanism of a simple deep beam and validated with published experimental work.

Good agreement is achieved between the developed FE model and the experimental

test results which gives confidence that the approach is fundamentally correct.

Hosam A. Daham (2011) carried out finite element analyses by using the

ANSYS 5.4 program with a non-linear concrete model satisfying complex support

condition to predict the ultimate load for the different types of reinforced concrete

slabs. The effects of openings for different types of boundary conditions were studied

and show that the opening in slabs which having supported on four edges have little

effects on slab. Boundary conditions also studied here which show the slabs fixed on

two opposite edges at least have clearly behaviour on slab compared with other

boundary conditions. Opening also has a great effect on values and distribution of

normal stresses in slabs especially at opening region.

2.7 Open Research Problems:

The review of literature presented above reveals that SIFCON has a great

potential as a high performance material with potential applications in blast, impact

and seismic resistant structures. At present, the utility of this material is restricted to

only a few developed countries. It is also observed from the review that very little

research is carried out to study the behaviour of SIFCON slab elements. Thus, there is

an urgent need to produce SIFCON slab elements with locally available fibres and to

evaluate their behaviour in flexure. In spite of the large number of previous studies on
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the nonlinear finite element analysis of reinforced concrete structures, only few

conclusions of general applicability have been arrived at. The inclusion of the effects

of tension stiffening and bond-slip is a case in point. Since few rational models of this

difficult problem have been proposed so far, it is rather impossible to assess exactly

what aspects of the behaviour are included in each study and what the relative

contribution of each is. Similar conclusions can be reached with regard to other

aspects of the finite element analysis. Even though the varying level of sophistication

of proposed models is often motivated by computational cost considerations, the

multitude of proposed approaches can lead to the conclusion that the skill and

experience of the analyst is the most important aspect of the study and that the

selection of the appropriate model depends on the problem to be solved. A reliable

method is needed for analyzing structures made of SIFCON, a complex but rare

ingredient in most of the structural components. As an effective alternative to

expensive experimentation, this study proposes to evaluate the plausibility of finite

element analysis to model SIFCON slabs with and without openings in NISA.