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POLITICAL LAW
PublicInternationalLaw
This deals with the conduct of States and international A.OBLIGATIONSERGAOMNES
organizations,theirrelationswitheachotherand,incertain Itliterallymeanstowardsall;thosewhichseektoprotect
circumstances, their relations with persons, natural or and promote basic values and common interests of all
juridical.(AmericanThirdRestatement). states.
Astothechangesoftherules
Threegroupsofjuscogensnorms:
can be modified only
a. Maxims of International Law which protect the capable of being modified by
byasubsequentnorm
foundations of law, peace and humanity in the contrary, consensual, legal
having the same
international order and which at present are agreementssuchasbytreaty
character
consideredbynationsastheminimumstandardfor
theirmutualrelations;
Note: Ifanewperemptorynormofgeneralinternational
b. Rules of peaceful cooperation in the sphere of
lawemerges,anyexistingtreatywhichisinconflictwith
InternationalLawwhichprotectsfundamentalcommon
thatnormbecomesvoidandterminates.(Article64,Vienna
interests;
ConventionontheLawofTreaties)
c. Protection of humanity, especially of the most
essentialhumanrights.
C.EXAEQUOETBONO
(Sarmiento,PublicInternationalLawBarReviewer,p.14)
This literallymeans"accordingtotherightandgood"or
"fromequityandconscience."
Juscogensv.jusdispositivum
Juscogens Jusdispositivum
Article38(2) oftheStatuteofthe International Courtof
Astobindingpower JusticeprovidesthatthelistofsourcesinArticle38(1)shall
known as peremptory lawsubjecttothedispensation notprejudicethepowerofthecourttodecidecases ex
norm/compellinglaw oftheparties aequobono,butonlyetwherethepartiesagreethereto.
Astonature
duties which every norms of Customary Note: As illustrated in the North Sea Continental Shelf
state owes to the International Law founded on Cases(ICJReports,1969),theICJresortedtoprinciples
international selfinterest of participating concerningtheformulationsofjustandequitableprinciples
community states concerning the dispute over a certain continental shelf,
Whethersubjecttowaiver whenthecourtopinednotreatyorcustomboundthestate
rules are absolutely waivable; binds only those partiestothedispute.
bindingonallstatesin states consenting to be
theworldatalltimes governedbyit D.HARDLAW
Astoeffectofnoncompliance Thisreferstobindinginternationallegal normsorthose
whichhavecoercivecharacter, e.g. provisionsoftheUN
inter se agreements nothing,inprinciple,precludes
Charter, Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations,
derogating from statesfromactingindisregard
Geneva Conventions of 1949. (Sarmiento, Public
peremptorynormsare of ordinary norms of
InternationalLawBarReviewer,p.4)
prohibitedandarenull internationallaw,providedand
andvoid to the extent that the
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Elements: NonapplicabilityofStareDecisis
a. StatePractice, ICJisnotboundbythedoctrineofstaredecisis.The
b. OpinioJuris decisions of the Court have no binding force except
(S.S.Lotus[France.v.Turkey],1927P.C.I.J.(ser.A) between the parties and in respect of that particular
No.10,Sept.7,1927) case.(ICJStature,Article59)
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A. STATEItisanentitythathasadefinedterritory 3. Neutralized
andpermanentpopulation,underthecontrolofitsown independenceandintegrityareguaranteedinan
government,andengagesin,orhasthecapacityto internationaltreatyontheconditionthatsuchstate
engage in, formal relations withothersuch entities. obligatesitselfnevertotakeuparmsagainstany
(Art.1,MontevideoConvention) other state, or to enter into an international
Elements: obligationaswouldindirectlyinvolveitinwar
1. PermanentPopulation
2. DefinedTerritory PrincipleofStateContinuity
3. Government The principles states that a States identity as an
4. CapacitytoenterintorelationswithotherStates international legal person persists notwithstanding
(Art.1,MontevideoConvention). unconstitutional or even violent changes in its
government.Asaresult,astategenerallycontinuesto
Classifications:
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owe and accrue international legal obligations whichall itsexternal relationsare transactedwithother
notwithstanding such changes (Currie, Public states.
InternationalLaw,2nded).
SuccessionofStates It has no legal standing in the family of nations.
Thistakesplacewhenonestateassumestherights Nevertheless,suchentitieshavebeenallowedonoccasion
andsomeoftheobligationsofanotherstatebecause toparticipateintheirownrightininternationalundertakings
ofcertainchangesintheconditionofthelatter. andgrantedpracticallythestatusofasovereignstate.Itis
1. Universal Succession astateisannexedto whenactinginthiscapacitythatcolonyanddependencies
anotherstate,oristotallydismemberedormerges areconsideredinternationalpersons.
with another state to form a new state.
International personality of the former state is Colony
completelyabsorbedbythesuccessor.(Nachura, It is a dependent political community consisting of a
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. numberofcitizensofthesamecountrywhohavemigrated
649) therefromtoinhabitinanothercountry,butremainsubject
tothemotherstate(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical
2. PartialSuccessiontakesplacewhenaportion Law,2009ed.,p.651).
oftheterritoryofastatesecedesoriscededto
another,orwhenanindependentstatebecomesa Dependency
protectorateorsuzerainty,orwhenadependent It is a territory distinct from the country in which the
stateacquiresfullsovereignty.(Id.) supremesovereignpowerresidesbutbelongsrightfullyto
it, and subject to the laws and regulations which the
ConsequencesofStateSuccession sovereign may prescribe (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
Theconsequencesare:politicallawsareabrogatedwhile PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.651).
municipallawsremaininforce;treatiesarediscontinued, C.MANDATESANDTRUSTTERRITORIES
exceptthosedealingwithlocalrightsandduties,suchas Thesearenonselfgoverningterritorieswhichhavebeen
thoseestablishingeasementsandservitudes;allrightsof placed under international supervision to insure their
the predecessor state are inherited (Nachura, Outline political,economic,socialandeducationaladvancement.
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.649).
KindsofTrustTerritories
SuccessionofGovernments 1. Those held
Whereonegovernmentreplacesanothereitherpeacefully underthemandateoftheLeagueofNations
or by violent means, the integrity of the state is not 2. Territories
affected; the state continues as the same international detached from the defeated states after World
personexceptonlythatitslawfulrepresentativeischanged WarII
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. 3. Those
649). voluntarilyplacedunderthesystembythestates
. responsiblefortheiradministration
B.COLONIESANDDEPENDENCIES
From the viewpoint of international law, they are D.BELLIGERENTCOMMUNITY
consideredaspartandparceloftheparentstate,through Agroupofrebelsunderanorganizedcivilgovernment
who have taken up arms against the legitimate
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government. Whenrecognized, it isconsidered asa Although not a state or a superstate but a mere
separatestateforpurposesofconflictandentitledtoall organizationof states, itisregarded asaninternational
therightsandsubjectedtoalltheobligationsofafull personforcertainpurposes.
pledgedbelligerentunderthelawsofwar.
H.THEVATICANANDTHEHOLYSEE
Belligerentoccupationeffectsnochangeinsovereignty, InasmuchasthePopepreferstoconductforeignrelations
but the exercise of the powers of sovereignty is andenterintotransactionsastheHolySeeandnotinthe
suspended.Politicallaws,exceptthelawontreason,are nameoftheVaticanCity,onecanconcludethatinthe
suspended; municipal laws remain inforce (Laurel v. Pope'sownview,itistheHolySeethatistheinternational
Misa,77Phil856). person.(HolySeev.Rosario,G.R.No.101949,December
1,1994)
E.INTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONS
Refer to public or intergovernmental organizations, in TheRepublicofthePhilippineshasaccordedtheHolySee
contrasttoprivateornongovernmentalorganizationssuch thestatusofaforeignsovereign.TheHolySee,throughits
as Amnesty International or the Red Cross (Sarmiento, Ambassador, the Papal Nuncio, has had diplomatic
PublicInternationalLawBarReviewer,2009,p.152). representationswiththePhilippinegovernmentsince1957.
Thisappearstobetheuniversalpracticeininternational
Theyaretypically: relations.(Id.)
1. Institutionsestablishedbyatreaty
2. Composed of members that are states or I.INDIVIDUALS
internationalorganizations TraditionalDoctrine
3. RegulatedbyInternationalLaw;and OnlyStates,notindividualsaresubjectsofinternational
4. Endowed with a legal personality and thus law.Accordingtothisdoctrine,thenormsofinternational
generallycanengageincontracts,andcansueand lawimposeobligationsandresponsibilitiesuponStatesnot
be sued in national courts subject to certain individuals.Thislimitationofthepersonalsphereofvalidity
immunities constitutes, according to the doctrine, an essential
characteristic of international law. Individuals are
F.INTERNATIONALADMINISTRATIVEBODIES consideredmerelyasobjects,notsubjectsofinternational
International Administrative Bodies are certain law (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, 2009,
administrativebodiescreatedbyagreementamongstates p.656).
whichmaybevestedwithinternationalpersonalitywhen
twoconditionsconcur:First,theirpurposesaremainlynon OpposingView
political,andsecond,theyareautonomousandnotsubject ThestatementthataStatesaresubjectsofinternational
to the control of any state e.g. International Labor lawmeansthatindividualhumanbeingsareindirectlyand
Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization collectively, in their capacity as organs of the State,
(FAO), World Health Organization (WHO) (Southeast subjectsoftheobligations,responsibilitiesandrightsofthe
AsianFisheriesDevelopmentCenterv.AcostaG.R.Nos. State(Coquia,InternationalLaw,p.80).
9746870September2,1993).
G.UNITEDNATIONS
R E CO G NI TIO N
Itisanactbywhichastateacknowledgestheexistenceof
another state, government or belligerent communityand
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BasicrulesinrecognitionofStates
ObjectsofRecognition
1. Itisapoliticalactandmainlyamatterofpolicyon
1. State generally held to be irrevocable and
thepartofeachstate;
importstherecognitionofitsgovernment.
2. Itisdiscretionaryonthepartoftherecognizing
authority;and
2. Government maybewithdrawnanddoesnot
3. It is exercised by the political (executive)
necessarily signify the existence of a state, as the
departmentofthestate(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
governmentmaybethatofamerecolony.
PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.647).
ConditionsforRecognitionofnewgovernment:
Kindsofrecognition
a. Government must be effective and stable
Recognitionmayeitherbeexpressorimplied.Itmayalso
(objectivetest)
be de facto or de jure (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
b. Governmentmustshowwillingnessandabilityto
PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.648).
dischargeinternationalobligations(subjectivetest)
Recognitiondejurev.Recognitiondefacto
EffectsofRecognitionofaStateorGovernment:
Recognition Recognition
a. FullDiplomaticrelations;
DeJure DeFacto
b. Right to sue in
Astodurationofrecognition courtsofrecognizingstate;
Relativelypermanent Provisional c. Righttopossession
(duration of armed ofpropertiesofpredecessorontherecognizing
struggle) state;
Astoeffectofrecognitiononownershipof d. All acts of the
properties recognized state or government are validated
Does NOT vest title to retroactively, preventing the recognizing state
Veststitletoproperties
propertiesofgovernment frompassingupontheirlegalityinitsowncourts
ofgovernmentabroad
abroad (ActofStateDoctrine).
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Wilson/TobarDoctrine
F U NDAM ENTAL R I G HTS O F T HE
Thisprecludesrecognitionofgovernmentestablishedby
S T ATES
revolution,civilwar, coupdetat orotherformsofinternal
violence until the freely elected representatives of the
people have organized a constitutional government A.RIGHTTOEXISTENCEANDSELFDEFENSE
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Thisisthemostcomprehensiveasallotherrightsof
stateflowfromit.AStatemaytakemeasuresincluding The ICJ rejected the justification of collective self
theuseofforceasmaybenecessarytocounteractany defensemaintainedbytheUnitedStatesinconnection
dangertoitsexistence.(Art.51,UNCharter) with the military and paramilitary activities in and
againstNicaragua.Selfdefense,whetherindividualor
Aggression collective,canonlybeexercised in responsetoan
The use of armed force by a state against the armedattack.Thereisnorulepermittingtheexercise
sovereignty, territorial integrity or political ofcollectiveselfdefenseintheabsenceofrequestby
independenceofanotherstate,orinanyothermanner the State which is a victim of an alleged attack
inconsistentwiththeCharteroftheUnitedNations,as (Nicaraguav.UnitedStates1986ICJRep).
setoutinthisdefinition(Art.1,UNGeneralAssembly
Resolution3314). Preventive/Anticipatoryselfdefense
Theuseofforceinanticipationofanattackislegalif
Actsofaggression made in good faithdepends on circumstances of
1. Invasionorattackofastate imminentdanger.
2. Bombardmentofstate
3. Blockadeofportsorcoasts A threatened State, according to long established
4. Use of armed forces within a state in internationallaw,cantakemilitaryactionaslongas
contraventiontoanyagreement the threatened attack is imminent, no other means
5. Actionofstateinallowingtheuseofitsterritory woulddeflectitandtheactionisproportionate. (UN
foranactofaggressionagainstathirdstate HighlevelPanelonThreats,ChallengesandChange
6. Sendingofarmedgroupsormercenarieswhich byHanspeterNeuhold2003atpara.188).
carryanactofarmedforceagainstanotherstate
(Art.3,UNGeneralAssemblyResolution3314). Abatementdoctrine/(ResponsibilitytoProtectR2P)
State sovereignty implies responsibility, and the
Requisites for proper exercise of right of self primary responsibility fortheprotectionofitspeople
defense:(ASA)(Art.51,UNCharter) lies with the state itself; (2) Where a population is
1. Armedattack; suffering serious harm, as a result of internal war,
2. Selfdefensiveactiontakenbytheattackedstate insurgency,repressionorstatefailure,andthestatein
must be reported immediately to the Security questionisunwillingorunabletohaltoravertit,the
Council;and principleofnoninterventionyieldstotheinternational
3. Suchactionshallnotinanywayaffecttherightof responsibilitytoprotect.(InternationalCommissionon
theSecurityCounciltotakeatanytimeactionas Intervention and State Sovereignty (2001) Sections
it deems necessary to maintain or restore 4.184.21)
internationalpeaceandsecurity.
B. RIGHT OF SOVEREIGNTY
Collectiveselfdefense ANDINDEPENDENCE
Therightofstatestocometothedefenseofastate Sovereignty
whose situation meets the condition of legitimate The totality of the powers, legal competence, and
individualselfdefenseundertheUNCharter(Art.51, privilegesarisingfromcustomaryinternationallaw,and
UNCharter). not dependent on the consent of another state
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1. Whenitgivesconsentatthetimetheproceeding Thefurtherprocessandseparateprocedureofmarkinga
isinstituted; lineofdelimitationwithphysicalobjectssuchasconcrete
2. Whenittakesstepsrelatingtothemeritsofthe posts,stonecairns,etc (Aust,HandbookonInternational
casebeforeinvokingimmunity; Law2010,p34.).
3. Whenbytreatyorcontractithadpreviouslygiven
consent; IntertemporalRule
4. Whenbylaworregulationinforceatthetime Indecidingterritorialdisputes,onemustassessthefactsin
complaintaroseithasindicatedthatitwillconsent lightoftheinternationallawattherelevanttime,notthe
to the institution of the proceedings (Nachura, lawatthetimetheissuefallstobedecided (Islandsof
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. PalmasCase,USv.Netherlands,1928).
661).
CriticalDateRule
D. RIGHT TO TERRITORIAL Itisthedatebywhichtherightsofthepartiestoaterritorial
INTEGRITYANDJURISDICTION disputehavesocrystallizedthatwhattheydoafterwards
ComponentsoftheterritoryofaState: does not affect the legal position (Aust, Handbook on
1. Terrestrial land mass on which the InternationalLaw,p.35).
inhabitantslive;
2. Martimeandfluvial MODESOFACQUISITIONOFTERRITORY
3. Aerial and space (Nachura, Outline 1. Discoveryandoccupation
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,pp.662667). Thisistheoriginalmodebywhichterritorynotbelongingto
anystateorterranulliusisplacedunderthesovereigntyof
the discovering state (Aust, Handbook on International
T E RRI TO RY Law,p.36).
Inchoatetitleofdiscovery
Delimitation
Titleisacquiredbytheclaimantstatependingcompliance
The process of determining the land or maritime
with the second requirement which is administration. It
boundaries of a State, including that of any continental
performsthefunctionofbarringotherstatesfromentering
shelforexclusiveeconomiczone,andisgenerallydoneby
theterritoryuntilthelapseofareasonableperiodwithin
means of geographical coordinates of latitude and
which the discovering state may establish a settlement
longitude (Aust,HandbookonInternationalLaw,2010,p.
thereonandcommencetoadministerit.
288).
2. Prescription
Demarcation
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Membership Theaboverulesenableapermanentmembertocast
a. PermanentMembers(CUFRU) a veto and thereby prevent agreement on a non
China, United Kingdom, France, Russia, and proceduralquestionevenifitissupportedbyallother
UnitedStatesofAmerica membersoftheSecurityCouncil.
b. NonpermanentMembers
5fromAfricanandAsianStates Itcanalsoexerciseadoublevetobymeansofwhich
2fromLatinAmericanStates itcandisapproveanyproposaltoconsideraquestion
2fromWesternEuropeanandotherstates merely procedural and thereafter vote against the
1fromEasternEuropeanStates questionitselfonthemerits.
Significantly, the abstention or absence of any
VotingProcedure(Art.2832,UNCharter) permanentmemberinconnectionwithavotingona
nonproceduralquestionisnotconsideredaveto,and
YaltaFormulaeachmembershallhave1votebut theproposal isdeemed adopted ifapprovedby at
distinctionismadebetweentheBig5andthenon leastninemembersoftheSecurityCouncil,including
permanentmembersintheresolutionofsubstantive therestofthepermanentmembers
questions.
Procedural matters are to be decided by the 3. EconomicandSocialCouncilservesasthe
affirmativevoteofany9ormoremembers(questions central forum for discussing international economic
regarding organization and meetings of SC, and social issues, and for formulating policy
establishmentofsubsidiaryorgansandparticipationof recommendationsaddressedtoMemberStatesand
statespartiestoadisputeinthediscussionsofthe theUnitedNationssystem.(Art.61,UNCharter)
organ).
It exerts efforts towards higher standards of living,
Decision on nonprocedural matters requires the solutionsofinternationaleconomic,social,healthand
concurrenceofalsoatleast9membersbutincluding relatedproblems,facilitatinginternationalculturaland
allpermanentmembers(mattersrequiringSCunder educational cooperation, universal respect for and
its responsibility of maintaining or restoring world observance of human rights and fundamental
peace,toinvokemeasuresofenforcementandunlike freedoms.(Id,)
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MembershipoftheICJ: Jurisdiction(Art.36,ICjStatute)
15 members, who are electedby absolute majority a. Interpretationoftreaty;
voteinboththeGeneralAssemblyandtheSecurity b. Questionofinternationallaw;
Council. These organs vote simultaneously but c. Existenceoffactconstitutingabreachof
separately.(Art.34,ICJStatute) internationalobligation;
d. Natureorextentofthereparationtobe
Notwoofthemmaybenationalsofthesamestate, madeforthebreachofaninternationalobligation;
andintheeventthatmorethanonenationalofthe and
same state obtain the required majority, only the e. Torenderadvisoryopinions
eldest shall be considered elected. (Art. 3, ICJ
Statute) ContentiousCasesONLYStates(Membersofthe
UNandotherStateswhichhavebecomepartiestothe
Judgesmustbeofhighmoralcharacter,andpossess Statute of the Court or which have accepted his
thequalificationsrequiredintheirrespectivecountries jurisdictionundercertainconditions)maybepartiesto
forappointmenttotheirhighestjudicialoffices,orare suchcases.
jurisconsults of recognized competence in
internationallaw. TheCourtiscompetenttoentertainadisputeonlyif
theStatesconcernedhaveacceptedorrecognizedits
MembersoftheCourthaveatermofnine(9)years, jurisdictioninoneormoreofthefollowingways:
andmaybereelected.(Art.9,ICJStatute) 1. By entering
Shouldajudgedieorresignduringhisorhertermof intoaspecialagreementtosubmitthedisputeto
office,aspecialelectionisheldassoonaspossibleto theCourt
chooseajudgetofilltheunexpiredpartoftheterm.
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6. Exemption from
taxationorcustomduties. Privilegesareavailableevenintransitu,whentraveling
Exceptions: through a third State on the way to or from the
a. Indirecttaxes; receivingstate.
b. Duesortaxesonprivaterealpropertyin
thereceivingstateunlessbeingheldonbehalfof Consuls
sendingstateforthepurposeofthemission; Theyarestateagentsresidingabroadforvariouspurposes
c. Taxes on estate, inheritance, butmainlyintheinterestofcommerceandnavigationand
succession; notinpoliticalmatters
d. Taxes on private income and source
from receiving state and capital taxes on Duties:(PPOIS)
investmentsincommercialventuresinreceiving 1. Protectionoftheinterestsofthesendingstateand
state; itsnationalinthereceivingstate.
e. Chargesleviedforspecificservices;and 2. Promotionofthecommercial,economic,cultural
f. Registration, court or record fees, andscientificrelationsofthesendingandreceiving
mortgage dues, stamp duty with respect to states.
immovables, 3. Observation of conditions and developments in
thereceivingstateandreportthereoftothesending
Waiverofimmunities state.
Diplomaticprivilegescanbewaived,butthewaiver 4. Issuanceofpassportsandothertraveldocuments
cannot be made by the individual concerned since to nationals of the sending state and visas or
suchimmunitiesarenotpersonaltohim. appropriatedocumentstopersonswishingtotravelto
thesendingstate.
Waivermaybemadeonlybythegovernmentofthe 5. Supervisionandinspectionofvesselsandaircraft
sendingstateifitconcernstheimmunitiesofthehead ofthesendingstate.
ofmission.
Appointmentofconsuls
Inothercases,thewaivermaybemadeeitherbythe Two or more documents are necessary before the
governmentorbythechiefofmission. assumptionofconsularfunctions,namely:
1. Letterspatent(letterdeprovision) letterof
Waiverofthisprivilegedoesnotincludewaiverofthe appointmentorcommissionwhichistransmittedbythe
immunityinrespectoftheexecutionofjudgment;a sendingstatetotheSecretaryofForeignAffairsofthe
separatewaiverforthelatterisnecessary. countrywheretheconsulistoserve;and
2. Exequaturtheauthorizationgiventotheconsul
Durationofimmunities bythesovereignofthereceivingstate,allowinghimto
Enjoyedbytheenvoyfromthemomentheentersthe exercisehisfunctionwithintheterritory.
territoryofthereceivingstate,andshallceaseonlythe
momentheleavesthecountry ImmunitiesandPrivileges:(CMJT)
1. Inviolability of their correspondence, archives and
Withrespecttoofficialacts,immunityshallcontinue otherdocuments;
indefinitely. 2. Freedomofmovementandtravel;
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3. Immunityfromjurisdictionforactsperformedinofficial agreementnordoesitconstituteaunilateraldeclarationon
capacity; the part of the Government of the Republic of the
4. Exemptionfromcertaintaxesandcustomsduties. PhilippinesbecausethecommitmentsintheMOAADwere
Notes: notaddressedtoStatesandnotcomplyingtheretowould
Immunities and privileges are also available to the not be detrimental to the security of international
membersoftheconsularpost,theirfamiliesandtheir intercourse(TheProvinceofNorthCotabatoetal.v.The
privatestaff. Government of the Republic of the Philippines Peace
PanelonAncestralDomain,G.R.No.183591,October14,
Waiverofimmunitiesmaybemadebytheappointing 2008).
state.
Requisites:(PAWLR)
1. Entered into by parties having treaty
T RE ATI ES
makingcapacity;
Aninternationalagreementconcludedbetweenstatesin 2. Through their authorized organs or
written form and governed by international law whether representatives;
embodiedinasingleinstrumentorintwoormorerelated 3. Without attendance of duress, fraud,
instruments (Art. 2, Vienna Convention on the Law of mistakeorothervicesofconsent;
Treaties,1969). 4. Lawfulsubjectmatterandobject;and
5. Ratification in accordance with their
Thedefinitionexcludesagreementsbetweenstateswhich respectiveconstitutionalprocesses.
aregovernedbymunicipallawandagreementsbetween
stateswhicharenotintendedtocreatelegalrelationsatall Effectofunwrittentreaty:(LMR)
(Malanczuk Peter, Akehursts Modern Introduction to 1. Haslegalforce;
InternationalLaw,1997). 2. Conventionrulesonmattersgovernedbyinternational
lawindependentlyofconventionshallapply;and
A U.N. Declaration is, according to one authoritative 3. Conventionrulesapplytothe relationsofstatesas
definition, "a formal and solemn instrument, suitable for between themselves under international agreement
rare occasions when principles of great and lasting withothersubjectsasparties.
importancearebeingenunciated."Accordingly,ithasbeen
observedthatthe UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights StepsintheTreatyMakingProcess:(NSRER)
"nolongerfitsintothedichotomyofbindingtreatyagainst (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,pp.684686)
nonbindingpronouncement,'butisratheranauthoritative 1. Negotiation discussion of the provisions of the
statementoftheinternationalcommunity(Razonv.Tagitis, proposedtreaty,undertakenbytherepresentativesof
G.R.No.182498,December3,2009). thecontractingpartieswhoareprovidedwithasfull
Whereapartytoanagreementisjustanentitywithina powersorpleinspouvoirs.
state, no binding international law obligation is created Full Powers the authority granted unto a
notwithstanding that said agreement includes foreign representativeofthestatetoenterinto,negotiate,
dignitaries as signatories and that its signing was signandsealatreaty.Thisshallbemadebythe
witnessedbyrepresentativesofforeignnations.Thus,the PresidentortheSecretaryofForeignAffairs,when
Memorandum of Agreement on the Ancestral Doman delegated (Sec.4,E.O.No.459,Guidelinesinthe
(MOAAD)betweenthegovernmentoftheRepublicofthe
PhilippinesandtheMILFisnotaninternationallybinding
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DoctrineofUnequalTreaties
3. When it appears from the limited number of the Treaties which have been imposed through coercion or
negotiatingStatesandtheobjectandpurposeofa duressbyaStateofunequalcharacterarevoid.
treatythattheapplicationofthetreatyinitsentirety
betweenallthepartiesisanessentialconditionofthe Accession
consent of each one to be bound by the treaty, a Also knownasadhesion,thisistheprocessbywhicha
reservationrequiresacceptancebyalltheparties.In nonsignatorystatebecomesapartytoatreaty(Art.2(b),
specialcases,acompetentorganororganizationto VCLT).
whichthetreatyisanintegralinstrumentmustgiveits
acceptance. OBSERVANCEOFTREATIES
GeneralRule:
4. Unlessthetreatyotherwiseprovides: PactaSuntServanda everytreatyinforceisbinding
a. acceptancebyanothercontractingState uponthepartiestoitandmustbeperformedbythemin
ofareservationconstitutesthereservingStatea good faith (Art. 26, Vienna Convention on the Law of
partytothetreatyinrelationtothatotherStateif Treaties).
orwhenthetreatyisinforceforthoseStates;
b. anobjectionbyanothercontractingState Note: The GabkovoNagymaros Case clarified other
toareservationdoesnotprecludetheentryinto issues concerning the law of treaties, particularly as
forceofthetreatyasbetweentheobjectingand regardsthepleaoffundamentalchangeofcircumstances
reserving States unless a contrary intention is and the material breach of treaties. Most importantly,
definitelyexpressedbytheobjectingState; however, the ICJ took a firm stance in support of the
c. anactexpressingaStatesconsentto principle of stability of treaty relationships, limiting the
be bound by the treaty and containing a possibility of the unilateral denunciation of treaties to
reservationiseffectiveassoonasatleastone exceptional cases. By rejecting that reciprocal wrongful
other contracting State has accepted the conductbybothpartiestoabilateraltreatycouldleadtoits
reservation. unilateral termination, the ICJ emphasized the strict
observationoftheprincipleofpactasuntservanda.
5. Areservationisconsideredtohavebeenacceptedby
a State if it shall have raised no objection to the Exception:
reservationbytheendofaperiodoftwelvemonths RebusSicStantibusalegalprinciplewhichwouldjustify
afteritwasnotifiedofthereservationorbythedateon nonperformanceoftreatyobligationswhereunforeseenor
which it expressed its consent to be bound by the substantialchangesoccurwhichwouldrenderoneofthe
treaty,whicheverislater. partiestheretounabletoundertaketreatyobligationsas
6. A reservation is only personal and effective to the stipulated therein. This doctrine does not operate
statepartywhomadethereservation.Itdoesnotalter automatically(SantosIIIv.NorthwestOrientAirlines,G.R.
theprovisionsofthetreatywithrespecttotheother No.101538,June23,1992). Thereisanecessityfora
statepartiesinterse. formalactofrejection,usuallybytheHeadofState,with
the statement of the reasons why compliance with the
7. Areservationisdoneinwritingandcommunicatedto
treatyisnolongerrequired.
thestateparties.
PRINCIPLESOFTREATYLAW Purposeofexception:
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Iftheotherpartywereobdurateinopposinganychange, 5. Desuetudedesistanceofpartiesbyexpressmutual
thefactthatinternationallawrecognizednolegalmeansof consent or exercise of right of renunciation when
terminatingormodifyingthetreatyotherwisethanthrough allowed;
a further agreement between the same parties might 6. Extinctionofoneofparties,iftreatyisbipartite;
imposeaseriousstrainontherelationsbetweentheStates 7. Novation;
concerned;andthedissatisfiedStatemightultimatelybe 8. Occurrenceofvitalchangeofcircumstance;
driventotakeactionoutsidethelaw (InternationalLaw 9. Outbreakofwar;
Commission,1966YBILC258para.6). 10. Voidanceoftreatybecauseof:
a. Defectsinconstitution
Requisites for rebuc sic stantibus to apply: (SUCIDO) b. Violationofitsprovisionbyoneparty
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,p.687) c. Incompatibilitywithinternationallaw
1. The change must be so substantial that the 11. Applicationofthedoctrineofrebussicstantibus
foundation of the treaty must have altogether 12. Thedoctrineofjuscogens(ortheemergenceofanew
disappeared; peremptory norm of general international law which
2. The change must have been unforeseen or rendersvoidanyexistingtreatyconflictingwithsuch
unforeseeable at the time of the perfection of the norm)
treaty;
3. Thechangemustnothavebeen causedbythe Invalidtreaties:(CoCoJUCAFE)
partyinvokingthedoctrine; 1. Those which are contrary to the provisions of a
4. Thedoctrinemustbeinvokedwithinareasonable countrysinternallaw(UnconstitutionalityRule).
time; Art.46oftheVCLT:Astatemaynotinvokethe
5. Thedurationofthetreatymustbeindefinite;and factthatitsconsenttobeboundbyatreatyhas
6. Thedoctrinecannot operateretroactively,i.e.,it beenexpressedinviolationofaprovisionofits
must not adversely affect provisions which have internal law regarding competence to conclude
alreadybeencompliedwithpriortothevitalchangein treaties as invalidating its consent unless that
thesituation. violationwasmanifestandconcernedaruleof
fundamentalimportance.
Amendmentormodificationofatreaty 2. Representativeslackofauthority;
GeneralRule:Theconsentofallthepartiesisrequired. 3. Corruptionofastaterepresentative;
4. Error
Exception: Ifallowedbythetreatyitself,twoStatesmay Art. 48 of the VCLT: Error maybeinvokedif
modify a provision only insofar as they are concerned such relates to a fact or situation which was
(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.930). assumedbythatstatetoexistatthetimewhen
thetreatywasconcludedandformedanessential
Terminationoftreaty(TAILDENVOVRJ): basisofitsconsenttobeboundbythetreaty,
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,p.688) except, ifthestateinquestioncontributedbyits
1. Expirationofterm; ownconducttotheerrororifthecircumstances
2. Accomplishmentofpurpose; were such as to put that State on notice of a
3. Impossibilityofperformance; possibleerror.
4. Lossofsubjectmatter; 5. Fraud;
6. CoercionofStaterepresentatives;
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7. Coercionofastate conferred,eitherdirectlybythelaworasaresultofanact
8. Violation of a peremptory norm of international law oftheauthorities,isinfactmorecloselyconnectedwiththe
(JusCogens) populationoftheStateconferringnationalitythanwiththat
of any other State (Nottebohm Case, Liechtenstein v.
ValidityoftheVisitingForcesAgreement Guatemala,April6,1955).
Joint RPUS military exercises for the purpose of
developing the capability to resist an armed attack fall Citizenship
squarely under the provisions of the RPUS Mutual Amoreexclusivemeaninginthatitappliesonlytocertain
DefenseTreaty.TheVFA,whichistheinstrumentagreed membersofthestateaccordedmoreprivilegesthanthe
upontoprovideforthejointRPUSmilitaryexercises,is restofthepeoplewhooweitallegiance.Itssignificanceis
simply an implementing agreement to the main RPUS municipal, not international (Coquia and Defensor,
MilitaryDefenseTreaty.Accordingly,asanimplementing InternationalLawandWorldOrganizations,2005,p.264).
agreementoftheRPUSMutualDefenseTreaty,itwasnot
necessarytosubmittheVFAtotheUSSenateforadvice Rulesindeterminationofnationality:
andconsent,butmerelytotheUSCongressunder the The 1930 Hague Convention on Conflict of Nationality
CaseZablockiActwithin60daysofitsratification.Itisfor providesforthefollowingrulesindeterminingapersons
thisreasonthattheUShascertifiedthatitrecognizesthe nationality:
VFA as a binding international agreement (Simbolon v. 1. ItisforeachStatetodetermineunder itsown
RomuloG.R.No.175888,February11,2009). rules who are its nationals. This law shall be
recognizedbyotherStatesinsofarasitisconsistent
Theprovisionof Art.XVIII,Sec.25 oftheConstitution,is with international conventions, international custom,
compliedwithbyvirtueofthefactthatthepresenceofthe and the principles of law generally recognized with
USArmedForcesthroughtheVFAisapresence"allowed regardtonationality(Article1);and
under"theRPUSMutualDefenseTreaty.SincetheRP 2. Anyquestionastowhetherapersonpossesses
US Mutual Defense Treaty itself has been ratified and thenationalityofaparticularStateshallbedetermined
concurredinbyboththePhilippineSenateandtheUS inaccordancewiththelawofthatState(Article2).
Senate,thereisnoviolationoftheConstitutionalprovision
resultingfromsuchpresence.TheVFAbeingavalidand Acquisitionofnationality:
bindingagreement,thepartiesarerequiredasamatterof 1. birth,
international law to abide by its terms and provisions 2. naturalization,
(Simbolon v. Romulo G.R. No. 175888, February 11, 3. repatriation,
2009). 4. subjugation,and
5. cession (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political
N A TI O NALI TY A ND ST ATELESS NESS
Law,2009,pp.689690).
Nationality Lossofnationality:
Alegalbondhavingasitsbasisasocialfactofattachment, 1. release,
a genuine connection of existence, interests and 2. deprivation,
sentiments,togetherwiththeexistenceofreciprocalrights 3. renunciation,and
and duties. It may be said to constitute the juridical 4. substitution (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
expressionofthefactthattheindividualuponwhomitis PoliticalLaw,2009,pp.690).
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Multiplenationality RightsofStatelessPersons
It is the possession by an individual of more than one Thestatelesspersonisentitledto,amongothers,theright
nationality.Itisacquiredastheresultoftheconcurrent to religion and religious instruction, access to courts,
applicationtohimoftheconflictingmunicipallawsoftwoor elementary education, public relief and assistance,
more states claiming him as their national (Nachura, rationingofproductsinshortsupplyandtreatmentofno
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.690). lessfavorablethanthataccordedaliensingeneral.
DoctrineofIndelibleAllegiance TreatmentofStatelessIndividual
An individual may be compelled to retain his original Internationalconventionsprovidethatstatelessindividuals
nationalitynotwithstandingthathehasalreadyrenouncedit aretobetreatedmoreorlesslikethesubjectsofaforeign
underthelawsofanotherstatewhosenationalityhehas state.
acquired(Boczek,InternationalLaw:ADictionary,Chapter
3,Page190). ConsequenceofStatelessness
Anywrongsufferedbyhimthroughtheactoromissionofa
DoctrineofEffectiveNationality(NottebohmPrinciple) statewouldbe damnumabsqueinjuria forintheoryno
Thisis expressedin Art.5oftheHagueConventionof state has been offended and no international delict
1930 on the Conflict of Nationality Laws that a person committed(Simperingham,TheInternationalProtectionof
havingmorethanonenationalityshallbetreatedasifhe Statelessindividuals:ACallforChange,June2003).
hadonlyoneeitherthenationalityofthecountryinwhich
heishabituallyandprincipallyresidentorthenationalityof Measurestobetakentopreventstatelessness
thecountrywithwhichinthecircumstancesheappearsto 1.Acontractingstateshallgrantitsnationalitytoaperson
beinfactmostcloselyconnected(Frivaldov.COMELEC, born in its territory who would otherwise be Stateless
G.R.No.87193,June23,1989,citingNottebohmCase). (Art.1,ConventionontheReductionofStatelessness);and
The doctrineofimpliedelection willapplyonlyifthe 2.Acontractingstateshallgrantitsnationalitytoaperson,
electorhasalreadybecomeaFilipinoatthetimeof notbornintheterritoryofacontractingstate,whowould
reachingtheageofmajoritybytheothermodesof otherwise be stateless, if the nationality of one of his
acquiringcitizenshipandtheonlyissueiswhetheror parentsatthetimeofthepersonsbirthwasthatofthat
nothecanbeconsideredanaturalborncitizen.Ifthe State (Art. 4, Convention on the Reduction of
issueiswhetherornotheisaFilipinobyelection,the Statelessness).
doctrineofimpliedelectionwillnotapply.
S T ATE R ES PO NSI BI LI TY
Statelessness
A conditionorstatusofanindividualwhoisbornwithout ConceptofStateResponsibility
anynationalityorwholoseshisnationalitywithoutretaining Itisafundamentalprincipleofinternationallaw,arisingout
oracquiringanother. of the nature of the international legal system and the
doctrines of state sovereignty and equality of states. It
Thestatusofhavingnonationality,asaconsequenceof provides that whenever one state commits an
being born without any nationality or as a result of internationally unlawful act against another state,
deprivation or loss of nationality (Nachura, Outline internationalresponsibilityisestablishedbetweenthetwo.
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.691). A breach of an international obligation gives rise to a
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requirementforreparation(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.778; unlawfulactperpetratedtherein,noryetthatitnecessarily
J.Crawford,TheInternationalLawCommissionsArticles knew,orshouldhaveknown,theauthors. Thisfact,by
onStateResponsibility). itselfandapartfromothercircumstances,neitherinvolves
primafacie responsibilitynorshiftstheburdenofproof.
InternationallyWrongfulAct (CorfuChannelCase,ICJReports,1949,p.4,18)
Thereisaninternationallywrongfulactofastatewhen
conductconsistingofanactionoromissionisattributable Attribution
to the state under international law and constitutes a Itisalegalconstructwherebyaninternationallyunlawful
breachofaninternationalobligationofthestate(Yearbook conductofStateorganactinginthatcapacityisregarded
oftheILC,1976,vol.II,pp.75;ChozrowFactoryCase, as the conduct of the State itself, making that State
PCIJ,SeriesA.No.9,p.21). responsibleforitasaninternationallywrongfulact.AState
isinternationallyresponsibleforitsownactsoromissions,
ElementsofanInternationallyWrongfulAct: butasanabstractentityitcanphysicallyactonlythrough
individualsorgroupsofindividualsperformingactsofthe
1. Actthatisattributabletothestateunderinternational Stateonitsbehalf(DifferencesRelatingtoImmunityfrom
law; Legal Processes of a Special Rapporteur of the
2. Mustconstituteabreachofinternationalobligationby CommissionofHumanRights[38ILM873,1999]).
astate(Art.2,ResponsibilityofStatesfor
InternationallyWrongfulActs). ConductsAttributabletotheState:
1. The conduct of any of its organs, whether
ViewsonStateResponsibility: exercisinglegislative,executive,judicialoranyother
1. Objective Responsibility this principle functions(Art.4)
maintainsthattheliabilityofthestateisstrict.Oncean 2. The conduct of a person or entity which is
unlawfulacthastakenplace,whichhascausedinjury empowered by law of that State to exercise
andwhichhasbeencommittedbyanagent ofthe governmentalauthorityprovidedthepersonorentityis
state,thatstatewillberesponsibleininternationallaw actinginthatcapacityinthatparticularinstance(Art.
tothestatesufferingthedamageirrespectiveofgood 5)
orbadfaith(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.783). 3. Theconductofapersonorgroupofpersonsthat
2. Subjective Responsibility (fault theory) this isinfactactingontheinstructionsof,orunder the
principle emphasizes that an element of intentional directionorcontrolof,thatStateincarryingoutthe
(dolus)ornegligent(culpa)conductonthepartofthe conduct.(Art.8)
personconcernedisnecessarybeforehisstatecanbe 4. Theconductofapersonorgroupofpersonsthat
renderedliableforanyinjurycaused.(Crawford,The is in fact exercising governmental authority in the
International Law Commissions Articles on State absence or default of the official authorities and in
Responsibility,p.12) circumstancessuchastocallfortheexerciseofthat
authority(Art.9)
Note: Inthe CorfuChannel case,theInternationalCourt 5. Theconductofaninsurrectionalmovementwhich
appearedtoleantowardsthefaulttheorybysayingthat:it becomesthenewGovernmentofaState(Art.10[1])
cannot be concluded from the mere fact of the control 6. The conduct of a movement, insurrectional or
exercisedbyastateoveritsterritoryandwatersthatthat other,whichsucceedsinestablishinganewStatein
statenecessarilyknew,oroughttohaveknown,ofany part of the territory of a preexisting State or in a
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territoryunderitsadministration,shallbeconsidered Note:Art2oftheRPC,thePhilippineshasjurisdiction
anactofthenewState(Art.10[2]) over:(i)offensescommittedonboardaPhilippineship
7. Conduct which the State acknowledges and orairship;(ii)forgery/counterfeitingofPhilippinecoins
adopts as its own (Art. 11) (Chapter 2, of the orcurrencynotes;(iii)introductionintothePhilippines
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful of such forged or counterfeit coins or notes; (iv)
Acts). functions;and(v)crimesagainstnationalsecurityand
thelawofnations(Id.).
Jurisdiction
Thepower orauthorityexercised byaStateover land, 4. Principle of Universality the State has
persons, property, transactions and events. The basic jurisdiction over offenses considered as universal
question of jurisdiction centers upon which State has crimes regardless of where committed and who
sovereigntyorlegalcontroloverland,persons,shipsat committedthem(Id.).
sea,airshipsinflight,property,transactionsorevents,in
varioussituations(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical 5. Principle of Passive Personality then State
Law,2009,p.667). exercise jurisdiction over crimes against its own
nationalsevenofcommittedoutsideitsterritory.This
BasesofJurisdiction mayberesortedtoiftheothersarenotapplicable
1. Territorial Principle the State may exercise (Id.).
jurisdictiononlywithinitsterritory.Exceptionally,itmay
havejurisdictionoverpersonandactsdoneoutsideits Jurisdictionoverlandterritory
territorydependingonthekindofjurisdictionitinvokes The State exercises jurisdiction over everything found
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p. withinitsterrestrialdomain(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
668). PoliticalLaw,2009,p.671).
A Statehascriminaljurisdictiononlyoveroffenses JurisdictionoverMaritimeTerritory
committed within its territory, except: (i) continuing 1. Overinternalwatersthesamejurisdictionover
offenses;(ii)actsprejudicialtothenationalsecurityor thelandarea,sincetheinternalwatersaredeemed
vitalinterestsoftheStates;(iii)universalcrimes;and assimilatedinthelandmass(Id.).
(iv)offensescoveredbyspecialagreement(Id.) 2. Over archipelagic waters the same rule as
internalwaters,saveforinnocentpassageofmerchant
2. NationalityPrincipletheStatehasjurisdiction vessels through archipelagic sea lanes. Nachura,
overitsnationalsanywhereintheworld,basedonthe OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.672)
theorythatanationalisentitledtotheprotectionofthe 3. OverTerritorialsea criminaljurisdictionover
Statewhereverhemaybe,andthis,isboundtoitby foreignmerchantvesselsshallbedeterminedbythe
duty of obedience and allegiance, unless he is applicationofeithertheEnglishRuleortheFrench
preparedtorenouncehisnationality(Id.). rule.Innocentpassageandinvoluntaryentrance,the
distressonthevesselmustbereal.(Id)
3. ProtectivePrincipletheStatehasjurisdiction 4. OverContiguousZone thecoastalStatemay
over acts committed abroad (by nationals or exercisethecontrolnecessarytopreventinfringement
foreigners)whichareprejudicialtoitsnationalsecurity of its customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary
orvitalinterest(Id.).
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1. The injured subject must first exhaust all local Authority from which a fugitive from justice may be
remedies,except: extradited
a. Noremediestoexhaust (lawsare Afugitivefromjusticemaybeextraditedonlyuponthe
intrinsicallydefective) authorityofanextraditiontreatybetweentherequesting
b. Courtsarecorrupt authorityandtherequestedStates.
c. Noadequatemachinery
d. Involvesactsofstatesnotsubjectto Personssubjecttoextradition
judicialreview Those charged or convicted of offenses that are
CalvoClause provisionfrequentlyinsertedin extraditable under the terms of the extradition treaty
contracts where nationals of another state between the requesting States where the crime was
renounce any claimupon his national statefor committed and the requested State where the person
protection. Butsuchwaivercanbelegallymade requestedtobeextraditedhassoughtrefuge.
onlybyaliensstate(Nachura,OutlineReviewer
inPoliticalLaw,2009,p.694). Offensessubjecttoextradition
Thosewhicharespecificallylistedintheextraditiontreaty
2. Hemustresorttodiplomaticprotection tobeextraditable(listtypeextraditiontreaty)orwhichare
definedandpunishedascrimesunderthelawsofboththe
requesting and requested States (double criminality
T R EATM ENT OF A LI ENS clause).
PrincipleofSpecialty
Afugitivewhoisextraditedmaybetriedonlyforthe
EXTRADITION crime specified in the request for extradition and
TheremovalofanaccusedfromthePhilippineswiththe includedinthelistofoffensesinthetreaty.
objectofplacinghimatthedisposalofforeignauthoritiesto
enabletherequestingstateorgovernmenttoholdhimin NonlistTypeofTreaty
connectionwithanycriminalinvestigationdirectedagainst Offensespunishableunderthelawsofbothstatesby
himortheexecutionofapenaltyimposedonhimunderthe imprisonmentofoneyearormoreareincludedamong
penalorcriminallawoftherequestingstateorgovernment theextraditableoffenses.
(P.D.1069ThePhilippineExtraditionLaw,Sec.2(a)).
Elementsfortheexerciseofextradition:
1. Actsofsovereigntyon
thepartoftwoStates
2. A request by one
State to another State for the delivery to it of an
allegedcriminal;and
3. The delivery of the
personrequestedforthepurposesoftrialorsentence
intheterritoryoftherequestingstate.
Fundamentalprinciplesrelatingtoextradition
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Anextraditionproceedingbeing suigeneris,thestandard
ofproofrequiredingrantingordenyingbailcanneitherbe
theproofbeyondreasonabledoubtincriminalcasesnor
thestandardofproofofpreponderanceofevidenceincivil
casesthepotentialextraditemustproveby clearand
convincingproofthatheisnotaflightriskandwillabide
withalltheordersandprocessesoftheextraditioncourt.
(GovernmentofHongkongSpecialAdministrativeRegion
v.Olalia,Jr,G.R.No.153675,April19,2007).
Rightsofapersonarrestedanddetainedinanother
State:(RCI)
1. Righttohavehis requestcompliedwithbythe
receivingStatetosoinformtheconsularpostofhis
condition
2. Righttohavehiscommunicationaddressedtothe
(P.D.1069)
consular post forwarded by the receiving State
accordingly
3. Righttobeinformedbythecompetentauthorities
of the receiving State without delay his rights as
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offerprotectiontorefugeespresentinthepremisesof
the mission (Shah, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Mediation
InternationalLaw,DiplomaticAsylum,2007,par.1).
Itisaprocessofsettlementofadisputeundertakenbya
Note: Generally, diplomatic aylum cannot be granted
thirdState,agroupofStates,anindividual,anagency,or
excepttomembersoftheofficialorpersonalhouseholdof
an international organization (Coquia and Defensor,
diplomatic representatives. On humanitarian grounds,
InternationalLaw,1998,p.560).
however,refugemaybegrantedtofugitiveswhoselives
areinimminentdangerfrommobviolencebutonlyduring
Itisameansofpeacefulsettlementofdisputeswiththe
theperiodwhenactivedangerpersist)(Nachura,Outline
SecurityCouncil,ortheGeneralAssembly,recommending
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.697).
anymemberoragencyasmediator(Art.10,14,36,UN
Charter).
I N TERNAT I O NAL D I SPUT ES A ND
S ET TLEM ENTS The mediator usually offers concrete proposals for
settlementofsubstantivequestions.Theofferforsolutionis
Dispute
nomorethananadvice,andundernoconditionshallitbe
Adisagreementonpointoflaworfact,aconflictoflegal
considered as binding on the parties (Coquia and
viewsorofinterestorofinterestsbetweentwointernational
Defensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.560).
persons(MavrommatisPalestineConcessionsCase[PCIJ,
SeriesA.No.2,pp.1112(1924)]).
JudicialSettlement
Similar to the nature of proceedings and the binding
Art.33oftheUNCharter providethatthepartiestoany
character of an arbitrationproceeding, and the disputes
dispute shall first seek a solution through pacific or
submitted for adjudication arelegal, rather than political
amicablemethods.
(CoquiaandDefensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.565).
Classesofinternationaldisputes
Negotiation
1. Legal ifitinvolvesjusticiablerightsbasedon
Thediscussionundertakenbythepartiesthemselvesof
lawandfact,and
theirrespectiveclaimsandcounterclaimswithaviewto
2. Political if it cannot be decided by an
theirjustandorderlyadjustments (CoquiaandDefensor,
internationalarbitralorjudicialtribunalundertherules
InternationalLaw,1998,p.559).
of international law (Coquia and Defensor,
InternationalLaw,1998,p.556).
TheCourtheldinthe NorthSeaContinentalShelf cases
that: the parties are under an obligation to enter into
Amicablemethodsofsettlingdisputes:(MJNTRACE)
negotiationswithaviewtoarrivingatanagreement,and
(Art.33UNCharter)
notmerelytogothroughaformalprocessofnegotiationas
1. Mediation
asortofpriorconditiontheyareunderanobligationsoto
2. JudicialSettlement
conductthemselvesthatthenegotiationsaremeaningful,
3. Negotiation
whichwillnotbethecasewheneitheroftheminsistsupon
4. TenderOfGoodoffices
itsownpositionwithoutcontemplatinganymodificationof
5. ResorttoRegionalOrganizations
it(NorthSeaContinentalShelfcases,ICJReports,1969,
6. Arbitration
p.3).
7. Conciliation
8. Enquiry
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Art.40oftheUnitedNationsrequirenegotiationbetween Hostilemethodsofsettlingdisputes:(SRR)
thepartiesbeforethejurisdictionoftheSecurityCouncil (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.700)
canbeinvoked. 1. Severanceofdiplomaticrelations
2. Retorsion
TenderofGoodoffices Retaliationwhereactscomplainedofdonotconstitute
Whereathirdparty,eitheraloneorincollaborationwith legalgroundofoffensebutareratherinthenatureof
others,offerstohelpinthesettlementofadispute.When unfriendlyactsdoneinpursuanceofalegitimatestate
theofferisacceptedthereissupposedtobeanexerciseof interestbutindirectlyhurtfultootherstates.
good offices (Coquia and Defensor, International Law, 3. Reprisal
1998,p.561). Unlawful acts taken by one state in retaliation for
reciprocalunlawfulactsofanotherstate.
Arbitration
Thesolutionofadisputebyanimpartialthirdpartyusually Formsofreprisals:
a tribunal created by the parties themselves under a a. Freezingtheassetsofthenationalsoftheother
charter known as a compromis. The proceedings are state
essentially judicial and the award is, by previous b. Embargo the forcible
agreement,bindingonthepartiestothedispute (Coquia detention or sequestration of the vessels and
andDefensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.562). otherpropertyoftheoffendingstate
c. Pacific blockade the
Conciliation interventionofentrytoorexitfromtheportsofthe
The process of conciliation involves a thirdparty offendingstateofmeansofcommunicationand
investigationofthebasisofthedisputeandthesubmission transportation
of areport embodying suggestions for asettlement. As d. Nonintercourse
suchitinvolveselementsofbothinquiryandmediation, suspensionofall intercourse withtheoffending
and in fact the process of conciliation emerged from state, particularly in matters of trade and
treaties providing for permanent inquiry commissions. commerce
Conciliationreportsareonlyproposalsandassuchdonot e. Boycott concerted
constitute binding decisions. Conciliation commissions suspension of commercial relations with the
have similar functions of investigating the dispute and offending state, with particular reference to a
suggesting terms of a possible settlement (International refusaltopurchasegoods
DisputeSettlement,p.66)
RoleoftheUnitedNationsincaseofreprisals
Enquiry Intheeventthatnoneofthemethodssucceedsinsettling
The ascertainment of pertinent facts and issues in a the dispute, or even if they are not employed, the
dispute. However, the findings of the party making the Organization may be asked or may decide on its own
enquiryarenotconclusiveuponthedisputingstatesbut authority to take a hand in the settlement it being
theyneverthelessmayexertastrongmoralinfluenceinthe principallyaddressedtotheSecurityCouncil,butmaybe
settlement of the conflict. (Coquia and Defensor, taken over by the General Assembly under conditions
InternationalLaw,1998,p.562). (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.700
701).
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4. 1. Simplecessationofhostilities;
Demand taxes and contributions to finance military 2. Conclusionofanegotiatedtreatyofpeace;and
andlocaladministrativeneeds 3. Defeat of one of the belligerents, followed by a
5. dictatedtreatyofpeaceorannexationofconquered
Issuelegalcurrency territory (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,
6. 2009,p.706707).
Use enemy property, whether public or private, but
privatepropertyissubjecttoindemnificationorreturn Postliminium
attheendofthewar Therevivalorreversiontotheoldlawsandsovereigntyof
(Republic v. Lara, G.R. No. L5080, November 29, territorywhichhasbeenunderbelligerentoccupationonce
1954). controlofthebelligerentoccupantislostovertheterritory
affected(CoKimChanv.ValdezTanKeh,G.R.No.L5,
RightofAngary September17,1945).
The right of a belligerent state, in cases of extreme Warcriminal
necessity,todestroyoruseneutralpropertyonitsownor Heisanyperson,whetheracivilianoramemberofthe
onenemyterritory,oronthehighsea (Nachura,Outline armedforcesofthestate,whocommitsanactthatviolates
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.705.) aruleofinternationallawgoverning,armedconflicts(Id.).
NONHOSTILEINTERCOURSE ThePhilippineshadtheauthoritytotrywarcriminalsafter
1. FlagofTrucewhite WorldWarII(Kurodav.Jalandoni,No.L2662,March26,
incolor,indicatesthedesiretocommunicatewiththe 1949).
enemy; the agent, called parlementaire, enjoys
inviolability and is entrusted with the duty of ItistheconditionofaStatethatdoesnottakepart,directly
negotiatingwiththeenemy. orindirectly,inwarbetweenotherstates.
2. Cartelsagreements
toregulatetheintercourseduringthewar,usuallythe N E UTRALI TY
exchangeofprisonersofwar.
Neutralityv.Neutralization
3. Passport written
Neutrality Neutralization
permissiongivenbythebelligerentgovernmenttothe
Underwhatcircumstanceswillitexist
subjectsoftheenemytotravelgenerallyinbelligerent
Dependent on
territory. Result of treaty wherein
attitude of neutral
4. SafeConduct duration and other
state,whichisfreeto
permissiongiventoanenemysubjectortoanenemy conditions are agreed
join either of
vesselallowingpassagebetweendefinedpoints. upon by neutralized state
belligerents any time
5. License to Trade andotherstates
itseesfit
permissiongivenbycompetentauthoritytoindividuals
carry on trade through there is a state of war Whatlawswillgovern
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p. Governedbylawsof Governedbyneutralization
706). nationsagreements agreement
Whenapplicable
Terminationofwar Obtains only during Intended to operate in
war timesofpeaceandwar
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exigenciesofthesituation,providedthatsuchmeasures e. Righttoadequatestandardsofliving
are not inconsistent with their other obligations under f. Righttohigheststandardofphysicalandmental
internationallawanddonotinvolvediscriminationsolelyon health
thegroundofrace,color,sex,language,religionorsocial g. Righttoeducation
origin(Article4(1),ICCPR). h. Right to enjoyment of cultural and scientific
benefits
RightswhichmayNOTbederogated:
a. Article6:Righttolife LimitationintheexerciseofrightsunderICESCR
b. Article 7: Freedom from torture and other inhuman TheStatemaysubjectsuchrightsonlytosuchlimitations
punishment asaredeterminedbylawonlyinsofarasthismaybe
c. Article8(par.Iand2):freedomfromenslavementor compatiblewiththenatureoftheserightsandsolelyforthe
servitude purposeofpromotingthegeneralwelfareinademocratic
d. Article11:Protectionfromimprisonmentforinabilityto society(Article4,ICESCR).
fulfillcontractualobligations
e. Article15:Protectionfromexpostfactolaws
I N TERNAT I O NAL H UM ANI TAR I AN L AW
f. Article16:Righttorecognitioneverywhereasaperson
beforethelaw INTERNATIONALHUMANITARIANLAW(IHL)
g. Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and Thebodyofinternationalrules,establishedbytreatiesor
religion custom, which are specifically intended to solve
humanitarianproblemsdirectlyarisingfrominternationalor
OptionalProtocolstoICCPR noninternational armed conflicts and which, for
1. FirstOptionalProtocol enablestheeighteen humanitarianreasons,limittherightofpartiestoaconflict
memberHumanRightsCommitteesetupunderthe tousethemethodsandmeansofwarfareoftheirchoiceor
ICCPR to receive and consider complaints from protectpersonsandpropertythatare,ormaybe,affected
individualsclaimingtobevictimsofviolationsofany by conflict (ICRC, Advisory Service on International
rightssetforthintheICCPR. HumanitarianLaw).
2. Second Optional Protocol aimed at the
abolitionofthedeathpenalty. Itdoesnotapplytoincidentsoractsofterrorismunless
they fall within the characterization of an international
C. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON ECONOMIC, armedconflictunder Art.2CommontotheFourGeneva
SOCIALANDCULTURALRIGHTS(ICESCR) Conventions; or of noninternational or internal armed
The ICESCR was adopted and opened for signature, conflictundercommon Art.3oftheGenevaConvention
ratificationandaccessionbytheU.N.GeneralAssembly andunderArt.1ofAdditionalProtocolII.
Resolution2200(XXI)ofDecember16,1966.Itentered
intoforceonJanuary3,1976. InternationalHumanRightsLawv.International
Substantiverightstreatedinthecovenantarefound HumanitarianLaw
inArticle6to15;theseinclude,amongothers: InternationalHuman International
a. Righttoworkandfavorableconditionsofwork RightsLaw HumanitarianLaw
b. Righttoformfreetradeunion Towhomapplicable
c. Righttosocialsecurityandinsurance Governs the relations Governs armed conflict,
d. Righttospecialassistanceforfamilies betweentheStateandthe regulatingthe meansand
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and cooperation among States in accordance with the rules, which are additional to other applicable rules of
U.N.Charter(Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.267). InternationalLaw,shallbeobservedinallcircumstances:
a. The civilian population as such as well as
MartensClause individualciviliansshallnotbetheobjectofattack.
A clause which states in cases not covered by this Actsorthreatsofviolencetheprimarypurposeof
Protocolorbyanyotherinternationalagreements,civilians which is to spread terror among the civilian
andcombatantsremainundertheprotectionandauthority populationareprohibited;
of the principles of international law derived from b. Attacksagainstthecivilianpopulationor
establishedcustom,fromtheprinciplesofhumanityand civiliansbywayofreprisalsareprohibited(Protocol
from the dictates of public conscience (Art. 1, par. 2, I,Article51).
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 PrisonersofWar
August1949). Prisoners of war are entitled to the following basic
protections:
Apersonishorsdecombatif:(PIE) a. They may only be transferred by the
1. Heisinthe powerofanadverseparty[tothe DetainingPowertoaPowerwhichisalsoapartyto
conflict] theGenevaConventionIII.(GenevaConventionIII,
2. Incapable of defending himself provided he Article12);
abstainsfromanyhostileactanddoesnotattemptto b. They must at all times be humanely
escape. treated. No prisoner of war may be subjected to
3. Heclearlyexpressesanintentiontosurrender physical mutilation or to medical or scientific
experimentsofanykindwhicharenotjustifiedby
TREATMENTOFCIVILIANS the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the
prisonerconcernedandcarriedbutinhisinterest.
Civilian They must at all times be protected, particularly
Acivilianisanypersonwhodoesnotbelongtoarmed againstactsofviolenceorintimidationorinsultsand
forceandwhoisnotacombatant.Incaseofdoubton public curiosity. Measures of reprisals against
whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be prisonersofwarareprohibited.(Article13);
consideredtobeacivilian(Art.4ThirdGenevaConvention, c.Theyshallbefreeofchargefortheirmaintenance
1949andArticle43,ProtocolI,1977). andformedicalattentionrequiredbytheirStateof
health(Article15);
Civilianpopulation d. They shall be treated alike by the
The civilian population comprises all persons who are Detaining Power, without any adverse distinction
civilians. The presence within the civilian population of based on race, nationality, religious belief, or
individualswhodonotcomewithinthedefinitionofcivilians politicalopinions,oranyotherdistinctionfoundedon
do not deprive the population of its civilian character similarcriteria(Article16);
(ProtocolI,Article50). e. Womenshallbetreatedwithallregard
duetotheirsexandshall inall casesbenefitby
Thecivilianpopulationandindividualciviliansshallenjoy treatmentasfavorableasgrantedtomen. (Article
general protection against dangers arising from military 14);and
operations.Togiveeffecttothisprotection,thefollowing f. Womenshallbeheldinquartersseparatedfrom
mens quarters. They shall be under immediate
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supervisionofwomen.Nevertheless,incaseswhere
families are detained or interned, they shall, 4. PrincipleofIndividualCriminalLiabilityan
wheneverpossible,beheldinthesameplaceand individualwhocommitsacrimeunderinternationallaw
accommodatedasfamily units (Protocol I, Article individually liable for punishment, without any
75[5]). distinctionbasedonofficialcapacity.
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Statute.InfactArt.125(2)oftheStatuteprovidesthatitis a. Killingmembersofthegroup;
subjecttoratification,acceptanceorapprovalbysignatory b. Causingseriousbodilyormentalharmtomembers
states(Pimentelv.OfficeoftheExecutiveSecretary,G.R. ofthegroup;
No.158088,July6,2005). c. Deliberatelyinflictingonthegroupconditionsoflife
calculatedtobringaboutitsphysicaldestructionin
JurisdictionoftheICC wholeorinpart;
1. Thecrimesofgenocide d. Imposingmeasuresintendedtopreventbirthswithin
2. Crimesagainsthumanity thegroup;
3. Warcrimes e. Forciblytransferringchildrenofthegrouptoanother
4. Thecrimesofaggression group.
Notes:
MAINJURISDICTIONALRULESGOVERNINGICC Killingscommittedbyasingleperpetratorareenoughto
The Rome Statute provides for the following rules on establishthematerialelementofthecrimeofgenocideand
jurisdiction: itispossibletoconceivethattheaccusedharboredthe
1. Jurisdiction rationematerial ICCjurisdictionis plan to exterminate an entire group without this intent
onlylimitedtothosecrimesunderitsjurisdiction havingbeensupportedbyanyorganizationinwhichother
2. Jurisdiction ratione temporis ICC has individualsparticipated(Prosecutorvs.Jelisic,ICTY1999).
jurisdictiononlywithcrimescommittedaftertheentry
intoforceofitsStatute(July1,2002). CRIMESAGAINSTHUMANITY
3. Jurisdiction ratione loci ICC has jurisdiction A crime against humanity involves the commission of
overcrimescommittedintheterritoryofStatesParties, certain inhumane acts, such as murder, torture, rape,
withoutrespecttothenationalityoftheoffender. sexualslavery,persecution,andotheracts,underacertain
4. Jurisdiction ratione personae ICC has context: theymustbepartofawidespreadorsystematic
jurisdictionoverthenationalsofastatepartyasto attackdirectedagainstacivilianpopulation (Cryer,etal.
crimeswithintheICCsjurisdiction. An Introduction to International Criminal Law and
Procedure.2010).
Note:TrialinabsentiaisnotallowedundertheICCrules
(Art.63,RomeStatute). Crimesagainsthumanityv.Warcrimes
CrimesAgainst
R E CO G NI ZED C R I M ES U ND ER WarCrimes
Humanity
I N TERNAT I O NAL L AW Whenitmaybecommitted
GENOCIDE May occur even in the
Mayonlyoccurduringan
Adenialoftherightofexistenceofentirehumangroups, absence of an armed
armedconflict.
ashomicideisthedenialoftherighttoliveofindividual conflict.
human beings (UN General Assembly Resolution No. Additionalrequisite
96(1)). Requires a context of
Does not require such
widespread or systematic
context.
Elementsofgenocide: commission.
1. Intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, Coverage
ethnical,racial,orreligiousgroup; Focusedontheprotection Focuses on protecting
2. Commissionofthefollowingacts: of victims regardless of enemy nationals or
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Thelawonwarcrimesisprimarilyhingedonthecustomary R.A.9851
lawsof justwar andthegoverningGenevaConventions [Philippine Act on Crimes against International
whichproviderulesandparametersforwagingawar. Humanitarian Law, Genocide and Other Crimes
AgainstHumanity(December11,2009)]
Generalactspunishableaswarcrimes The State adopts the generally accepted principles of
1. Violence and mistreatment of noncombatants internationallaw,includingtheHagueConventionsof1907,
(includingprisonersofwar,civilians,thewounded,and theGenevaConventionsontheprotectionofvictimsofwar
thesick); andinternationalhumanitarianlaw,aspartofthelawofour
2. Attacksonprohibitedtargets; nation.
PrincipleofDistinction Jurisdictionoverwarcrimes
AcustomaryruleinIHLthatrequiresbelligerentsto TheStateshallexercisejurisdictionoverpersons,whether
distinguish between military objectives and the militaryorcivilian,suspectedoraccusedofacrimedefined
populationandobjects,andtodirecttheiroperations andpenalizedinthisAct,regardlessofwherethecrimeis
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Terroristactscanbeprosecutedinaninternationalcourtat
Sovereignty of the archipelagic state extends to
presentonlyiftheyamounttowarcrimesorcrimesagainst
archipelagic waters, but is subject to the right of
humanity.
innocent passage for the ships of all states. Its
L AW O N T HE SE A sovereigntyalsoextendstothesuperjacentairspace
of the archipelagic waters, subjacent seabed and
subsoilandtheresourcescontainedtherein(Art.49,
1. INTERNALORNATIONALWATERSbodies UNCLOS).
of water within the land mass, among them are:
(Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, 2009,
p.664)
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Thus,domestically,thepoliticalbranchesofthePhilippine RegimeofIslandsDoctrine
government, in the competent discharge of their An island is a naturally formed area of land,
constitutional powers, may pass legislation designating surrounded bywater,whichisabove water at high
routeswithinthearchipelagicwaterstoregulateinnocent tide. But under this doctrine, rocks which cannot
andsealanespassage(Prof.MerlinM.Magallona,etal. sustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeoftheirown
vs.EduardoErmita,etal.,G.R.No.187167,August16, shallhavenoexclusiveeconomiczoneorcontinental
2011). shelf(Art121,UNCLOS).
StraightArchipelagicBaselines
Archipelago Archipelagic states may draw straight baselines by
A group of islands, including parts of islands, inter joiningtheoutermostpointsoftheoutermostislands
connectingwaters,andothernaturalfeatureswhichare and drying reefs of the archipelago, provided that
closely interrelated in such islands, waters and other withinsuchbaselinesareincludedthemainislands
natural features which form an intrinsic geographical, andanareainwhichtheratiooftheareaofthewater
economic and political entity or which historically have totheareaoftheland,includingatollsisbetween11
beenregardedassuch(Art.46(b),UNCLOS). and91(Art.47(1),UNCLOS).
Twokindsofarchipelago:
a. Coastal situated so close to a Archipelagicsealanes
mainland that they may be considered a part ItmeanstheexerciseinaccordancewiththeLawof
thereof formingmoreorlessanoutercoastline theSea Convention of the rights of navigation and
fromwhichitisnaturaltomeasurethemarginal overflightinthenormalmodesolelyforthepurposeof
seas, e.g. Norwegian "Skjaergard," coasts of continuous, expeditious and unobstructed transit
Finland, Sweden, and certain stretches on the betweenonepart ofthehighseasor anexclusive
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AnarchipelagicStatemaydesignatesealanesandair TypesofBaseline:
routes there above, suitable for continuous and a. NormalBaselinemethod the territorialseais
expeditious passage of foreign ships and aircraft simplydrawnfromthelowwatermarkofthecoast,to
throughoroveritsarchipelagicwatersandadjacentto the breadth claimed, following its sinuousness and
itsterritorialsea.Allshipsandaircraftenjoytherightof curvatures but excluding the internal waters in the
archipelagicsealanespassageinsuchsealanesand baysandgulfs(Art5,UNCLOS).
airroutes(UNCLOS,Article53(1,2)).
b. StraightBaselinemethod where the
Limitationsandrulesindrawingarchipelagic
coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if
baselines:
thereisafringeofislandsalongthecoastinits
a. Ratiooftheareaofthewatertotheareaofthe
immediate vicinity, the method of straight
land,includingatolls,isbetween11and91;
baselines joining appropriate points may be
b. Lengthofsuchbaselinesshall not exceed100
employedindrawingthebaselinefromwhichthe
nauticalmiles,exceptthatupto3%ofthetotal
breadthoftheterritorialseaismeasured(Art.7,
number of baselines enclosing any archipelago
UNCLOS).
mayexceedthatlength,uptoamaximumlength
of125nauticalmiles;
Limitations on the Use of Straight Baselines:
c. Thedrawingofsuchbaselinesshallnotdepartto
(UNCLOS1982,asChurchhill&Lowe,TheLawofthe
any appreciable extent from the general
Sea,1988p.30)
configurationofthearchipelago;
d. Thesystemofsuchbaselinesshallnotbeapplied
i. Must not depart to any appreciable extent
byanarchipelagicstateinsuchamannerasto
fromthegeneraldirectionofthecoast;The
cut off from the high seas or the EEZ of the
seaareaslyingwithinthestraightbaselines
territorialseaofanotherState(Art.47,UNCLOS).
mustbesufficientlyclosetothelanddomain
tobesubjecttotheregimeofinternalwaters
3. TERRITORIALSEAthebeltofthesealocated (Art7[3];
betweenthecoastandinternalwatersofthecoastal
stateontheonehandandthehighseasontheother, ii. Straightbaselinesshallnotbedrawntoand
extendingupto12nauticalmilesfromthelowwater fromlowtide elevations,unlesslighthouses
mark,orinthecaseofarchipelagicstates,fromthe orsimilarinstallationswhicharepermanently
baselines. abovesealevelhavebeenbuiltonthem,and
unless the baselines to and from lowtide
Baseline elevations have received general
Thelowwatermarkalongthecoastfromwhichthebelt international recognition (Art. 7(4),
oftheterritorialseaismeasured(Art.3,UNConvention UNCLOS);
on the Laws of the Sea; Fisheries Case [U.K. v.
Norway],ICJ,December18,1951).Itisalinefromwhich iii. Where the method of straight baselines is
thebreadthoftheterritorialsea,thecontiguouszoneand usedincaseoflocalitieswherethecoastline
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c. anyactaimedatcollectinginformationto Coverage
the prejudice of the defence or security of the Pertains only to Includes right of over
coastalState; navigationofships flight
d. anyactofpropagandaaimedataffecting Applicability
thedefenceorsecurityofthecoastalState; Requires submarine and
e. thelaunching,landingortakingonboard otherunderwatervehicles Norequirementspecially
ofanyaircraft; to navigate on the applicable to
f. thelaunching,landingortakingonboard surfaceandtoshowtheir submarines
ofanymilitarydevice; flag
g. the loading or unloading of any Subjecttosuspension
commodity, currency or person contrary to the Canbesuspended Cannotbesuspended
customs,fiscal,immigrationorsanitarylawsand Recommendationsfordesignationofsealanes
regulationsofthecoastalState;
Designation of sea
h. any act of wilful and serious pollution In designation of sea
lanes and traffic
contrarytothisConvention; lanes and traffic
separation schemes is
i. anyfishingactivities; separation schemes, the
subject to adoption by
j. the carrying out of research or survey coastal state shall only
competentinternational
activities; take account of the
organization upon
k. any act aimed at interfering with any recommendations of the
proposal and
systemsofcommunicationoranyotherfacilities competent international
agreement of states
orinstallationsofthecoastalState; organization
borderingthestraits.
l. any other activity not having a direct
bearingonpassage(PartII,Section3,Art.19(2),
Note:ThecoastalStatemay,withoutdiscriminationinform
UNCLOS).
or in fact among foreign ships, suspend temporarily in
specifiedareasofitsterritorialseatheinnocentpassageof
RightofTransitPassage
foreign ships if such suspension is essential for the
Itistherighttoexercisefreedomofnavigationandover
protection of its security, including weapons exercises.
flightsolelyforthepurposeofcontinuousandexpeditious
Suchsuspensionshalltakeeffectonlyafterhavingbeen
transitthroughthestraitsusedforinternationalnavigation,
dulypublished(Art.25(3),UNCLOS).
i.e.,betweentwoareasofthehighseasorbetweentwo
exclusiveeconomiczones(Art.38(2),UNCLOS).
Suspension oftheright ofinnocent passage of
foreignshipsinarchipelagicwaters
All ships and aircraft enjoy the right of transit passage
Requisites:
exceptthat,ifthestraitisformedbyanislandofaState
a. The suspension is made without
borderingthestraitanditsmainland,transitpassageshall
discrimination in form or in fact among foreign
not apply ifthereexistsseawardoftheisland aroute
ships;
throughthehighseasorthroughanexclusiveeconomic
b. Thesuspensionisonlytemporary;
zoneofsimilarconveniencewithrespecttonavigational
c. It must specify the areas of its
andhydrographicalcharacteristics (Art.38(1),UNCLOS).
archipelagicwaterswhereinnocentpassageshall
notbeallowed;
Innocentpassagev.transitpassage
InnocentPassage TransitPassage
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Coastalstatehastheexclusiverighttoconstruct, b. Therightsareexclusiveinthesensethat
authorizeand regulate theconstruction, operation if the coastal State does not explore the
and use of structures and artificial islands. continentalshelforexploititsnaturalresources,
However, they may not be established where noonemayundertaketheseactivitieswithoutthe
interferencemaybecausedtotheuseofrecognized expressconsentofthecoastalState.
sealanesessentialtointernationalnavigation (Art.
60(1),UNCLOS). c. TherightsofthecoastalStateoverthe
continental shelf do not depend on occupation,
Coastal state may establish safety zones around effective or notional, or on any express
suchartificialislandsprovideditshallnotexceed proclamation.
500 meters around the artificial islands and
installations, unless otherwise authorized by d. Thenaturalresourcesreferredtointhis
generally accepted international standards or Partconsistofthemineral andothernonliving
recommended by the competent international resourcesoftheseabedandsubsoiltogetherwith
organization(Art.60(5),UNCLOS). livingorganismsbelongingtosedentaryspecies,
thatistosay,organismswhich,attheharvestable
6. CONTINENTAL SHELF is the seabed and stage,eitherareimmobileonorundertheseabed
subsoilofthesubmarineareasthatextendbeyondits orareunabletomoveexceptinconstantphysical
territorialseathroughoutthenaturalprolongationofits contactwiththeseabedorthesubsoil (Art.77,
land territory to the outer edge of the continental UNCLOS)
margin,ortoadistanceof200nauticalmilesfromthe
baselinesfromwhichthebreadthoftheterritorialsea e. The coastal State shall have the
ismeasuredwheretheouteredgeofthecontinental exclusiverighttoauthorizeandregulatedrillingon
margindoesnotextenduptothatdistance(Art.76(1) the continental shelf for all purposes (Art. 81,
UNCLOS). UNCLOS).
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c. demarcationofboundariesisimpossible; Note:Intheeventofadisputeastowhetheracourtor
and tribunal has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by
d. the oceans are so immense that decisionofthatcourtortribunal(Art.288(4)).
conflicting resource use is impossible
(Sarmiento, Public International Law Bar Contentiousjurisdiction
Reviewer,p.345) TheTribunalhasjurisdictionoveralldisputesconcerning
theinterpretationorapplicationoftheUNCLOSandother
Main Constituents of the Freedom of the High internationalagreementsrelatedtotheconvention,subject
Seas: totheprovisionsofArt.297andtothedeclarationsmade
a. Freedomofnavigation inaccordancewithArt.298oftheUNCLOS(Art.288(1)
b. Freedomofoverflight and(2),UNCLOS).
c. Freedom to lay submarine cables and
pipelines Consenttocontentiousjurisdiction
d. Freedomtoconstruct artificialIslandsand
General rule: Consenttothetribunal'sjurisdictionmust
other installations permitted under
begivenexpressly.
internationallaw
e. Freedomoffishing
However,
f. Freedom of scientific research (Art. 87,
UNCLOS). 1. ITLOSenjoysmandatoryjurisdictionoverallStates
party to the UNCLOS in some specific cause of
INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL OF THE LAW OF THE
actions,e.g.promptreleaseofdetainedvesselsand
SEA(ITLOS) crews and requests for provisional measures in
An independentjudicialbodyestablishedbytheThirdUN certain circumstances (Art. 292(1), UNCLOS),
ConventionontheLawoftheSeatoadjudicatedisputes unlessthepartiesagreeotherwise; alsoseeArt.
arising out of the interpretation and application of the 290(5), UNCLOS) andmayreceivecases onthe
convention (Art. 1, ITLOS). It is Composed of 21 basis of international agreements other than the
independentmemberselectedbytheStatespartiestothe UNCLOS.
UNCLOS from among persons with recognized
2. SBDChasmandatoryjurisdictionunderPartXIof
competence in the field of the law of the sea and
theUNCLOSandtheAnnexesrelatingtheretoin
representingtheprincipallegalsystemsoftheworld(Art.
disputeswithrespecttoactivitiesintheAreafalling
2,ITLOS).
withinthefollowingcategories:
a. disputesbetweenStatesPartiesconcerning
JurisdictionofITLOS
theinterpretationorapplicationofthisPartand
This comprises all disputes and all applications
theAnnexesrelatingthereto;
submitted to it in accordance with the UNCLOS. It
alsoincludesallmattersspecificallyprovidedforin
b. disputes between a State Party and the
anyotheragreementwhichconfersjurisdictiononthe
Authorityconcerning:
Tribunal (Art. 21, ITLOS Statute). The Tribunal has i. actsoromissionsoftheAuthorityorofa
jurisdictiontodealwithdisputes(contentiousjurisdiction) StatePartyallegedtobeinviolationofthis
andlegalquestions(advisoryjurisdiction)submittedtoit. PartortheAnnexesrelatingtheretoorof
rules, regulations and procedures of the
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TheInternationalRegistrationapplicationshallbefiledat Notes:
the International Bureau of WIPO through the office of The Paris Convention [is] selfexecuting in some
originofthebasicapplicationorregistration.Itcannotbe countries.TheConventionbecomesenforceablebythe
fileddirectlyattheBureau(Art.2(2),MadridProtocol). signatory'smereaccessionandnofurtherimplementing
legislationisrequired(Art.20).
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property ParisConventionallowssignatoriestoconcludespecial
TheParisConventionprovidesforthefollowing: agreements in the field of protection of intellectual
1. Creation of alegal entityrecognized property,aslongastheseagreementsdonotcontravene
underinternational lawcomprised of the following theregulationsoftheParisConvention(Art.19).
administrativebodies:theWorldIntellectualProperty
Organization(WIPO),theAssembly(whichcomprises Most important special agreements in relation to the
all member nations) and the Executive Committee protectionoftrademarksare:
(Articles13to17,ParisConventionfortheProtection a. MadridAgreement
ofIndustrialProperty,March20,1883). b. ProtocolrelatingtotheMadridAgreement
c. Agreement on TradeRelated Aspects of
2. National treatment and reciprocity:Nationals of IntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS)
any country of the Union shall, as regards the d. NICEAgreement
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e. ViennaAgreement environmentalpolicies,andtheresponsibilitytoensure
f. TrademarkLawTreaty thatactivitieswithintheirjurisdictionorcontroldonot
g. MadridAgreementonIndicationsofOrigin causedamagetotheenvironmentofotherStatesorof
areasbeyondthelimitsofnationaljurisdiction.
I NT ERNATI O NAL E N VI RO NM ENTAL L AW
Principle of Good Neighborliness prohibits
InternationalEnvironmentalLaw Statesfromusingorpermittingtheuseofitsterritory
The branchofpublicinternationallawcomprisingthose inamannerthatisinjurioustoanotherState,orthat
substantive,proceduralandinstitutionalruleswhichhave otherStatespersonsorproperty. Sicuteretuout
as their primary objective the protection of the alienumnonlaedas. Souseyourownsoasnotto
environment;thetermenvironmentbeingunderstoodas injureothers.
encompassing both the creatures and products of the
natural world and those of human civilization (Sands, 3. Principle 22 States shall cooperate to develop
PrinciplesofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw2003,p.15). further the International Law regarding liability and
compensation for the victims of pollution and other
MAJOR INSTRUMENTS THAT HAVE SHAPED THE environmentaldamagecausedbyactivitieswithinthe
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL jurisdictionorcontrolofsuchStatestoareasbeyond
ENVIRONMENTALLAW theirjurisdiction
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soundenvironmentconstitutes,atthesametime,the
ImportantprinciplescontainedintheRioDeclaration performanceoftheirobligationtoensuretheprotection
(Earth Summit) (Sarmiento, PIL Bar Reviewer (2009) ofthatrightfor thegenerationstocome (Oposav.
p.361) Factoran,G.R.No.101083,July30,1993).
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promotetheinternalizationofenvironmentalcostsand DifferentareasofInternationalEconomicLaw
theuseofeconomicinstruments,takingintoaccount 1. International Trade Law the international
theapproachthatthepollutershould,inprinciple,bear regulation of the exchange of goods and services
the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public across borders is a major sector of international
interestandwithoutdistortinginternationaltradeand economic law. It is predominantly based on the
investment. reciprocal character of the respective rights and
obligations of all parties and considered to achieve
PolluterPaysPrinciple mutualbenefitsforallofthemprovidestheinstitutional
The polluter who creates an environmental harm basis for global trade relations and is built on pre
generally should be forced to pay the costs of existing structures (Marrakesh Agreement
remedyingthatharm. Establishing the World Trade Organization; WTO
8. Principle 18(Notification of Natural Disaster) Agreementpreamble).
States shall immediately notify other States of any 2. International Antitrust and Competition Law
naturaldisastersorotheremergenciesthatarelikelyto governs the interplay of domestic competition
producesuddenharmfuleffectsontheenvironmentof (antitrust)rulesconcerningtheissueofundertakings.
those States. Every effort shall be made by the WTOlawcontainsrudimentaryrulessanctioningthe
internationalcommunitytohelpStatessoafflicted. abuseofregulatorypowersandpracticesrestraining
9. Principle 24 (Warfare) Warfare is inherently competition (Mexico: Measures Affecting
destructive of sustainable development. Statesshall TelecommunicationServices,ReportofthePanel).In
therefore respect international law providing the absence of a truly international regime for
protection for the environment in times of armed competition, the establishment and application of
conflictandcooperateinitsfurtherdevelopment,as competition rules lie with the competent domestic
necessary. bodies. International agreements provide for mutual
10. Principle 26 (Resolution of Environmental assistance and cooperation among competition
Disputes) States shall resolve all their authorities (Agreement between the Government of
environmentaldisputespeacefullyandbyappropriate theUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheCommissionof
meansinaccordancewiththeCharteroftheUnited theEuropeanCommunitiesregardingtheApplication
Nations(Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.361). of Their Competition Laws 23 September 1991;
AgreementbetweentheEuropeanCommunitiesand
I N TERNAT I O NAL E CO NOM I C L AW theGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaon
the Application of Positive Comity Principles in the
InternationalEconomicLaw
EnforcementofTheirCompetitionLaws4June1998).
This stands for a complexregulatory framework flowing
3. International Investment Law covers the
from different sources of law governing international
promotionofforeigninvestmentsandtheirprotection
economicrelationsandtransboundaryeconomicconduct
againstinterferencesbythehostState. (Fraportv.
byStates,internationalorganizations,andprivateactors.In
PhilippinesICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25,para.402).
theinterestoftangiblecontours,thisnotionisconfinedto
theregulationofcrossbordertransactionsingoodsand
Notes:
capital and the international protection of intellectual
Undersomeagreements,customaryrulesstillprovide
property(MatthiasHerdegen,MaxPlanckEncyclopediaof
the standard of reference for fair and equitable
PublicInternationalLaw).
treatment.
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MostFavoredNationClause
This is usually found in trade treaties or agreements
requiresthattheStatesPartiesshallaccordtoeachother
whatever privileges, concessions or benefits that they
accordtootherStates.AnexampleofanMFNClauseis
foundinArticle1oftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsand
Trade(GATT)(Tanadav.Angara,G.R.No.118295.May
2,1997).
InternationalInvestmentLawcoversthepromotionof
foreign investments and their protection against
interferences by the host State (Fraport v. Philippines
ICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25,para.402).
Notes:
Undersomeagreements,customaryrulesstillprovidethe
standardofreferenceforfairandequitabletreatment.
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