CONTENTS

Preface ................................................................................................................ xv

Part I Kinematics of Mechanisms .................................................................. 1

Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................. 3

1.0 Purpose .............................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Kinematics and Kinetics .................................................................................. 3
1.2 Mechanisms and Machines ........................................................................... 4
1.3 A Brief History of Kinematics ........................................................................... 5
1.4 Applications of Kinematics ............................................................................. 6
1.5 The Design Process ........................................................................................... 7
Design, Invention, Creativity ....................................................................... 7
Identification of Need ................................................................................. 8
Background Research ................................................................................ 9
Goal Statement ......................................................................................... 10
Performance Specifications ..................................................................... 10
Ideation and Invention ............................................................................. 10
Analysis ....................................................................................................... 12
Selection ..................................................................................................... 13
Detailed Design ......................................................................................... 13
Prototyping and Testing ............................................................................ 13
Production .................................................................................................. 14
1.6 Other Approaches to Design ....................................................................... 15
Axiomatic Design ....................................................................................... 15
1.7 Multiple Solutions ............................................................................................ 16
1.8 Human Factors Engineering ......................................................................... 16
1.9 The Engineering Report ................................................................................. 17
1.10 Units ................................................................................................................... 17
1.11 A Design Case Study ..................................................................................... 18
Educating for Creativity in Engineering ................................................... 18
1.12 Whats to Come ............................................................................................. 24
1.13 References ....................................................................................................... 24
1.14 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 2 Kinematics Fundamentals ........................................................ 28

2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 28
2.1 Degrees of Freedom (DOF) or Mobility ...................................................... 28
2.2 Types of Motion ............................................................................................... 29
2.3 Links, Joints, and Kinematic Chains ............................................................ 30
2.4 Drawing Kinematic Diagrams ...................................................................... 34
2.5 Determining Degree of Freedom or Mobility ............................................ 35
Degree of Freedom (Mobility) in Planar Mechanisms ........................... 36
Degree of Freedom (Mobility) in Spatial Mechanisms .......................... 38
2.6 Mechanisms and Structures ......................................................................... 38
2.7 Number Synthesis ........................................................................................... 40
2.8 Paradoxes ........................................................................................................ 44
viii KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY CONTENTS

2.9 Isomers .............................................................................................................. 45

2.10 Linkage Transformation ................................................................................. 46
2.11 Intermittent Motion ........................................................................................ 51
2.12 Inversion ........................................................................................................... 51
2.13 The Grashof Condition .................................................................................. 53
Classification of the Fourbar Linkage ...................................................... 58
2.14 Linkages of More Than Four Bars ................................................................. 60
Geared Fivebar Linkages ......................................................................... 60
Sixbar Linkages ........................................................................................... 61
Grashof-Type Rotatability Criteria for Higher-Order Linkages ............... 61
2.15 Springs as Links ................................................................................................ 63
2.16 Compliant Mechanisms ................................................................................ 63
2.17 Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) ............................................... 65
2.18 Practical Considerations ............................................................................... 67
Pin Joints versus Sliders and Half Joints .................................................... 67
Cantilever or Straddle Mount? ................................................................. 69
Short Links ................................................................................................ 70
Bearing Ratio .............................................................................................. 70
Commercial Slides ..................................................................................... 71
Linkages versus Cams ............................................................................... 71
2.19 Motors and Drivers ......................................................................................... 72
Electric Motors ........................................................................................... 72
Air and Hydraulic Motors .......................................................................... 77
Air ad Hydraulic Cylinders ......................................................................... 77
Solenoids ................................................................................................. 78
2.20 References ....................................................................................................... 78
2.21 Problems ........................................................................................................... 79

Chapter 3 Graphical Linkage Synthesis ................................................... 92

3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 92
3.1 Synthesis ........................................................................................................... 92
3.2 Function, Path, and Motion Generation .................................................... 94
3.3 Limiting Conditions ......................................................................................... 96
3.4 Dimensional Synthesis .................................................................................... 98
Two-Position Synthesis ................................................................................ 99
Three-Position Synthesis with Specified Moving Pivots ......................... 105
Three-Position Synthesis with Alternate Moving Pivots ......................... 106
Three-Position Synthesis with Specified Fixed Pivots ............................. 109
Position Synthesis for More Than Three Positions ................................... 113
3.5 Quick-Return Mechanisms .......................................................................... 113
Fourbar Quick-Return .............................................................................. 114
Sixbar Quick-Return ................................................................................. 116
3.6 Coupler Curves ............................................................................................. 119
3.7 Cognates ....................................................................................................... 128
Parallel Motion ......................................................................................... 133
Geared Fivebar Cognates of the Fourbar ............................................ 135
3.8 Straight-Line Mechanisms ........................................................................... 136
Designing Optimum Straight-Line Fourbar Linkages ............................ 139
3.9 Dwell Mechanisms ........................................................................................ 143
Single-Dwell Linkages .............................................................................. 143
Double-Dwell Linkages ............................................................................ 146
3.10 Other Useful Linkages* ................................................................................. 148
Constant Velocity Piston Motion ............................................................ 148
Large Angular Excursion Rocker Motion ............................................... 149
Remote Center Circular Motion ............................................................ 151
3.11 References ..................................................................................................... 152
CONTENTS ix

3.12 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 153

3.13 Problems ......................................................................................................... 154
3.14 Projects ........................................................................................................... 164

Chapter 4 Position Analysis ....................................................................... 168

4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 168
4.1 Coordinate systems ..................................................................................... 170
4.2 Position and Displacement ......................................................................... 170
Position ...................................................................................................... 170
Coordinate Transformation .................................................................... 171
Displacement ........................................................................................... 171
4.3 Translation, Rotation, and Complex Motion ............................................ 173
Translation ................................................................................................ 173
Rotation .................................................................................................... 173
Complex Motion ...................................................................................... 174
Theorems .................................................................................................. 175
4.4 Graphical Position Analysis of Linkages ................................................... 175
4.5 Algebraic Position Analysis of Linkages .................................................... 177
Vector Loop Representation of Linkages ............................................. 178
Complex Numbers as Vectors ............................................................... 178
The Vector Loop Equation for a Fourbar Linkage ................................ 180
4.6 The Fourbar Slider-Crank Position Solution ............................................... 184
4.7 An Inverted Slider-Crank Position Solution ............................................... 186
4.8 Linkages of More Than Four Bars ............................................................... 188
The Geared Fivebar Linkage .................................................................. 188
Sixbar Linkages ......................................................................................... 191
4.9 Position of any Point on a Linkage ............................................................ 192
4.10 Transmission Angles ...................................................................................... 193
Extreme Values of the Transmission Angle ............................................ 194
4.11 Toggle Positions ............................................................................................. 196
4.12 Circuits and Branches in Linkages ............................................................. 197
4.13 Newton-Raphson Solution Method ........................................................... 198
One-Dimensional Root-Finding (Newtons Method) ............................ 199
Multidimensional Root-Finding (Newton-Raphson Method) ............... 200
Newton-Raphson Solution for the Fourbar Linkage ............................. 201
Equation Solvers ....................................................................................... 202
4.14 References ..................................................................................................... 202
4.15 Problems ......................................................................................................... 203

Chapter 5 Analytical Linkage Synthesis ................................................. 214

5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 214
5.1 Types of Kinematic Synthesis ...................................................................... 214
5.2 Two-Position Synthesis for Rocker Output ................................................. 215
5.3 Precision Points .............................................................................................. 217
5.4 Two-Position Motion Generation by Analytical Synthesis ..................... 217
5.5 Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Two-Position Synthesis ....... 224
5.6 Simultaneous Equation Solution ................................................................. 226
5.7 Three-Position Motion Generation by Analytical Synthesis ................... 229
5.8 Comparison of Analytical and Graphical Three-Position Synthesis .... 234
5.9 Synthesis for a Specified Fixed Pivot Location* ....................................... 238
5.10 Center-Point and Circle-Point Circles ....................................................... 244
5.11 Four- and Five-Position Analytical Synthesis ............................................ 247
5.12 Analytical Synthesis of a Path Generator with Prescribed Timing ....... 248
5.13 Analytical Synthesis of a Fourbar Function Generator .......................... 248
x KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY CONTENTS

5.14 Other Linkage Synthesis Methods .............................................................. 251

Precision Point Methods .......................................................................... 252
Coupler Curve Equation Methods ......................................................... 254
Optimization Methods ............................................................................. 255
5.15 References ..................................................................................................... 258
5.16 Problems ......................................................................................................... 260

Chapter 6 Velocity Analysis ...................................................................... 269

6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 269
6.1 Definition of Velocity .................................................................................... 269
6.2 Graphical Velocity Analysis ........................................................................ 272
6.3 Instant Centers of Velocity .......................................................................... 277
6.4 Velocity Analysis with Instant Centers ....................................................... 284
Angular Velocity Ratio ............................................................................ 285
Mechanical Advantage ......................................................................... 287
Using Instant Centers in Linkage Design ................................................ 289
6.5 Centrodes ...................................................................................................... 291
A Linkless Linkage ................................................................................. 294
Cusps ........................................................................................................ 295
6.6 Velocity of Slip ............................................................................................... 295
6.7 Analytical Solutions for Velocity Analysis .................................................. 299
The Fourbar Pin-Jointed Linkage ............................................................ 299
The Fourbar Slider-Crank ......................................................................... 302
The Fourbar Inverted Slider-Crank ......................................................... 303
6.8 Velocity Analysis of the Geared Fivebar Linkage ................................... 306
6.9 Velocity of any Point on a Linkage ........................................................... 307
6.10 References ..................................................................................................... 308
6.11 Problems ......................................................................................................... 308

Chapter 7 Acceleration Analysis ............................................................. 330

7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 330
7.1 Definition of Acceleration .......................................................................... 330
7.2 Graphical Acceleration Analysis ............................................................... 333
7.3 Analytical Solutions for Acceleration Analysis ........................................ 338
The Fourbar Pin-Jointed Linkage ............................................................ 338
The Fourbar Slider-Crank ......................................................................... 341
Coriolis Acceleration ............................................................................... 343
The Fourbar Inverted Slider-Crank ......................................................... 345
7.4 Acceleration Analysis of the Geared Fivebar Linkage ......................... 349
7.5 Acceleration of any Point on a Linkage .................................................. 350
7.6 Human Tolerance of Acceleration ............................................................ 352
7.7 Jerk .................................................................................................................. 355
7.8 Linkages of n Bars ......................................................................................... 357
7.9 References ..................................................................................................... 357
7.10 Problems ......................................................................................................... 357

Chapter 8 Cam Design .............................................................................. 377

8.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 377
8.1 Cam Terminology ......................................................................................... 378
Type of Follower Motion .......................................................................... 379
Type of Joint Closure ............................................................................... 380
Type of Follower ....................................................................................... 380
Type of Cam ............................................................................................ 380
CONTENTS xi

Type of Motion Constraints ..................................................................... 383

Type of Motion Program ......................................................................... 383
8.2 S V A J Diagrams ......................................................................................... 384
8.3 Double-Dwell Cam DesignChoosing S V A J Functions ..................... 385
The Fundamental Law of Cam Design .................................................. 388
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) ............................................................. 389
Cycloidal Displacement ......................................................................... 391
Combined Functions ............................................................................... 394
The SCCA Family of Double-Dwell Functions ........................................ 397
Polynomial Functions ............................................................................... 407
Double-Dwell Applications of Polynomials ........................................... 408
8.4 Single-Dwell Cam DesignChoosing S V A J Functions ........................ 411
Single-Dwell Applications of Polynomials .............................................. 414
Effect of Asymmetry on the Rise-Fall Polynomial Solution ................... 417
8.5 Critical Path Motion (CPM) ........................................................................ 420
Polynomials Used for Critical Path Motion ............................................ 421
8.6 Sizing the CamPressure Angle and Radius of Curvature ................... 429
Pressure AngleTranslating Roller Followers ......................................... 429
Choosing a Prime Circle Radius ............................................................. 433
Overturning MomentTranslating Flat-Faced Follower ...................... 434
Radius of CurvatureTranslating Roller Follower ................................. 434
Radius of CurvatureTranslating Flat-Faced Follower ........................ 439
8.7 Practical Design Considerations ................................................................ 443
Translating or Oscillating Follower? ........................................................ 443
Force- or Form-Closed? .......................................................................... 444
Radial or Axial Cam? .............................................................................. 445
Roller or Flat-Faced Follower? ................................................................ 445
To Dwell or Not to Dwell? ........................................................................ 446
To Grind or Not to Grind? ........................................................................ 446
To Lubricate or Not to Lubricate? .......................................................... 447
8.8 References ..................................................................................................... 447
8.9 Problems ......................................................................................................... 448
8.10 Projects ........................................................................................................... 451

Chapter 9 Gear Trains ................................................................................ 454

9.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 454
9.1 Rolling Cylinders ............................................................................................ 455
9.2 The Fundamental Law of Gearing ............................................................ 456
The Involute Tooth Form .......................................................................... 457
Pressure Angle .......................................................................................... 459
Changing Center Distance .................................................................... 459
Backlash ................................................................................................... 460
9.3 Gear Tooth Nomenclature ......................................................................... 461
9.4 Interference and Undercutting ................................................................. 464
Unequal-Addendum Tooth Forms ......................................................... 465
9.5 Contact Ratio ............................................................................................... 466
9.6 Gear Types ..................................................................................................... 468
Spur, Helical, and Herringbone Gears ................................................... 468
Worms and Worm Gears ........................................................................ 470
Rack and Pinion ....................................................................................... 470
Bevel and Hypoid Gears ......................................................................... 471
Noncircular Gears ................................................................................... 472
Belt and Chain Drives .............................................................................. 473
9.7 Simple Gear Trains ........................................................................................ 475
9.8 Compound Gear Trains ............................................................................... 475
Design of Compound Trains ................................................................... 476
xii KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY CONTENTS

Design of Reverted Compound Trains .................................................. 477

An Algorithm for the Design of Compound Gear Trains ..................... 480
9.9 Epicyclic or Planetary Gear Trains ............................................................. 484
The Tabular Method ................................................................................ 486
The Formula Method ............................................................................... 491
9.10 Efficiency of Gear Trains .............................................................................. 493
9.11 Transmissions .................................................................................................. 496
9.12 Differentials .................................................................................................... 500
9.13 References ..................................................................................................... 502
9.14 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 503
9.15 Problems ......................................................................................................... 503

Part II Dynamics of Machinery .................................................................. 511

Chapter 10 Dynamics Fundamentals ...................................................... 513

10.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 513
10.1 Newtons Laws of Motion ............................................................................ 513
10.2 Dynamic Models ........................................................................................... 514
10.3 Mass ................................................................................................................ 514
10.4 Mass Moment and Center of Gravity ....................................................... 515
10.5 Mass Moment of Inertia (Second Moment of Mass) ............................. 517
10.6 Parallel Axis Theorem (Transfer Theorem) ................................................. 519
10.7 Determining Mass Moment of Inertia ....................................................... 519
Analytical Methods ................................................................................. 520
Experimental Methods ............................................................................ 520
10.8 Radius of Gyration ........................................................................................ 521
10.9 Modeling Rotating Links .............................................................................. 522
10.10 Center of Percussion .................................................................................... 523
10.11 Lumped Parameter Dynamic Models ...................................................... 525
Spring Constant ....................................................................................... 525
Damping .................................................................................................. 526
10.12 Equivalent Systems ....................................................................................... 528
Combining Dampers ............................................................................... 529
Combining Springs .................................................................................. 530
Combining Masses .................................................................................. 531
Lever and Gear Ratios ............................................................................ 531
10.13 Solution Methods .......................................................................................... 537
10.14 The Principle of dAlembert ........................................................................ 538
10.15 Energy MethodsVirtual Work ................................................................... 539
10.16 References ..................................................................................................... 542
10.17 Problems ......................................................................................................... 542

Chapter 11 Dynamic Force Analysis ....................................................... 545

11.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 545
11.1 Newtonian Solution Method ...................................................................... 545
11.2 Single Link in Pure Rotation ......................................................................... 546
11.3 Force Analysis of A Threebar Crank-Slide Linkage ................................. 549
11.4 Force Analysis of a Fourbar Linkage ......................................................... 555
11.5 Force Analysis of a Fourbar Slider-Crank Linkage .................................. 562
11.6 Force Analysis of the Inverted Slider-Crank ............................................. 564
11.7 Force AnalysisLinkages with More Than Four Bars .............................. 567
11.8 Shaking Force and Shaking Moment ........................................................ 568
CONTENTS xiii

11.9 Linkage Force Analysis by Energy Methods ............................................ 569

11.10 Controlling Input TorqueFlywheels ......................................................... 572
11.11 A Linkage Force Transmission Index .......................................................... 578
11.12 Practical Considerations ............................................................................. 579
11.13 References ..................................................................................................... 581
11.14 Problems ......................................................................................................... 581
11.15 Projects ........................................................................................................... 592

Chapter 12 Balancing ................................................................................ 594

12.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 594
12.1 Static Balance ............................................................................................... 595
12.2 Dynamic Balance ......................................................................................... 598
12.3 Balancing Linkages ...................................................................................... 603
Complete Force Balance of Linkages .................................................. 604
12.4 Effect of Balancing on Shaking and Pin Forces ...................................... 607
12.5 Effect of Balancing on Input Torque ......................................................... 609
12.6 Balancing the Shaking Moment in Linkages ........................................... 610
12.7 Measuring and Correcting Imbalance .................................................... 614
12.8 References ..................................................................................................... 616
12.9 Problems ......................................................................................................... 616

Chapter 13 Engine Dynamics ................................................................... 622

13.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 622
13.1 Engine Design ............................................................................................... 624
13.2 Slider-Crank Kinematics ............................................................................... 629
13.3 Gas Force and Gas Torque ........................................................................ 635
13.4 Equivalent Masses ........................................................................................ 637
13.5 Inertia and Shaking Forces ......................................................................... 641
13.6 Inertia and Shaking Torques ....................................................................... 644
13.7 Total Engine Torque ...................................................................................... 645
13.8 Flywheels ........................................................................................................ 646
13.9 Pin Forces in the Single-Cylinder Engine .................................................. 647
13.10 Balancing the Single-Cylinder Engine ...................................................... 655
Effect of Crankshaft Balancing on Pin Forces ...................................... 659
13.11 Design Trade-offs and Ratios ...................................................................... 660
Conrod/Crank Ratio ................................................................................ 660
Bore/Stroke Ratio ..................................................................................... 660
Materials ................................................................................................... 661
13.12 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 661
13.13 Problems ......................................................................................................... 661
13.14 Projects ........................................................................................................... 664

Chapter 14 Multicylinder Engines ............................................................ 665

14.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 665
14.1 Multicylinder Engine Designs ...................................................................... 667
14.2 The Crank Phase Diagram .......................................................................... 670
14.3 Shaking Forces in Inline Engines ................................................................. 671
14.4 Inertia Torque in Inline Engines ................................................................... 675
14.5 Shaking Moment in Inline Engines ............................................................. 676
14.6 Even Firing ...................................................................................................... 678
Two-Stroke Cycle Engine ........................................................................ 679
Four-Stroke Cycle Engine ........................................................................ 681
xiv KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY CONTENTS

14.7 Vee Engine Configurations ......................................................................... 687

14.8 Opposed Engine Configurations ............................................................... 699
14.9 Balancing Multicylinder Engines ................................................................ 700
Secondary Balance in the Four-Cylinder Inline Engine ....................... 704
A Perfectly Balanced Two-Cylinder Engine .......................................... 706
14.10 References ..................................................................................................... 707
14.11 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 707
14.12 Problems ......................................................................................................... 708
14.13 Projects ........................................................................................................... 709

Chapter 15 Cam Dynamics ...................................................................... 711

15.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 711
15.1 Dynamic Force Analysis of the Force-Closed Cam-Follower ............... 712
Undamped Response ............................................................................. 712
Damped Response ................................................................................. 715
15.2 Resonance .................................................................................................... 721
15.3 Kinetostatic Force Analysis of the Force-closed Cam-Follower ........... 723
15.4 Kinetostatic Force Analysis of the Form-Closed Cam-Follower ........... 727
15.5 Kinetostatic Camshaft Torque .................................................................... 731
15.6 Measuring Dynamic Forces and Accelerations ..................................... 733
15.7 Practical Considerations ............................................................................. 736
15.8 References ..................................................................................................... 738
15.9 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 738
15.10 Problems ......................................................................................................... 738

Appendix A Material Properties ................................................................. 741

Appendix B Geometric Properties ............................................................ 745

Appendix C Spring Data .............................................................................. 747

Appendix D Equations for Overbalanced Multicylinder Engines .......... 749

Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems ............................................. 753

Index ................................................................................................................ 769