VET10100 ANATOMY OF THORAX

BONES:

LONG BONES:
- Found in the limbs
- Are weight bearing
- Moved by tendons, locomotion
- Adapted to act as levers
- Composed of cylindrical shaft called diaphysis and two extremities epiphyses
- Long bones develop from 3 centres of ossification, one for diaphysis and one for each epiphysis
- Diaphysis:
o An outer cortex of dense, compact bone.
o Within this collar or cortex is the marrow or medullary cavity, responsible for red blood cell
and granular white blood cell production
o The two areas where the diaphysis widens are called the distal and proximal metaphyses.
- Metaphyses:
o Contain the growth/epiphyseal plate
o As long as cartilage cells in the cells keep growing, the bone keeps growing.
o Eventually the cartilage will be replaced by bone and growth will stop.
- Femur, Humerus, Radius, Ulna, and Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges of digits
- Two types of bone tissue:
o Compact, lamellar, dense bone found in the form of a cylinder of compact bone in the outer
region of the diaphysis.
o Spongy, cancellous, or trabecular bone found in the epiphyses and metaphyses of long bone.
- Spongy bone:
o Forms a 3D lattice or meshwork of bony trabeculae (partitions formed by bands or columns
of connective tissue)
o These indicate the stress lines within a bone
o Marrow is present in medullary cavity as well as the spaces of spongy bone.

- Part of bone that articulates with another forming a synovial joint is called articular surface:
o Articular surface composed of dense bone
o Always covered by a thin film of hyaline cartilage called an articular cartilage.
o In all synovial joints, bones never touch another.
o Hyaline cartilage is invested with a vascular connective tissue perichondrium, however in an
articular cartilage, this would greatly reduce the anti-concussive effects and friction reduction
o Instead, synovial fluid which originates from capillaries in the synovial membrane makes
contacts with the articular cartilage allowing nutrients to diffuse through it.
SHORT BONES:
- Short bones almost square-shaped
- No dimension greatly exceeding others
- Found in 2 regions of domestic animals:
o 7 short bones in carpus (human wrist), arranged in two rows, distal and proximal
o 7 short bones in tarsus (human ankle), arranged in three rows
- Most develop from one centre of ossification
- Arranged in rows to
o move on each other in a side-to-side movement, dissipating concussion up the limb, anti-
concussive function
o To allow more complex movements

FLAT BONES:
- Expanded in two directions stretched or pulled apart
- Wide surface area offers
o Protection to underlying structures
o An area for muscle attachment
- Examples:
o Scapula
o Flat bones of pelvic girdle Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis
o Many skull bones

IRREGULAR BONES:
- Exhibit many projections or processes, mostly for ligament and tendon attachments.
- Articular processes on irregular bones very important, form articular surfaces for articular surfaces
on the proximal aspect of the ribs, forming synovial joints.
- 50 or so bones of the vertebral column are irregular and very jagged and sharp

SESAMOID BONES:
- Very small bones
- Develops in a tendon as it passes over a moveable (synovial) joint. Develops in tendon for 2
reasons:
o Protect the tendon in its passage over moveable joint
o Change the direction of the tendon
- One surface of a sesamoid bone will be free to form a synovial joint with the bone it in is contact.
- Largest sesamoid bone in the body is the Patella (kneecap)
- 4 sesamoid bones in canine stifle (knee)
o Patella
o 3 fabellae
- Rest of sesamoid bones in the dog are in the paws.
o 4 dorsal sesamoids located on dorsal surface at forepaw
o 9 proximal sesamoids located on palmar surface of forepaw
o 1 sesamoid on the medial side of the carpal joint called sesamoid in the tendon of the
abductor pollicis longus muscle. (28 in forelimbs)
o In hind paws, first digit is missing, 4 dorsal and 8 proximal sesamoids (24 in hind limbs)
o 60 sesamoid bones in canine body (28 + 24 + 8 (2 stifles) = 60)
 SKELETON:

AXIAL SKELETON:
- Bones found along the central axis of the skeleton
o Skull
o Vertebral column
o Ribs
o Sternum

APPENDICULAR SKELETON:
- Body appendages hanging from the axial skeleton
o Thoracic limbs, attached to the axial skeleton entirely by skeletal muscles to give a range of
motions the so-called extrinsic muscles of forelimb.
o Pelvic limbs, attached to the axial skeleton by immovable, sacro-iliac fibrocartilage joint to
provide a solid and stable attachment to the hind limb.
o Extrinsic muscles of front limb extend from limb to axial skeleton
o Intrinsic muscles of front limb extend from one part of the limb to another

VISCERAL SKELETON:
- Bones located in soft tissues, away from skeleton
o Os cordis (ox) located around the heart
o Os penis (male dog/cat) found in the penis

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON:

- Giving shape
- Assisting in locomotion
- Protection to vital organs
- Protection to spinal cord
- Blood cell production
- Support of organs during movement
- Endocrine regulation
- Electrolyte balance
 JOINTS:

DEFINITION OF A JOINT:
- A joint or articulation is formed whenever two or more bones are joined by some other tissue which
is not bone. 3 main types:
o Joined by connective tissue = Fibrous joint
o Joined by cartilage = Cartilaginous joint
o Joined by synovial = Synovial joint
- Real movement only takes place in synovial joints movement is limited in others

FIBROUS JOINTS:
- Fibrous joints unite costal cartilages of the 10th, 11th and 12th ribs on each side, forming costal arch.
- Attach the 4 main, weight-bearing metacarpal and metatarsal bones

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS:
- Sternebrae forming the floor of the thoracic cavity are united by fibrocartilage, the uniting
fibrocartilage is called an intersternebral fibrocartilage.
- Fibrocartilage joints also unite bodies of the vertebrae forming the rood of the thoracic cavity, called
an intervertebral disc. Has 2 components:
o Soft jelly-like centre called Pulpy Nucleus a relic of the notochord
o An outer fibrocartilage Fibrous Ring
o Slipped disc occurs when the pulpy nucleus herniates through the fibrous ring.
- If bones are joined by hyaline cartilage, a hyaline joint is formed
o E.g. the growing hyaline cartilage of the epiphyseal plate.

SYNOVIAL JOINT:
- True, moveable synovial joint must exhibit these features:
o Articular surfaces
o Articular cartilages
o Joint capsule, divided into:
An outer, tough, protective fibrous layer
An inner delicate synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid
o A joint cavity
o Movement
o Most synovial joints exhibit ligaments, while some exhibit marginal fibrocartilages.

ARTICULAR SURFACES:
- Smooth areas composed of compact bone, covered in a thin layer of hyaline cartilage, known as
articular cartilage.
- Articular surfaces have distinct shapes
o Head with distinct neck = Head. Found in head of femur and head of Humerus
o Shallow, concave = Glenoid. Distal end of scapula, typically ball and socket joints
o Deep hole = Cotyloid cavity/Acetabulum. Articulates head of femur in hip, ball, and socket
o Central depression, bony ridge each side = Trochlea
o Central ridge, depression on each side = Cochlea
o Cochlea articulates with trochlea to from a very snug-fitting synovial joint
MUSCLE:
- 3 types of muscle
o Striated, skeletal, attaches to the skeleton
o Smooth, surrounds tubes in the body
o Cardiac
- Skeletal muscle:
o Composed of elongated striated muscle cells (fibres)
o Between fibres is very rich blood supply & connective tissues
o At each end of skeletal muscle, fibres a drawn out into dense band of connective tissues to
form a tendon which attaches muscle to skeleton
- Tendon: Bone to muscle Pulled = Strain
- Ligament: Bone to bone Pulled = Sprain
- Tendon of origin: Least or no movement when muscle contracts
- Tendon of insertion: Where movement occurs when muscle contracts
- Tendons protected by:
o Sesamoid bones
o Synovial bursa: A small sac of synovial fluid between tendon and rough surface
o Synovial sheaths: Formed by tendon projecting into a bursa, two layers form around leaving
a tiny gap for blood vessels
 THE THORACIC SKELETON
THE THORAX:
- Thoracic Inlet:
o Space formed between first thoracic vertebra dorsally, first pair of ribs, and ventrally by the
manubrium sterni (first bony segment of sternum)
o Important passageway for organs (oesophagus, trachea) and blood vessels
- Thoracic Outlet:
o Formed by the last thoracic vertebra, last pair of ribs, costal arch, and last bony segment of
the sternum xiphoid process
o Thoracic outlet closed by diaphragm
- Thoracic Cavity:
o Occupies only the cranial portion of the bony thorax
o Caudal part of bony thorax is actually the intra-thoracic part of the abdominal cavity

BONES OF THE THORAX

THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE:

- Vertebral Column:
o Canine vertebral column consists of about 50 unpaired irregular bones
o Divided into 3 regions:
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal
o Canine & Feline vertebral formula C7 T13 L7 S3 Cd20
o Vertebral formula will vary slightly within domestic animals
All mammals have C7
Number of thoracic vertebrae is always the same as the number of ribs in a particular
domestic animal
Domestic animals usually have T13, whereas a horse has 18, and a pig 14

Large animals
C7 ~T18 L6 S5 C20
(horse and ox)
Medium sized
C7 ~T14 L6-7 S4 C20
(sheep, goat, pig)
Small animals
C7 T13 L7 S3 C20
(dog and cat)

- Functions of Vertebral Column:

o Shape
o Protection to spinal chord
o Used by certain locomotor & turning muscles as lever point
o By attaching, abdominal muscles form a sling supporting abdominal viscera
o Flexible, slightly-compressible rod through which the propelling force of the hind limbs is
transmitted through the rest of the body
o Enables animal to nod (atlanto-occipital joint) and swing head sideways (atlanto-axial)
ANATOMY OF VERTEBRA:
- A body
- An arch:
o Made up of right and left pedicles and laminae.
o Each pedicle is as long as the body of vertebra
o Arch also called vertebral foramen. All foramina join to form the vertebral canal
- Processes:
o Transverse processes:
Right and left, arising from where the vertebral body meets pedicle
Act as levers for muscle and ligaments involved in rotation and lateral bending
o Spinous processes:
Single spinous process from where right lamina meets left lamina
Acts as levers for muscles which extend vertebral column
Also give attachments to ligaments which run between vertebrae giving support
o Articular processes:
4 articular processes on each typical vertebra, 2 left and right in front and behind
Rough bony projections found at level of the pedicle-lamina junction
On the processes are smooth articular surfaces called articular facets, covered in thin
layer of articular cartilage.
In cervical region, processes are reduced or absent, so articular surfaces lie flat
horizontally on the vertebra, allowing only side-to-side movement
Vertebrae from thoraco-lumbar region with raised vertical processes allow only
extension and flexion

INTERVERTABRAL FORAMEN:
- From side view, the pedicle has cranial and caudal notches, which aligned together form an
intervertebral foramen:
o Spinal nerve trunks exit and immediately divide into dorsal and ventral branches
o Spinal arteries enter to nourish spinal cord:
Arteries enter in cervical, thoracic, and abdominal regions to nourish entire cord
In cervical region, entering branches arise from vertebral artery
In thoracic region, branches arise from intercostal arteries
In abdominal regions, branches arise from lumbar arteries
o Spinal veins exit:
Cervical region, veins join vertebral vein
Thoracic region, veins join intercostal veins
Abdominal regions, veins join lumbar veins, all go back to right atrium
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE:

- Positive Features:
o It is quadrangular
o Exhibits a transverse foramen for passage of vertebral artery and nerve trunk. No other
region exhibits a transverse foramen.
o Extensive horizontal articular surfaces, cranial pair face dorsally, caudal pair face ventrally.
Horizontal arrangement of articular surfaces allows side-to-side movement.
o Body is long, convex cranially and concave caudally
o Small spinous process
- Negative features:
o No costal articular surfaces
o Small spine
o Intervertebral discs absent between skull and 1st cervical vertebra & 1st & 2nd cervical vertebra

THORACIC VERTEBRAE:
 - Positive features:
o Body is short and constricted in middle
o Long spinous process, increasing in height to max a few vertebrae behind cervico-thoracic
junction, declining thereafter
o Processes point caudally until 11th thoracic vertebra (anticlinal vertebra) which is almost
perpendicular, then spines point cranially
o Exhibit short, thick, blunt transverse processes.
o Body exhibits cranial (superior in humans) and caudal (inferior) articular surfaces (costal facet
or fovea) for articulation with head of rib
o Each transverse process has articular surface for articulation with tubercle of rib. Only found
in thoracic vertebrae
o 10 articular surfaces on typical thoracic vertebra
- Negative features
o No transverse foramina so not cervical
o Short transverse processes so not lumbar

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE:
 - Positive features:
o Body is longer than thoracic vertebra
o Transverse processes long, flat and directed laterally, directed cranially in canine
o Interlocking vertically, directed articular surfaces allowing flexion and extensions of spine in
lumbar region.
o Mamillary processes prominent. Dorsal projections from transverse processes
o Synovial joint between transverse processes of 6th lumbar vertebra and wings of sacrum
- Negative features:
o No transverse foramina so not cervical
o No costal articular surfaces so not thoracic

SACRUM:

- Single bone formed by fusion of sacral vertebrae.

- During development, intervertebral discs present between bodies of sacral vertebrae, however
fibrocartilage is ossified and vertebrae fuse into single bone to make sacral region more rigid as hind
limbs attach to sacral region.

- CANINE SACRUM:

o Formed from fusion of 3 sacral vertebrae

o Wing bears rough surface for articulation with medial surface of upmost hind limb - ilium
(sacro-iliac joint)
o Median sacral crest showing fusion of 3 spinous processes
o Exhibits 4 dorsal foramina and 4 pelvic foramina:
Dorsal foramina dorsal branches of 1st two sacral spinal nerves
Pelvic foramina ventral branches of 1st two sacral spinal nerves
- EQUINE SACRUM:

o Formed from fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae

o 4 pairs of dorsal sacral foramina on each side of spines dorsal branches of sacral spinal
nerves emerge
o On pelvic (ventral) surface, four distinct transverse lines show demarcation of bodies of
vertebrae with four pairs of ventral sacral foramina, transmit ventral branches of sacral nerves
o Ventral foramina are large than dorsal

- BOVINE SACRUM:
 o Also consists of five sacral vertebrae but fusion is more complete and involves both sacral
bodies but also sacral spines
o Median crest thick with rough summit
o On dorsal side, four dorsal sacral foramina present.
o Ventral surface middle sacral artery and four ventral sacral foramina which are larger
o Wings do not taper like horse, more quadrangular and short

- PORCINE SACRUM
o Formed from fusion of four sacral vertebrae
o Less complete than other domestic animals
o Not as curved as ox sacrum
o On dorsal surface spines little developed and usually absent, three sacral foramina
o On dorsal surface, may observe intervertebral foramen between sacrum and 1 st caudal
(coccygeal) vertebra if 1st caudal surface is still present
o On ventral surface three transverse lines, three ventral sacral foramina

CAUDAL VERTEBRAE:

o Usually around 20 caudal vertebrae

o First few resemble miniature lumbar vertebrae while rest reduced to simple rods
o Intervertebral discs between bodies of caudal vertebrae
o Hemal arch:
Triangular piece of bone arising from ventral aspect of body
Middle sacral artery is continued as middle coccygeal artery which travels caudally
between body and hemal arch
o In cattle, hemal processes found
Hemal processes can be palpated on ventral aspect of more cranial caudal vertebrae
To take blood from ox, needle directed on midline between approx. 2nd and 4rd pair
of hemal processes
ATYPICAL VERTEBRAE:

- ATLAS:

o 1st cervical vertebra

o Transverse processes very large and thick, called left & right wings of atlas
o Reduced body
o No spinous process
o Modified articular processes two cranial articular surfaces concave & articulate with
occipital condyles of skull forming atlanto-occipital joint of flexion and extension
o Called atlas because it supports globe of the head

- AXIS:

o 2nd cervical vertebra

o Ridge-like spinous process
o Body projects forwards as tooth-like eminence called the dens
o Cranial articular surfaces modified to form rotary joint with atlas called atlanto-axial joint
o Dens is secured ventrally and attached to ventral arch of atlas by ligaments as it is in a
potentially dangerous position to the spinal cord above.
o If dens fractures or ligaments rupture could strike spinal cord causing damage
o Called axis as it forms the central or midline axis on which atlas rotates
- ATLAS AND AXIS ARTICULATED:

o No intervertebral discs between atlas and occipital bone if there was animal could not nod
o No intervertebral disc between atlas and axis if there were animal could not say no
JOINTS BETWEEN:

- BODIES OF ADJACENT VERTEBRAE:

o Fibrocartilage joint intimately attached between bodies anticoncussive function
o As body is called centrum, joint is called intercentral joint
o Chunk of fibrocartilage called intervertebral disc:
Thick, tough, outer fibrous ring called anulus fibrosus primarily made up of collagen
fibres intimately attached to bodies of adjacent vertebrae
Cartilage cells (chondrocytes) can be seen between thick collagen fibres
Extra-cellular fluid secreted by chondrocytes gives anticoncussive function
Inside anulus fibrosus is semi-fluid centre called nucleus pulposus absorbs shock
Nucleus pulposus is remnant of embryonic notochord
o Degeneration of discs as we get older we get shorter
o As discs account for second curvature of spine, curvature returns to C-shape as we age
o Slipped disc:
Disc has not slipped out nucleus pulposus has herniated through the anulus fibrosus.
Can herniate ventrally or dorsally, putting pressure on dorsal/ventral longitudinal
ligaments
Can also herniate sideways putting pressure on nerve trunks forming lumbosacral
plexus
Dorsal herniation worse than ventral as it presses on spinal cord

- ARTICULAR SURFACES OF ADJACENT VERTEBRAE:

o Allow vertebral column to move
o Moveable joint called synovial joint
o Typical vertebra exhibits four articular surfaces (thoracic exhibit 10)
o Four synovial joints between vertebral articular surfaces are called facet/interneural joints
articular process containing articular surface is on vertebral arch. Vertebral arch also known
as neural arch as it contains spinal cord, which develops from neural tube
o Each interneural joint exhibits main features of synovial joint:
Articular surfaces
Articular cartilages
Joint cavity
Joint capsule made up of outer, protective, fibrous part and inner, vascular synovial
membrane which secretes synovial fluid
Movement
Ligaments
o In cervical/cranial thoracic regions, articular surfaces lie horizontally - side-to-side movement
o In caudal thoracic/lumbar regions they lie vertically flexion and extension

o Between two adjacent typical vertebrae there are three joints:

One fibrocartilage intercentral joint
Right and left synovial interneural joint
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN TWO ADJACENT TYPICAL VERTEBRAE:

- Dorsal/Ventral Longitudinal Ligament:

o Both extend along vertebral column, one lying dorsally of and one ventrally of vertebral body
o Keep intervertebral discs in place

- Supraspinous Ligament:
o Runs over summits of spinous processes
o This non-elastic collagenous ligament is into an elastic nuchal ligament in cervical region
support heavy skulls in large animals and allow yes motion

- Interspinous Ligament:
o Runs between spinous processes, offering protection

- Interarcuate Ligament:
o Runs between vertebral arches and is composed of elastic tissue, which appears yellow
o It is elastic to allow give when vertebral column moves
o During epidurals anaesthesia, needle pops through interarcuate ligament

- Intertransverse Ligament:
o Found in lumbar region where it runs between long transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae

- Ligamenta Flava:
o Connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae from axis to second segment of sacrum

- Capsular Ligaments:
o capsular ligament is a part of the articular capsule that surrounds a synovial joint.
o In spine, the capsular ligaments are attached to the articular margins of the articular
processes.
o Fibres are oriented perpendicular to the facet joint and are stronger in the thoracic and
lumbar region than in the cervical region.
RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES:

- Ribs are paired structures

- As many ribs as thoracic vertebrae
- Each rib articulates with 2 successive vertebrae, caudal vertebrae having same number as rib
- Typical rib:
o A bony dorsal part
o The rib proper:
Head 2 articular surfaces, cranial & caudal facets with rough area in between where
intercapital ligament arises
Tubercle neck
Body
o Cartilaginous ventral part the costal cartilage
o Two parts meet at costochondral junction
o For example, the cranial facet of 5th rib articulates with caudal costal fovea of 4th thoracic
vertebra, and caudal facet articulates with cranial costal fovea of 5th thoracic vertebra
o Tubercle of 5th rib articulates with one transverse costal facet of 5th thoracic vertebra
o Costo-central joint:
Synovial joint between head of rib and two adjacent thoracic vertebrae
Allows abduction and adduction during respiration, altering width of thoracic cavity
o Costo-transverse joint:
Synovial joint between tubercle of rib and transverse costal facet
o Each rib articulates with vertebral column by two synovial joints

LIGAMENTS OF THE RIBS:

- Intercapital Ligament:
o Arises from non-articular area on the head of rib, passes through intervertebral foramen,
along floor of vertebral canal to attach to non-articular area on its fellow
o Also attaches to vertebral bodies
o Runs below dorsal longitudinal ligament offering some protection against slipped disc
o Runs below spinal cord and investing meninges
TYPES OF RIB:

- Sternal (true) Rib:

o Articulates directly with sternum by costal cartilage
o Joint between cartilage and sternum synovial joint costo-sternal joint
o Joint is in vertical plain allowing only forward and backward movement
o Of canine, first 9/13 ribs are true ribs

- Asternal (false) Rib:

o Attaches indirectly with sternum
o Allows greater degree of abduction (movement away from centreline) and adduction
(movement towards centreline) than restricted sternal ribs

- Floating Rib:
o In dog, costal cartilages of 13th rib end freely in abdominal musculature, not attaching to
sternum
o Can be palpated on a live dog

RIBCAGE:

- Cranial End:
o Ribs more rigidly anchored to sternum protection to heart and lungs
o For protection, ribs more flat than tubular
o Rib movement more restricted by good distance between head and tubercle of rib
o Offers stable origin for muscles such as serratus ventralis
o As ribs are flat, not round, allows front limb freedom to pass over thoracic region

- Caudal End:
o Costal cartilages indirectly attached to sternum less rigidly anchored
o Exhibits bellows effect due to effective abduction and adduction at costo-central joint
o Head and tubercle of rib move closer together and eventually merge
o As they merge, allows greater movement at costo-central joint as movement not restricted
by costo-transverse joint important in racing animals such as horse/do
STERNUM:

- Sternum is a median, unpaired segmented bone forming floor of thorax

- Bony segments (sternebrae) united by fibrocartilage joints intersternebral fibrocartilage
- Joints offer some flexibility to floor of ribcage
- Fibrocartilage may ossify in old animals, not clinically significant

- Canine Sternum:
o Dog and cat have greatest number of sternebrae 8
o Costal cartilages of first 9 ribs attach directly
o Costal cartilages of 10th, 11th and 12th attach by fibrous tissue forming an arch each side the
costal arch
o Costal arch represents cranial boundary of the flank (paralumbar fossa)
o Costal cartilage of 13th rib ends freely in abdominal musculature
o 1st sternebra called manubrium (see diagram for ribs)
o Last sternebra called xiphoid process, which is continued by thin plate of cartilage xiphoid
cartilage (xiphoid = sword like)
o Cartilage of 1st rib articulates directly with manubrium, while cartilages of other sternal ribs
articulate with intersternebral fibrocartilages, not sternebrae.
o In all domestic animals, always one more sternal rib than sternebrae at the last
intersternebral fibrocartilage, 2 costal cartilages (8th and 9th) articulate with last fibrocartilage
(7th)

Pairs of Ribs Sternal Ribs Asternal Ribs Sternebrae

Horse 18 8 10 7
Ruminant 13 8 5 7
Pig 14 7 7 6
Dog & Cat 13 9 4 8

- Equine Sternum:
o Shaped somewhat like a canoe presents a ventral keel or crest
o First sternebra (manubrium sterni) continued cranially as a laterally compressed plate of
cartilage called cariniform cartilage
o Dorsal surface of equine sternum has from of very narrow isosceles triangle with apex in front

- Bovine Sternum:
o Lacks ventral keel or crest
o Wider, flatter, relatively longer than equine
o No cariniform cartilage