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Basics of Wireless Technology

Basics of Wireless Technology

Chapter 8

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Generation of Electromagnetic Waves

Oscillating Circuit Dipole

Generation of Electromagnetic Fields

In order to generate electromagnetic fields, an oscillating circuit is used. An oscillating circuit is
excited via the resonance frequency, the added energy continuously oscillates between capacitor
and coil.
The magnetic field of the coil and the electric field of the capacitor are continuously built up and
disintegrated. Since the electric field between the plates and the magnetic field is lead by the coil,
no electromagnetic field builds up in space yet. In order to achieve this, however, the capacitor
plates must be drawn apart some more and turned inside out. Simultaneously, the effect of the coil
can also be resumed by a longer wire. The result will be an antenna dipole, the electric and
magnetic field lines of which are reaching far into space.

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Dipole

/4
/2
G G

Speed of light c
Wave length =
Frequency f
c 300,000,000 m/s

Since the dipole also radiates energy via the electromagnetic wave, it must be fed by a frequency
generator. The generators and the antennas wave impedances must be adapted to prevent
reflections. Ideally, the generator generates a standing electromagnetic wave in the dipole. To
achieve this, a frequency must be selected that makes the resulting wave length meet to the
following requirement:

Dipole length l = wave length / 2

The wave length is inversely proportional to the frequency. The transmission speed corresponds to
the speed of light c (c = 300,000,000 m/s).

Example:
UKW transmitters work with a frequency of approx. 100 MHz. This results in a wave length of:
l = 300,000,000 [m/s] / 100,000,000 [1/s]
l=3m
A rod antenna should have half the wave length, i.e. it should be 1.5 m long for UKW reception.

If the dipole is standing perpendicular to the grounded area, the function of the second dipole arm
is replaced by the reflection at the grounded area. In this way, an antenna length of
l = /4 can be used.
In the above example, there is an antenna length of 75 cm. This corresponds approximately to the
length of a classic telescope antennas as mounted on every car years ago.
The emission process can also be reversed. An electromagnetic wave can also excite dipole
oscillation if the dipole has the corresponding resonance frequency.

Basically, the same antenna can both send and receive signals.

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Modulation
Amplitude Modulation

Frequency Modulation

Carrier detect signal Desired signal Modulated signal

The electromagnetic waves emitted by the antenna now create the media for the signal
transmission itself. The radiated basic oscillator frequency is also called the desired signal.

In the same way as for signal transmission via cable, now the way of signal transmission on the
transmission medium needs to be determined. On automation bus systems, signals usually are
defined via electric or optic levels (voltage, current, light intensity). In wireless technology, signals
are presented via carrier detect signal modulation.
Types of modulation:

AM Amplitude modulation (e.g., medium wave)

FM Frequency modulation (e.g., UKW radio)
PM Phase modulation (e.g., digital signal presentation)

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Signal Presentation

Chronolog. signal curve Frequency spectrum Phase diagram

A [V] A [V]

t[s]

f [Hz]

A[V]

To gain a better overview, analog signals in communications technology are also presented as
frequency or phase diagrams.
In the frequency spectrum, a sinusoidal signal is presented as a line. The line length shows the
sinusoidal signal amplitude.

All non-sinusoidal signals can be represented by superimposed sinus signals. In our case, these
signals cover an area known as the signal bandwidth. Non-assigned frequency ranges can be used
for parallel signal transmission.
A phase shift cannot be represented in a frequency spectrum. However, since the digital signals in
particular are encoded via phase shifts, it would be practical to display them in a phase diagram.
The distance between the point and the center point represents the amplitude. The angle to the X
axis represents the phase shift with regard to the reference signal or the previous symbol.

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Encoding Digital Signals

1 0 1
Amplitude modulation (ASK):
Simple technology
Requires small bandwidth t
Susceptible to interference

Frequency modulation (FSK):

Larger band width as for ASK
t
E.g., for phone transmission

Phase modulation (PSK):

Complex demodulation with
Carrier recovery t
Relatively immune to interference

Digital signal modulation is also called shift keying.

The signal curve created by digital encoding is then modulated onto the real carrier.

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Modulation and Demodulation

Analog
Digital basic band width
data
Transmitter Digital Analog
101101001 modulation modulation

Carrier
frequency

Analog Digital
basic band data
signal
Analog Synchronization
Receiver
demodulation decision 101101001

Carrier
frequency

The signals can be transmitted within the desired frequency range by shifting the basic signal onto
the carrier frequency.

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Symbols

00

01

01
11 00

11

10
10

Data rate [Bps] = Symbol rate [Bd] * Bit/symbol

In communication technology, information is sequentially transmitted via a sequence of symbols.

With each transmission step (clock) the exact symbol is transmitted. The symbol states defined in
the transmission protocol are generated using defined modifications of the communication signal.
The number of symbols transmitted per second is called the baud rate. The unit is Baud [Bd].
For most bus systems, only two symbol states are defined according to the binary states 0 and 1. In
this case, the transmission rate [bps] corresponds to the baud rate.
In the area of data remote transmission, the transmission media must be used in a more efficient
way. Usually, more than two symbols are used for data transmission.

Example: A fax is sent at a transmission rate of up to 9.6 kbps. Since a total of 16 different
symbols are distinguished, the information contained in a symbol consists of 4 bits.
Thus the fax transmits 2400 symbols per second. This corresponds to 2.4 kBd.

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Powerful Encodings
Q
10 11
Quadrature phase shifting (QPS)
2 bits per symbol
I

00 01

QPS: 4 symbol states

Q
0010
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) 0001

16-QAM 4 bits per symbol 0011

0000

64-QAM 6 bits per symbol

a I
1000

16-QAM: 16 symbol states

The more bits are encoded in a symbol, the lower the differences between the discrete symbol
levels. In this way, the quality requirements of the transmission path increase.
Satellite transmission thus operates using relatively robust Binary Phase Shift Keying. This method
includes one bit per symbol, a phase position of 180 oder -180 and no amplitude evaluation.
Telecommunications often operates on the basis of quadrature phase shifting (QPS). Here, 4
different phase positions are distinguished and the amplitude is not evaluated.
The quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is used for the realization of high transmission rates.
Here, up to 64 symbols are differentiated. Moreover, alongsides the phase position, also the
amplitude is used for encoding.

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits correspond to one symbol)

The 0011 and 0001 symbols have the same phase and different amplitudes.
0000 and 1000 have different phases and the same amplitude.

Due to the amplitude evaluation and the small distance between the phase angles, transmission is
more susceptible to interference.

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Frequency Spectrum

Non- Ionizing
C network ionizing
NMR
D network

UV lamp
E network
CO2 Laser
Radar
LW/MW
UKW/VHF
KW UHF
10,0000km
100,000km

1,000km
6,000km

Wave
100km
1m km

10nm
1mm
10km

1m

1nm
1km
length

1m

3x1016Hz
3x1015Hz
300MHz

300GHz
Frequency
300kHz

300THz
30MHz

30GHz

30THz
30kHz

3MHz

3GHz

3THz
3000

(Hz)
300
0.3

30
50
3

Traction current Radio Micro

UV light
Infra red X- and

Light
Static 3-phase current TV wave gamma
field Low frequency High frequency rays

For the technology of the wireless signal transmission, there is a large number of interesting
applications. Starting with the radio and TV broadcasting stations, voice radio, satellite transmission
up to mobile phones of WLAN applications. Also in private homes, wireless applications are utilized
more and more often.
In order to use numerous wireless applications in parallel, the access onto the common
transmission medium is controlled via a multiplex procedure.
Since the electromagnetic waves can be superimposed without interference, it is possible to use
them in parallel and without restrictions as long as the applications use different frequency ranges.
The division and usage of frequency ranges is subject to state control. Since free frequency ranges
are becoming rare, the potential customers are willing to pay large sums for the rights of use (see
UMTS).

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ISM Ranges
27 MHz, 40.6 MHz range
Model building remote controls

433 MHz range

Baby phone
Wireless thermometer
Wireless switch such as car keys, wireless sockets
868 MHz range
Radio headphones or radio loudspeakers

2400 MHz range

Wireless video transmission systems
WLAN (acc. to IEEE 802.11b/g11g)
Bluetooth
Mikro wave oven

5200 MHz range

Close range radar for passenger cars or shipping
WLAN (802.11a/h)

The abbreviation ISM means Industrial Scientific Medical and stands for frequency ranges that can
be used as a public domain for applications in industry, science and medical science. The usage of
ISM ranges does not require public permission. However, the user must observe the obligations
regarding the transmission capacity and must not interfere with adjacent frequency ranges. Due to
the low transmission capacity, wave propagation is strictly limited. However, the same frequency
ranges can be used multiple times in case of spatial separation of radio paths.

The ISM frequency ranges and transmission capacities are not standardized internationally.

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Logarithmic Presentations
100 mW 1 W
20 dBm - 30 dBm

Linear presentation: Power at the transmitter = 100mW

Power at the receiver = 1W

Power [mW] Power [dBm]/10

Power [dBm] = 10*log* Power [mW] = 10
1 [mW]

Logarithmic Power level at transmitter = 20 dBm

Presentation: Power level at the receiver = - 30 dBm

The signal performance of a radio signal decreases with square of distance. Often there are several
times to the power of 10 of power between the emitted signal performance and the available signal
performance at the receiver. For easier handling of the comprehensive value range, the
communication technology often operates with logarithmic presentation of numbers. Since the
logarithmic numbers always represent a relation of two dimensions, the numbers are non-
dimensional. To characterize the logarithmic presentation, the pseudo unit dB is used:

Performance ratio [dB] = 10 log performance 1/performance 2

For the presentation of absolute performance levels, a reference value must be determined. If the
reference value is 1 mW, the pseudo unit dBm is used.

For the performance data on the ISM band, the reference value usually is 1mW.

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Calculating With Logarithmic Values

16.983 4.17
12.3 dB 6.2 dB
100
20 dB 0.0055 mW
-22.6 dBm
80 mW 10233
19 dBm 40.1 dB

Linear presentation: Receiver level [mW] = 80mW / 100 * 16.983 / 10233 * 4.17 = 0.0055 mW

Logarithmic Receiver level [dBm] = 19 dBm Transmission power

presentation: - 20 dB Cable attenuation
+ 12.3 dB Antenna gain
- 40.1 dB Path attenuation
+ 6.2 dB Antenna gain
- 22.6 dBm 0.0055 mW

The attenuation or amplification of a signal path (cable, free space, antenna) is a reference value. It
indicates the factor by which the supplied signal is increased or decreased by the path. The factor
also is represented logarithmically. The calculation of absolute signal levels at the end of a signal
path thus is very easy. Another reason for this is that the logarithmic representation mathematically
corresponds to the multiplication of linear numbers. Instead of multiplying the individual
amplification and attenuation factors, the logarithmic values can be added.

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Signal Transmission
In general, linear propagation in free space (same as light)
Receiving power decreases under vacuum by 1/distance
The spatial distribution of the signal strength in the radio field is influenced by the
following effects:
Distance to the signal source (free space attenuation)
Attenuation via obstacles
Reflection at plain surfaces (shadowing)
Refraction depending on the density of a medium
Distribution at small obstacles
Diffraction at sharp edges

Attenuation Reflection Refraction Distribution Diffraction

Due to their short wave length, radio waves in the 2,4 GHz range behave like light. Thus for signal
propagation, the optical laws can be applied. The best reception conditions are given if transmitter
and receiver are in plain view of each other.
In general, distance and attenuation have negative effects on the locally available signal strength.
The other wave effects result in a change of the direction of propagation. These negative effects
also affect the outside applications. For an inside radio field, effects such as reflection or diffraction
can support the propagation of the radio signal. This explains why the signal can be received clearly
even in unfavorable positions such as in the direct shadow of a metal cupboard. In the industrial
environments in particular, where metal is often used, the user can benefit from the effects
mentioned above.

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Multiple Paths Transmission (1)

Reflection surface

Via the effects described above such as reflection and refraction, radio waves are propagated in
different ways in space (multi path). If these radio waves are overlapping at some point, e.g., at the
receiving antenna, the signals have bridged different distances to reach this point.

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Multiple Paths Transmission (2)

Carrier overlapping
Transmitter Receiver

Direct
[t]
[t]
/2
Reflected

Symbol overlapping
Transmitter Receiver

[t] [t]
Symbol 1 Symbol 2 Symbol(s) 1 Symbol(s) 2

Due to the multi-path propagation, the phases are shifted between the received signals. The phase
shift depends on the location.

For multi-path propagation, the following effects are possible:

Carrier overlapping
If the phase shift is 180, the signal might even be deleted completely at this point. In this case, the
path difference of the signals is /2 or a multiple of /2 . For this reason, radio receivers for mobile
applications are often equipped with two antennas at different locations so that at least one of the
antennas is not in the elimination area (antenna diversity).

Symbol overlapping
For larger path and runtime differences within a radio field, the long symbols might be overlapping
with the directly received signals of the next symbols and thus become unreadable. In order to omit
this problem, a very low symbol rate is selected so that a symbol overlapping only is possible for
extreme path differences. Here, the signal performance is already so low that they hardly interfere
with the directly received signals.

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Example for Signal Transmission

14 m
20 m

The signal strengths is represented by different colors:

Bright color high signal strength

Dark color low signal strength

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FHSS* Transmission Procedure

4
2

Channels
Information 1 2 3 4 5 3
5
1

Time
Narrow-band interference signal

*FHSS - Frequenzy Hopping Spread Spectrum

In the environment there are many natural and artificial signal sources radiating electromagnetic
waves. This creates a broad range background noise that cannot be influenced and that overlaps
the desired signal. In order to be able to distinguish the desired signals from the background noise,
the signal noise distance (difference between signal and noise levels). Since the signal
performance of a radio signal decreases with the square of the distance, procedures for increasing
the transmission range have been developed that also enable reliable transmission for extremely
low signal-noise ratios. One of these procedures is the Spread Spectrum Technology.
Here, we distinguish between two methods: FHSS and DSSS.

FHSS
The frequency hopping method does not transmit information on a fixed carrier frequency but
changes the radio channel in short time distances. The channels are selected according to a
defined hopping table that must be know to both, the transmitter and the receiver. Originally, the
frequency hopping method was intended to protect the radio control for torpedos from being
manipulated. In civil applications, protection from narrow band interferences appearing for technical
reasons is the first priority.

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DSSS* Transmission Procedure

Spreading 0

Channels
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1
0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0
1
Time
Narrow band interference signal

*DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

DSSS
For DSSS, the information is directly converted bit by bit into a broad band signal. For the most
simple case, a defined spreading code is used the bits of with are XORed with the data bit to be
transmitted. For a data bit with the logic 0 state, the spreading code is transmitted directly. For a
data bit with the logic 1 state, the inverted spreading code is used. On the receiver side, the original
data bit is won back for yet another application of the spreading code (XORing).
If the spreading code is prolonged, the immunity to interference is improved and simultaneously
reduces the data rate for the desired signal. For Wireless LAN for instance, a spreading code of 8 to
11 bits of length is used (802.11b standard).

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OFDM* Transmission Procedure

Sub-channels

FDM

Bandwidth sub-channel

OFDM

*OFDM Orthoganal Frequency Division Multiplex

In order to achieve higher data rates as for DSSS, the FDM procedure is used. Here, the available
frequency range of a transmission channel is divided into several sub-channels that can be used in
parallel. Via parallel data transmission on the sub-channels, a high data throughput can be
achieved even with a relatively low symbol rate without aggreviating the multi-path problem.
For OFDM technology, the sub-channels are shifted into each other without the overlapping
interfering with the information on the sub-channels (orthogonal). Thus the required band width can
be reduced to approx. 50%.
OFDM is used in many transmission standards. In the WLAN area, partial standards 802.11a and
802.11g operate using OFDM and thus allow for transmission rates of
54 Mbps max.

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Data Backup With FEC*

*FEC Forward Errror Correction

Since for OFDM information is transmitted on narrow band sub-channels as opposed to the
frequency spreading method the signals of the individual sub-channels are more prone to
interference. Data transmission thus must be protected by an error correcting method. In order to
omit time-consuming repetitions, data is secured by forwarded error correction. This means that
potential errors occurring on the transmission path are not only detected but can also be corrected
to some extent.
To do this, additional pieces of information are added to the data current, thus increasing the
recognizability value of the entire message. On the receiver side, the additional pieces of
information are taken out of the data stream again and can be used for error correct if required.
The error correction is specified by a code rate. It also indicates the relation between number of
user data to the quantity of entire data. The smaller the value, the more powerful the error
correction and the lower the data throughput in relation to the user data. Thus the FEC is
advantageous in particular for relatively unprotected media such as radio waves or phone cables
(ADSL).
In WLAN standard, the FED rates for OFDM transmission are defined as between and .

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Notes:

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