Module 03 - Microphone Preamplifiers

Audio Masterclass Music Production and Sound Engineering Course
Module 03: Microphone Preamplifiers
Module 03
Microphone Preamplifiers
In this module you will learn about the design and operation of microphone preamplifiers, including
their objective and subjective sound qualities.
Learning outcomes
To understand the function of the microphone preamplifiers.
To understand why in some applications a near-perfect preamplifier is desirable.
To understand why in some applications an imperfect but subjectively pleasing preamplifier is
desirable.
To to have a basic knowledge and understanding of how a microphone preamplifier is designed
To know how to operate a microphone preamplifier.
Assessment
Formative assessment is achieved through the short-answer check questions at the end of this
module.
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Module Contents
Learning outcomes 1
Assessment 1
Microphone preamplifiers 3
A piece of wire with gain 4
How can you tell if your microphone preamplifier is less than near-perfect? 7
Are expensive preamplifiers better than perfect? 8
Microphone preamplifier active components 9
Input and output impedance 13
Transformers 15
Summary so far... 17
But... 17
Microphone preamplifier features 18
Phantom power 18
Gain control 18
Pad 18
Filter 19
Phase invert 19
Operation of the microphone preamplifier 20
Appendix 22
Single-ended design 23
Class A 25
Check questions 27
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Microphone Preamplifiers
The microphone preamplifier is perhaps the most
difficult to design component of the entire audio signal
chain. A microphone could, for instance, be used to
pick up the deafening sound of a snare drum from
extremely close range. Or it could be used to pick up
the ticking of a clock for a film soundtrack. So the
range of gain the preamplifier should provide ranges
from no gain at all (0 dB), all the way up to around
30,000 times the input level (70 dB). More than 70 dB
would not be useful as more noise than useful signal
would be amplified.
But there is a slight correction to the above statement,

and that is that it is only historically that the
microphone preamplifier has been the most difficult- Avalon AD2022 Class A transistor
to-design component. Microphone preamplifier design microphone preamplifier
is now known science and there is no reason even an
economy preamp should not be just as good as any
other element of the signal chain.
But the sounds of less-than-perfect microphone

preamplifiers from the past ring in our ears. We are
used to those sounds and have come to like them. So,
although a modern microphone preamplifier may be
almost as perfect as it is theoretically possible to be
in terms of frequency response, noise and distortion,
it might not give us the colored sound that we want.
Hence the topic of microphone preamplifiers is on the
minds and lips of sound engineers everywhere.
The purpose of this module is to introduce the student

to the workings of microphone preamplifiers in the
sense of what makes different preamplifiers sound
different to each other. It will be necessary to touch
on the topic of audio electronics from time to time.
However, to allow as many students as possible to
maximise the benefit they will gain from this text, the
heavy audio electronics content has been minimized.
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A piece of wire with gain

An ideal amplifier has been characterized as a piece
of wire with gain. In other words, it turns a small
electrical signal into a large electrical signal without
changing it in any other way. It does not affect the
frequency response, it does not change the shape of
the waveform (distortion) and it does not add any
noise.
Frequency response, noise and distortion are all

measurable quantities. They can be measured in
terms of how much a signal is affected by a piece of
electronic equipment. They can also be measured in
terms of how perceptible they are to the human ear.
For a long time it was considered acceptable for the

frequency response of a piece of equipment to lie
within a 2 decibel range all the way from the lowest
frequencies of interest to the highest. A 2 dB deviation
is definitely audible, but it was considered acceptable.
Yes, there was a difference, but not such a difference
that the average listener would care about.
These days it is possible to design equipment, other

than microphones and loudspeakers, with a frequency
response that is as flat as a ruler with variations of less
than a tenth of a decibel, other than at the extreme
low and high frequency ends of the range where
the response is intentionally curtailed. Experienced
engineers with a very highly developed sense of
discrimination for sounds may just be able to detect
these differences, but ordinary people who are the
consumers of their product cannot.
Distortion refers to any change of the shape of the

sine wave components of the waveform of the signal,
other than their size (which is controlled by the amount
of gain). A change in the shape of the waveform of a
signal leads to the generation of additional frequencies
that were not originally present. Distortion is measured
as a percentage, where the contribution of these
additional frequencies is compared to the whole of the
signal.
Historically, analogue tape recordings were expected

to have considerable distortion at high levels. 1% on
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peaks would be considered normal, and 3% often

tolerated. So many of the recordings from the past
that we still listen to today are considerably distorted,
yet we accept that.
Purely electronic equipment can be designed to have

very low distortion. It was possible as far back as the
1950s to achieve 0.1% distortion, and even lower
figures are possible now. Once again, it takes very
experienced ears to detect distortion as low as this.
Very few people would be able to tell the difference
between a signal with 0.01% distortion and a signal
with 0.1%.
Turning to noise, we find ourselves confronted with the

laws of physics. Even a piece of wire produces noise,
just by the random motion of electrons. So there is
a limit to perfection that is unfortunately audible. A
perfect microphone preamplifier would produce some
noise, and it is impossible to reduce this noise other
than by cooling the microphone and preamplifier,
perhaps in liquid nitrogen. Clearly this is impractical.
However, a modern microphone preamplifier can
approach the theoretical lowest noise level within
around a decibel or so. So as far as is practical, noise
in modern preamplifiers is a battle that has been
won.
The conclusion therefore is that a modern microphone

preamplifier that has been properly designed and
constructed is as good as it possibly can be, within
very small margins. And other than the slight noise
that it inevitably produces, its defects are inaudible
to the human ear for all practical purposes. And we
are not talking about expensive preamplifiers here
the circuit components for a near-perfect preamplifier
cost no more than a few dollars.
From the above, it seems that it ought to be the

case that every item of equipment that features a
microphone preamplifier should have a near-perfect
microphone preamplifier. Well yes it should. But it
is often not so. Sometimes manufacturers display
something of a dont care attitude they think that
their customers wont notice the odd defect, and it
may save them a few pennies to include an inferior
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preamplifier. Other times manufactures intentionally

degrade the sound quality of their less expensive
products, otherwise why would anyone buy their
more expensive products? It is sad that this is so, but
the good news is that many classic recordings of the
past were made with preamps that were no better
than even quite average preamps of today. Having
a preamp that is a little less than perfect does not
mean that you cannot make recordings of marketable
quality.
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How can you tell if your

microphone preamplifier is less
than near-perfect?
You could buy an audio analyzer, but that would be
overkill for this purpose. If a microphone preamplifier
has a problem, then that will most likely be excessive
noise at high gain. So as you turn up the gain of the
preamp, any noise that you hear should increase in
proportion with the signal. Note that background noise
picked up by the microphone will increase too. But if
the electrically generated noise suddenly increases
at any point, or becomes harsh and gritty, then you
have a poorly designed microphone preamplifier on
your hands.
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Are expensive preamplifiers

better than perfect?
In audio there are people who call themselves
objectivists and those who are subjectivists.
Objectivists claim that every feature and potential
defect of an audio circuit or system can be
measured. Subjectivists on the other hand claim
that measurements dont matter, its the sound that
counts.
Well of course the subjectivists are right. If a piece

of equipment doesnt sound good, then it isnt good.
But the objectivists will counter that surely it is
more important that a piece of equipment does not
change or degrade the signal in any way, and if you
want to change any aspect of the signal, you should
intentionally use a processor or effects device to do
that.
What is generally accepted however, with only a tiny

voice of dissenting opinion, is that every potential
defect of a circuit or system can be measured. And if
the frequency response is flat, the distortion negligible
and the noise close to the theoretical minimum, then
that circuit or system is as close to a piece of wire
with gain as possible, which represents measurable
perfection.
But subjectively we might prefer a sound that is biased

to one range of frequencies or another, or has a subtle
distortion that is pleasing to the ear. (Noise is never
desirable.) So in this sense a piece of equipment can
be better than perfect.
Clearly the argument between objectivists and

subjectivists has no end. But we can certainly say that
on the one hand accuracy, and therefore measurable
perfection, is a desirable quality. But on the other
hand, something that just sounds good is desirable
too, despite the fact that it might not necessarily be
accurate.
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Microphone preamplifier active

components
Active electronic components, as opposed to passive,
are the components that do the work. They amplify
the signal, which is the whole purpose of a microphone
preamplifier. The kinds of active components that are
used are these...
Vacuum tube
Transistor
Integrated circuit
In the olden days of audio, the vacuum tube was

used simply because there wasnt anything else.
When the transistor became practical as a serious
audio device, then it was used for certain advantages
it had over vacuum tubes. The integrated circuit, as
its name suggests, combines a large number of circuit
components mainly transistors and resistors - into
one device. Early ICs had serious defects that gave
them a bad reputation in audio that persists to this
day. However, it is entirely possible to place nearly
all of the components of a high-quality microphone
preamplifier onto a single device, requiring only a very
few external components to render a fully practical Vacuum tube - image courtesy Cryoset
unit.
Before continuing with active components themselves,

we must look at an overview of how an audio amplifier
is designed...
An audio amplifier has an input that accepts a low-

level signal, a device that makes the voltage of that
signal higher, and an output that delivers the signal
to the outside world. However, the device that makes
the voltage higher will not be perfect. It will change
the shape of the waveform as well as making it bigger,
creating distortion.
It is possible however to compare the output and the

input and see exactly how the shape of the waveform
has changed and, from a knowledge of that change,
take steps to ensure that the change doesnt happen
in the first place.
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This may sound complicated but in fact it can be

implemented very easily just take a sample of the
output signal and subtract it from the input. It takes
just a couple of additional components to do this. This
process is called negative feedback.
The only slight problem here is that negative feedback

reduces the gain of the amplifying device. So the
amplifying device has to be built with extra gain in the
first place to make negative feedback possible.
The benefits of negative feedback are these...
Greatly reduced distortion

A flatter frequency response
The higher the intrinsic gain of the amplifying

device, the better negative feedback works. There
are no drawbacks to properly-implemented negative
feedback and its use is universal throughout the
audio chain. Yes, it can be improperly implemented,
which will cause problems. But negative feedback is
The first transistor - photo courtesy
a technology that has been established for more than
Bell Labs.
seventy years. There really are no excuses for not
getting it right these days.
As has been said however, the higher the intrinsic

gain of the amplifying device (which in technical terms
is called the open loop gain), the better negative
feedback works. If the open loop gain is low, then
negative feedback will not cure distortion completely,
nor will it flatten any deviations in frequency response
absolutely.
So, in the case of vacuum tube circuits, because it is

impractical to provide what we really would consider
to be enough open loop gain, then even after negative
feedback some of the inherent characteristics of the
amplifying device itself show through.
Compared to the transistor, the vacuum tube inherently

produces quite mild distortion. So when mild distortion
is reduced by negative feedback, what remains can be
very low in level. However, when the input signal is
high in level, or a high gain setting has been used,
the tube will be pushed beyond the region where the
amount of distortion produced is low. This distortion
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will get through to the output and it will be audible.
So the main defect of a vacuum tube preamplifier will

be distortion. Tubes tend to be noisier than transistors
too. Fortunately, the character of the distortion
produced by vacuum tubes tends to be pleasant, so
vacuum tube preamplifiers remain in fairly widespread
use because of this.
When the transistor became practical as an amplifying

device for professional audio, its main benefit was that
it was possible to create circuits with much higher
open-loop gain. Hence more negative feedback could
be used, distortion could be vastly reduced and the
frequency response became ruler-flat.
Integrated circuits combine many transistors and

other components into just one small circuit device.
With ICs it is possible to achieve massive amounts Modern transistor - photo by Mikael Kuisma
of gain very easily, hence distortion and frequency
response are further improved. However, there was
the distinct problem in the early days of ICs that
designers were trying to run with them before they
had properly learned to walk.
The problem with early ICs was that they were

not designed for pro audio, just general-purpose
consumer equipment. One defect that IC designers
paid little attention to was the slew rate. Slew rate is
the maximum speed at which the output voltage can
change. If the signal is high-level and high-frequency,
the required slew rate is very high. Although the
designers of vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers
knew this, the designers of ICs either did not know
or did not care. When the signal tries to exceed the
maximum possible slew rate, the rate of change of
voltage is limited, leading to slew-induced distortion,
sometimes known as SID. SID sounds subjectively
harsh.
One problem was that SID often wasnt detected

in measurements. Many designers are content to
measure distortion at 1 kHz and assume that other
frequencies will be OK. But this is not the case with
SID as it only affects higher frequencies. So audio
devices of all kinds were plagued with a distortion that
was audible, but didnt show up in the specifications.
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This, in conjunction with the fact that early ICs were

quite noisy, led to integrated circuits getting a bad
reputation in audio. However, progress is a wonderful
thing and eventually ICs became available that were
fully as good as circuits designed using discrete (i.e.
separate) transistors. There is still a lurking shadow of
doubt over ICs but it is now no longer justified.
INA217 microphone preamplifier

integrated circuit
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Input and output impedance

We have found already that one of the problems
with microphone preamplifiers is obtaining the best
possible signal to noise ratio. To achieve that, the
characteristics of the input of the preamplifier have to
be matched very well to the output of the microphone.
To understand this, we need to look at the concepts of
output impedance and input impedance. Here is the
overview explanation without going into unnecessarily
deep audio electronics theory.
Output impedance represents the ability of an output

to deliver electric current. A lower output impedance,
measured in ohms, represents better current-delivering
capabilities. An output with a low impedance is also
better able to drive a long cable.
Input impedance represents an inputs current

demand. A input with high impedance doesnt require
much current. An input with a low input impedance
demands a lot of current.
Low impedance is better in general because it is

less noisy. One way of looking at this is that more
electrons carry the signal, and the random variation
of individual electrons has less effect.
High impedance, for an input, is better because it

places less demand on the output that feeds it. One
significant aspect of this is that the impedance of
an output tends to vary with frequency. If the input
it feeds is high impedance this wont matter since
it is not particularly demanding of current at any
frequency. But if the input has a lower impedance,
then the output will be less well able to supply current
at certain frequencies, leading to irregularities in the
frequency response.
The output impedance of a microphone is typically

around 200 ohms. Manufacturers have tended to
standardize on this over the years. To get the lowest
noise performance, the impedance of the input to
which it is connected should also be 200 ohms. This
so-called impedance matching allows maximum
power transfer, hence the signal is at its strongest.
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However, since the output of the microphone is not

uniformly 200 ohms at all frequencies, setting such
a low input impedance causes frequency response
irregularities. The cure for this is to compromise and
set a higher input impedance, usually around 2000
ohms. This balances the benefits of low noise and flat
frequency response.
One impact of this is that even amplifiers that are very

close to technical perfection may sound different. If
Preamplifier A has an input impedance of 1800 ohms
and Preamplifier B 2200 ohms, then Preamplifier A
will be a little quieter, but Preamplifier B places less
demand on the output of the microphone (remembering
that the output impedance will very likely vary with
frequency) and the frequency response will be slightly
different. The extent of the difference between these
two preamplifiers will vary from one microphone to
another too.
Some microphones have an output impedance other

than 200 ohms. Low-cost microphones often have
higher output impedance, and they are not suited to
professional audio use. There are few useful reasons
for a microphone to have an output impedance lower
than 200 ohms, simply because that is the standard
on which most manufacturers have settled. However,
some do. The effect of this is that the signal-to-
noise ratio will not be optimum. Some microphone
preamplifiers have variable input impedance, but
really this should not be necessary in the first place.
Broadcast users have no tolerance for difficulties
like this and equipment that follows practices that
have been standardised over many years is greatly
preferred.
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Transformers
Setting the input impedance of a microphone
preamplifier is not a trivial issue. Transistors mostly
inherently provide quite a high input impedance,
depending on circuit configuration. Vacuum tubes
provide a much higher input impedance. So to bring
the input impedance down to around 2000 ohms,
an additional device is necessary, and that is the
transformer.
The transformer consists of two coils of wire that

are wrapped around each other, or around a core of
magnetic material such as iron. The ratio between the
numbers of turns in the coils sets the ratio by which
the impedance will be changed. The transformer also
changes the voltage of the signal before it meets the
first active device, but this is more of a side-effect. It
is the impedance change that is most important.
The transformer has two other beneficial effects. Firstly

Jensen microphone transformer
it is balanced. This is a difficult concept to explain fully
in a few words, but imagine that the microphone has
two outputs, one carrying an inverted version of the
signal that is present on the other. The microphone
preamplifier has two inputs, and it inverts the signal
on one before adding it to the other. The benefit of this
is that any interference that gets into the cable enters
both signal-carrying conductors equally. When one
signal is inverted and the two added, the interference
is cancelled out. There is a lot more to balanced wiring
than this, but this is the essence.
The other benefit of the transformer is that it is

floating with respect to earth. Without going into the
long-winded technical explanation, this allows great
freedom from problems that are sometimes sourced
from the electricity supply. Although the balancing
function of the transformer can be emulated by other
circuit devices, only a transformer can provide a truly
floating output and input. This is most relevant in
broadcasting and live sound.
The main drawback of the transformer is that it is

an expensive component that pushes up the cost of
the equipment. Transformers can also have frequency
response issues, and iron-cored transformers can
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cause distortion.
Hence there has been a desire to move away from

transformers, which has happened in all areas of audio
equipment. However, the transformers last stand has
been the microphone preamplifier.
The problem is that vacuum tubes have an inherently

high input impedance too high for optimal noise
performance. Transistors that have been commonly
available also have too high an input impedance in the
circuits in which they are used, so transformers were
used to compensate.
The solution, which was rather late in coming, was

to create transistors that lend themselves to low-
impedance circuits. Before these were commonly
available, some designers even experimented with
transistors designed for power amplifiers, as these
also had the required impedance characteristics.
However, it is now possible for a manufacturer to

buy transistors off-the-shelf that are ideally suited
to the requirements of a microphone preamplifier,
and they are not expensive. So, other than the issue
of being floating with respect to earth, there is now
no longer any need for a microphone preamplifier to
incorporate a transformer, unless it is a vacuum tube
preamplifier.
Integrated circuits simply incorporate this kind of

transistor into their design. To design a microphone
preamplifier that is extremely close to theoretical
perfection an off-the-shelf IC can be used with just a
few other components, and that is all that is needed.
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Summary so far...
It is possible to design and build highly accurate
microphone preamplifiers using inexpensive
transistors or integrated circuits that are ideally suited
to that purpose. Such a preamplifier will display an
excellent frequency response, distortion and noise
performance. Other than in the case of incompetent
design or deliberate degradation, this performance
should be maintained at all gain settings.
But...
It is often thought desirable that a microphone
preamplifier should have a particular sound in
other words it changes the signal rather than amplifies
it accurately. To judge the sound quality of such a
preamplifier is entirely subjective and measurements,
in this context, are virtually meaningless.
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Microphone preamplifier
features
Phantom power
Capacitor microphones have to be powered and most
use a system of power known as phantom power.
In this system +48 volts are applied to both of the
signal-carrying conductors of the microphone cable.
The earth connection, naturally, is at zero volts.
Where the microphone output and preamplifier
input are transformer balanced, the transformers
shield the internal amplifier of the microphone and
the microphone preamplifier from this DC (i.e. non-
alternating) voltage. Where transformers are not
used, capacitors perform the same function.
Dynamic microphones do not require phantom

power, and properly designed dynamic microphones
will simply ignore it. It makes no difference whether
the phantom power is switched on or off. Low-cost
microphones may be affected or damaged by phantom
power, but since they have no place in professional
audio it is nothing but a benefit if they are destroyed.
Some vintage or retro ribbon microphones may be
affected by phantom power. Broadcasters would not
tolerate this and modern microphone manufacturers
who neglect to make their products sufficiently robust
are helping no-one.
One essential precaution to take with phantom power

is always to have the fader down, or the monitor
turned down, when a microphone is connected or
phantom power is switched on. The sudden onrush
of forty-eight volts can cause a high-level level surge
that can potentially damage the loudspeakers.
Gain control
The gain control sets the amount of boost given to
the signal by the preamplifier. Some preamplifiers
cover the full range of gain from 0 dB to 70 dB. Others
bottom-out at 20 dB gain, although there will be a
pad see below to cover this possibility.
Pad
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Where the gain control does not cover the low-gain

end of the range adequately, a pad also known as
an attenuator is provided. This cuts down the signal
level before it reaches the active components of the
preamplifier. Although theoretically this reduces the
signal-to-noise ratio, in practice, since the signal is
already strong, this is rarely noticeable.
Filter
Some microphone preamplifiers offer the convenience
of a high-pass filter that cuts very low frequencies. It
is not at all uncommon to come across low frequency
signal components that are nothing but a problem.
Footfall noise coming up the microphone stand, or
extremely low frequency components caused by
convection currents in the air in large auditoria, for
example.
In theory the filter should come before any of the

active components, thus providing a similar protective
function to the pad. However in many preamplifiers
the filter is simply an accessory, there because of
custom and convenience.
Phase invert
It is not at all uncommon for a microphone cable to be
accidentally wired with the signal-carrying conductors
reversed, thus inverting the signal. When an inverted
signal is mixed with other signals, this can often
cause an out-of-phase effect, or phase cancellations.
The cure is of course to replace or rewire the cable.
However, in many situations there may not be time
to do this, or it may disrupt the flow of a session. So
the quick fix is to press the phase button to invert
the signal back again to how it should have been. The
cable can be dealt with later.
Some microphone preamplifiers incorporate

equalization and compression. These are not integral
functions of the microphone preamplifier and will be
dealt with in their own specific topic areas.
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Operation of the microphone

preamplifier
Microphone preamplifiers are very simple to operate.
However, a very common problem is the incorrect
setting of the gain control. The purpose of the gain
control is to raise the small signal from the microphone
up to a suitable level for further processing, mixing
and recording. So a signal of say 100 millivolts would
be brought up to round about a volt. Setting the
correct gain will optimize the signal-to-noise ratio of
the system and prevent distortion due to clipping of
subsequent circuit elements.
In a mixing console with built-in preamplifiers, the

procedure for setting the correct gain is this...
Focusrite Octopre basic controls
Ask the performer to give a sample
performance at the level they expect to
produce when they are actually being recorded,
or during the live show.
Press the solo button on the channel to which
their microphone is connected.
Observe the meter measuring the main console
output, which will now read the channel that is
soloed directly.
Increase the gain until the meter shows a
good strong level, but without any red lights.
Red lights do not necessarily mean clipping in
the console, but they show that the signal is
higher than the comfort zone within which you
should be operating.
Bear in mind that performers are often louder
when they are doing it for real.
If an external preamplifier is connected to the audio

interface of a digital audio workstation, then observe
the individual channel meter and raise the gain, once
again until a good strong reading is obtained, without
any red lights. In this case, red lights do mean clipping
and must be avoided entirely.
Now, it is important to know where the most common

problem occurs. Take the example of a novice recordist.
He has set his monitor level quite high and is in the
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process of setting the microphone gains. But as he

raises the gain he hears the background noise picked
up by the microphone getting quite loud. Since this
does not sound pleasant, he stops raising the gain
even though the meters are hardly twitching.
Unfortunately, this gain setting is not sufficient. The

signal being recorded is at too low a level and has a
worse signal-to-noise ratio than it should.
It is important to realize that this is completely and

entirely wrong. The monitor level has no effect on
the recording. The gain setting has a major effect. So
the gain should be set correctly and the monitor level
adjusted to suit that.
The other controls are very straightforward. If the

meters are showing red lights with the gain control
set to minimum, then press the pad button. If there
is excessive undesirable low frequency noise, select
the high-pass filter. If you suspect a phase problem,
press the phase button and see if it improves things.
If it does, leave it selected and make a note to check
the microphone cable later.
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Appendix
This module has made it very clear that you should
either select a microphone preamplifier for accuracy,
based on its published specifications, or you should
assess a preamplifier subjectively according to the
sound quality you perceive. However there are some
details of design that are commonly mentioned in
marketing and informational materials. If a microphone
preamplifier is designed to be accurate, and it does
indeed measure well in terms of its specification,
then it is of no practical concern to the user how that
accuracy is achieved. If a microphone preamplifier
is designed to be subjectively pleasing rather than
accurate, then it may be of considerable interest to
know how that effect was achieved.
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Single-ended design
Transistors are available in two forms npn and
pnp. In the output stage of a preamplifier, an npn
transistor handles the positive-going half of the
waveform; a pnp transistor handles the negative-
going half. This configuration is sometimes known
as a complementary or push-pull output stage. It
is a very common design and works well. One of its
advantages is that it cancels out so-called second
order harmonic distortion. This is a type of distortion
that creates even-numbered integer multiples of the
input frequency. Odd-numbered integer multiples are
not cancelled out.
A complementary output stage should be nothing other

than beneficial as it cancels out some of the distortion
that could occur. Unfortunately, it cancels out the
pleasant distortion. It is commonly agreed among
sound engineers that odd-order distortion, which is
symmetrical on the positive and negative halves of
the waveform, is unpleasant; even-order distortion
can be pleasant. But it is the pleasant distortion that
is cancelled out.
An output stage can alternatively be single-ended.

In this a single transistor is set so that with no signal
its output voltage falls halfway between the supply
voltage and earth. The signal can therefore range
cleanly throughout almost the full range between
these two voltages. But a single-ended design does
not cancel out even-order distortion. So although it
has more distortion than the complementary design
then, because it retains the pleasant distortion, it can
sound subjectively better.
(It has to be said that if the circuit has enough open-

loop gain, then negative feedback can bring all of the
distortion down to inaudible levels, but that is not the
aim of subjectivity in audio design.)
Vacuum tubes do not have the equivalent of npn

and pnp. Electrons can only flow one way through a
vacuum tube so there is only one type in this sense.
For this reason, a true complementary output stage
is impossible. A quasi-complementary output stage
is possible with some adaptation, but this would only
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make sense in the context of a power amplifier.
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Class A
A single-ended amplifier is inherently Class A.
Sufficient current has to go through the transistor or
vacuum tube to meet the signals needs at all times.
In a power amplifier this is inefficient and wasteful,
but in a small-signal amplifier the amount of current
required is small, so it is no real problem to provide
it.
A complementary design can be Class A too. At all

times enough current goes through both output
transistors to fulfil the signals potential needs.
It is however possible to design a complementary

output stage to be Class B. In this case when the
signal is in its positive half-cycle, the pnp transistor
that handles the negative half-cycles is switched off.
And vice versa, the npn transistor that handles the
positive half-cycles is switched off when the signal is
negative.
This switching between transistors can create

crossover distortion.
In practice, a small standing current is provided to

cover the moments where switching occurs, and we
call this Class AB. Any residual distortion is removed
by negative feedback.
Class AB works really well, as demonstrated by just

about every power amplifier on the planet. But it
relies on negative feedback to compensate for the
unpleasant crossover distortion it may produce. Such
negative feedback would also eliminate distortion
elsewhere in the circuit. So if a preamplifier that has
a Class AB output stage is to be allowed to produce a
little pleasant distortion, then that distortion must be
introduced deliberately.
So, to summarize single-ended versus complementary,

Class A versus Class AB...
Any of the possible combinations can be

designed for high accuracy.
Where a circuit is designed for subjectivity,
single-ended is preferable because it does
not cancel pleasant-sounding even-order
Page 25
harmonics.
Where a circuit is designed to allow a certain
amount of distortion to remain for subjective
reasons, Class A is preferable because there
may be insufficient negative feedback to
compensate for the crossover distortion
produced by Class AB.
Most power amplifiers are complementary
Class AB. Its far less to worry about than
many people think.
Page 26
Check Questions
What is the maximum gain a microphone preamplifier should be able to provide?
What is the minimum gain a microphone preamplifier should be able to provide?
Why are the sounds of less-than-perfect microphone preamplifiers still popular?
What is meant by a piece of wire with gain?
According to the text, is a 2 dB variation in frequency response considered acceptable?
According to the text, is a 2 dB variation in frequency response audible?
Is it possible to detect a 0.1 dB variation in frequency response, for most people?
What happens when the shape of a waveform is altered, other than by making it bigger?
What is the typical distortion present on an analogue tape recording?
How closely does a well-designed microphone preamplifier approach the theoretical minimum
noise level?
According to the text, if it is possible to design a near-perfect microphone preamplifier, why do
manufacturers sometimes incorporate preamplifiers that are less than perfect?
Describe a simple test, that is mentioned in the text, to tell whether a microphone preamplifier
is imperfect.
Briefly describe the difference between objectivism and subjectivism in audio.
List the three active circuit components commonly used in microphone preamplifiers.
Briefly describe how negative feedback is implemented.
List the two benefits of negative feedback, according to the text.
What is meant by open loop gain?
Why is it better to have higher open loop gain?
Why is it likely that a transistor preamplifier will have less distortion than a vacuum tube
preamplifier?
Why have integrated circuits traditionally had a bad reputation in professional audio?
What is slew-induced distortion?
According to the text, are integrated circuits now available that are fully suitable for
professional audio, including use as microphone preamplifiers?
Briefly describe output impedance.
Briefly describe input impedance.
Why is the ideal input of a microphone preamplifier higher than the output impedance of a
microphone, even though matching the impedances would give lower noise?
What is the benefit of a balanced signal?
Why is it now possible to design a transistor microphone preamplifier that does not require a
transformer, when previously they did require a transformer for low-noise performance?
What is phantom power?
Should phantom power be switched off when dynamic microphones are used?
Page 27
What is the function of the pad of a microphone preamplifier?

What is the function of the filter of a microphone preamplifier?
What is the function of the phase invert switch of a microphone preamplifier?
Describe the procedure for correctly setting the gain.
Briefly describe single-ended design.
Briefly describe complementary design.
Briefly describe Class A.
Briefly describe Class AB.
According to the text, which combination is likely to be best subjectively:
Single-ended Class A
Complementary Class A
Single-ended Class AB
Complementary Class AB
Although trick questions are generally not employed in this course, one of the above
combinations is impossible. Which one?
Page 28

Module 03 - Microphone Preamplifiers

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Module 03 - Microphone Preamplifiers

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Audio Masterclass Music Production and Sound Engineering Course

Module 03: Microphone Preamplifiers

But there is a slight correction to the above statement,

But the sounds of less-than-perfect microphone

The purpose of this module is to introduce the student

A piece of wire with gain

Frequency response, noise and distortion are all

For a long time it was considered acceptable for the

These days it is possible to design equipment, other

Distortion refers to any change of the shape of the

Historically, analogue tape recordings were expected

peaks would be considered normal, and 3% often

Purely electronic equipment can be designed to have

Turning to noise, we find ourselves confronted with the

The conclusion therefore is that a modern microphone

From the above, it seems that it ought to be the

preamplifier. Other times manufactures intentionally

How can you tell if your

Are expensive preamplifiers

Well of course the subjectivists are right. If a piece

What is generally accepted however, with only a tiny

But subjectively we might prefer a sound that is biased

Clearly the argument between objectivists and

Microphone preamplifier active

In the olden days of audio, the vacuum tube was

Before continuing with active components themselves,

An audio amplifier has an input that accepts a low-

It is possible however to compare the output and the

This may sound complicated but in fact it can be

The only slight problem here is that negative feedback

The benefits of negative feedback are these...

Greatly reduced distortion

The higher the intrinsic gain of the amplifying

As has been said however, the higher the intrinsic

So, in the case of vacuum tube circuits, because it is

Compared to the transistor, the vacuum tube inherently

will get through to the output and it will be audible.

So the main defect of a vacuum tube preamplifier will

When the transistor became practical as an amplifying

Integrated circuits combine many transistors and

The problem with early ICs was that they were

One problem was that SID often wasnt detected

This, in conjunction with the fact that early ICs were

INA217 microphone preamplifier

Input and output impedance

Output impedance represents the ability of an output

Input impedance represents an inputs current

Low impedance is better in general because it is

High impedance, for an input, is better because it

The output impedance of a microphone is typically

However, since the output of the microphone is not

One impact of this is that even amplifiers that are very

Some microphones have an output impedance other

The transformer consists of two coils of wire that

The transformer has two other beneficial effects. Firstly

The other benefit of the transformer is that it is

The main drawback of the transformer is that it is

Hence there has been a desire to move away from

The problem is that vacuum tubes have an inherently

The solution, which was rather late in coming, was

However, it is now possible for a manufacturer to

Integrated circuits simply incorporate this kind of

Dynamic microphones do not require phantom

One essential precaution to take with phantom power