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BOILER TYPES
FIRE TUBE
As the name implies, the
BOILERS AND THERMAL
fire is in the tubes and the
SYSTEMS;
BOILER EFFICIENCY water outside. Most of the
IMPROVEMENT small ll packaged
k d b
boilers
il
SECTION P in
buildings and industry
today are fire tube boilers
and thus are likely the
ones we will encounter.
Source: Illustration recreated for web by Technologists Inc. using graphic supplied by The Boiler Efficiency Institute, Auburn,
Alabama to PNL, for use with FEMP O&M Best Practices, as a model.
Section P - 2

PROPERTIES AND USE OF STEAM

WATER TUBE
Again, as the name implies, now the water is in the tube
and the fire outside. Most of the larger boiler systems Steam is water in a vapor state
today
are constructed water tube boilers. There are smaller Steam temperature is in C or K
packaged water tube boilers also. We will see water tube K = C + 273
boilers but most of the larger ones are well designed and Steam pressure is in kPa, MPa or bar
controlled. Thus, we will not spend much time on water 1 bar = 100 KPa = 0.1 Mpa
tube boilers.
Steam conditions are either:
saturated - temperature or pressure specifies
its properties
superheated - must know temperature and
pressure to find its properties

Section P - 3 Section P - 4

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HEAT CONTENT OF STEAM

STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The heat content of steam is called its enthalpy
(h or H) measured in kJ/Kg
By definition h = H = 0 at 0C
Enthalpy is the sum of the sensible plus latent
heat.
heat
Sensible heat - heat absorbed or removed during a
change in temperature without a change in state of
phase
Latent heat - heat absorbed or removed during a
change of state or phase at constant temperature
The steam distribution system on the next page
shows a typical distribution system.
The major components include
The steam manifold and piping,
heat exchangers,
steam traps
p at each use ppoint and at various
locations throughout the system,
pressure reducing valves,
condensate return piping,
condensate return tank(s), and
various pumps.

Section P - 5 Section P - 6

STEAM SYSTEM Not shown in the previous diagram are:

make up water,
170 C 8 BAR (800 KPA) 150 C & 450 KPA water treatment for the make up water, and
a feedwater tank which is typically between
the condensate return tank and the boiler.

The feedwater tank will also normally have

feedwater preheating and removal of oxygen
(deaeration).

Section P - 7 Section P - 8

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MONITORING
STEAM TRAPS In a poorly maintained or non-maintained system, 20% to
30% of the steam traps are likely stuck open wasting
Purposes significant amounts of expensive steam. To locate failed
steam traps, use:
1. Reject (Return) Condensate
2. Reject Air 1. Sight (Watch the Discharge)
3. Hold Back Steam 2. Sound (Listen to the Operation Possibly Ultrasonically)
3
3. Temperature (Watch the Delta T)

Note: Real Time MMS Available

Other indications that a steam trap may be malfunctioning:

the system has trouble holding pressure,
the condensate return tank is unpressurized and
significant flash steam is formed

Section P - 9 Section P - 10

COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY CONTROLLING COMBUSTION

Combustion is an exothermic (heat producing) chemical
In any closed combustion system such as a
reaction.
The chemistry for the combustion of methane (natural
boiler or a furnace without secondary air, we
gas is about 96% methane) is shown below. can measure precisely what occurred at the
burner by carefully measuring the exhaust.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
The goal is to be able to carefully control the
+ _O
O2 + _ O2
fuel and airflow to ensure complete and
+ _N2 + _ N2
efficient combustion.
+ _ NOx
We will see why excess air is important and
why too much excess air is expensive.

Section P - 11 Section P - 12

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NATURAL GAS

FLUE GAS ANALYSIS VS. % COMBUSTION AIR

Section P - 13 Section P - 14

ALL TEMPERATURES ARE STR IN C

SCALE AND SOOT
(STACK TEMPERATURE RISE) Whether fire tube or water tube, it is important that the tubes remain clean.
On the waterside, scaling can lead to a dramatic loss in efficiency. Scale is
a good insulator, thus as scale forms the temperature of the fireside must
increase to do the work on the waterside. Water treatment is essential to
maintain this condensate return never have a scaling problem. Most of us
will find it necessary to periodically shut the boiler down and remove scale.
New efficiency - Old efficiency The Figure on the next page demonstrates the expected amount of loss
Percent savings due to scaling. Reverse osmosis water treatment will almost eliminate
scaling problems.
New efficiency

Savings Percent savings Fuel consumption
Soot on the fireside has a similar effect. Running good combustion
systems slightly on the excess airside ensures complete combustion
and
minimizes soot. However, soot blowers may be required, especially
for
certain fuels, and periodic brushing gas fired system, this brushing
is likely required about once a year.

Section P - 15 Section P - 16

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LOAD BALANCING
The boiler room is an interesting place. If the boiler room
operator keeps the boiler working with adequate
pressure everywhere in the plant, no one complains.
Normally, there is an extra boiler or two for back up and
load variation reasons. Therefore, there is a natural
tendency for the operator to fire all the available boilers
and run them at part load. If one goes down, the others
quickly move up and the pressure is maintained.

Boilers don't run well at low loads and each boiler has
about 3-5% skin losses, so there is a significant energy
penalty for this philosophy. Instead, profiling the
efficiency of each boiler for varying loads will yield data
that can be used to determine the optimum firing profile
for any load.

Section P - 17 Section P - 18

FLASH STEAM
BOILER BLOWDOWN
When a hot pressurized liquid is placed in
a tank with lower pressure, some flash
steam will form as the enthalpy of the
saturated liquid is reduced.

This phenomenon is sometimes a major

loss to the steam system (700 kPa
blowdown going to an unpressurized
vessel will produce significant
atmospheric pressure steam which is
worthless and thus is a loss).
It is easy to calculate how much as shown
in the example following.
Additional details on Blowdown in Appendix
Section P - 19 Section P - 20

5

FLASH STEAM
Alternatively, the high-pressure liquid can be
taken to a low pressure tank. The flash
steam now has enough pressure to use, and
inexpensive low-pressure steam is the
result.
The next example shows how to calculate
that.
Continuous top blowdown is an excellent
source for this purpose and sometimes
enough pressure
is left in the condensate return to
accomplish the same thing.
Section P - 21
BOILER AND STEAM PLANT ECMS
INCREASE BOILER EFFICIENCY
1. Reduce Excess Air to Boiler(s)
2. Provide Sufficient Air to Boiler(s) for Complete Combustion
3. Install Low Excess Air Burner (s)
4. Repair/Replace Faulty Burner (s)
5. Repair Natural Draft Burner(s) with Forced Draft Burner(s)
6. Install Turbulators in Firetube Boiler(s)
7. Replace Existing Boiler(s) with New More Efficient Boiler(s)
8. Install a Condensing Boiler/Water Heater
9. Install a Pulse Combustion Boiler/Water Heater
10. Install a Small Boiler for Summer Operation
11. Clean Boiler(s) to Eliminate Fouling and Scale
12. Improve Feedwater Chemical Treatment to Reduce Scaling
13. Optimize Boiler Loading When Using Multiple Boilers
Section P - 23
3/29/2012
BOILER LOG SHEETS
As with any other operating equipment, log sheets are
extremely important.
They will tell you what is happening, what is going wrong,
and usually what is causing that. It is
vitally important to keep good log sheets for all boiler
systems.
y
The numbers are usually taken or observed
anyway. The log sheet is simply an organized method of
keeping those numbers.
Log sheets should be developed for individual sites,
boilers, and operators.
Section P - 22
INSULATION
Install Insulation on Steam Line(s)
14.
15. Install Insulation Jacket on Steam Fitting(s)
16. Install Insulation on Feedwater Line(s)
17. Install Insulation on Condensate Return Line(s)
18. Install Insulation on Condensate/Feedwater/Deaerator Tank(s)
19. Install Insulation on (Domestic) Hot Water Line(s)
20. Install Insulation on (Domestic) Hot Water Tank
21. Install Insulation Jacket on Boiler Shell
22. Install Insulation to Reduce Heat Loss
REDUCE BOILER LOAD
23. Repair Steam Leak(s)
24. Repair Failed Steam Trap(s)
25. Reduce Boiler Blowdown
26. Return Condensate to Boiler(s)
Section P - 24
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27. Shut Off Steam Tracer(s) During Summer

OTHER
28. Shut Off or Turn Back Boiler During Long Periods of No Use
29. Change Boiler Steam Pressure 43. Vary (Domestic or Heating) Hot Water Temp. Based on
30. Replace Continuous Gas Pilot(s) with Electronic Pilot(s) Demand
31. Install Stack Damper(s) to Reduce Natural Draft Heat Loss 44. Eliminate Air Conditioning in Boiler Room
32. Pressurize Condensate Return System
45. Install Back Pressure Steam Turbine for Cogeneration
33. Reduce or Utilize Flash Steam
34. Reduce Boiler Load and/or Steam Requirement 46. Switch to an interruptible Natural Gas Source
47. Request Change to a Different Utility Rate Schedule
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY 48. Switch to a More Economical Fuel Source
35
35. Install an Economizer to Preheat Boiler Feedwater
36. Install Heat Exchanger to Preheat Boiler Makeup or Feedwater
49. Install Heat Pump to Supplement (Domestic) Hot Water
37. Install Heat Exchanger to Recover Blowdown Heat
Demand
38. Install Recuperator to Preheat Combustion Air 50. Replace Electric Boiler(s) with Natural Gas Fired Boiler(s)
39. Recover Waste Heat to Supplement (Domestic) Hot Water Demand 51. Install a Satellite Boiler
40. Recover Heat from Boiler Flue Gas to Supplement Bldg Heat
52. Install a Variable Frequency Drive on Pump(s) and Fan(s)
41. Install Heat Recovery Steam Generator on Incinerator
42. Direct Contact Condensation Heat Recovery 53. Replace On/Off Control System with Variable Firing Rate

Section P - 25 Section P - 26

ADDITIONAL PRACTICE EXAMPLES SOLUTION FOR EXAMPLE 1

1. A large facility assumed that it was too Analysis:
costly in distribution piping to return q = m x Cp x deltaT
condensate to the boiler. Find the savings = (9000 kg/hr)(4.2 kJ/kgC)(125-40)C
for utilizing this source of heat for = 3.2 x 106 kJ/hr
condensate unit heaters to provide space
h ti for
heating f 4,000
4 000 hhours per year. A
Assume Savings = (3.2 x 106 kJ/hr) x
the temperature leaving the heater is (1 GJ/1,000,000 kJ) x
40C, the temperature of condensate ($8.00/GJ) x
is125C, there is 9000 kg/hr of condensate (4000 hrs/yr)(1/0.85)
available, and cost of present fuel to heat = $120,471/year
the building is $8/GJ. Boiler efficiency is
85%.

Section P - 27 Section P - 28

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EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION FOR EXAMPLE 2

In operating a boiler with dual fuel capability, Analysis:
comment on the lowest cost of fuel given the Convert each fuel source to $/GJ delivered
following.

Natural Gas $
$5.80/GJ efficiencyy = 0.92 Natural Gas = ($5.80/GJ)/0.92 =
$6 30/GJ deli
$6.30/GJ delivered
e ed
Residual Fuel Oil $310/ton
(40,000 kJ/kg) efficiency = 0.88 Residual = ($310/ton)(1/1000 ton/kg) x
(1/40000 kg/kJ) x
(106 kJ/GJ)(1/0.88)
=$8.81/GJ delivered
Best Choice: Natural Gas
Section P - 29 Section P - 30

EXAMPLE PROBLEM
3. Last year a 20 GJ/hr boiler consumed 19,000 GJ of natural gas at
$8/GJ. The boiler operates at 6% O2 and 350 C STR. What is
the savings for correcting that to 3% O2?

Eff1=75% and Eff2=77%

77 - 75
% savings 0.026 or 2.6%
77
19,000GJ $8.00 $3,948
Cost savings 0.026
Year GJ yr

Section P - 31 AEE/ Certified Energy Manager CEM

Section P - 32

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4. Now, you can install an economizer that will reduce the stack
temperature rise to 200C. What is the % fuel savings for that STEAM EXAMPLES
change?
Eff 1 = 77% Eff 2 = 83%
1a. Find the enthalpy of 800 kPa (8 bar)
83 - 77 saturated steam.
% savings 7.2%
83 Using Table H = 2768.7 kJ/kg
3) What is the % excess air for 3% O2 Natural Gas?
for 800 kPa steam
Approximately 15%

What would the CO2 reading be if we measured it? 1b. Find the enthalpy of 165 C steam.
Approximately 10% Using Table H = 2762 kJ/kg
for 165C steam
Section P - 33 Section P - 34

2. How much heat is required to raise the 3. Find the amount of heat required to convert
temperature of 3000 kg of water from 20C to 3000 kg of boiler feedwater at 90C to saturated
80C? steam at 800 kPa (8 bar).
For 20C water from Table H = 83.9 For 90C water H = 376.9 (Table)
For 80C water from Table H = 334.9 For 800 kPa steam H = 2768.7 (Table)
3000 kg (334.9 83.9) kJ
x kJ
k = 3000 kg (2768.7 376.9) kJ
kg x kJ =
kg
x = 753,000 kJ
x = 7,175,400 kJ
x 0.753 GJ
x 7.18 GJ

Section P - 35 Section P - 36

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APPENDIX TYPES OF STEAM TRAPS

Section P - 37
Section P - 38

INVERTED BUCKET STEAM TRAP INVERTED BUCKET STEAM TRAP

1) Steam enters trap under 2) As the entering
bottom of bucket, where it condensate starts to fill the
rises and collects at top, bucket, the bucket begins
imparting buoyancy. to exert a pull on the lever.
Bucket then rises and lifts
valve towards its seat until As the condensate
valve is snapped tightly continues to rise, more
shut. Air and carbon f
force iis exerted
t d until
til there
th
dioxide continually pass is enough to open the valve
through bucket vent and against the differential
collect at top of trap. Any pressure.
steam passing through
vent is condensed by
radiation from trap.

Section P - 39 Section P - 40

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F&T STEAM TRAP F&T STEAM TRAP

1) When steam reaches the 2) As air accumulates in the

trap, the thermostatic air trap, the temperature
vent closes in response to drops below that of
higher temperature. saturated steam. The
Condensate continues to balanced pressure
fl
flow th
through h th
the main
i th
thermostatic
t ti air
i ventt
valve which is positioned opens and discharges air.
by the float to discharge
condensate at the same
rate that it flows to the
trap.

Section P - 41 Section P - 42

THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAP

As the temperature inside the
trap increases, it quickly heats
the charged bellows element,
increasing the vapor pressure
inside. When pressure inside
the element becomes balanced
with system pressure in the
trap
p body,
y, the spring
p g effect of
the bellows causes the element
to expand, closing the valve.
When temperature in the trap
drops a few degrees below
saturated steam temperature,
imbalanced pressure contracts
the bellows, opening the valve.
Section P - 43
BOILER BLOWDOWN
Condensate is distilled water and thus is very clean. If it
is
not all returned, make up water is needed and this water
is
not as clean. Thus, solids (mud) will build up in the boiler.
Some of that mud will float at the top and some will sink
to the bottom. The mud on the bottom would eventually
plug the boiler. As the boiler is firing, these residual solids
are formed at the steam water interface where some sink
and some float.
Section P - 44

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To cure these problems, boilers will have to be blown Thus, TOP BLOWDOWN IS AN EXCELLENT
down in some fashion. OPPORTUNITY FOR WASTE HEAT RECOVERY.
There is usually a top blowdown (skimming) that is often
continuous or could easily be automated by blowing The bottom or mud blowdown is usually done
down when the conductivity of the water reaches a manually, by timers, or automatically. To be
certain level. This top blowdown is relatively clean and
sure the mud is adequately removed, this
usually a small volume flow.
blowdown is usually drawn off in a large line
If the
th boiler
b il is
i producing
d i 700 kPakP steam,
t then
th this
thi
with agitation. Mud blowdown is usually not a
blowdown is saturated water at 165 C.
good candidate for heat recovery.

Section P - 45 Section P - 46

BOILER BLOWDOWN
(SEE FIGURE)
An excellent system takes the high pressure blowdown,
develops low pressure steam in the tank described and Purpose: Avoid mud build up in boiler
then runs the liquid left in the low pressure tank Problem: Very hot liquid at boiler drum pressure
through a is rejected
shell and tube heat exchanger to preheat the make up
water These systems are available commercially.
water. commercially Management:
Maintain proper BD rate
Recover heat from blowdown with a shell &
tube heat exchanger (continuous or top
blowdown)
Recover flash steam (see heat recovery Q-8)

Section P - 47 Section P - 48

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CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN BOILER BLOWDOWN EXAMPLE

Calculate the percentage of blowdown for a boiler that
has an allowable limit of 500 ppm of impurities and uses
% BD = A x 100 feedwater with 10 ppm of impurities.
(B A)
A = 10 ppm
A = pp
ppm impurities
p in feedwater B = 500 ppm
pp

%BD = 10 x 100 = 2%
B = ppm allowed in boiler
500 - 10

Section P - 49 Section P - 50

BLOWDOWN CALCULATION EXAMPLE

Calculate the % of flash steam generated by
expanding saturated liquid from 10 bar to 2
bar.
SI STEAM TABLES
From steam tables:
Hf1 = 762
762.5
5 kJ/kg ( 10 bar liquid)
Hf2 = 504.7 kJ/kg ( 2 bar liquid)
Hfg2 = 2201.5 kJ/kg (2 bar liquid to vapor)

% FLASH = 762.5 504.7 x100 = 11.7%

2201.5

Section P - 51 Section P - 52

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Section P - 53 Section P - 54

Section P - 55 Section P - 56

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Section P - 57 Section P - 58

Section P - 59 Section P - 60

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Section P - 61 Section P - 62

END OF SECTION P

Section P - 63 Section P - 64

16