Pure Core 4

Revision Notes

June 2016
Pure Core 4

1 Algebra .................................................................................................................3
Partial fractions ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

2 Coordinate Geometry ...........................................................................................5

Parametric equations ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form .................................................................................................................. 6
Area under curve given parametrically .............................................................................................................................. 7

3 Sequences and series ..........................................................................................8

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n ....................................................................................................................... 8

4 Differentiation ..................................................................................................... 10

Relationship between and ...................................................................................................................... 10

Implicit differentiation ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Parametric differentiation ................................................................................................................................... 11
Exponential functions, a x ................................................................................................................................... 11
Related rates of change ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Forming differential equations ............................................................................................................................ 13

5 Integration........................................................................................................... 14
1
Integrals of ex and ......................................................................................................................................... 14

Standard integrals ............................................................................................................................................... 14
Integration using trigonometric identities ........................................................................................................... 14
Integration by reverse chain rule ...................................................................................................................... 15
Integrals of tan x and cot x ............................................................................................................................................... 16
Integrals of sec x and cosec x ........................................................................................................................................... 17
Integration using partial fractions ....................................................................................................................... 17
Integration by substitution, indefinite ................................................................................................................. 17
Integration by substitution, definite .................................................................................................................... 19
Choosing the substitution ................................................................................................................................................. 20
Integration by parts ............................................................................................................................................. 21
Area under curve ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Volume of revolution .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Volume of revolution about the xaxis............................................................................................................................. 23
Volume of revolution about the yaxis............................................................................................................................. 23
Parametric integration ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Differential equations.......................................................................................................................................... 25
Separating the variables ................................................................................................................................................... 25
Exponential growth and decay ............................................................................................................................ 26

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6 Vectors ............................................................................................................... 27
Notation ...............................................................................................................................................................27
Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera ......................................................................................................27
Parallel and non - parallel vectors ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Modulus of a vector and unit vectors ................................................................................................................................ 29
Position vectors................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Ratios ................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
Proving geometrical theorems .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Three dimensional vectors...................................................................................................................................32
Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector ....................................................................................................................... 32
Distance between two points............................................................................................................................................. 32
Scalar product......................................................................................................................................................32
Perpendicular vectors ........................................................................................................................................................ 33
Angle between vectors ...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Angle in a triangle............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Vector equation of a straight line ........................................................................................................................35
Geometrical problems .........................................................................................................................................35
Intersection of two lines ......................................................................................................................................37
2 Dimensions .................................................................................................................................................................... 37
3 Dimensions .................................................................................................................................................................... 37

7 Appendix ............................................................................................................ 38
Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof .........................................................................................................38
Derivative of xq for q rational ..........................................................................................................................38
1
for negative limits ...................................................................................................................................39
Integration by substitution why it works ..........................................................................................................40
Parametric integration .........................................................................................................................................40
Separating the variables why it works ..............................................................................................................41

Index ........................................................................................................................... 42

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2
1 Algebra
Partial fractions

1) You must start with a proper fraction: i.e. the degree of the numerator must be less than
the degree of the denominator.
If this is not the case you must first do long division to find quotient and remainder.

2) (a) Linear factors (not repeated)

...... A
+ ........
(ax b)(. . . . . . ) (ax b)
(b) Linear repeated factors (squared)
...... A B
+ + ........
(ax b) (. . . . . . )
2
(ax b) 2
(ax b)
(c) Quadratic factors)
...... Ax + B
+ ........
(ax + b)(. . . . . . )
2
(ax 2 + b)
...... Ax + B
or + ........
(ax + bx + c)(. . . . . . )
2
(ax + bx + c)
2

5 x + 2x 2
Example: Express in partial fractions.
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )
Solution: The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator, 3, so
we do not need long division and can write

5 x + 2x 2 A Bx + C
+ multiply both sides by (1x)(1+x2)
(1 x)(1 + x 2 ) 1 x 1+ x2
5 x + 2x2 A(1 + x2) + (Bx + C)(1 x)
5 1 + 2 = 2A A=3 clever value!, put x = 1

5=A+C C=2 easy value, put x = 0

2=AB B=1 equate coefficients of x2

5 x + 2x 2 3 x+2
+ .
(1 x)(1 + x 2 ) 1 x 1+ x2

Note: You can put in any value for x, so you can always find as many equations as you
need to solve for A, B, C, D . . . .

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 x 2 7 x + 22
Example: Express in partial fractions.
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

Solution: The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator,
3, so we do not need long division and can write
x 2 7 x + 22 A B C
+ + multiply by denominator
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2 2x 1 ( x 3) 2 x3
x2 7x + 22 A(x 3)2 + B(2x 1) + C(2x 1)(x 3)
9 21 + 22 = 5B B=2 clever value, put x = 3
1 7 5 2
4
2 + 22 = 2 A=3 clever value, put x =

22 = 9A B + 3C C = 1 easy value, put x = 0

x 2 7 x + 22 3 2 1
+
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2 2x 1 ( x 3) 2 x3

x 3 + x 2 9x 3
Example: Express in partial fractions.
x2 9

Solution: Firstly the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the
denominator so we must divide top by bottom.
x2 9 ) x3 + x2 9x 3 ( x+1
x3 9x
x2 3
x2 9
6

x 3 + x 2 9x 3 6
= x+1 +
x2 9 x 9
2

Factorise to give x2 9 = (x 3)(x + 3) and write

6 6 A B
+ multiplying by denominator
x 9
2
( x 3)( x + 3) x3 x+3
6 A(x + 3) + B(x 3)
6 = 6A A=1 clever value, put x = 3

6 = 6B B = 1 clever value, put x = 3

x 3 + x 2 9x 3 1 1
= x+1 +
x2 9 x3 x+3

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2 Coordinate Geometry
Parametric equations
If we define x and y in terms of a single variable (the letters t or are often used) then this
variable is called a parameter: we then have the parametric equation of a curve.

Example: x = 2 + t, y = t 2 3 is the parametric equation of a curve. Find

(i) the points where the curve meets the x-axis,
(ii) the points of intersection of the curve with the line y = 2x + 1.

Solution:
(i) The curve meets the x-axis when y = 0 t2 = 3 t = 3
curve meets the x-axis at (2 3, 0) and (2 + 3, 0).
(ii) Substitute for x and y in the equation of the line
y = 2x + 1, and y = t 2 3, x = 2 + t
t 2 3 = 2(2 + t) + 1
t2 2t 8 = 0 (t 4)(t + 2) = 0
t = 4 or 2
the points of intersection are (6, 13) and (0, 1).

Example: Find whether the curves x = 2t + 3, y = t2 2 and x = s 1, y = s 3 intersect.

If they do give the point of intersection, otherwise give reasons why they do not
intersect.

Solution: If they intersect there must be values of t and s (not necessarily the same), which
make their x-coordinates equal, so for these values of t and s
2t + 3 = s 1 s = 2t + 4
The y-coordinates must also be equal for the same values of t and s
t2 2 = s 3 = (2t + 4) 3 = 2t + 1 since s = 2t + 4

t2 2t 3 = 0 (t 3)(t + 1) = 0
t = 3, s = 10 or t = 1, s = 2
Curves intersect at t = 3 giving (9, 7). Check s = 10 gives (9, 7).
Or curves intersect at t = 1 giving (1, 1). Check s = 2 giving (1, 1).

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Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form

Eliminate the parameter (t or or ) to form an equation between x and y only.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = t 2 3, x = t + 2.

Solution: x=t+2 t = x 2, and y = t 2 3

y = (x 2)2 3,
which is the Cartesian equation of a parabola with vertex at (2, 3)

With trigonometric parametric equations the formulae

sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 and sec2t tan2 t = 1
will often be useful.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by

y = 3sin t + 2, x = 3cos t 1.

Solution: Re-arranging we have

y2 x +1
sin t = , and cos t = , which together with sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
3 3
y 2
2
x + 1
2

+ = 1
3 3
(x + 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 9
which is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 3.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = 3tan t, x = 4sec t.
Hence sketch the curve.

Solution: Re-arranging we have y

y x x/16y/9=1
tan t = , and sec t = , 4
3 4
2
which together with sec2 t tan2 t = 1
x
x2 y2 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8
2 = 1
42 3 2

4
which is the standard equation of a
hyperbola with centre (0, 0)
and x-intercepts (4, 0), (4, 0).

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6
Area under curve given parametrically

We know that the area between a curve and the x-axis is given by A =
dA
= y.
dx
dA dA dx dA dx
But, from the chain rule = =y
dt dx dt dt dt
Integrating with respect to t
dx
A = y dt dt .

Example: Find the area between the curve y = t 2 1, x = t 3 + t, the x-axis and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2.

2
Solution: The area is A = .
0
?

A = we must write limits for t, not x
?

dx
Firstly we need to find y and in terms of t.
dt
dx
y = t2 1 and = 3t2 + 1.
dt
Secondly we are integrating with respect to t and so the limits of integration must be for
values of t.
x = 0 t = 0, and
x = 2 t3 + t = 2 t3 + t 2 = 0 (t 1)(t2 + t + 2) = 0 t = 1 only.
so the limits for t are from 0 to 1
1 dx
A = (t2 1) (3t2 + 1) dt
1

0
y
dt
dt = 0

3t4 2t2 1 dt
1
= 0

1
3t 5 2t 3
= 5 3 t = 1 15
1

Note that in simple problems you may be able to eliminate t and find in the usual
manner. However there will be some problems where this is difficult and the above technique
will be better.

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3 Sequences and series
Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n

n(n 1) n(n 1)(n 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x2 + x + ....
2! 3!
This converges provided that |x| < 1.

Example: Expand (1 + 3x) 2, giving the first four terms, and state the values of x for
which the series is convergent.

Solution:
(2)(3) (2)(3)(4)
(1 + 3x) 2 = 1 + (2) 3x + 2!
(3)2 + 3!
(3)3
= 1 6x + 27x2 108x3 + ...
This series is convergent when |3x| < 1 |x| < 1/3.

1
Example: Use the previous example to find an approximation for .
0 9997 2
1
Solution: Notice that = 09997 2 = (1 + 3x)2 when x = 00001.
0 9997 2

So writing x = 00001 in the expansion 1 6x + 27x2 108x3

09997 2 1 + 00006 + 000000027 + 0000000000108 = 1000600270108
The correct answer to 13 decimal places is 10006002701080 not bad eh?

1
Example: Expand (4 x) , giving all terms up to and including the term in x3, and state
2

for what values of x the series is convergent.

Solution: As the formula holds for (1 + x)n we first re-write

1 1
1
x2 x2
1

(4 x) 2
= 4 1
2
= 2 1 and now we can use the formula
4 4
1 x 1
12 x
2 1
12 23 x
3

= 2 1 + + 2
+ 2
+ .....
2 4 2! 4 3! 4

x x2 x3
= 2 .
4 64 512
This expansion converges for x
4
<1 |x| < 4.

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8
 3 x 1
Example: Find the expansion of in ascending powers of x up to x2.
x x 6
2

Solution: First write in partial fractions

3 x 1 2 1
= + , which must now be written as
x x6
2
x+3 x2
2 1
= 2
(1+ 3x ) 1 12 (1 2x ) 1
3(1+ 3x ) 2(1 2x ) 3

1 + (1) x + (1)(2) x 1 1+ (1) x + (1)(2) x
2 2
2
=
3 3 2! 3 2 2 2! 2

1 17 x 11x 2
= .
6 36 216

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4 Differentiation

Relationship between and

1
=1 = using the chain rule

dy dx 1
So if y = 3x2 = 6x = .
dx dy 6x

Implicit differentiation
This is just the chain rule when we do not know explicitly what y is as a function of x.

Examples: The following examples use the chain rule (or implicit differentiation)
( 3 ) ( 3 )
= = 3 2

(sin ) (sin )
= = cos

(5 2 )
= 10 + 5 2 using the product rule

d 2
(
x + 3y )3
(
= 3 x 2 + 3y )
2

d 2
(
x + 3y ) (
= 3 x 2 + 3y )
2 dy
2x + 3
dx dx dx

Example: Find the gradient of, and the equation of, the tangent to the curve
x2 + y2 3xy = 1 at the point (1, 2).

Solution: Differentiating x2 + y2 3xy = 1 with respect to x gives

dy dy
2x + 2y 3 y + 3x = 0
dx dx
dy 3y 2x dy
= = 4 when x = 1 and y = 2.
dx 2 y 3x dx
Equation of the tangent is y 2 = 4(x 1)
y = 4x 2.

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10
Parametric differentiation

= =

Example: A curve has parametric equations x = t 2 + t, y = t 3 3t.

(i) Find the equation of the normal at the point where t = 2.
(ii) Find the points with zero gradient.

Solution:
(i) When t = 2, x = 6 and y = 2.
dy dx
= 3t 2 3 and = 2t + 1
dt dt

3 2 3 9
= = = when t = 2

2 + 1 5
5
Thus the gradient of the normal at the point (6, 2) is 9
5
and its equation is y 2 = 9
(x 6) 5x + 9y = 48.
dy 3t 2 3
(ii) gradient = 0 when = = 0
dx 2t + 1
3t2 3 = 0
t = 1
points with zero gradient are (0, 2) and (2, 2).

Exponential functions, ax

Proof (i) y = ax
ln y = ln ax = x ln a
1
= ln = ln a

( )
= ln a

Proof (ii) y = ax = ln = ln since a = ln


= ln ln a = ln a chain rule
( )
= ln a

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 2
Example: Find the derivative of = 3 .

2
( 2 ) 2
: = 3 ln 3 = 3 ln 3 2

Example: Find the derivative of = 5sin .

(sin )
: = 5sin ln 5 = 5sin ln 5 cos

Related rates of change

We can use the chain rule to relate one rate of change to another.
Example: A spherical snowball is melting at a rate of 96 cm3 s 1 when its radius is 12 cm.
Find the rate at which its surface area is decreasing at that moment.

4
Solution: We know that V = 3 r3 and that A = 4 r2.
Using the chain rule we have
dV dV dr dr dV
= = 4 r 2 , since = 4 r 2
dt dr dt dt dr
dV dr
= 4 r2
dt dt
dr
96 = 4 122
dt
dr 1
= cm s-1
dt 6

Using the chain rule again

dA dA dr dr dA
= = 8 r , since = 8 r
dt dr dt dt dr
dA 1
= 8 12 = 16 cm 2 s 1
dt 6

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12
Forming differential equations

Example: The mass of a radio-active substance at time t is decaying at a rate which is

proportional to the mass present at time t. Find a differential equation connecting the
mass m and the time t.
dm
Solution: Remember that means the rate at which the mass is increasing so in this
dt
case we must consider the rate of decay as a negative increase
dm
m
dt
dm
= km, where k is the (positive) constant of proportionality.
dt
1
=

1
ln m = 2 kt 2 + ln A
1
ln = 2
2
1 2
= 2

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5 Integration

Integrals of ex and

e dx = e x + c
x

1 dx = ln | x | + c
for a further treatment of this result, see the appendix
x

x 3 + 3x
Example: Find
dx
x2

x + 3x
3
x + 3 dx = x2 + 3 ln x + c.
dx =
Solution:
x 2
x

Standard integrals

x must be in RADIANS when integrating trigonometric functions.

f (x)
f ( x) dx f (x)
f ( x) dx

n
x n +1
x sin x cos x
n +1
1
x ln x cos x sin x
ex ex sec x tan x sec x
2
sec x tan x
cosec x cot x cosec x
2
cosec x cot x

Integration using trigonometric identities

Example: Find cot 2 x dx .

Solution: cot2 x = cosec2 x 1

cot 2 x dx = cosec 2 x 1 dx

= cot x x + c.

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14
 Example: Find sin 2 x dx.

Solution: sin2 x = (1 cos 2x)

sin 2 x dx = 1
2 (1 cos 2 x) dx

= x sin 2x + c.
You cannot change x to 3x in the above result to find sin 2 3 x dx . see next example

Example: Find sin 2 3 x dx .

Solution: sin2 3x = (1 cos 2 3x) = (1 cos 6x)

sin 2 3 x dx = 1
2 (1 cos 6 x) dx

= x 1/12 sin 6x + c.

Example: Find sin 3x cos 5x dx.

Solution: Using the formula 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B)

This formula is NOT in the formula booklet you can use the formulae for sin(A B) and add them

sin 3x cos 5x dx
= 1
/2 sin 8x + sin (2x)
dx = 1
/2 sin 8x sin 2x dx
1
= /16 cos 8x + cos 2x + c.

Integration by reverse chain rule

Some integrals which are not standard functions can be integrated by thinking of the chain
rule for differentiation.
Example: Find sin 4 3 x cos 3 x dx .

Solution: sin 4 3 x cos 3 x dx

4 du
If we think of u = sin 3x, then the integrand looks like u if we ignore the
dx
constants, which would integrate to give 1/5 u5
so we differentiate u5 = sin5 3x

to give
d
dx
(
sin 5 3x ) ( )
= 5 sin 4 3x 3 cos 3x = 15 sin 4 3x cos 3x

which is 15 times what we want and so

sin 4 3 x cos 3 x dx =
1
15
sin 5 3x + c

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 x
Example: Find (2 x 3)
2
dx

x
Solution: (2 x 3)
2
dx

1 du
If we think of u = (2x2 3), then the integrand looks like if we ignore the
u dx
constants, which would integrate to ln u
so we differentiate ln u = ln 2x2 3

to give
d
dx
(
ln 2 x 2 3= ) 1
2x 3
2
4=
x
4x
(2 x 2 3)
which is 4 times what we want and so
x
(2 x 3)
2
dx = ln 2x2 3 + c.

()
= ln|()| +
()
2
: Find 2
2 2
Solution: First consider
2 = 4x 2 , which is 4 the integrand
2
2 2
2
= +
4

: Find 53

Solution: We know that (53 ) = 53 ln 5 3, using the chain rule

53
53 = +
3 ln 5

Integrals of tan x and cot x

sin x sin x
tan x dx = cos x dx = dx ,
cos x
f '( x )
and we now have =
f ( x)
dx ln f ( x ) + c

tan x dx = ln cos x + c
tan x dx = ln sec x + c
cot x can be integrated by a similar method to give
cot x dx = ln sin x + c

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16
Integrals of sec x and cosec x

sec x (sec x + tan x) sec 2 x + sec x tan x

sec x dx = dx = sec x + tan x dx
sec x + tan x
The top is now the derivative of the bottom
f ' ( x)
and we have f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c

sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c

and similarly
cosec x dx = ln cosec x + cot x + c

Integration using partial fractions

For use with algebraic fractions where the denominator factorises.
6x
Example: Find
x +x2 2
dx

6x
Solution: First express in partial fractions.
x +x2
2

6x 6x A B
+
x +x2
2
( x 1)( x + 2) x 1 x+2
6x A(x + 2) + B(x 1).
put x = 1 A = 2,
put x = 2 B=4
6x 2 4
x +x2
2
dx = x 1
+
x+2
dx

= 2 ln |x 1| + 4 ln |x + 2| + c.

Integration by substitution, indefinite

(i) Use the given substitution involving x and u, (or find a suitable substitution).
du dx
(ii) Find either or , whichever is easier and re-arrange to find dx in terms
dx du
of du, i.e dx = ... du
(iii) Use the substitution in (i) to make the integrand a function of u, and use your
answer to (ii) to replace dx by ...... du.
(iv) Simplify and integrate the function of u.
(v) Use the substitution in (i) to write your answer in terms of x.

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 2
Example: Find x 3 x 2 5 dx using the substitution u = 3x 5.

Solution: (i) u = 3x2 5

du du
(ii) = 6x dx =
dx 6x
(iii) We can see that there an x will cancel, and 3 2 5 =
du u
x 3 x 2 5 dx = x u
6x
= 6
du
3
1 2
1 1 u
6
(iv) = u 2
du = 3 + c
6 2
3

(3x 2 5) 2
(v) = + c
9

1
Example: Find 1+ x2
dx using the substitution x = tan u.

Solution: (i) x = tan u.

dx
(ii) = sec 2 u dx = sec2 u du.
du
1 1
(iii) 1+ x2
dx = 1 + tan u
2
sec 2 u du

sec 2 u
(iv) = sec 2 u
du since 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u

= du = u + c

(v) = tan 1 x + c.

3x
Example: Find x 42
dx using the substitution u2 = x2 4.

Solution: (i) u2 = x2 4.
(ii) Do not re-arrange as = 2 4
We know that
d 2
dx
u = 2u( )
du
dx
so differentiating gives

du u
2u = 2x dx = du .
dx x
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18
 (iii) We can see that an x will cancel and x 2 4 = u so

3x 3x u
x2 4
dx = u

x
du

(iv) = 3 du = 3u + c

(v) = 3 x2 4 + c

A justification of this technique is given in the appendix.

Integration by substitution, definite

If the integral has limits then proceed as before but remember to change the limits from
values of x to the corresponding values of u.
Add (ii) (a) Change limits from x to u, and
new (v) Put in limits for u.

6
Example: Find 2
x 3 x 2 dx using the substitution u = 3x 2.

Solution: (i) u = 3x 2.
du du
(ii) = 3 dx =
dx 3
(ii) (a) Change limits from x to u
x = 2 u = 3 2 2 = 4, and x = 6 u = 3 6 2 = 16
u+2 2
1
16 du
u
6
(iii) 2
x 3 x 2 dx = 4 3 3
3 1
16
(iv) = 1
9 4
u 2
+ 2u 2
du
16
52 3

1
2
u u
= 9 5
+ 2 3
2 2
4

(v) = 1
9
[ 2
5
1024 + 4
3
64] 1
9
[ 2
5
32 + 43 8] = 524 to 3 S.F.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 19

Choosing the substitution

In general put u equal to the awkward bit but there are some special cases where this will
not help.
3 ( 2 + 1)5 put u = x2 + 1
3
(2)2 put u = x 2

2 + 5 put u = 2x + 5 or u2 = 2x + 5

4 2 or 4 2 dx
put u or u2 = 4 x2 only if n is ODD
put x = 2 sin u only if n is EVEN (or zero)
this makes 4 2 = 4 cos2 = 2 cos u

There are many more possibilities use your imagination!!

Example: Find I = 16 2 , and express your answer in as simple a form as

possible.

Solution: This is of the form 16 2 where n = 0, an even number

use the substitution x = 4 sin u,
dx = 4 cos u du
I = 16 16 sin2 4 cos
= 16 cos2 = 8 1 + cos 2
1
= 8 + 2 sin 2 +

x = 4 sin u u = arcsin 4,

but sin 2 = sin 2 arcsin 4 is not in the simplest form.
1
Instead write I = 8 + 2 2sin cos + ,

2
use cos = 1 sin2 = 1 4

2
I = 8 arcsin 4 + 8 4 1 4 + c

= 8 arcsin 4 + 2
16 2 + c

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20
Integration by parts

The product rule for differentiation is

() ()
= + =


=

To integrate by parts
dv
(i) choose u and
dx
du
(ii) find v and
dx
(iii) substitute in formula and integrate.

Example: Find x sin x dx

Solution: (i) Choose u = x, because it disappears when differentiated

dv
and choose = sin x
dx
du
(ii) u=x = 1 and
dx

= sin = cos

dv du
(iii) u dx dx = uv v dx dx

x sin x dx = x cos x 1 ( cos x) dx

= x cos x + sin x + c.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 21

 Example: Find ln x dx

dv
Solution: (i) It does not look like a product, u , but if we take u = ln x and
dx
dv dv
= 1 then u = ln x 1 = ln x
dx dx
du 1 dv
(ii) u = ln x = and = 1 v =x
dx x dx
1
(iii) ln x 1 dx = x ln x x
x
dx

= x ln x x + c.

Area under curve

We found in Core 2 that the area under the curve is written

as the integral .
We can consider the area as approximately the sum of the
rectangles shown.
If each rectangle has width x and if the heights of the
rectangles are y1, y2, ..., yn a b
then the area of the rectangles is approximately the area
under the curve
b

y x
b

a
a
y dx

y x
b
and as x 0 we have
a
a
y dx

This last result is true for any integrable function y.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

22
Volume of revolution y = f (x)

x
a b

x+ x

If the curve of y = f (x) is rotated about the xaxis then the volume of the shape formed can
be found by considering many slices each of width x: one slice is shown.
The volume of this slice (a disc) is approximately y2x
b
Sum of volumes of all slices from a to b y
a
2
x

y x
b
and as x 0 we have (using the result above
a

a
y dx )

y
b
Volume x y 2 dx .
2
a
a

Volume of revolution about the xaxis

Volume when y = f (x), between x = a and x = b, is rotated about the xaxis
b
is V = a
y 2 dx .

Volume of revolution about the yaxis

Volume when y = f (x) , between y = c and y = d, is rotated about the yaxis
d
is V = c
x 2 dy .
Volume of rotation about the y-axis is not in the syllabus but is included for completeness.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 23

Parametric integration
When x and y are given in parametric form we can find integrals using the techniques in
integration by substitution.

= think of cancelling the dts

See the appendix for a justification of this result.

Example: If x = tan t and y = sin t, find the area under the curve from x = 0 to x = 1.
dx
Solution: The area = y dx for some limits on x = y
dt
dt for limits on t.

We know that y = sin t, and also that

dx
x = tan t = sec 2 t
dt

Finding limits for t: x = 0 t = 0, and x = 1 t = 4

1
4
area = =
0 0

4 4
= sin sec 2 = tan sec
0 0

4
= sec = 2 1
0

y
2
To find a volume of revolution we need dx and we proceed as above writing

2 = 2

y
30 x=t1, y=t
Example: The curve shown has parametric equations
x = t2 1, y = t3. 20
The region, R, between x = 0 and x = 8 above the x-axis
is rotated about the x-axis through 2 radians. Find the
10
volume generated. R

x
4 8

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

24
 8
Solution: V = 0
y 2 dx .

Change limits to t:
x = 0 t = 1 and x = 8 t = 3,
but the curve is above the x-axis y = t3 > 0 t > 0, t = +1, or 3
dx
also y = t3, x = t2 1 = 2t
dt
8 3

= = 2 2

0 1
3 3
= ( 3 )2 2 = 2 7
1 1

(3 )
3
t8
= 2 =
8
1
8 1 4

Differential equations
Separating the variables
dy
Example: Solve the differential equation = 3 y + xy .
dx
dy
Solution: = 3 y + xy = y(3 + x)
dx
We first cheat by separating the x s and y s onto different sides of the equation.
1
dy = (3 + x) dx and then put in the integral signs
y
1
= 3 +

1
ln y = 3x + 2 x2 + c.
See the appendix for a justification of this technique.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 25

Exponential growth and decay
Example: A radio-active substance decays at a rate which is proportional to the mass of the
substance present. Initially 25 grams are present and after 8 hours the mass has
decreased to 20 grams. Find the mass after 1 day.

Solution: Let m grams be the mass of the substance at time t.

dm
is the rate of increase of m so, since the mass is decreasing,
dt
dm 1 dm
= km = k
dt m dt
1
m
dm = k dt

ln||= kt + ln|| see ** below

ln = kt

m = Ae kt .

When t = 0, m = 25 A = 25
m = 25ekt.
When t = 8, m = 20
20 = 25e8k e8k = 08
8k = ln 08 k = 0027892943
24 0027892943
So when t = 24, m = 25e = 128.
Answer 128 grams after 1 day.

** Writing the arbitrary constant as ln|| is a nice trick. If you dont like this you can write
ln||= kt + c
|| = + =
m = A , writing = .

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

26
6 Vectors
Notation
The book and exam papers like writing vectors in the form
a = 3i 4j + 7k.
It is allowed, and sensible, to re-write vectors in column form
3
i.e. a = 3i 4j + 7k = 4 .

7

Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera

A vector has both magnitude (length) and direction. If you always think of a vector as a
translation you will not go far wrong.
Directed line segments
is the vector from A to B,
The vector
B
(or the translation which takes A to B).
This is sometimes called the
displacement vector from A to B. A

Vectors in co-ordinate form

Vectors can also be thought of as column vectors, B
7
thus in the diagram AB = . 3
3
A 7
Negative vectors

7
is the 'opposite' of
and so = .
=
3
Adding and subtracting vectors
(i) Using a diagram
Geometrically this can be done using a triangle (or a parallelogram):
Adding:
a
a b
a+b

a +b b

The sum of two vectors is called the resultant of those vectors.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 27

 Subtracting:
b

ab

(ii) Using coordinates

a c a + c a c a c
b + d = b + d and b d = b d .

Parallel and non - parallel vectors

Parallel vectors
Two vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
one is a multiple of the other.
Example: Which two of the following vectors are parallel?
6 4 2
3, 2 , 1 .

6 3 4 6 4
Solution: Notice that = and so is parallel to
3 2 2 3 2
2 4
but is not a multiple of and so cannot be parallel to the other two
1 2
vectors.

4
Example: Find a vector of length 15 in the direction of .
3
4
Solution: a = has length a = = 4 2 + 32 = 5
3
4 12
and so the required vector of length 15 = 3 5 is 3a = 3 = .
3 9

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

28
Non-parallel vectors
If a and b are not parallel and if a + b = a + b, then
a a = b b ( ) a = ( ) b
but a and b are not parallel and one cannot be a multiple of the other
( ) = 0 = ( )
= and = .

Example: If a and b are not parallel and if

b + 2a + b = a + 3b 5a, find the values of and .

Solution: Since a and b are not parallel, the coefficients of a and b must balance out
2= 5 = 7 and 1 + = 3 = 2.

Modulus of a vector and unit vectors

Modulus
The modulus of a vector is its magnitude or length.
= 7 then the modulus of
If = 72 + 32 = 58
is =
3
3
Or, if c = then the modulus of c is c = = (3)2 + 52 = 34
5

Unit vectors
A unit vector is one with length 1.
12
Example: Find a unit vector in the direction of .
5

12
has length = a = 12 + 5 = 13 ,
2 2
Solution: a =
5
12 1312
and so the required unit vector is 131 a = 131 = 5 .
5 13

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 29

Position vectors

If A is the point (1, 4) then the position vector of A is the vector from the origin to A,
1
usually written as
= a = .
4
y
For two points A and B the position vectors are A
ba
= b
= a and a
B
go from A O B
To find the vector
b
giving
= a + b = b a O x

Ratios
Example: A, B are the points (2, 1) and (4, 7). M lies on AB in the ratio 1 : 3. Find the
coordinates of M.
2
Solution : = B
6
1 2 05
= 1
= 4 =
4 6 15 3
2 05
= +
= +
1 15
M
= 2 5
1
25
A
M is (25, 25)
O

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

30
Proving geometrical theorems

Example: In a triangle OBC let M and N be the midpoints of OB and OC.

Prove that BC = 2 MN and that BC is parallel to MN.

Solution: as b, and
Write the vectors as c.
O
=
Then = b
and
= = c.
, go from M to O using b and
To find M
then from O to N using c
b N

= b + c
c

= c b B

, go from B to O using b and

Also, to find C
then from O to C using c
= b + c = c b .

But
= b + c = (c b) = BC
BC is parallel to MN
and BC is twice as long as MN.

Example: P lies on OA in the ratio 2 : 1, and Q lies on OB in the ratio 2 : 1. Prove that PQ
is parallel to AB and that PQ = 2/3 AB.
A
1
Solution: Let a =
, and b = P

+
= = b a
2
=
2 =
2 =
a, 2 =
2
b
3 3 3 3
O
2
and +
= = 2/3 b 2/3 a Q 1
B
= 2/3 (b a)

= 2/3
PQ is parallel to AB and
PQ = 2/3 AB.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 31

Three dimensional vectors
Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector
a1
= a2 is
The length, modulus or magnitude of the vector

a3

= =a = a12 + a2 2 + a32` ,

a sort of three dimensional Pythagoras.

Distance between two points

To find the distance between A, (a1, a2, a3) and B, (b1, b2, b3) we need to find the length of
.
the vector
b1 a1 b1 a1

= b a =b2 a2 =b2 a2
b3 a3 b3 a3

= AB =
(b a1 ) ( b2 a2 ) ( b3 a3 )
2
+ +
2 2
1

Scalar product
a . b = ab cos
where a and b are the lengths of a and b b
and is the angle measured from a to b.
a

Note that (i) a . a = aa cos 0o = a2

(ii) .
a (b + c) = a b + a c . . .
(iii) a.b = b.a since cos = cos ()

In co-ordinate form
a b
a . b = 1 . 1 = a1b1 + a 2 b2 = ab cos
a 2 b2
a1 b1
or a . b = a 2 . b2 = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 = ab cos .

a 3 b3

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

32
Perpendicular vectors
If a and b are perpendicular then = 90o and cos = 0
thus a perpendicular to b a . b = 0
and a . b = 0 either a is perpendicular to b or a or b = 0.

Example: Find the values of so that a = 3i 2j + 2k and

b = 2i + j + 6k are perpendicular.

Solution: Since a and b are perpendicular a . b = 0

3 2
2 . = 0 6 2 2 + 12= 0

2 6

2 = 9 = 3.

1 3
Example:
Find a vector which is perpendicular to a, 1 , and b, 1 .

2 1

p
Solution: Let the vector c, q , be perpendicular to both a and b.

r

p 1 p 3
q . 1 = 0 and q . 1 = 0

r 2 r 1

p q + 2r = 0 and 3p + q + r = 0.
Adding these equations gives 4p + 3r = 0.
Notice that there will never be a unique solution to these problems, so having
eliminated one variable, q, we find p in terms of r, and then find q in terms of r.
3r 5r
p= q=
4 4
43r

c is any vector of the form 54r ,
r

3
and we choose a sensible value of r = 4 to give .
5
4

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 33

Angle between vectors

Example: Find the angle between the vectors

= 4i 5j + 2k
= i + 2j 3k,
and to the nearest degree.

Solution: First re-write as column vectors (if you want)

4 1
a = 5 and b = 2

2 3

a = = 4 2 + 5 2 + 2 2 = 45 = 3 5 , b = = 12 + 2 2 + 3 2 = 14
4 1
and a . b = 5 . 2 = 4 10 6 = 20

2 3

a.b = ab cos 20 = 3 5 14 cos

20
cos = = 0.796819
3 70
= 143o to the nearest degree.

Angle in a triangle
You must take care to find the angle requested, not 180 minus the angle requested.

Example: A, (1, 2, 4), B, (2, 3, 0), and C, (0, 2, -3) form a triangle. Find the angle BAC.

Solution:
BAC = , which is the angle between the vectors
A

and
.
Note that the angle between is the angle ,
and
which is not the angle requested.

Then proceed as in the example above.

B
C

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

34
Vector equation of a straight line

x
r = y is usually used as the position vector of a

z
R

general point, R.
A
In the diagram the line passes through the point
A and is parallel to the vector b.
r
To go from O to R first go to A, using a, and then
a
from A to R using some multiple of b.

The equation of a straight line through the point b

A and parallel to the vector b is O

r = a + b.

Example: Find the vector equation of the line through the points M, (2, 1, 4),
and N, (5, 3, 7).

Solution: .
We are looking for the line through M (or N) which is parallel to the vector
5 2 7
= n m = 3 1 = 4


7 4 3

2 7
equation is r = 1 + 4 .


4 3

Example: Show that the point P, (1, 7, 10), lies on the line
1 1
r = 3 + 2 .


4 3

Solution: The x co-ord of P is 1 and of the line is 1

1 = 1 = 2.
In the equation of the line this gives y = 1 + 2 4 = 7 and z = 4 + 2 3 = 10
P, (1, 7, 10) does lie on the line.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 35

Geometrical problems

First DRAW a large diagram to see what is happening; this should then tell you how to use your
vectors to solve the problem.
1 1
Example: Find A the reflection of the point A (2, 4, 0) in the line l, r = 4 + 2 .
1 1

Solution: From the diagram we can see that A (2, 4, 0) l

AA is perpendicular to l.
So, if we can find the point B, where AB is B
perpendicular to l, we will be able to find A ,
since .
= (1, 4, 1)
A

B is a point on l
1
= = 4 + 2 for some value of .

1 +
1
b is perpendicular to l, and l is parallel to 2
1
1 1 1
b . 2 = 0 4 + 2 . 2 = 0
1 1 + 1
1 + + 8 + 4 1 + = 0 = 1
1 1 2
b= 42 = 2
1 1 2
2 2 0
= = 2 4 = 2

2 0 2
2 0 2

= + 2
= 4 + 2 2 = 0
0 2 4
the reflection of A (2, 4, 0) in l is A (2, 0, 4).

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

36
Intersection of two lines
2 Dimensions

Example: Find the intersection of the lines

2 1 1 1
1 , r = + , and 2, r =
3 + 1 .
3 2
Solution: We are looking for values of and which give the same x and y
co-ordinates on each line.
Equating x co-ords 2 =1+
equating y co-ords 3 + 2 = 3
Adding 5+=4 = 1 = 2
lines intersect at (3, 1).

3 Dimensions
This is similar to the method for 2 dimensions with one important difference you can not be
certain whether the lines intersect without checking.
You will always (or nearly always) be able to find values of and by equating
x coordinates and y coordinates but the z coordinates might or might not be equal and
must be checked.
Example: Investigate whether the lines
2 1 3 1
1, r = 1 + 2
and 2, r = 1 + 3 intersect

3 1 5 1

and if they do find their point of intersection.

Solution: If the lines intersect we can find values of and to give the same x, y and z
coordinates in each equation.
Equating x coords 2 = 3 + , I
equating y coords 1 + 2 = 1 + 3, II
equating z coords 3+ = 5 + . III
2 I + II 5 = 5 + 5 = 2, in I = 3.
We must now check to see if we get the same point for the values of and
In 1, = 3 gives the point (1, 7, 6);

in 2, = 2 gives the point (1, 7, 7).

The x and y co-ords are equal (as expected!), but the z co-ordinates are different and so
the lines do not intersect.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 37

7 Appendix

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof

Suppose that
f (x) = (1 + x)n = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 +
put x = 0, 1 = a
f (x) = n(1 + x)n 1 = b + 2cx + 3dx2 + 4ex3 +
put x = 0, n = b
f (x) = n(n 1)(1 + x)n 2 = 2c + 3 2dx + 4 3ex2 +
(1)
put x = 0, n(n 1) = 2c 2!
=

f (x) = n(n 1)(n 2)(1 + x)n 3 = 3 2d + 4 3 2ex +

(1)(2)
put x = 0, n(n 1)(n 2) = 3 2d 3!
=
Continuing this process, we have
(1)(2)(3) (1)(2)(3)(4)
4!
= and 5!
= , etc.
giving f (x) = (1 + x)n
(1) (1)(2) (1)(2)(3) (1)(2)(3)(4)
= 1 + nx + 2!
2 + 3!
3 + 4!
4 + 5!
5 +
(1)(2) (+1)
+ !
+

Showing that this is convergent for x < 1, is more difficult!

Derivative of xq for q rational

Suppose that q is any rational number, = , where r and s are integers, s 0.

Then y = xq = ys = xr

Differentiating with respect to x s 1 = r xr 1
1 1 1
= 1 = = since q =

1
= = qx q 1 since ys = xr and y = xq

which follows the rule found for xn, where n is an integer.

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

38

for negative limits
We know that the area under any curve, from
x = a to x = b is approximately
y

, 0
a x b

If the curve is above the x-axis, all the y values are positive, and if a < b then all values of x
are positive, and so the integral is positive.


1
= ln|x| = ln ln


3 1
Example: Find 1 x
dx .

Solution: The integral wanted is shown as A in y

the diagram. 1

By symmetry || = A (A positive) A x
3 2 A' 1 1 2 3
and we need to decide whether the integral is
+A or A. 1

From x = 1 to x = 3, we are going in the

direction of x decreasing
all x are negative.
And the graph is below the x-axis,

the y values are negative, y x is positive

3
3
1 > 0 = 1 > 0

the integral is positive and equal to A.

1
dx = [ ln x ] 13 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
3
The integral, A = A = 1 x
3 1
A = 1 x
dx = ln 3

Notice that this is what we get if we write ln x in place of ln x

3 1
dx = [ ln | x |] 31 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
1 x
As it will always be possible to use symmetry in this way, since we can never have one
positive and one negative limit (because there is a discontinuity at x = 0), it is correct to write
ln || for the integral of 1/x .

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 39

Integration by substitution why it works
We show the general method with an example.

= 2 1 + 3

= 2 1 + 3 integrand = 2 1 + 3

Choose u = 1 + x3
1
= 3 2 = rearrange to give =
3 2 3 2

But =


=


= 2 leave the x2 because it appears in dx

1 this is the same as writing the integrand in
= 2 2
3 terms of u, and then replacing dx by

=
3 2

The essential part of this method, writing the integrand in terms of u, and then replacing dx

by , will be the same for all integrations by substitution.

Parametric integration
This is similar to integration by substitution.

= =


=


=


=

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB

40
Separating the variables why it works
We show this with an example.

If y = 6y3 then
= 18y2

and so 18 2
= 18 2 = 6 3 +
Notice that we cancel the dx.

Example: Solve
= x2 sec y

Solution:
= x2 sec y

cos y = x2

cos
= 2

cos = 2 cancelling the dx

sin y = 1
3
3 + c

C4 JUNE 2016 SDB 41

Index
Binomial expansion
convergence, 8
for any n, 8
proof - for any n, 38
Differential equations
exponential growth and decay, 26
forming, 13
separating the variables, 25
Differentiation
derivative of xq for q rational, 38
exponential functions, ax, 11
related rates of change, 12
Implicit differentiation, 10
Integration
1
/x for negative limits, 39
by parts, 21
by substitution why it works, 40
choosing the substitution, 20
ex, 14
ln x, 14
parametric, 24
parametric why it works, 40
reverse chain rule, 15
sec x and cosec x, 17
separating variables why it works, 41
standard integrals, 14
substitution, definite, 19
substitution, indefinite, 17
tan x and cot x, 16
using partial fractions, 17
using trigonometric identities, 14
volume of revolution, 23
Parameters
area under curve, 7
equation of circle, 6
equation of hyperbola, 6
intersection of two curves, 5
parametric equations of curves, 5
parametric to Cartesian form, 6
trig functions, 6
42
Parametric differentiation, 11
Parametric integration, 40
areas, 24
volumes, 24
Partial fractions, 3
integration, 17
linear repeated factors, 4
linear unrepeated factors, 3
quadratic factors, 3
top heavy fractions, 4
Scalar product, 32
perpendicular vectors, 33
properties, 32
Vectors, 27
adding and subtracting, 27
angle between vectors, 34
angle in a triangle, 34
displacement vector, 27
distance between 2 points, 32
equation of a line, 35
geometrical problems, 36
intersection of two lines, 37
length of 3-D vector, 32
modulus, 29
non-parallel vectors, 29
parallel vectors, 28
position vector, 30
proving geometrical theorems, 31
ratios, 30
unit vector, 29
C4 JUNE 2016 SDB