The Runes: a Basic Guide

Contents

1 Runes 1
1.1 History and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Early inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Magical or divinatory use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Medieval use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5 Runes in Eddic lore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Runic alphabets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Marcomannic runes (8th to 9th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Younger Futhark (9th to 11th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Medieval runes (12th to 15th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Academic study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Body of inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Modern use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.1 Esotericism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2 J. R. R. Tolkien and contemporary ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Elder Futhark 13
2.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Derivation from Italic alphabets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Date and purpose of invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Rune names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Inscription corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

i
ii CONTENTS

2.4.1 Scandinavian inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.4.2 Continental inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.3 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.4 List of inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3 Younger Futhark 19
3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Rune names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.1 Long-branch runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Short-twig runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.3 Hlsinge runes (staveless runes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Descendant scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4.1 Medieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4.2 Early modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Other sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Anglo-Saxon runes 22
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Inscription corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4.1 Frisian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4.2 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4.3 Related manuscript texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5 Runic magic 27
5.1 Historical evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.1.1 Tacitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
CONTENTS iii

5.1.2 Epigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.1.3 Medieval sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 Modern systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 Ralph Blum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.2 Stephen Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.3 Stephan Grundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6 Runic inscriptions 32
6.1 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.1.1 Number of known inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.1.2 Estimates of total number of inscriptions produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2 Types of inscribed objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3 Early period (2nd to 4th centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.4 Scandinavian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.5 Anglo-Frisian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6 Continental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6.1 Gothic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.6.2 Alemannic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.6.3 Frankish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 1

Runes

For other uses, see Runes (disambiguation). The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The
oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern
Germany, not near Italy. A West Germanic hypothesis
Runes (Proto-Norse: (runo), Old Norse: rn) are
the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic al- suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a
phabets, which were used to write various Germanic lan- "Gothic hypothesis presumes transmission via East Ger-
guages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for manic expansion.
specialised purposes thereafter. The Scandinavian vari-
ants are also known as futhark or fuark (derived from
their rst six letters of the alphabet: F, U, , A, R, and 1.1 History and use
K); the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuorc (due to
sound changes undergone in Old English by the names of
those six letters).
Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic in-
scriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms
a specialised branch of Germanic linguistics.
The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD.
The characters were generally replaced by the Latin al-
phabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent
Christianisation, by approximately 700 AD in central Eu-
rope and 1100 AD in northern Europe. However, the use
of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern
Europe. Until the early 20th century, runes were used
in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and
on Runic calendars.
The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder
Futhark (around 150800 AD), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc
(4001100 AD), and the Younger Futhark (8001100
AD). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the
long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were
also used in Norway, Sweden and Frisia); short-branch or
Rk runes (also called Swedish-Norwegian, although they
were also used in Denmark); and the stavlsa or Hlsinge
runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed
further into the Medieval runes (11001500 AD), and the
Dalecarlian runes (around 15001800 AD). An inscription using cipher runes, the Elder Futhark, and the
Younger Futhark, on the 9th-century Rk Runestone in Sweden
Historically, the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old
Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some inno- The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from
vations. Which variant of the Old Italic family in particu- the 1st or 2nd century AD.[lower-alpha 1] This period corre-
lar gave rise to the runes is uncertain. Suggestions include sponds to the late Common Germanic stage linguistically,
Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into
the time, all of these scripts had the same angular letter the three branches of later centuries: North Germanic,
shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become char- West Germanic, and East Germanic.
acteristic of the runes.
No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions be-

1
2 CHAPTER 1. RUNES

text of the scripts origin is the cultural contact between

Germanic people, who often served as mercenaries in the
Roman army, and the Italian peninsula during the Roman
imperial period (1st century BC to 5th century AD). The
formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early
5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the rst evidence
of the futhark ordering as well as of the p rune.

A Younger Futhark inscription on the 12th-century Vaksala

Runestone in Sweden

tween long and short vowels, although such a distinc-

tion was certainly present phonologically in the spoken
languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for
labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were intro-
duced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic
alphabet as variants of p; see peor.)
The term runes is used to distinguish these symbols from
Latin and Greek letters. It is attested on a 6th-century
Alamannic runesta as runa and possibly as runo on the
4th-century Einang stone. The name comes from the
Germanic root run- (Gothic runa), meaning secret or
whisper. In Old Irish Gaelic, the word rn means
mystery, secret, intention or aectionate love.
Similarly in Welsh and Old English, the word rhin and
rn respectively means mystery, secret, secret writ-
ing, or sometimes in the extreme sense of the word,
miracle (gwyrth). Ogham is a Celtic script, similarly
carved in the Norse manner. The root run- can also
be found in the Baltic languages, meaning speech. In
Lithuanian, runoti means both to cut (with a knife)" and
to speak.[3] According to another theory, the Germanic
root comes from the Indoeuropean root *reu- dig.[4]
The Finnish term for rune, riimukirjain, means scratched The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magr and Bolzano/Bozen-
letter.[5] The Finnish word runo means poem and Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic)
comes from the same source as the English word rune";
it is a very old loan of the Proto-Germanic *rn (letter, Specically, the Raetic alphabet of Bolzano is often ad-
literature, secret).[6] vanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only
ve Elder Futhark runes ( e, , j, , p) having
no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet.[7] Scandinavian
scholars tend to favor derivation from the Latin alphabet
1.1.1 Origins
itself over Raetic candidates.[8][9][10] A North Etruscan
thesis is supported by the inscription on the Negau helmet
Main article: Elder Futhark dating to the 2nd century BC.[11] This is in a northern Etr-
uscan alphabet but features a Germanic name, Harigast.
The runes developed centuries after the Old Italic alpha- Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived
bets from which they are probably historically derived. from some North Italic alphabet, specically Venetic: but
The debate on the development of the runic script con- since Romans conquered Venetia after 200BC, and then
cerns the question regarding which of the Italic alphabets the Latin alphabet became prominent and Venetic culture
should be taken as their point of origin and which, if any, diminished in importance, Germanic people could have
signs should be considered original innovations added to adopted Venetic alphabet within 3rd century BC or even
the letters found in the Italic scripts. The historical con- earlier.[12]
1.1. HISTORY AND USE 3

The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most

contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for
carving in wood or stone. There are no horizontal strokes:
when carving a message on a at sta or stick, it would
be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely
to split the wood. This characteristic is also shared by
other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin al-
phabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not uni-
versal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which
frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizon-
tal strokes. Runic manuscripts (i. e., written rather than
carved runes, such as Codex Runicus) also show horizon-
tal strokes.
The "West Germanic hypothesis speculates on an in-
troduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis
is based on claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the
2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves around
Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings
that, being interpreted by Scandinavian scholars to be Ring of Pietroassa (from between 250 and 400 AD) by Henri
Proto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long hav- Trenk, 1875
ing been the subject of discussion. Inscriptions such
as wagnija, niijo, and harija are supposed to represent
tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Eu-
Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland.[13] rope in Schleswig (North Germany), Fyn, Sjlland, Jyl-
Since names ending in -io reect Germanic morphol- land (Denmark), and Skne (Sweden). Earlier - but less
ogy representing the Latin ending -ius, and the sux - reliable - artifacts have been found in Meldorf, Sderdith-
inius was reected by Germanic -inio-,[14][15] the question marschen, northern Germany; these include brooches and
of the problematic ending -ijo in masculine Proto-Norse combs found in graves, most notably the Meldorf bula,
would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) inu- and are supposed to have the earliest markings resem-
ences, while the awkward ending -a of laguewa[16] may bling runic inscriptions.
be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed Theories of the existence of separate Gothic runes have
be West Germanic.[13] However, it should be noted that been advanced, even identifying them as the original al-
in the early Runic period dierences between Germanic phabet from which the Futhark were derived, but these
languages are generally presumed to be small. Another have little support in archaeological ndings (mainly the
theory presumes a Northwest Germanic unity preceding spearhead of Kovel, with its right-to-left inscription, its
the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the T-shaped tiwaz, and its rectangular dagaz). If there ever
5th century.[lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] An alternative sugges- were genuinely Gothic runes, they were soon replaced
tion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earli- by the Gothic alphabet. The letters of the Gothic alpha-
est inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is for- bet, however, as given by the Alcuin manuscript (9th cen-
warded by . A. Makaev, who presumes a special runic tury), are obviously related to the names of the Futhark.
koine", an early literary Germanic employed by the en- The names are clearly Gothic, but it is impossible to
tire Late Common Germanic linguistic community after say whether they are as old as the letters themselves.
the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the A handful of Elder Futhark inscriptions were found in
spoken dialects may already have been more diverse.[18] Gothic territory, such as the 3rd- to 5th-century Ring of
Pietroassa.
1.1.2 Early inscriptions The Encyclopdia Britannica even suggests the origi-
nal development of the runes may have been due to the
Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150 to 550 Goths.[19]
AD are described as Period I. These inscriptions are
generally in Elder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes and
bindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably 1.1.3 Magical or divinatory use
the j, s, and runes undergo considerable modications,
while others, such as p and , remain unattested altogether Main article: Runic magic
prior to the rst full futhark row on the Kylver Stone (c.
400 AD). The stanza 157 of Hvaml attribute to runes the power
Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza,
found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 Odin recounts a spell:
4 CHAPTER 1. RUNES

Closeup of the runic inscription found on the 6th- or 7th-century

Bjrketorp Runestone located in Blekinge, Sweden

sible that the early runes were not used so much as a sim-
ple writing system, but rather as magical signs to be used
for charms. Although some say the runes were used for
A bracteate (G 205) from approximately AD 400 that features divination, there is no direct evidence to suggest they were
the charm word alu with a depiction of a stylized male head, a ever used in this way. The name rune itself, taken to mean
horse, and a swastika, a common motif on bracteates secret, something hidden, seems to indicate that knowl-
edge of the runes was originally considered esoteric, or
restricted to an elite. The 6th-century Bjrketorp Rune-
stone warns in Proto-Norse using the word rune in both
senses:

Haidzruno runu, falahak haidera, gin-

narunaz. Arageu haeramalausz uti az. We-
ladaude, sa'z at barutz. Uarba spa.
I, master of the runes(?) conceal here runes
of power. Incessantly (plagued by) male-
cence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who
breaks this (monument). I prophesy destruc-
tion / prophecy of destruction.[20]

The same curse and use of the word, rune, also is found
on the Stentoften Runestone. There also are some in-
scriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical sig-
nicance of runes, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700)
panel.
Charm words, such as auja, lau, lauka, and most com-
monly, alu,[21] appear on a number of Migration period
Elder Futhark inscriptions as well as variants and ab-
breviations of them. Much speculation and study has
been produced on the potential meaning of these inscrip-
tions. Rhyming groups appear on some early bracteates
that also may be magical in purpose, such as salusalu
and luwatuwa. Further, an inscription on the Gummarp
Runestone (500-700 AD) gives a cryptic inscription de-
An illustration of the Gummarp Runestone (500-700 AD) from scribing the use of three runic letters followed by the El-
Blekinge, Sweden der Futhark f-rune written three times in succession.[22]
Nevertheless, it has proven dicult to nd unambigu-
The earliest runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the ous traces of runic oracles": although Norse litera-
name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or some- ture is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains
times, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is pos- specic instructions on divination. There are at least
1.1. HISTORY AND USE 5

three sources on divination with rather vague descrip-

tions that may, or may not, refer to runes: Tacitus's
1st-century Germania, Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century
Ynglinga saga, and Rimbert's 9th-century Vita Ansgari.
The rst source, Tacituss Germania, describes signs
chosen in groups of three and cut from a nut-bearing
tree, although the runes do not seem to have been
in use at the time of Tacitus writings. A second
source is the Ynglinga saga, where Granmar, the king
of Sdermanland, goes to Uppsala for the blt. There,
the chips fell in a way that said that he would not live
long (Fll honum svo spnn sem hann mundi eigi lengi
lifa). These chips, however, are easily explainable as
a bltspnn (sacricial chip), which was marked, pos-
sibly with sacricial blood, shaken, and thrown down
like dice, and their positive or negative signicance then
decided.[23]
The third source is Rimberts Vita Ansgari, where there
are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of
runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it drawing lots.
One of these accounts is the description of how a rene-
gade Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, rst brings a Dan-
ish eet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the
Danes to draw lots. According to the story, this draw-
ing of lots was quite informative, telling them that at-
tacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should
attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the drawing Codex Runicus, a vellum manuscript from approximately AD
of lots, however, is easily explainable as a hlautlein (lot- 1300 containing one of the oldest and best preserved texts of the
twig), which according to Foote and Wilson[24] would be Scanian Law, is written entirely in runes.
used in the same manner as a bltspnn.
The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the
curred in the North Germanic language group. The de-
runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating
velopment here might seem rather astonishing, since the
entire systems of divination from what few specics exist,
younger form of the alphabet came to use fewer dier-
usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the
ent rune signs at the same time as the development of the
runes and additional outside inuence.
language led to a greater number of dierent phonemes
A recent study of runic magic suggests that runes were than had been present at the time of the older futhark.
used to create magical objects such as amulets,[25] but not For example, voiced and unvoiced consonants merged
in a way that would indicate that runic writing was any in script, and so did many vowels, while the number of
more inherently magical, than were other writing systems vowels in the spoken language increased. From approxi-
such as Latin or Greek. mately AD 1100, this disadvantage was eliminated in the
medieval runes, which again increased the number of dif-
ferent signs to correspond with the number of phonemes
1.1.4 Medieval use in the language.
Some later runic nds are on monuments (runestones),
As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, which often contain solemn inscriptions about people
the words assigned to the runes and the sounds repre- who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it
sented by the runes themselves began to diverge some- was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the
what and each culture would create new runes, rename or primary use of runes, and that their use was associated
rearrange its rune names slightly, or stop using obsolete with a certain societal class of rune carvers.
runes completely, to accommodate these changes. Thus, In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 600 inscrip-
the Anglo-Saxon futhorc has several runes peculiar to it-
tions, known as the Bryggen inscriptions, were found in
self to represent diphthongs unique to (or at least preva-
Bergen. These inscriptions were made on wood and bone,
lent in) the Anglo-Saxon dialect. often in the shape of sticks of various sizes, and contained
Nevertheless, that the Younger Futhark has 16 runes, inscriptions of an everyday natureranging from name
while the Elder Futhark has 24, is not fully explained tags, prayers (often in Latin), personal messages, business
by the 600-some years of sound changes that had oc- letters, and expressions of aection, to bawdy phrases of
6 CHAPTER 1. RUNES

a profane and sometimes even of a vulgar nature. Fol-
lowing this nd, it is nowadays commonly presumed that,
at least in late use, Runic was a widespread and common
writing system.
when he began to handle weapons and show other signs
of nobility, Rig returned and, having claimed him as a
son, taught him the runes. In 1555, the exiled Swedish
archbishop Olaus Magnus recorded a tradition that a man
named Kettil Runske had stolen three rune stas from
Odin and learned the runes and their magic..

1.2 Runic alphabets

1.2.1 Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries)

17th-century clog almanac collected by Sir Hans Sloane. Now in

the collection of the British Museum

In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in the clog
almanacs (sometimes called Runic sta, Prim, or Scandi-
navian calendar) of Sweden and Estonia. The authentic-
ity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found Detail of the Elder Futhark inscription on a replica of one of the
in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been 5th-century AD Golden Horns of Gallehus found in Denmark
dated to modern times.
Main article: Elder Futhark
1.1.5 Runes in Eddic lore
The Elder Futhark, used for writing Proto-Norse, con-
In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is attested to a sists of 24 runes that often are arranged in three groups
divine origin (Old Norse: reginkunnr). This is attested of eight; each group is referred to as an tt. The earliest
as early as on the Noleby Runestone from approximately known sequential listing of the full set of 24 runes dates to
600 AD that reads Runo fahi raginakundo toj[e'k]a..., approximately CE 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone
meaning I prepare the suitable divine rune...[26] and in Gotland, Sweden.
in an attestation from the 9th century on the Sparlsa Most probably each rune had a name, chosen to represent
Runestone, which reads Ok ra runa a rgi[n]kundu, the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however,
meaning And interpret the runes of divine origin.[27] not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves.
More notably, in the Poetic Edda poem Hvaml, Stanza Reconstructed names in Proto-Germanic have been pro-
80, the runes also are described as reginkunnr: duced, based on the names given for the runes in the later
The poem Hvaml explains that the originator of the alphabets attested in the rune poems and the linked names
runes was the major deity, Odin. Stanza 138 describes of the letters of the Gothic alphabet. The letter /a/ was
how Odin received the runes through self-sacrice: named from the runic letter called Ansuz. An asterisk
In stanza 139, Odin continues: before the rune names means that they are unattested re-
constructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are:[29]
This passage has been interpreted as a mythical repre-
sentation of shamanic initial rituals in which the initiate
must undergo a physical trial in order to receive mystic 1.2.2 Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th cen-
wisdom.[28] turies)
In the Poetic Edda poem Rgsula another origin is re-
lated of how the runic alphabet became known to hu- Main article: Anglo-Saxon runes
mans. The poem relates how Rg, identied as Heimdall The futhorc (sometimes written fuorc) are an ex-
in the introduction, sired three sons (Thrall (slave), Churl tended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later even 33, char-
(freeman), and Jarl (noble)) by human women. These acters. It was probably used from the 5th century on-
sons became the ancestors of the three classes of hu- wards. There are competing theories as to the origins
mans indicated by their names. When Jarl reached an age of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. One theory proposes that
1.2. RUNIC ALPHABETS 7

De Inventione Litterarum, ascribed to Hrabanus Mau-

rus and preserved in 8th- and 9th-century manuscripts
mainly from the southern part of the Carolingian Em-
pire (Alemannia, Bavaria). The manuscript text attributes
the runes to the Marcomanni, quos nos Nordmannos vo-
camus, and hence traditionally, the alphabet is called
Marcomannic runes, but it has no connection with the
Marcomanni, and rather is an attempt of Carolingian
scholars to represent all letters of the Latin alphabets with
runic equivalents.
Wilhelm Grimm discussed these runes in 1821.[30]

1.2.4 Younger Futhark (9th to 11th cen-

turies)
The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc
Main article: Younger Futhark
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark,
it was developed in Frisia and later spread to England,
while another holds that Scandinavians introduced runes
to England, where the futhorc was modied and exported
to Frisia. Some examples of futhorc inscriptions are
found on the Thames scramasax, in the Vienna Codex,
in Cotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon rune poem) and on the
Ruthwell Cross. f u r k h n i a s t b m l
The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following charac-
ters and names: feoh, ur, thorn, os, rad, cen, The Younger Futhark: long-branch runes and short-twig runes
gyfu, wynn, haegl, nyd, is, ger, eoh,
peordh, eolh, sigel, tir, beorc, eh, mann,
lagu, ing, ethel, daeg, ac, aesc, yr, ior,
ear.
The expanded alphabet features the additional letters
cweorth, calc, cealc, and stan. These additional
letters have only been found in manuscripts. Feoh, orn,
and sigel stood for [f], [], and [s] in most environments,
but voiced to [v], [], and [z] between vowels or voiced
consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters yogh and
wynn, which became [g] and [w] in Middle English.

While also featuring a runic inscription detailing the erection of

1.2.3 Marcomannic runes (8th to 9th a bridge for a loved one, the 11th-century Ramsung carving is a
Sigurd stone that depicts the legend of Sigurd.
centuries)
is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of
only 16 characters. The reduction correlates with pho-
netic changes when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse.
They are found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settle-
ments abroad, probably in use from the 9th century on-
ward. They are divided into long-branch (Danish) and
short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The dier-
ence between the two versions is a matter of controversy.
A general opinion is that the dierence between them
Marcomannic runes was functional (i.e., the long-branch runes were used for
documentation on stone, whereas the short-branch runes
A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark were in everyday use for private or ocial messages on
with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called wood).
8 CHAPTER 1. RUNES

1.2.5 Medieval runes (12th to 15th cen- (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that
turies) runes were in common use side by side with the Latin
alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the me-
Main article: Medieval runes dieval runic inscriptions are written in Latin.
In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia

1.2.6 Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th cen-

turies)
abcdefghiklmnopqrstuv yz
Main article: Dalecarlian runes
According to Carl-Gustav Werner, In the isolated
Medieval runes

a bc de f gh i k l m n o p r s t u y

Dalecarlian runes

province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin

letters developed.[33] The Dalecarlian runes came into
use in the early 16th century and remained in some use
up to the 20th century.[34] Some discussion remains on
whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout
this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th cen-
turies learned runes from books written on the subject.
The character inventory was used mainly for transcribing
Elfdalian.

1.3 Academic study

Main article: Runology

The modern study of runes was initiated during the Re-

naissance, by Johannes Bureus (15681652). Bureus
viewed runes as holy or magical in a kabbalistic sense.
The study of runes was continued by Olof Rudbeck Sr
(16301702) and presented in his collection Atlantica.
A church bell from Saleby, Vstergtland, Sweden, containing a
Anders Celsius (170144) further extended the science
runic inscription from 1228 AD
of runes and travelled around the whole of Sweden to ex-
was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign amine the runstenar (runestones). From the golden age
for each phoneme of the Old Norse language. Dotted of philology" in the 19th century, runology formed a spe-
variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the cialized branch of Germanic linguistics.
corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voice-
less variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes
also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval 1.4 Body of inscriptions
Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune
forms, and some letters, such as s, c, and z often were Main article: Runic inscriptions
used interchangeably.[31][32] The largest group of surviving Runic inscription are
Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of Viking Age Younger Futhark runestones, most com-
the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions pre- monly found in Sweden. Another large group are me-
served today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more dieval runes, most commonly found on small objects, of-
than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discov- ten wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic in-
ered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks scriptions are the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen,
1.5. MODERN USE
The Vimose Comb from the island of Funen, Denmark, features
the earliest known runic inscription (AD 150 to 200) and simply
reads, Harja, a male name.[35]
more than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions num-
ber around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandi-
navia, of which about half are on bracteates. Anglo-
Saxon futhorc inscriptions number around 100 items.
1.5 Modern use
Main article: Modern runic writing
Runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th-
century Viking revival, in Scandinavian Romantic nation-
alism (Gothicismus) and Germanic occultism in the 19th
century, and in the context of the Fantasy genre and of
Germanic Neopaganism in the 20th century.
1.5.1 Esotericism
Germanic mysticism and Nazi symbolism
Further information: Runosophy, Armanen runes,
Wiligut runes, and Runengymnastik
The pioneer of the Armanist branch of Ariosophy and
one of the more important gures in esotericism in Ger-
many and Austria in the late 19th and early 20th cen-
tury was the Austrian occultist, mysticist, and vlkisch
author, Guido von List. In 1908, he published in Das
Geheimnis der Runen (The Secret of the Runes) a set
of eighteen so-called, "Armanen runes", based on the
Younger Futhark and runes of Lists own introduction,
which allegedly were revealed to him in a state of tem-
porary blindness after cataract operations on both eyes in
1902. The use of runes in Germanic mysticism, notably
Lists Armanen runes and the derived "Wiligut runes"
by Karl Maria Wiligut, played a certain role in Nazi sym-
bolism. The fascination with runic symbolism was mostly
limited to Heinrich Himmler, and not shared by the other
9
Runic script on an 1886 gravestone in Parkend, England
From 1933, Schutzstael unit insignia displayed two Sig Runes
members of the Nazi top echelon. Consequently, runes
appear mostly in insignia associated with the Schutzstael,
the paramilitary organization led by Himmler. Wiligut is
credited with designing the SS-Ehrenring, which displays
a number of Wiligut runes.
Modern neopaganism and esotericism
Runes are popular in Germanic neopaganism, and to a
lesser extent in other forms of Neopaganism and New
Age esotericism. Various systems of Runic divination
have been published since the 1980s, notably by Ralph
Blum (1982), Stephen Flowers (1984, onward), Stephan
Grundy (1990), and Nigel Pennick (1995).
The Uthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly
hypothesis by Sigurd Agrell in 1932. In 2002, Swedish
esotericist Thomas Karlsson popularized this Uthark
runic row, which he refers to as, the night side of the
runes, in the context of modern occultism.
1.5.2 J. R. R. Tolkien and contemporary
ction
In J. R. R. Tolkien's novel The Hobbit (1937), the Anglo-
Saxon runes are used on a map to emphasize its connec-
10
tion to the Dwarves. They also were used in the initial
drafts of The Lord of the Rings, but later were replaced by
the Cirth rune-like alphabet invented by Tolkien, used to
write the language of the Dwarves, Khuzdul. Following
Tolkien, historical and ctional runes appear commonly
in modern popular culture, particularly in fantasy litera-
ture, but also in other forms of media such as video games
(for example the 1992 video game Heimdall used it as
magical symbols associated with unnatural forces).
1.6 Unicode
Main article: Runic (Unicode block)
Runic alphabets were added to the Unicode Standard in
Runic Steel Stamps, Elder Futhark
September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.
The Unicode block for Runic alphabets is U+16A0
U+16FF. It is intended to encode the letters of the
Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Frisian runes, and the Younger
Futhark long-branch and short-twig (but not the staveless)
variants, in cases where cognate letters have the same
shape resorting to "unication".
The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75
runic letters (U+16A0U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks
(Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB , Runic Multi-
ple Punctuation U+16EC and Runic Cross Punctua-
tion U+16ED ), and three runic symbols that are used
CHAPTER 1. RUNES
in early modern runic calendar staves (Golden num-
ber Runes, Runic Arlaug Symbol U+16EE , Runic
Tvimadur Symbol U+16EF , Runic Belgthor Symbol
U+16F0 ). As of Unicode 7.0 (2014), eight characters
were added, three attributed to J. R. R. Tolkien's mode
of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes, and
ve for the cryptogrammic vowel symbols used in an
inscription on the Franks Casket.
1.7 See also
Rundata
Runic magic
Ogham, the early Irish monumental alphabet
Pentimal system of numerals
Old Italic alphabet
see Runiform (disambiguation) for unrelated scripts
sometimes described as runes or rune-like
1.8 Notes
[1] The oldest known runic inscription dates to around AD
150 and is found on a comb discovered in the bog of
Vimose, Funen, Denmark.[2] The inscription reads harja;
a disputed candidate for a 1st-century inscription is on the
Meldorf bula in southern Jutland.
[2] Penzl & Hall 1994a assume a period of Proto-Nordic-
Westgermanic unity down to the 5th century and the
Gallehus horns inscription.[17]
[3] The division between Northwest Germanic and Proto-
Norse is somewhat arbitrary.[18]
1.9 References
[1] Runic (PDF) (chart), Unicode.
[2] Stoklund 2003, p. 173.
[3] Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. LT: LKZ. Re-
trieved 2010-04-13.
[4] Friedrich Kluge, Etymologisches Wrterbuch der
deutschen Sprache. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York
2001, ISBN 978-3-11-017473-1
[5] Nykysuomen sanakirja: riimu
[6] Hkkinen, Kaisa. Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja
[7] Mees 2000.
[8] Odenstedt 1990.
[9] Williams 1996.
1.9. REFERENCES
[10] Dictionary of the Middle Ages (under preparation), Ox-
ford.
[11] Markey 2001.
[12] G. Bonfante, L. Bonfante, The Etruscan Language - see
page 119
[13] Looijenga 1997.
[14] Weisgerber 1968, pp. 135, 392.
[15] Weisgerber 1966, p. 207.
[16] Syrett 1994, p. 44f.
[17] Penzl & Hall 1994b, p. 186.
[18] Antonsen 1965, p. 36.
[19] runic alphabet, Encyclopdia Britannica, A likely the-
ory is that the runic alphabet was developed by the Goths,
a Germanic people, from the Etruscan alphabet of north-
ern Italy and was perhaps also inuenced by the Latin al-
phabet in the 1st or 2nd century BC.
[20] DR 360, Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
[21] MacLeod & Mees 2006, pp. 1001.
[22] Page 2005, p. 31.
[23] Foote & Wilson 1970.
[24] Foote & Wilson 1970, p. 401.
[25] MacLeod & Mees 2006.
[26] Vg 63, Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
[27] Vg 119, Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
[28] Seigfried, Karl E.H. (Mar 2010), Odin & the Runes, Part
Three, The Norse Mythology (blog).
[29] Page 2005, pp. 8, 1516.
[30] Grimm, William (1821), 18, Ueber deutsche Runen
[Concerning German runes] (in German), pp. 14959.
[31] Jacobsen & Moltke 1942, p. VII.
[32] Werner 2004, p. 20.
[33] Werner 2004, p. 7.
[34] http://sciencenordic.com/
isolated-people-sweden-only-stopped-using-runes-100-years-agoglish Runes, Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, ISBN
[35] Looijenga, Tineke (2003). Texts and Contexts of the Oldest
Runic Inscriptions. Leiden: Brill. p. 160. ISBN 90-04-
12396-2.
11
1.9.1 Bibliography
Antonsen, Elmer H. (1965), On Dening Stages in
Prehistoric Germanic, Language, 41: 19, JSTOR
411849, doi:10.2307/411849.
Bammesberger, A; Waxenberger, G, eds. (2006),
Das fuark und Seine Einzelsprachlichen Weiter-
entwicklungen, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-
019008-7.
Blum, Ralph (1932), The Book of Runes A Hand-
book for the use of Ancient Oracle: The Viking
Runes, Oracle Books, New York: St. Martins Press,
ISBN 0-312-00729-9.
Brate, Erik (1922), Sveriges Runinskrifter (in
Swedish).
Dwel, Klaus (2001), Runenkunde (in German), JB
Metzler.
Foote, P. G.; Wilson, D. M. (1970), The Viking
Achievement, London, UK: Sidgwick & Jackson, p.
401, ISBN 0-283-97926-7.
Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (194142), Danmarks
Runeindskrifter, Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards
Larrington, Carolyne trans (1999), The Poetic Edda,
Oxford Worlds Classics, ISBN 0-19-283946-2.
Looijenga, JH (1997), Runes Around the North Sea
and on the Continent AD 150700 (dissertation),
Groningen University.
MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006), Runic
Amulets and Magic Objects, Woodbridge, UK;
Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-205-
4.
Markey, TL (2001), A Tale of the Two Helmets:
Negau A and B, Journal of Indo-European Studies,
29: 69172
McKinnell, John; Simek, Rudolf; Dwel, Klaus
(2004), Runes, Magic, and Religion: A Sourcebook,
Wien: Fassbaender, ISBN 39-00-53881-6.
Mees, Bernard (2000), The North Etruscan The-
sis of the Origin of the Runes, Arkiv fr nordisk
lologi, 115: 3382.
Odenstedt, Bengt (1990), On the Origin and Early
History of the Runic Script, Uppsala, ISBN 91-
85352-20-9.
Page, Raymond Ian (1999), An Introduction to En-
0-85115-946-X.
Page, Raymond Ian (2005), Runes, The British Mu-
seum Press, p. 31, ISBN 0-7141-8065-3.
12 CHAPTER 1. RUNES

Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (Mar 1.10 External links

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(1): 18589, ISSN 0097-8507, JSTOR 416753, Bibliography of Runic Scholarship, Galinn grund.
doi:10.2307/416753, eISSN 1535-0665.
Gamla Runinskrifter, SE: Christer hamp.
; Hall, Margaret Austin (1994b), Englisch: Gosse, Edmund (1911). "Runes, Runic Language
Eine Sprachgeschichte nach Texten von 350 bis 1992 and Inscriptions". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th
: vom Nordisch-Westgermanischen zum Neuenglis- ed.).
chen, Germanistische Lehrbuchsammlung: Liter-
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Dell'alfabeto Runico. Promessa di Novit Docu-
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7838-049-4.

Thorsson, Edred; Flowers, Stephen (1987),

Runelore: a Handbook of Esoteric Runology, United
States: Samuel Weiser, ISBN 0-87728-667-1

Weisgerber, Johannes Leo (19661967),

Frhgeschichtliche Sprachbewegungen im Klner
Raum (mit 8 Karten)", Rheinische Vierteljahrsblt-
ter (in German).

(1968), Die Namen der Ubier (in German),

Cologne: Opladen.

Werner, Carl-Gustav (2004), The Allrunes Font and

Package (PDF), The Comprehensive Tex Archive
Network.

Williams, Henrik (1996), The Origin of the

Runes, Amsterdamer Beitrge zur lteren German-
istik, 45: 21118

(2004), Reasons for Runes, in Houston,

Stephen D., The First Writing: Script Invention as
History and Process, Cambridge University Press,
pp. 26273, ISBN 0-521-83861-4
Chapter 2

Elder Futhark

corresponds to []. is also transliterated as and may

have been either a diphthong or a vowel near [] or [].
z was Proto-Germanic [z], and evolved into Proto-Norse
[] and is also transliterated as . The remaining translit-
erations correspond to the IPA symbol of their approxi-
mate value.
The earliest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates
to 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland:

[ ] [ ]

[f] u a r k g [w] h n i j p z s t b e m l d o

Two instances of another early inscription were found on

the two Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates (6th cen-
Distribution of pre-6th century Elder Futhark nds. tury), showing the division in three tts, with the posi-
tions of , p and o, d inverted compared to the Kylver
stone:
The Elder Futhark (also called Elder Fuark, Older
Futhark, Old Futhark or Germanic Futhark) is the
oldest form of the runic alphabets. It was a writing system f u a r k g w; h n i j p z s; t b e m l o d
used by Germanic tribes for Northwest Germanic dialects
in the Migration Period dialects. Its inscriptions are found The Grumpan bracteate presents a listing from 500 which
on artifacts (including jewelry, amulets, tools, weapons, is identical to the one found on the previous bracteates but
and runestones) from the 2nd to the 8th centuries. incomplete:
In Scandinavia, from the late 8th century, the script was
simplied to the Younger Futhark, and the Anglo-Saxons f u a r k g w ... h n i j p (z) ... t b e m l
and Frisians extended the Futhark, which eventually be- () (o) d
came the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. Unlike the Anglo-Saxon
furhorc and the Younger Futharks, which remained in
use during the Early and the High Middle Ages respec- 2.2 Origins
tively, knowledge of how to read the Elder Futhark was
forgotten until 1865, when it was deciphered by Norwe-
See also: Runes
gian scholar Sophus Bugge.[1]

2.2.1 Derivation from Italic alphabets

2.1 Description
The Elder Futhark (named after the initial phoneme of
the rst six rune names: F, U, , A, R and K) has 24
runes, often arranged in three groups of eight runes called
an tt[2] (pl. aettir). In the following table, each rune is
given with its common transliteration:
The Elder Futhark runes are commonly believed to orig-
inate in the Old Italic scripts: either a North Italic variant
(Etruscan or Raetic alphabets), or the Latin alphabet it-
self. Derivation from the Greek alphabet via Celtic con-
tact to Byzantine Greek culture was a popular theory in
the 19th century, but has been ruled out since the dating

13
14 CHAPTER 2. ELDER FUTHARK

of the Vimose inscriptions to the 2nd century (while the Note that the mature runes of the 6th to 8th centuries
Goths had been in contact with Greek culture only from tend to have only three directions of strokes, the vertical
the early 3rd century). Conversely, the Greek-derived and two diagonal directions. Early inscriptions also show
4th century Gothic alphabet does have two letters derived horizontal strokes: these appear in the case of e (men-
from runes, (from Jer j) and (from Uruz u). tioned above), but also in t, l, and h.
The angular shapes of the runes, presumably an adap-
tation to the incision in wood or metal, are not a Ger- 2.2.2 Date and purpose of invention
manic innovation, but a property that is shared with other
early alphabets, including the Old Italic ones (compare, The general agreement dates the creation of the rst runic
for example, the Duenos inscription). The 1st century alphabet to roughly the 1st century. Early estimates in-
BC Negau helmet inscription features a Germanic name, clude the 1st century BC,[6] and late estimates push the
Harigastiz, in a North Etruscan alphabet, and may be a date into the 2nd century. The question is one of estimat-
testimony of the earliest contact of Germanic speakers ing the ndless period separating the scripts creation
with alphabetic writing. Similarly, the Meldorf inscrip- from the Vimose nds of ca. 160. If either or z indeed
tion of 50 may qualify as proto-runic use of the Latin derive from Latin Y or Z, as suggested by Odenstedt, the
alphabet by Germanic speakers. The Raetic "alphabet of rst century BC is ruled out, because these letters were
Bolzano" in particular seems to t the letter shapes well.[3] only introduced into the Latin alphabet during the reign
The spearhead of Kovel, dated to 200 AD, sometimes ad- of Augustus.
vanced as evidence of a peculiar Gothic variant of the
runic alphabet, bears an inscription tilarids that may in Other scholars are content to assume a ndless period
fact be in an Old Italic rather than a runic alphabet, run- of a few decades, pushing the date into the early 2nd
ning right to left with a T and a D closer to the Latin or century.[7][8] Pedersen (and with him Odenstedt) suggests
Etruscan than to the Bolzano or runic alphabets. Perhaps a period of development of about a century to account for
an eclectic approach can yield the best results for the their assumed derivation of the shapes of and j
explanation of the origin of the runes: most shapes of from Latin D and G.
the letters can be accounted for when deriving them from
several distinct North Italic writing systems: the p rune The invention of the script has been ascribed to a single
has a parallel in the Camunic alphabet, while it has been person[9] or a group of people who had come into contact
argued that d derives from the shape of the letter san (= ) with Roman culture, maybe as mercenaries in the Roman
in Lepontic where it seems to represent the sound /d/.[4] army, or as merchants. The script was clearly designed
for epigraphic purposes, but opinions dier in stressing
The g, a, f, i, t, m and l runes show no variation, and are either magical, practical or simply playful (grati) as-
generally accepted as identical to the Old Italic or Latin pects. Bksted 1952, p. 134 concludes that in its earliest
letters X, A, F, I, T, M and L, respectively. There is also stage, the runic script was an articial, playful, not re-
wide agreement that the u, r, k, h, s, b and o runes re- ally needed imitation of the Roman script", much like the
spectively correspond directly to V, R, C, H, S, B and O. Germanic bracteates were directly inuenced by Roman
The runes of uncertain derivation may either be original currency, a view that is accepted by Odenstedt 1990, p.
innovations, or adoptions of otherwise unneeded Latin 171 in the light of the very primitive nature of the earliest
letters. Odenstedt 1990, p. 163 suggests that all 22 Latin (2nd to 4th century) inscription corpus.
letters of the classical Latin alphabet (1st Century, ignor-
ing marginalized K) were adopted ( from D, z from Y,
from Q, w from P, j from G, from Z), with two runes 2.3 Rune names
(p and d) left over as original Germanic innovations, but
there are conicting scholarly opinions regarding the e
(from E ?), n (from N ?), (D ? or Raetic ?), w (Q Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent
or P ?), and z (both from either Z or Latin Y ?), (Q ?) the sound of the rune itself.
and d runes.[5] The Old English names of all 24 runes of the Elder
Of the 24 runes in the classical futhark row attested from Futhark, along with ve names of runes unique to the
400 (Kylver stone), , p[lower-alpha 1] and [lower-alpha 2] are Anglo-Saxon runes, are preserved in the Old English
unattested in the earliest inscriptions of ca. 175 to 400, rune poem, compiled in the 8th or 9th century. These
while e in this early period mostly takes a -shape, its M- names are in good agreement with medieval Scandinavian
shape ( ) gaining prevalence only from the 5th century. records of the names of the 16 Younger Futhark runes,
and to some extent also with those of the letters of the
Similarly, the s rune may have either three ( ) or four ( ) Gothic alphabet (recorded by Alcuin in the 9th century).
strokes (and more rarely ve or more), and only from the Therefore, it is assumed that the names go back to the
5th century does the variant with three strokes become Elder Futhark period, at least to the 5th century. There
prevalent. is no positive evidence that the full row of 24 runes had
been completed before the end of the 4th century, but it
2.4. INSCRIPTION CORPUS 15

is likely that at least some runes had their name before 2.4.1 Scandinavian inscriptions
that time.
This concerns primarily the runes used magically, espe- Words frequently appearing in inscriptions on bracteates
cially the Teiwaz and Ansuz runes which are taken to sym- with possibly magical signicance are alu, lau and
bolize or invoke deities in sequences such as that on the laukaz. While their meaning is unclear, alu has been
Lindholm amulet (3rd or 4th century). associated with ale, intoxicating drink, in a context of
ritual drinking, and laukaz with leek, garlic, in a con-
Reconstructed names in Common Germanic can easily be text of fertility and growth. An example of a longer
given for most runes. Exceptions are the rune (which early inscription is on a 4th-century axe-handle found
is given dierent names in Anglo-Saxon, Gothic and in Nydam, Jutland: wagagastiz / alu:??hgusikijaz:
Scandinavian traditions) and the z rune (whose original aialataz (wagagastiz wave-guest could be a personal
name is unknown, and preserved only in corrupted form name, the rest has been read as alu:wihgu sikijaz:
from Old English tradition). The 24 Elder Futhark runes aialataz with a putative meaning wave/ame-guest,
are:[10] from a bog, alu, I, oath-sayer consecrate/ght. The ob-
The rune names stood for their rune because of the rst scurity even of emended readings is typical for runic in-
phoneme in the name (the principle of acrophony), with scriptions that go beyond simple personal names). A term
the exception of Ingwaz and Algiz: the Proto-Germanic frequently found in early inscriptions is Erilaz, appar-
z sound of the Algiz rune, never occurred in a word- ently describing a person with knowledge of runes.
initial position. The phoneme acquired an r-like quality The oldest known runic inscription dates to 160 and is
in Proto-Norse, usually transliterated with , and nally found on the Vimose Comb discovered in the bog of
merged with r in Icelandic, rendering the rune superu- Vimose, Funen.[12] The inscription reads harja, either
ous as a letter. Similarly, the ng-sound of the Ingwaz a personal name or an epithet, viz. Proto-Germanic
rune does not occur word-initially. The names come from *harjaz (PIE *koryos) "warrior", or simply the word for
the vocabulary of daily life and mythology, some trivial, comb (*hrijaz). Another early inscription is found
some benecent and some inauspicious: on the Thorsberg chape (200), probably containing the
theonym Ullr.
Mythology: Tiwaz, Thurisaz, Ingwaz, God, Man, The typically Scandinavian runestones begin to show the
Sun. transition to Younger Futhark from the 6th century, with
transitional examples like the Bjrketorp or Stentoften
Nature and environment: Sun, day, year, hail, ice, stones. In the early 9th century, both the older and the
lake, water, birch, yew, pear, elk, aurochs, ear (of younger futhark were known and used, which is shown
grain). on the Rk Runestone where the runemaster used both.
Daily life and human condition: Man, wealth/cattle, The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and
horse, estate/inheritance, slag/protection from evil, one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and
ride/journey, year/harvest, gift, joy, need, ul- is found on the early 8th century Eggjum stone, and may
cer/illness. even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry.
The Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus reading rahan
deer is notable as the oldest inscription of the British
2.4 Inscription corpus Isles, dating to 400, the very end of Roman Britain and
just predating the modications leading to the Anglo-
Saxon futhorc.
Main article: Elder Futhark inscriptions
Old Futhark inscriptions were found on artifacts scat-

2.4.2 Continental inscriptions

The oldest inscriptions (before 500) found on the Conti-

[ek go]dagastiz runo faihido inscription on the 4th century
"Einang stone"[11]
tered between the Carpathians and Lappland, with the
highest concentration in Denmark. They are usually short
inscriptions on jewelry (bracteates, bulae, belt buckles),
utensils (combs, spinning whorls) or weapons (lance tips,
seaxes) and were mostly found in graves or bogs.
nent are divided into two groups, the area of the North
Sea coast and Northern Germany (including parts of the
Netherlands) associated with the Saxons and Frisians on
one hand (part of the North Germanic Koine"),[13] and
loosely scattered nds from along the Oder to south-
eastern Poland, as far as the Carpathian Mountains (e.g.
the ring of Pietroassa in Romania), associated with East
Germanic tribes. The latter group disappears during the
5th century, the time of contact of the Goths with the
Roman Empire and their conversion to Christianity.
16 CHAPTER 2. ELDER FUTHARK

In this early period, there is no specically West Ger- vre Stabu spearhead (ca. 180), rauni-
manic runic tradition. This changes from the early 6th jaz
century, and for about one century (520 to 620), an Illerup inscriptions (9 objects)
Alamannic runic province[14] emerges, with examples Mos spearhead (c. 300), gaois(?)[18]
on bulae, weapon parts and belt buckles. As in the East
Germanic case, use of runes subsides with Christianiza- Golden horns of Gallehus (ca. 400)
tion, in the case of the Alamanni in the course of the 7th Einang stone (400)
century. Kylver Stone (400)
R Runestone (400450)
Kalleby Runestone (5th century)
2.4.3 Distribution
Mjbro Runestone (400550)
There are some 350 known Elder Futhark inscriptions Jrsberg Runestone (500550)
with a total of approximately 81 known inscriptions Hogganvik runestone (5th century)
from the South (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and 267
Bracteates: total 133 (see also Alu)
from Scandinavia.[15][16] The precise numbers are debat-
able because of some suspected forgeries, and some dis- Seeland-II-C (500)
puted inscriptions (identication as runes vs. accidental Vadstena bracteate
scratches, simple ornaments or Latin letters). 133 Scan- Tjurk bracteate
dinavian inscriptions are on bracteates (compared to 2
from the South), and 65 are on runestones (no Southern Period II (550700)
example is extant). Southern inscriptions are predomi- Skng Runestone (6th century?)
nantly on bulae (43, compared to 15 in Scandinavia). Bjrketorp Runestone
The Scandinavian runestones belong to the later period
Gummarp Runestone
of the Elder Futhark, and initiate the boom of medieval
Younger Futhark stones (with some 6,000 surviving ex- Istaby Runestone
amples). Stentoften Runestone
Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active South-Eastern Europe (200550): 4 AD.
literati, in relation to the total population, at any time,
so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual Gothic runic inscriptions (200350)
secret throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances
excavated at Illerup, only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar Continental inscriptions (mainly Germany; 200
ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 700): 50 legible, 15 illegible (39 brooches, 11
excavated graves to every inscription found.[17] weapon parts, 4 ttings and belt buckles, 3 strap
ends, 8 other)
Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced
are based on the minimal runological estimate of Thorsberg chape (200)
40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year
Blach bula
for four centuries). The actual number was probably con-
siderably higher. The 80 known Southern inscriptions are Charnay bula
from some 100,000 known graves. With an estimated to- Nordendorf bula
tal of 50,000,000 graves (based on population density es-
timates), some 80,000 inscriptions would have been pro- Pforzen buckle
duced in total in the Merovingian South alone (and maybe
English and Frisian (300700): 44; see futhorc
close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1%
of the corpus has come down to us), and Fischer 2004,
p. 281 estimates a population of several hundred active
literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 dur- 2.5 Unicode
ing the Alamannic runic boom of the 6th century.
Further information: Runic (Unicode block)
2.4.4 List of inscriptions
The Elder Futhark is encoded in Unicode within the uni-
After Looijenga 1997, Lthi 2004. ed Runic range, 16A016FF. Among the freely avail-
able TrueType fonts that include this range are Junicode
Scandinavia and FreeMono. The Kylver Stone row encoded in Uni-
code reads:
Period I (150550)
Vimose inscriptions (6 objects, 160300)
2.8. REFERENCES
Encoded separately is the continental double-barred h- [17] Lthi 2004, p. 323.
rune, . A graphical variant of the ng-rune, , is also
[18] Jansson, Sven Birger Fredrik (1962), The runes of Swe-
encoded separately. These two have separate codepoints
because they become independent letters in the Anglo-
Saxon futhorc. The numerous other graphical variants of
Elder Futhark runes are considered glyph variants and not
given Unicode codepoints. Similarly, bindrunes are con-
sidered ligatures and not given Unicode codepoints. The
only bindrune that can arguably be rendered as a single
Unicode glyph is the i bindrune or lantern rune, as ,
the character intended as the Anglo-Saxon Gr rune.
2.6 See also
Rune poem
Runic script
2.7 References
[1] Speculated by Looijenga 1997 to be a variant of b.
[2] Westergaard 1981 postulates occurrence in 34 Vimose
and 23 Letcani, rejected by Odenstedt 1990, p. 118.
2.8 References
[1] Vnehem, Mats, Forskning om runor och runstenar (arti-
cle), Stockholms Lans Museum.
[2] Elliott 1980, p. 14.
[3] Gippert, Jost, The Development of Old Germanic Alpha-
bets, Uni Frankfurt.
[4] Stifter 2010, p. 374.
[5] Odenstedt 1990, pp. 160.
[6] Moltke 1976, p. 54: the year 0100.
[7] Askeberg 1944, p. 77.
[8] Odenstedt 1990, p. 168.
[9] Moltke 1976, p. 53.
[10] Page 2005, pp. 8, 1516. The asterisk before the rune
names means that they are unattested reconstructions.
[11] Runic, Nordic life.
[12] Ilkjr 1996, p. 74 in Looijenga 2003, p. 78.
[13] Martin 2004, p. 173.
[14] Martin 2004.
[15] Fischer 2004, p. 281.
[16] Lthi 2004, p. 321.
17
den, Bedminster Press, pp. iiiiv, The oldest known runic
inscription from Sweden is found on a spearhead, recov-
ered from a grave at Mos in the parish of Stenkyrka in
Gotland. The inscription, consisting of only ve runes,
might be dated to the end of the third century of our era.
Bksted, A (1952), Mlruner og troldruner, Copen-
hagen.
Elliott, Ralph Warren Victor (1980), Runes: An In-
troduction, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-
7190-0787-9
Fischer, Svante (2004), Alemannia and the North
Early Runic Contexts Apart (400800)", in
Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter, Franziska; et al.,
Alemannien und der Norden, Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter, pp. 266317, ISBN 3-11-017891-5
Ilkjr, Jrgen (1996), Runeindskrifter fra mose-
fund i Danmark kontekst og oprindelse, Frisian
Runes and Neighbouring Traditions, Rodopi.
Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997), Runes around the
North Sea and on the Continent AD 150700 (disser-
tation), Groningen University.
Looijenga, Tineke (2004), Texts and Contexts of the
Oldest Runic Inscriptions, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-
04-12396-2
Lthi, Katrin (2004), Von ruhild und Hariso:
Alemannische und ltere skandinavische Runenkul-
tur im Vergleich, in Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter,
Franziska; et al., Alemannien und der Norden,
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 31839, ISBN 3-
11-017891-5
Martin, Max (2004), Kontinentalgermanische
Runeninschriften und 'Alamannische Runenprov-
inz'", in Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter, Franziska;
et al., Alemannien und der Norden, Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter, pp. 165212, ISBN 3-11-017891-5
Nowak, Sean (2003), Schrift auf den Goldbrakteaten
der Vlkerwanderungszeit (PDF) (diss), Gttingen.
Odenstedt, Bengt (1990), On the Origin and Early
History of the Runic Script, Typology and Graphic
Variation in the Older Futhark, Uppsala, ISBN 91-
85352-20-9.
Page, Raymond Ian (2005), Runes, The British Mu-
seum Press, ISBN 0-7141-8065-3.
Rix, Helmut (1997), Germanische Runen und
venetische Phonetik, in Birkmann; et al., Vergle-
ichende germanische Philologie und Skandinavistik,
Festschrift fr Otmar Werner, Tbingen, pp. 231
48, ISBN 3-484-73031-5.
18 CHAPTER 2. ELDER FUTHARK

Robinson, Orrin W (2004), Old English and its Clos-

est Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Lan-
guages, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-08169-6

Stifter, David (2010), Lepontische Studien: Lexi-

con Leponticum und die Funktion von san im Lep-
ontischen, in Stber, Karin; et al., Akten des 5.
Deutschsprachigen Keltologensymposiums. Zrich,
7.10. September 2009, Wien, pp. 36176.
Westergaard, Kai-Erik (1981), Skrifttegn og sym-
boler : noen studier over tegnformer i det eldre
runealfabet, Osloer Beitrge zur Germanistik (in
Norwegian), 6, Oslo: Germanistisches Institut der
Universitt Oslo, ISBN 978-82-90389-02-9.

2.9 External links

Runenprojekt inscription database at the University
of Kiel
Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspel-
math, Martin, eds. (2017). Older Runic.
Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute
for the Science of Human History.
Ancient Scripts: Futhark

Omniglot.com Elder Futhark

Rune Converter hosted by Viking Rune
Chapter 3
Younger Futhark
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian
runes, is a runic alphabet and a reduced form of the Elder
Futhark, with only 16 characters, in use from about the
9th century, after a transitional period during the 7th
and 8th centuries. The reduction, somewhat paradoxi-
cally, happened at the same time as phonetic changes led
to a greater number of dierent phonemes in the spo-
ken language, when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse.
Thus, the language included distinct sounds and minimal
pairs that were written the same.
The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Dan-
ish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes; in
the 10th century, it was further expanded by the Hlsinge
Runes or staveless runes.
The lifetime of the Younger Futhark corresponds roughly
to the Viking Age. Their use declined after the
Christianization of Scandinavia; most writing in Scandi-
navia from the 12th century was in the Latin alphabet,
but the runic scripts survived in marginal use in the form
of the medieval runes (in use ca. 11001500) and the
Latinised Dalecarlian runes (ca. 15001910).
3.1 History
Further information: Old Norse orthography
Usage of the Younger Futhark is found in Scandinavia
and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from
the 9th century onward. While the Migration Period
Elder Futhark had been an actual secret known only
to a literate elite, with only some 350 surviving inscrip-
tions, literacy in the Younger Futhark became widespread
in Scandinavia, as witnessed by the great number of
Runestones (some 6,000), sometimes inscribed with al-
most casual notes.
During a phase from about 650 to 800, some inscriptions
mixed the use of Elder and Younger Futhark runes. Ex-
amples of inscriptions considered to be from this period
include DR 248 from Snoldelev, DR 357 from Stentoften,
DR 358 from Gummarp, DR 359 from Istaby, and DR
360 from Bjrketorp, and objects such as the Setre Comb The ogam lochlannach, Book of Ballymote, fol. 170v
(N KJ40).[1] g 136 in Rk, which uses Elder Futhark
19
runes to encrypt part of the text, and g 43 in Ingelstad,
which uses a single Elder Futhark rune as an ideogram,
are also sometimes included as transitional inscriptions.[1]
By the late 8th century, the reduction from 24 to 16 runes
was complete. The main change was that the dierence
between voiced and unvoiced consonants was no longer
expressed in writing. Other changes are the consequence
of sound changes that separate Old Norse from Proto-
Norse and Common Germanic (mostly changes to the
vowel system).
The rst tt was reduced to its rst six letters,
furk, losing the g and w runes (the old a rune is
transliterated as for Old Norse as the phoneme it
expressed had become more closed).
The second tt lost the and p runes. The j rune
was rendered superuous due to Old Norse sound
changes, but was kept with the new sound value of a.
The old z rune was kept (transliterated in the context
of Old Norse as ) but moved to the end of the rune
row in the only change of letter ordering in Younger
Futhark.
The third tt was reduced to four runes, losing the
e, , o and d runes.
In tabular form:
The Younger Futhark became known in Europe as the
alphabet of the Norsemen, and was studied in the in-
terest of trade and diplomatic contacts, referred to as
Abecedarium Nordmannicum in Frankish Fulda (possi-
bly by Walahfrid Strabo) and ogam lochlannach "Ogham
of the Scandinavians in the Book of Ballymote.
20 CHAPTER 3. YOUNGER FUTHARK

3.2 Rune names

The names of the 16 runes of the Younger futhark are
recorded in the Icelandic and Norwegian rune poems.
The names are: f u r k h n i a s t b m l
f (wealth)
The Younger Futhark: Danish long-branch runes and
r (iron"/"rain) Swedish/Norwegian short-twig runes.

Thurs (giant)
As/Oss 3.3.2 Short-twig runes
rei (ride) In the short-twig runes (or Rk runes), nine runes appear
as simplied variants of the long-branch runes, while the
kaun (ulcer)
remaining seven have identical shapes:
hagall (hail)
naur (need)
sa/ss (ice)
3.3.3 Hlsinge runes (staveless runes)
r (plenty)
sl (sun)
Tr


bjrk/bjarkan/bjarken (birch)
mar (man)
furk hniastbml
lgr (sea) Staveless runes

yr (yew) Hlsinge runes are so named because in modern times

From comparison with Anglo-Saxon and Gothic letter
names, most of these names directly continue the names
of the Elder Futhark runes. The exceptions to this are:
yr which continues the name of the unrelated
Eihwaz rune;
thurs and kaun, in which cases the Old Norse,
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic traditions diverge.
they were rst noticed in the Hlsingland region of
Sweden. Later other runic inscriptions with the same
runes were found in other parts of Sweden. They were
used between the 10th and 12th centuries. The runes
seem to be a simplication of the Swedish-Norwegian
runes and lack certain strokes, hence the name stave-
less. They cover the same set of staves as the other
Younger Futhark alphabets. This variant has no assigned
Unicode range (as of Unicode 9.0).

3.3 Variants 3.4 Descendant scripts

The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Dan- 3.4.1 Medieval

ish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The
dierence between the two versions has been a matter of Main article: Medieval runes
controversy. A general opinion is that the dierence was In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia
functional, i.e. the long-branch runes were used for docu-
mentation on stone, whereas the short-branch runes were
in everyday use for private or ocial messages on wood.
abcdefghiklmnopqrstuv yz
3.3.1 Long-branch runes
Medieval Runes
The long-branch runes are the following signs:
was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign
for each phoneme of the old Norse language. Dotted
3.7. OTHER SOURCES 21

variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 44861. ISBN
corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voice- 3-11-015455-2. p. 451.
less variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes
[2] Nordic Medieval Runes
also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval
Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune-
forms, and some letters, such as s, c and z, were often
used interchangeably (Jacobsen & Moltke, 194142, p. 3.7 Other sources
VII; Werner, 2004, p. 20).
Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (194142). Danmarks
Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the
Runeindskrifter. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards
total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved
Forlag.
today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600
inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Werner, Carl-Gustav (2004). The allrunes Font and
Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the Package .
so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes
were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet
for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic 3.8 External links
inscriptions are actually in the Latin language.
After the 15th century interest in rune history and their Runes found in the Eastern Viking
use in magical processes grew in Iceland, with vari-
ous studies beginning with Third Grammatical Icelandic An English Dictionary of Runic Inscriptions in the
Treatise - Mlfrinnar grundvllr. Publications writ- Younger Futhark (Nottingham University)
ten in Latin and Danish in the 1600s included works by
Arngrmur Jnsson, Runlfur Jnsson and Dr. Olaus
Worms. Content from these along with Icelandic and
Norwegian Rune Poems appeared frequently in subse-
quent manuscripts written in Iceland.[2]

3.4.2 Early modern

Main article: Dalecarlian runes

According to Carl-Gustav Werner, in the isolated

province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin
letters developed (Werner 2004, p. 7). The Dalecar-
lian runes came into use in the early 16th century and
remained in some use up to the 20th century. Some dis-
cussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken
tradition throughout this period or whether people in the
19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books writ-
ten on the subject. The character inventory is suitable for
transcribing modern Swedish and the local Dalecarlian
dialect.

3.5 See also

Codex Sangallensis 878

Cipher runes

3.6 References
[1] Barnes, Michael P. (1998). The Transitional In-
scriptions. In Beck, Heinrich; Dwel, Klaus.
Runeninschriften als Quellen Interdisziplinrer Forschung.
Chapter 4

Anglo-Saxon runes

from Scandinavia where the futhorc was modied and

then exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inher-
ent weaknesses, and a denitive answer may come from
further archaeological evidence.
The early futhorc was identical to the Elder Futhark, ex-
cept for the split of a into three variants c, sc and
s, resulting in 26 runes. This was necessary to account
for the new phoneme produced by the Ingvaeonic split of
allophones of long and short a. The earliest s rune is
found on the 5th-century Undley bracteate. c was in-
troduced later, in the 6th century. The double-barred
hgl characteristic of continental inscriptions is rst at-
tested as late as 698, on St Cuthberts con; before that,
the single-barred Scandinavian variant was used.
In England, the futhorc was further extended to 28 and
nally to 33 runes, and runic writing in England became
The left half of the front panel of the 7th century Franks Casket, closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time
depicting the Germanic legend of Weyland Smith and containing of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. The
a riddle in Anglo-Saxon runes. futhorc started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from
around the 7th century, but it was still sometimes used
Anglo-Saxon runes are runes used by the early Anglo- up until the 10th or 11th century. In some cases, texts
Saxons as an alphabet in their writing. The characters would be written in the Latin alphabet, but runes would be
are known collectively as the futhorc (or fuorc), from used logographically in place of the word it represented,
the Old English sound values of the rst six runes. The and orn and wynn came to be used as extensions of the
futhorc was a development from the 24-character Elder Latin alphabet. By the Norman Conquest of 1066, it was
Futhark. Since the futhorc runes are thought to have rst very rare and disappeared altogether shortly thereafter.
been used in Frisia before the Anglo-Saxon settlement From at least ve centuries of use, fewer than 200 arte-
of Britain, they have also been called Anglo-Frisian facts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.
runes.[1] They were likely used from the 5th century on- Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman
ward, recording Old English and Old Frisian. script, or Old English and Latin, on the same object, in-
After the 9th century, they were gradually supplanted in cluding the Franks Casket and St Cuthberts con; in
Anglo-Saxon England by the Old English Latin alphabets the latter, three of the names of the Four Evangelists
introduced by Irish missionaries. Runes were no longer are given in Latin written in runes, but LUKAS (Saint
in common use by the year 1000 and were banned under Luke) is in Roman script. The con is also an exam-
Cnut the Great (r. 10161036). ple of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon
church that uses runes. A leading expert, Raymond Ian
Page, rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly
literature that runes were especially associated in post-
4.1 History conversion Anglo-Saxon England with Anglo-Saxon pa-
ganism or magic.[2]
There are competing theories about the origins of the
Anglo-Saxon futhorc. One theory proposes that it was de-
veloped in Frisia and from there spread later to England.
Another holds that runes were rst introduced to England

22
4.3. INSCRIPTION CORPUS 23

4.2 Letters In the manuscript, the runes are arranged in three rows,
glossed with Latin equivalents below (in the third row
The Anglo-Saxon rune poem (Cotton Otho B.x.165) has above) and with their names above (in the third row be-
the following runes, listed with their Unicode glyphs, their low). The manuscript has traces of corrections by a 16th-
names, their transliterations, and their approximate pho- century hand, inverting the position of m and d. Eolh is
netic values in IPA notation: mistakenly labelled as sigel, and in place of sigel, there
is a kaun-like letter , corrected to proper sigel above
The rst 24 of these directly continue the Elder Futhark it. Eoh is mislabelled as eel. Apart from ing and ear,
letters, extended by ve additional runes, representing ad- all rune names are due to the later scribe, identied as
ditional vowels (, , , ia, ea), comparable to the ve Robert Talbot (died 1558).
forfeda of the ogham alphabet.
Thorn and wynn were introduced into the English version
of the Latin alphabet to represent // and /w/, but they
were replaced with th and w in the Middle English period. Another futhorc row is found in Cotton Galba A.ii.
The letter sequence, and indeed the letter inventory is not
xed. Compared to the letters of the rune poem given
above,

f u o r c w h n i j eo p x s t b e m l d a
y io ea

the Thames scramasax has 28 letters, with a slightly dif-

ferent order, and eel missing:
The Anglo-Saxon futhorc (abecedarium anguliscum) as pre-
sented in Codex Sangallensis 878 (9th century).
f u o r c w h n i io eo p x s t b e d l m j a
y ea
The 9th-century Codex Sangallensis 878 (attributed to
Walahfrid Strabo) records an abecedarium anguliscum in
The Vienna Codex also has 28 letters; the Ruthwell Cross three lines. The rst two lines list the standard 29 runes,
inscription has 31 letters; Cotton Domitian A.ix (11th i.e. the 24 derived from Elder Futhark, and the ve stan-
century) has 33 letters, with the four following additional dard additional ones (, , , io, ea). The listing order
runes: of the nal two of the elder 24 runes is dg, el. A
peculiarity is the asterisk shape of eolh. The third line
30. cweor kw, a modication of peor lists gar and kalc(?) before a doodling repetition of other
runes.
31. calc chalice k (when doubled appear-
ing as kk)
32. stan stone st
4.3 Inscription corpus
33. gar spear g (as opposed to palatalized
)

Futhorc series on the Seax of Beagnoth (9th century). The series

Of these four additional letters, only the cweor rune fails
has 28 runes, omitting io. The shapes of j, s, d, and y deviate
to appear epigraphically. The stan shape is found on from the standard forms shown above; eo appears mirrored.
the Westeremden yew-stick, but likely as a Spiegelrune.
The calc rune is found on the Bramham Moor Ring, The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions
Kingmoor Ring, the Ruthwell Cross, and Bewcastle Cross database project at the Katholische Universitt Eichsttt-
inscriptions. The gar rune is found on the Bewcastle Ingolstadt, Germany aims at collecting the genuine cor-
Cross inscription, along with the doubled calc rune in se- pus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two
lect locations. runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition
Cotton Domitian A.ix reaches thus a total of 33 let- aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions
ters, according to the transliteration introduced above ar- down to single-rune inscriptions.
ranged in the order The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one
hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses,
f u o r c w h n i j eo p x s t b e m l d a bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet,
y ea io cw k st g tweezers, a sun-dial, comb, bracteates, caskets, a font,
24
dishes, and grati). The database includes, in addition,
16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic
coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (rune-
like signs, possible Latin characters, weathered charac-
ters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus
is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark
(about 80 inscriptions, c. 400700), but slightly smaller
than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260
inscriptions, c. 200800).
Runic nds in England cluster along the east coast with
a few nds scattered further inland in Southern England.
Frisian nds cluster in West Frisia. Looijenga (1997) lists
23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscrip-
tions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th cen-
tury.
4.4 Inscriptions
The Thames zoomorphic silver-gilt (knife?) mount (late 8th cen-
tury)
Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes in-
clude:
4.4.1 Frisian
Ferwerd combcase, 6th century; me ur
Amay comb, c. 600; eda
Oostyn comb, 8th century; aib ka[m]bu / deda
habuku (with a triple-barred h)
Toornwerd comb, 8th century; kabu
Skanomody solidus, 575610; skanomodu
Harlingen solidus, 575625, hada (two ac runes,
double-barred h)
Schweindorf solidus, 575625, wela[n]du Wey-
land (or eladu; running right to left)
Folkestone tremissis, c. 650; niwulufu
Midlum sceat, c. 750; pa
Rasquert swordhandle (whalebone handle of a sym-
bolic sword), late 8th century; ek [u]mdit oka, I,
Oka, not made mad[3] (compare ek unwodz from
the Danish corpus)
Arum sword, a yew-wood miniature sword, late 8th
century; edboda
CHAPTER 4. ANGLO-SAXON RUNES
Westeremden A, a yew weaving-slay; adujis-
lume[]jisuhidu
Westeremden B, a yew-stick, 8th century;
oph?nmuji?adaamlu / :wim?ahu?? /
iwio?u?du?ale
Britsum yew-stick; kniaberetdud / ]n:bsrsdnu; the k
has Younger Futhark shape and probably represents
a vowel.
Hantum whalebone plate; [.]:aha:k[; the reverse
side is inscribed with Roman ABA.
Bernsterburen whalebone sta, c. 800; tuda wudu
kius u tuda
Hamwic horse knucklebone, dated to between 650
and 1025; kat (categorised as Frisian on linguistic
grounds, from *kautn knucklebone)
Wijnaldum B gold pendant, c. 600; hiwi
Kantens combcase, early 5th century; li
Hoogebeintum comb, c. 700; []nlu / ded
Wijnaldum A antler piece; zwfuwizw[]
4.4.2 English
Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt silver sword pommel, 6th cen-
tury; []emsigimer[][4]
Chessel Down I (Isle of Wight), 6th century;
[]bwseeekkkaaa
Chessel Down II (Isle of Wight) silver plate (at-
tached to the scabbard mouthpiece of a ring-sword),
early 6th century; ko:?ori
Boarley (Kent) copper disc-brooch, c. 600; rsil
Harford (Norfolk) brooch, c. 650; luda:
gibtsigil Luda repaired the brooch
West Heslerton (North Yorkshire) copper cruciform
brooch, early 6th century; neim
Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire) urn; 5th to 6th century;
reading uncertain, maybe sbd iuw hlaw the
grave of Sibd the maid
Spong Hill (Norfolk), three cremation urns, 5th cen-
tury; decorated with identical runic stamps, reading
alu (in Spiegelrunen).
Kent II coins (some 30 items), 7th century; reading
pada
Kent III, IV silver sceattas, c. 600; reading pa and
epa
Suolk gold shillings (three items), c. 660; stamped
with desaiona
4.5. SEE ALSO
Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus, 5th century; possi-
bly a Scandinavian import, in Elder Futhark translit-
eration reading rahan roe
Watcheld (Oxfordshire) copper ttings, 6th cen-
tury; Elder Futhark reading hariboki:wusa (with a
probably already fronted to )
Wakerley (Northamptonshire) copper brooch, 6th
century; buhui
Dover (Kent) brooch, c. 600; d bli / bkk
Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items), 620s;
benu:tigoii; benu:+:tidi
Willoughby-on-the-Wolds (Nottinghamshire) cop-
per bowl, c. 600; a
Cleatham (South Humbershire) copper bowl, c.
600; []edih
Sandwich/Richborough (Kent) stone, 650 or earlier;
[]ahabu[]i, perhaps *rhbul stag
Whitby I (Yorkshire) jet spindle whorl; ueu
Selsey (West Sussex) gold plates, 6th to 8th cen-
turies; brnrn / anmu
St. Cuthberts con (Durham), dated to 698
Whitby II (Yorkshire) bone comb, 7th century;
[d]us mus godaluwalu dohelip cy[ i.e. deus
meus, god aluwaldo, help Cy my god, almighty
god, help Cy" (Cynewulf or a similar personal
name; compare also names of God in Old English
poetry.)
the Franks casket; 7th century
zoomorphic silver-gilt knife mount, discovered in
the River Thames near Westminster Bridge (late 8th
century)[5][6]
the Ruthwell Cross; 8th century, the inscription may
be partly a modern reconstruction
the Brandon antler piece, wohs wildum deor an
"[this] grew on a wild animal"; 9th century.[7]
Kingmoor Ring
the Seax of Beagnoth; 9th century (also known as
the Thames scramasax); the only complete alphabet
4.4.3 Related manuscript texts
Codex Vindobonensis 795 (9th century)
the Anglo-Saxon rune poem (Cotton Otho B.x.165)
Solomon and Saturn (Nowell Codex)
25
4.5 See also
Elder Futhark
Ogham
Runic alphabet
4.6 Notes
[1] THE ANGLO-SAXON RUNES. arild-hauge.com.
[2] Page, Raymond Ian (1989), Roman and Runic on St
Cuthberts Con, in Bonner, Gerald; Rollason, David;
Stanclie, Clare, St. Cuthbert, his Cult and his Community
to AD 1200, Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, pp. 257
63, ISBN 978-0-85115-610-1.
[3] Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions.
google.be.
[4] Flickr (photograms), Yahoo!
[5] Silver knife mount with runic inscription, British Mu-
seum.
[6] Page, Raymond Ian (1999), An introduction to English
runes (2nd ed.), Woodbridge: Boydell, p. 182.
[7] Bammesberger, Alfred (2002), The Brandon Antler
Runic Inscription, Neophilologus, Ingenta connect, 86:
12931.
4.7 References
Bammesberger, A, ed. (1991), Old English Runes
and their Continental Background, Anglistische
Forschungen, Heidelberg, 217.
(2006), Das Futhark und seine Weiteren-
twicklung in der anglo-friesischen berlieferung,
in Bammesberger, A; Waxenberger, Das fuark und
seine einzelsprachlichen Weiterentwicklungen, Wal-
ter de Gruyter, pp. 17187, ISBN 3-11-019008-7.
Hines, J (1990), The Runic Inscriptions of
Early Anglo-Saxon England, in Bammesberger, A,
Britain 400600: Language and History, Heidel-
berg, pp. 43756.
J. H. Looijenga, Runes around the North Sea and on
the Continent AD 150700, dissertation, Groningen
University (1997).
Odenstedt, Bengt, On the Origin and Early His-
tory of the Runic Script, Uppsala (1990), ISBN 91-
85352-20-9; chapter 20: 'The position of continen-
tal and Anglo-Frisian runic forms in the history of
the older futhark '
26 CHAPTER 4. ANGLO-SAXON RUNES

Page, Raymond Ian (1999). An Introduction to En-

glish Runes. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-
85115-768-8.

Robinson, Orrin W (1992). Old English and its Clos-

est Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Lan-
guages. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-
1454-1.

Frisian runes and neighbouring traditions, Amster-

damer Beitrge zur lteren Germanistik 45 (1996).

H. Marquardt, Die Runeninschriften der Britischen

Inseln (Bibliographie der Runeninschriften nach
Fundorten, Bd. I), Abhandlungen der Akademie
der Wissenschaften in Gttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse,
dritte Folge, Nr. 48, Gttingen 1961, pp. 1016.

4.8 Further reading

Looijenga, Tineke (September 2003). Texts &
Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions (Northern
World, 4). Brill. ISBN 978-9004123960.

4.9 External links

Transliteration from Latin alphabet to Anglo-Saxon
runes
Anglo-Saxon Runic Texts at Georgetown Univ

Nytt om runer

Early Runic Inscriptions in England

Chapter 5

Runic magic

There is some evidence that, in addition to being a writing

system, runes historically served purposes of magic. This
is the case from earliest epigraphic evidence of the
Roman to Germanic Iron Age, with non-linguistic in-
scriptions and the alu word. An erilaz appears to have
been a person versed in runes, including their magic ap-
plications.
In medieval sources, notably the Poetic Edda, the
Sigrdrfuml mentions victory runes to be carved on a
sword, some on the grasp and some on the inlay, and
name Tyr twice.
In early modern and modern times, related folklore and
superstition is recorded in the form of the Icelandic mag-
ical staves. In the early 20th century, Germanic mysti-
cism coins new forms of runic magic, some of which
were continued or developed further by contemporary
adherents of Germanic Neopaganism. Modern systems
of runic divination are based on Hermeticism, classical
Occultism, and the I Ching.
Bracteate G 205 (ca. 5th to 7th century), bearing the inscription
alu.
5.1 Historical evidence
ing to which sign they have previ-
5.1.1 Tacitus ously been marked with, makes his
interpretation. If the lots forbid an
Historically it is known that the Germanic peoples used undertaking, there is no delibera-
various forms of divination and means of reading omens. tion that day about the matter in
Tacitus (Germania 10) gives a detailed account (98AD): question. If they allow it, further
conrmation is required by taking
They attach the highest impor- auspices.[1]
tance to the taking of auspices and
casting lots. Their usual procedure It is often debated whether signs refers specically to
with the lot is simple. They cut runes or to other marks; both interpretations are plausi-
o a branch from a nut-bearing tree ble and Tacitus does not give enough detail for a denite
and slice it into strips these they decision to be made.[2]
mark with dierent signs and throw
them at random onto a white cloth.
Then the states priest, if it is an 5.1.2 Epigraphy
ocial consultation, or the father
of the family, in a private one, of- The Ansuz and Tiwaz runes in particular seem to have had
fers prayer to the gods and looking magical signicance in the early (Elder Futhark) period.
up towards heaven picks up three The Sigrdrfuml instruction of name Tyr twice is rem-
strips, one at a time, and, accord- iniscent of the double or triple stacked Tyr bindrunes

27
28 CHAPTER 5. RUNIC MAGIC

brimrunar wave-runes (stanza 9, a spell for the

protection of ships, with runes to be carved on the
stem and on the rudder),

The inscription on the Kylver stone ends with a stacked bind rune limrunar branch-runes (stanza 10, a healing spell,
combining six Tiwaz runes used to invoke the god Tyr and four the runes to be carved on trees with boughs to the
Ansuz runes to invoke the sir.[3] eastward bent),[8]
malrunar speech-runes (stanza 11, the stanza is
found e.g. on Seeland-II-C or the Lindholm amulet in corrupt, but apparently referred to a spell to improve
the aaaaaaaazzznnn-b- muttt, sequence, which besides ones rhetorical ability at the thing),
stacked Tyr involves multiple repetition of Ansuz, but
hugrunar thought-runes (stanza 12, the stanza is
also triple occurrence of Algiz and Naudiz.
incomplete, but clearly discussed a spell to improve
Many inscriptions also have meaningless utterances in- ones wit).[9]
terpreted as magical chants, such as tuwatuwa (Vadstena
bracteate), aaduaaaliia (DR BR42) or ggog (Undley The Poetic Edda also seems to corroborate the magical
bracteate), gagaga (Kragehul I). signicance of the runes the Hvaml where Odin men-
Alu is a charm word appearing on numerous artifacts tions runes in contexts of divination, of healing and of
found in Central and Northern Europe dating from the necromancy (trans. Bellows):
Germanic Iron Age. The word is the most common of
Certain is that which is sought from runes /
the early runic charm words and can appear either alone
That the gods so great have made / And the
or as part of an apparent formula. The origin and mean-
Master-Poet painted (79)
ing of the word are matters of dispute, though a general
agreement exists among scholars that the word either rep- Of runes heard I words, nor were counsels
resents amulet magic or is a metaphor (or metonym) for wanting / At the hall of Hor (111)
it.[4] Grass cures the scab / and runes the sword-
A few Viking Age rings with runic inscriptions of ap- cut (137)
parently magical nature were found, among them the Runes shalt thou nd / and fateful signs (143)
Kingmoor Ring. The phrase runes of power is found " if high on a tree / I see a hanged man swing
on two runestones in Sweden, DR 357 from Stentoften / So do I write and color the runes / That forth
and DR 360 from Bjrketorp. Runestones with curses he fares / And to me talks. (158)
include DR 81 in Skjern, DR 83 in Snder Vinge, DR
209 in Glavendrup, DR 230 from Tryggevlde, DR 338 Other oft cited sources for the practice of runic divina-
in Glemminge, and Vg 67 in Saleby.[5] tion are chapter 38 of Snorri Sturluson's Ynglinga Saga,
where Granmar, the king of Sdermanland, travels to the
Temple at Uppsala for the seasonal blt. There, the chips
5.1.3 Medieval sources fell in a way that said that he would not live long (Fll
honum svo spnn sem hann mundi eigi lengi lifa).[10]
The most prolic source for runic magic in the Poetic
Edda is the Sigrdrfuml, where the valkyrie Sigrdrfa Another source is in the Vita Ansgari, the biography of
(Brynhild) presents Sigurd with a memory-draught of ale Ansgar the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, which was
that had been charmed with gladness runes (stanza 5), written by a monk named Rimbert. Rimbert details the
custom of casting lots by the pagan Norse (chapters 26-
She goes on to give advice on the magical runes in seven 30).[11] The chips and the lots, however, can be explained
further stanzas. In all instances, the runes are used for ac- respectively as a bltspnn (sacricial chip) and a hlaut-
tual magic (apotropaic or ability-enhancing spells) rather lein (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson [12]
than for divination: would be marked, possibly with sacricial blood, shaken
and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative
victory runes to be carved on the sword hilt (stanza signicance then decided.
6, presumably referring to the t rune named for
Egils Saga features several incidents of runic magic. The
Tyr[7] ),
most celebrated is the scene where Egil discovers (and de-
lrunar "Ale-runes (stanza 7, a protective spell stroys) a poisoned drink prepared for him, by cutting his
against being bewitched by means of ale served by hand and cutting runes on the drinking horn, and painting
the hosts wife; naudiz is to be marked on ones n- the runes with blood. While the motif of blood painted
gernails, and laukaz on the cup), runes also appears in other examples of early Norse liter-
ature it is uncertain whether the practice of painting runes
biargrunar birth-runes (stanza 8, a spell to facili- with blood is merely a literary invention or whether it had
tate childbirth), precedence in magical practice.[13]
5.2. MODERN SYSTEMS 29

5.2 Modern systems the Use of an Ancient Oracle, which was marketed with
a small bag of round tiles with runes stamped on them.
This book has remained in print since its rst publica-
tion. The sources for Blums divinatory interpretations,
as he explained in The Book of Runes itself, drew heav-
ily on then-current books describing the ancient I Ching
divination system of China.
Each of Blums seven books on runic divination deals with
a specialized area of life or a varied technique for reading
runes:

The Book of Runes: A Handbook for the Use of an

Ancient Oracle: The Viking Runes (1982); revised
10th Anniversary Edition (1992); revised 25th An-
niversary Edition (2007).
The Rune Cards: Sacred Play for Self Discovery
(1989); reissued as The Rune Cards: Ancient Wis-
Runic divination using ceramic tiles dom For the New Millennium (1997). Rather than
rune stones, this book uses images of the runes
In the 17th Century, Hermeticist and Rosicrucian printed on card stock, much like a set of trading
Johannes Bureus, having been inspired by visions, de- cards or tarot cards.
veloped a Runic system based on the Kaballah and the
Futhark which he called the Adulruna.[14] The Healing Runes with co-author Susan Loughan
(1995) teaches methods for using runic divination
The Armanen runes revealed to Guido von List in 1902 in the context of health and personal integration.
were employed for magical purposes in Germanic mysti-
cism by authors such as Friedrich Bernhard Marby and Rune Play: A Method of Self Counseling and a Year-
Siegfried Adolf Kummer, and after World War II in a re- Round Rune Casting Record Book (1996)
formed pansophical system by Karl Spiesberger. More
recently, Stephen Flowers, Adolf Schleipfer, Larry E. The Serenity Runes: Five Keys to the Serenity Prayer
Camp and others also build on Lists system. with co-author Susan Loughan (1998); reissued as
The Serenity Runes: Five Keys to Spiritual Recovery
Several modern systems of runic magic and runic divina- (2005) utilizes runic divination as a method for as-
tion were published from the 1980s onward. The rst sisting self-help and recovery from addictions; the
book on runic divination, written by Ralph Blum in 1982, title is a reference to the well-known Serenity prayer
led to the development of sets of runes designed for use widely used in the 12-step program of Alcoholics
in several such systems of fortune telling, in which the Anonymous.
runes are typically incised in clay, stone tiles, crystals,
resin, glass, or polished stones, then either selected one- Ralph H. Blums Little Book of Runic Wisdom
by-one from a closed bag or thrown down at random for (2002).
reading.
The Relationship Runes: A Compass for the Heart
Later authors such as Diana L. Paxson and Freya Aswynn with co-author Bronwyn Jones (2003) shows how to
follow Blum (1989) in drawing a direct correlation be- use runic divination in matters of love and friend-
tween runic divination and tarot divination. They may ship.
discuss runes in the context of spreads and advocate the
usage of rune cards. Blum has also written books on the Tao Te Ching, Zen
Modern authors like Ralph Blum sometimes include a Buddhism, and UFOs.
blank rune in their sets. Some were to replace a lost
rune, but according to Ralph Blum this was the god Odin's
rune, the rune of the beginning and the end, representing 5.2.2 Stephen Flowers
the divine in all human transactions.[15]
In the wake of a 1984 dissertation on Runes and
Magic, Stephen Flowers published a series of books
5.2.1 Ralph Blum under the pen-name Edred Thorsson which detailed
his own original method of runic divination and magic,
In 1982, a modern usage of the runes for answering lifes odianism,[16] which he said was loosely based on histor-
questions was apparently originated by Ralph Blum in ical sources and modern European hermeticism. These
his divination book The Book of Runes: A Handbook for books were:
30
Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic (1984)
Runelore: A Handbook of Esoteric Runology (1987)
At The Well of Wyrd (1988) which was later
reprinted under the title Runecasters Handbook:
The Well of Wyrd.
Northern Magic: Rune Mysteries and Shamanism
(2002).
Runic divination is a component of Flowers esoteric
runology course oered to members of his Rune Gild,
as detailed in The Nine Doors of Midgard: A Curriculum
of Rune-Work. Besides runic divination, Flowers also ad-
vocated the runic gymnastics (Runengymnastik) devel-
oped in the 1920s by Friedrich Marby, under the name
of Rune-Yoga (also Runic Yoga, Stadhagaldr).[17] A. D. Mercer, Runen - The Wisdom of the Runes
5.2.3 Stephan Grundy
In 1990, Stephan Grundy, a.k.a. Kveldulf Gundarsson,
described runic magic as the active principle as opposed
to passive interpretations based on runic divination. He
held that runic magic is more active than the allegedly
shamanic practice of seid practiced by the Seikona.
Runic magic, he states, uses the runes to aect the world
outside based on the archetypes they represent.[18]
Most of Gundarssons runic magic entails being in posses-
sion of a physical entity that is engraved with any or all of
the individual runes or staves, so as to practically work
with their energies. The individual runes are reddened
with either blood, dyes, or paints. The act of possessing
the stave in its nal form serves the purpose of aecting
the world of form with the rune might of that particular
stave. After use, the staves are discarded or destroyed.[19]
Gundarsson holds that each rune has a certain sound to
it, to be chanted or sung; the sound has in common the
phonetic value by which it is represented.[20] This act of
singing or chanting is supposed to have more or less the
same eect of using the staves in their physical form.[21]
5.2.4 Other
Nigel Pennick proposes Germanic Runic Astrol-
ogy in publications such as Runic Astrology: Star-
craft and Timekeeping in the Northern Tradition
(1995), ISBN 1-898307-45-8.
Freya Aswynn has published interpretations of the
runes based on her own meditations in Leaves of
Yggdrasil: Runes, Gods, Magic, Feminine Mysteries,
and Folklore Llewellyn Worldwide (1990), ISBN 0-
87542-024-9 and Northern Mysteries and Magick:
Runes, Gods & Feminine Powers (1998), Llewellyn
Worldwide ISBN 1-56718-047-7.
CHAPTER 5. RUNIC MAGIC
Adam Byrn Tritt, in Runic Divination in the Welsh
Tradition (2011)[22] presents a system based on a
10-stone set, including nine symbols which are un-
related to the historical runes, plus a blank stone,
which represents the querent (inquirer).
Diana L. Paxson deals with the subject of runic div-
ination and the use of the runes in magical spell-
casting in her book Taking Up The Runes: A Com-
plete Guide To Using Runes In Spells, Rituals, Div-
ination, And Magic (2005).[23]
Wendy Christine Duke in Spiral of Life (2008)[24]
presents a divination system based on organizing a
set of 41 revealed images based on the runic let-
ters.
(2016) reintroduces the Armanen Runes.
5.3 See also
Germanic neopaganism
Galdr
Icelandic magical staves
Uthark theory
Runic Gymnastics
5.4 References
[1] Birley (1999:42).
[2] J. B. Rives, Germania By Cornelius Tacitus, Oxford Uni-
versity Press p. 166
[3] Spurkland, Terje (2005). Norwegian Runes and Runic In-
scriptions. Boydell Press. p. 16. ISBN 1-84383-186-4.
[4] Macleod and Mees (2006), 91-101.
[5] Nielsen, M. L. (1998). Glavendrup. In Hoops, Jo-
hannes; Beck, Heinrich. Reallexikon der Germanischen
Altertumskunde. 12. Walter de Gruyter. p. 198. ISBN
3-11-016227-X.
[6] translation and numbering of stanzas after the edition by
Henry Adams Bellows (1936).
[7] Enoksen, Lars Magnar. Runor: Historia, tydning, tolkning
(1998) ISBN 91-88930-32-7
[8] Such runes were believed to transfer sickness from the
invalid to the tree. Some editors, however, have changed
limrunar (branch runes) to lifrunar (life-runes)" Bel-
lows (1936), p. 392.
5.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 31

[9] Here the list of runes breaks o, though the manuscript
indicates no gap, and three short passages of a dier-
ent type, though all dealing with runes, follow. Bellows
(1936) p. 393.
[10]
[11]
[12] Foote and Wilson (1970), 401.
[13] MacLeod and Mees (2006), 235.
[14] kerman Susanna Rose Cross over the Baltic: the Spread
of Rosicrucianism in Northern Europe p.47
[15] Blum, Ralph (2000). The Book of Runes: 20th Anniver-
sary Edition. Eddison Sadd. pp. 133134. ISBN 1-
85906-042-0.
[16] Thorsson, Edred. Runelore; A handbook of Esoteric
Runology
[17] Edred Thorsson, Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic,
Weiser Books, 1984, p. 15. Edred Thorsson, Rune might:
secret practices of the German rune magicians, Llewellyns
Teutonic magick series, 1989. Edred Thorsson, The Truth
About Teutonic Magick, Llewellyns vanguard series, 1994.
Later also: L. E. Camp, A Handbook of Armanen Runic-
Wisdom: History, World-View, Rune-Yoga, Divination,
the Sidereal Pendulum and the Runic-Zodiac, 2005. Crit-
icized by Sweyn Plowright, The Rune Primer, 2006 (esp.
pp. 137-139).
[18] Gundarsson (1990), 27; 211; 211-212.
[19] Gundarsson (1990), 33; 34; 27.
, as Thorsson, Edred (1983). A Handbook of
Rune Magic, Weiser Books. ISBN 0-87728-548-9
, as Thorsson, Edred (1987). A Handbook of Eso-
teric Runology. Weiser Books, ISBN 0-87728-667-
1
Fries, Jan, Helrunar: A Manual of Rune Magick,
Second Edition, Mandrake of Oxford (2002), ISBN
978-1-869928-38-4
Foote, Peter G., and Wilson, D. M. (1970). The
Viking Achievement, Sidgwick & Jackson: London,
UK. ISBN 0-283-97926-7
Gundarsson, Kveldulf (1990). Teutonic Magic. St.
Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-
87542-291-8.
MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006). Runic
Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press. ISBN
1-84383-205-4.
Meadows, Kenneth (1996). Rune Power: The Se-
cret Knowledge of the Wise Ones. Milton, Brisbane:
Element Books Limited. ISBN 1-85230-706-4
Plowright, Sweyn (2006). The Rune Primer. Lulu
Press. ISBN 1-84728-246-6
Tritt, Adam Byrn (2011), Tellstones: Runic Divina-
tion in the Welsh Tradition. Smithcraft Press. ISBN
978-0-9793935-1-8

[20] Gundarsson (1990), 37-156.

5.6 External links
[21] Gundarsson (1990), 31-32.

[22] ISBN 978-0-9793935-1-8. Mystic Uses of the Runes bibliography

[23] ISBN 978-1-57863-325-8 Meaning of the Runes by Ingrid Halvorsen

[24] Spiral of Life - A Guidebook For Your Journey (2008) Magic Runes
Cloud Haven Studio Incorporated, ISBN 978-0-9818693-
0-8. On line readings

Runic Magic
5.5 Sources
Birley, A. R. (Trans.) (1999). Agricola and Ger-
many. Oxford Worlds Classics. ISBN 978-0-19-
283300-6
Blum, Ralph (1993). The Book of Runes : A Hand-
book for the Use of an Ancient Oracle: The Viking
Runes with Stones, St. Martins Press; 10th anniver-
sary ed. ISBN 0-312-09758-1.
Flowers, Stephen (1986), Runes and magic: magical
formulaic elements in the older runic tradition, vol.
53 of American university studies: Germanic lan-
guages and literatures, P. Lang, ISBN 978-0-8204-
0333-5.
Chapter 6

Runic inscriptions

6.1.2 Estimates of total number of inscrip-

tions produced

Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active

Younger futhark inscription on bone.
A runic inscription is an inscription made in one of the
various runic alphabets. The body of runic inscriptions
falls into the three categories of Elder Futhark (some 350
items, dating to between the 2nd and 8th centuries AD),
Anglo-Frisian Futhorc (some 100 items, 5th to 11th cen-
turies) and Younger Futhark (close to 6,000 items, 8th to
12th centuries).[1][2]
The total 350 known inscriptions in the Elder Futhark
script[3] fall into two main geographical categories, North
Germanic (Scandinavian, c. 267 items) and Continental
or South Germanic (German and Gothic, c. 81
items).[4] These inscriptions are on many types of loose
objects, but the North Germanic tradition shows a pref-
erence for bracteates, while the South Germanic one has
a preference for bulae. The precise gures are debatable
because some inscriptions are very short and/or illegible
so that it is uncertain whether they qualify as an inscrip-
tion at all.
Especially the earliest inscriptions are found on all types
The division into Scandinavian, North Sea (Anglo- of everyday objects. Later, a preference for valuable or
Frisian), and South Germanic inscription makes sense prestigious objects (jewelry or weapons) seems to de-
from the 5th century. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the velop, inscriptions often indicating ownership.
Elder Futhark script is still in its early phase of devel-
opment, with inscriptions concentrated in what is now
Denmark and Northern Germany.
The tradition of runic literacy continues in Scandinavia
into the Viking Age, developing into the Younger Futhark
script. Close to 6,000 Younger Futhark inscriptions are
known, many of them on runestones.[5]
6.1 Statistics
6.1.1 Number of known inscriptions
The following table lists the number of known inscrip-
tions (in any alphabet variant) by geographical region:
literati, in relation to the total population, at any time,
so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual
secret throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances
excavated at Illerup, only 2 bore inscriptions. A simi-
lar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated
170 excavated graves to every inscription found (Lthi
2004:323) Estimates of the total number of inscriptions
produced are based on the minimal runological esti-
mate of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions
per year for four centuries). The actual number was prob-
ably considerably higher, maybe close to 400,000 in total,
so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down
to us), and Fischer (2004:281) estimates a population of
several hundred active literati throughout the period, with
as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic runic boom of
the 6th century.
6.2 Types of inscribed objects
jewelry
bracteates: some 133 Elder Futhark in-
scriptions, popular during the Scandinavian
Germanic Iron Age / Vendel era
bulae: some 50 Elder Futhark inscriptions,
popular in 6th to 7th century Alemannia
brooches: Boarley (Kent), Harford (Norfolk)
brooch, West Heslerton (North Yorkshire),
Wakerley (Northamptonshire), Dover (Kent)
belt parts (plaques, buckles, strap-ends): Vi-
mose buckle, Pforzen buckle, Heilbronn-
Bckingen, Szabadbattyan

32
6.4. SCANDINAVIAN 33

rings: six known Anglo-Saxon runic rings, southern Scandinavia, northern Germany and Frisia (the
a few examples from Alemannia (Vrstetten- North Sea Germanic runic Koine"), with stray nds asso-
Schupfholz, Pforzen, Aalen neck-ring) ciated with the Goths from Romania and Ukraine. Lin-
amber: Weingarten amber-pearl guistically, the 3rd and 4th centuries correspond to the
formation of Proto-Norse, just predating the separation
Weapon parts of West Germanic into Anglo-Frisian, Low German and
High German.
seaxes: Thames scramasax, Steindorf, Hailn-
gen
Vimose inscriptions (6 objects, AD 160-300)
spearheads: Vimose, Kovel, Dahmsdorf-
Mncheberg, Wurmlingen
Ovre Stabu spearhead (c. 180), raunijaz
swords and sword-sheaths: Vimose chape, Vi-
mose sheathplate, Thorsberg chape, Schret-
Thorsberg chape (AD 200)
zheim ring-sword, Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt sil-
ver sword pommel, Chessel Down II (Isle of
Wight) silver plate (attached to the scabbard Mos spearhead (c. 300), gaois(?)[6]
mouthpiece of a ring-sword), Sb sword
Nydam axe-handle (4th century): wagagastiz /
coins: Skanomody solidus, Harlingen solidus, alu:??hgusikijaz:aialataz
Schweindorf solidus, Folkestone tremissis, Midlum
sceat, Kent II coins (some 30 items), Kent III, IV Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus (AD 400)
silver sceattas, Suolk gold shillings (three items),
Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items)
Illerup inscriptions (9 objects)
boxes or containers: Franks Casket, Schretzheim
capsule, Gammertingen case, Ferwerd combcase,
Kantens combcase
6.4 Scandinavian
runestones: from about AD 400, very popular for
Viking Age Younger Futhark inscriptions Further information: Sveriges runinskrifter, bracteate,
bone: Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus, Rasquert and Runestone
swordhandle (whalebone handle of a symbolic
sword), Hantum whalebone plate, Bernsterburen About 260 items in Elder Futhark, and close to 6,000
whalebone sta, Hamwick horse knucklebone, Wi- items (mostly runestones) in Younger Futhark. The high-
jnaldum A antler piece est concentration of Elder Futhark inscriptions is in Den-
mark.
pieces of wood: Vimose woodplane, Neudin-
gen/Baar, Arum sword (a yew-wood miniature An important Proto-Norse inscription was on one of the
sword), Westeremden yew-stick Golden horns of Gallehus (early 5th century). A total of
133 known inscriptions on bracteates. There are several
cremation urns: Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire), Spong legible and partly interpretable inscription that date from
Hill (Norfolk) the 1st half of the 5th century such as a Silver neck ring
found near Aalen with noru inscribed in runic alpha-
the Kleines Schulerloch inscription is a singular ex- bets on its inner edge. others discoveries were unearthed
ample of an inscription on a cave wall around Germany, Denmark, Norway, Hungary, Belgium,
spindle whorls England and Bosnia.[7][8]
The oldest known runestones date to the early 5th cen-
tury (Einang stone, Kylver Stone). The longest known
6.3 Early period (2nd to 4th cen- inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest,
consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early
turies) 8th-century Eggjum stone, and may even contain a stanza
of Old Norse poetry.
Further information: Alu (runic) and Erilaz The transition to Younger Futhark begins from the 6th
century, with transitional examples like the Bjrketorp or
The earliest period of Elder Futhark (2nd to 4th cen- Stentoften stones. In the early 9th century, both the older
turies) predates the division in regional script variants, and the younger futhark were known and used, which is
and linguistically essentially still reect the Common shown on the Rk Runestone. By the 10th century, only
Germanic stage. Their distribution is mostly limited to Younger Futhark remained in use.
34 CHAPTER 6. RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

6.5 Anglo-Frisian manic Koine. Most of these originate in southern Ger-

many (Baden-Wrttemberg and Bavaria), with a single
Main article: Futhorc Inscriptions one found south of the Rhine (Blach bula, found in
Blach, Switzerland), and a handful from Eastern Europe
(Poland, Romania, Ukraine).
Some 100 items spanning the 5th to 11th centuries. The
5th-century Undley bracteate is considered the earliest A silver-plated copper disk, originally part of a sword-
known Anglo-Frisian inscription. belt, found at Liebenau, Lower Saxony with an early 5th-
century runic inscription (mostly illegible, interpreted as
The 8th-century Franks Casket, preserved during the possibly reading rauzwih) is classed as the earliest South
Middle Ages in Brioude, central France, exhibits the Germanic (German) inscription known by the RGA (vol.
longest coherent inscriptions in Anglo-Saxon runes by far, 6, p. 576); the location of Liebenau is close to the bound-
including ve alliterating long-lines, qualifying as the old- ary of the North Sea and South Germanic zones.
est preserved Anglo-Saxon poetry.
Siglas Poveiras in Povoa de Varzim, Portugal are also a
While the Nordic bracteates are jewelry imitating Roman type of writing based on the Viking runes. The siglas
gold coins, there were a number of actual coins (currency) were rst studied by Antnio de Santos Graa in his book
in Anglo-Saxon England inscribed with runes, notably the Epopeia dos Humildes (The Odyssey of the Humble).
coins from Kent, inscribed with pada, pa and epa (early Published in 1952, the book contains hundreds of siglas
7th century). and the history and maritime tragedy of Pvoa. Other
There are a number of Christian inscriptions from the works of his are O Poveiro (The Poveiro, 1932), A
time of Christianization. St. Cuthberts con, dated Crena do Poveiro nas Almas Penadas (Poveiro Beliefs
to 698, even has a runic monogram of Christ, and the Regarding Dead Souls, 1933) e Inscries Tumulares
Whitby II bone comb (7th century) has a pious plea for por Siglas (Tomb Inscriptions Using Siglas, 1942).
Gods help, deus meus, god aluwaldo, help Cy my After a visit to the National Museet in Copenhagen, Oc-
God, almighty God, help Cy". The Ruthwell Cross in- tvio Lixa Filgueiras, by accident, found objects marked
scription could also be mentioned, but its authenticity is with home-marks from Funen in Denmark. Moreover,
dubious; it might have been added only in the 10th cen- the complex hereditary mark system of Pvoa de Varzim
tury. was also found in Funen.
Unlike the situation on the continent, the tradition of The Siglas development is at least, partly, attributed to
runic writing does not disappear in England after Chris- Vikings that settled in the town during the 10th century
tianization but continues for a full three centuries, dis- and 11th century. This form of primitive writing de-
appearing after the Norman conquest. A type of object veloped within the community of Pvoa de Varzim was
unique to Christianized Anglo-Saxon England are the six kept due to the practice of endogamy. Also, the simi-
known Anglo-Saxon runic rings of the 9th to 10th cen- larity with the Scandinavian tradition of using specic
turies. bomrken (homestead marks) for signatures and for
marking property has also been noted.

6.6 Continental 6.6.1 Gothic

Further information: Elder Futhark Continental Main article: Gothic runic inscriptions
inscriptions
Out of about a dozen candidate inscriptions, only three
Apart from the earliest inscriptions found on the conti- are widely accepted to be of Gothic origin: the gold ring
nent along the North Sea coast (the North Germanic of Pietroassa, bearing a votive inscription, part of a larger
Koine", Martin 2004:173), continental inscriptions can be treasure found in the Romanian Carpathians, and two
divided in those of the Alemannic runic province (Mar- spearheads inscribed with what is probably the weapons
tin 2004), with a few dozen examples dating to the 6th name, one found in the Ukrainian Carpathians, and the
and 7th centuries, and those associated with the Goths, other in eastern Germany, near the Oder.
loosely scattered along the Oder to south-eastern Poland,
The inscription on the spearhead of Kovel, found in
as far as the Carpathian Mountains (e.g. the ring of Ukraine (now lost) is a special case. Its date is very early
Pietroassa in Romania), dating to the 4th and 5th cen-
(3rd century) and it shows a mixture of runic and Latin
turies. The cessation of both the Gothic and Alemannic
letters, reading <T D > or <TI RIDS> (the i, r
runic tradition coincides with the Christianization of the
and s letters being identical in the Elder Futhark and Latin
respective peoples. scripts), and may thus reect a stage of development be-
Lthi (2004:321) identies a total of about 81 con- fore the runes became xed as a separate script in its own
tinental inscriptions found south of the North Ger- right.
6.7. REFERENCES 35

6.6.2 Alemannic as arab by Dwel (1997). Schwab (1998:378) reads

abra, interpreting it as abbreviating the magic word
The known inscriptions from Alemannia mostly date to Abraxas, suggesting inuence of the magic tradi-
the century between AD 520 and 620. There are some tions of Late Antiquity, and the Christian practice
70 inscriptions in total, about half of them on bulae. of arranging monograms on the arms of a cross.
Some are explicitly dedications among lovers, containing
leub beloved, or in the case of the Blach bula fridil Kleines Schulerloch inscription, of dubious authen-
lover. Most were found in Germany, in the states of ticity and possibly a hoax. Considered an obvious
Baden-Wrttemberg and Bavaria. A lesser number origi- falsication by Looijenga (2003: 223). Reads birg
nates in Hessen and Rheinland-Pfalz, and outside of Ger- : leub : selbrade.
many there is a single example from Switzerland, and a
small number of what are likely Burgundian inscriptions A small number of inscriptions found in eastern France
from eastern France. may be Burgundian rather than Alemannic:
The precise number of inscriptions is debatable, as some
proposed inscriptions consist of a single sign, or a row of the Arguel pebble (considered an obvious fal-
signs that may also be rune-like, in imitation of writ- sication by Looijenga): arbitag | wodan |
ing, or purely ornamental. For example, a ring found in lugo[?h]azej | kim |
Bopngen has been interpreted as being inscribed with
a single g, i.e. a simple X-shape that may also be or- the Charnay Fibula: fuarkgwhnijpstbem | '
namental. Most interpretable inscriptions contain per- uf[?]ai ' id | dan ' (l)iano | ia | [?]r |
sonal names, and only ten inscriptions contain more than
one interpretable word. Of these, four translate to "(PN)
wrote the runes.[9] 6.6.3 Frankish
The other six long interpretable inscriptions are:
Very few inscriptions can be associated with the Franks,
reecting their early Romanization and Christianization.
Pforzen buckle: aigil andi alrun / ltahu gasokun An important nd is the Bergakker inscription, suggested
(Aigil and Ailrun fought [at the Ilz River?]") as recording 5th-century Old Frankish. The only other in-
Nordendorf I bula: logaorewodanwigionar scription denitely classied as Frankish is the Borgharen
[12]
(three theonyms, or Wodan and Wigi-onar are buckle, reading bobo (a Frankish personal name).
magicians/sorcerers)

Schretzheim case: arogisd / alaguleuba : dedun 6.7 References

(Arogast / Alaguth [and] Leubo (Beloved) made
it)
Schretzheim bula: siwagadin leubo (to
the Traveller (Wotan?), [from] Leubo (Beloved)",
or perhaps love to my travel-companion or
similar)[10]
Osthofen: madali umbada (Madali, protection)
Bad Ems bula: god fura dih deole (God
for/before you, devil/Theophilus. The inscription
is one of the youngest of the Alemannic sphere, dat-
ing to between 660 and 690, and clearly reects a
Christianized background).[11]
Other notable inscriptions:
Blach bula: frifridil du aftm
Wurmlingen spearhead, from an Alemannic grave
in Wurmlingen, inscription read as a personal name
(i)dorih (Ido-rh or Dor-rh)
[1] not including the inscriptions in medieval runes in Swe-
den, and the early modern and modern inscriptions in
Dalecarlian runes.
[2] runic alphabet | writing system. Encyclopedia Britan-
nica. Retrieved 2017-05-24.
[3] Fischer 2004:281
[4] Lthi 2004:321
[5] Runic alphabets / Runes / Futhark. www.omniglot.com.
Retrieved 2017-05-24.
[6] The oldest known runic inscription from Sweden is found
on a spearhead, recovered from a grave at Mos in the
parish of Stenkyrka in Gotland. The inscription, consist-
ing of only ve runes, might be dated to the end of the
third century of our era. Sven Birger Fredrik Jansson,
The runes of Sweden, Bedminster Press, 1962, pp. iii-iv.
[7] Looijenga, Tineke (2014). Runes, Runology and Runol-
ogists (PDF).

Schretzheim ring-sword: the sword blade has four [8] Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD
runes arranged so that the staves form a cross. Read 150-700 (PDF).
36 CHAPTER 6. RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

[9] Karin Lthi, 'South Germanic runic inscriptions as tes-
timonies of early literacy, in: Marie Stoklund, Michael
Lerche Nielsen, Gillian Fellows-Jensen, Bente Holmberg
(eds.), Runes and their secrets: studies in runology, Vol-
ume 2000, Museum Tusculanum Press, 2006, 172f.
Spurkland, Terje (2005). Norwegian Runes and
Runic Inscriptions, Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-
186-4

[10] Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, s.v. 6.8 External links

Schretzheim.

[11] Wolfgang Jungandreas, 'God fura dih, deole ' in:

Runenprojekt Kiel (in German)
Zeitschrift fr deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur, Samnordisk runtextdatabas (in Swedish)
101, 1972, pp. 84-85.
Gamla Runinskrifter (in Swedish)
[12] Looijenga, Tineke. , Two Runic nds from the Nether-
lands - both with a Frankish connection. In: Essays on
the early Franks, ed. Taayke, Ernst. Barkhuis 2003, 231-
240.

Brate, Erik (1922). Sveriges Runinskrifter, (online

text in Swedish)

Fischer, Svante (2004). Alemannia and the North

Early Runic Contexts Apart (400800)". In
Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter, Franziska; et al.
Alemannien und der Norden. Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter. pp. 266317. ISBN 3-11-017891-5.

Ilkjr, Jrgen (1996a). Runeindskrifter fra mose-

fund i Danmark - kontekst og oprindelse in Frisian
Runes and Neighbouring Traditions. Rodopi

Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (194142). Danmarks

Runeindskrifter. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards
Forlag.

Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997). Runes around the

North Sea and on the Continent AD 150700, disser-
tation, Groningen University.

Looijenga, Tineke (2004). Texts and Contexts of the

Oldest Runic Inscriptions. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-
04-12396-2.

Lthi, Katrin (2004). Von ruhild und Hariso:

Alemannische und ltere skandinavische Runenkul-
tur im Vergleich. In Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter,
Franziska; et al. Alemannien und der Norden.
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 318339. ISBN
3-11-017891-5.

MacLeod, Mindy, and Mees, Bernard (2006).

Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press:
Woodbridge, UK; Rochester, NY, ISBN 1-84383-
205-4.

Martin, Max (2004). Kontinentalgermanische

Runeninschriften und 'Alamannische Runenprov-
inz'". In Naumann, Hans-Peter; Lanter, Franziska;
et al. Alemannien und der Norden. Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter. pp. 165212. ISBN 3-11-017891-5.

Nowak, Sean (2003). Schrift auf den Goldbrak-

teaten der Vlkerwanderungszeit, Diss. Gttingen.
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Gravitone2, Deanlaw, EoGuy, Niceguyedc, Dan Kogosov, Runvitnir, Rapidringneurons, DumZiBoT, CBMIBM, Eleven even, Good Ol-
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38 CHAPTER 6. RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

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shJustin, Skysmith, AnonMoos, Phil Boswell, Modulatum, J. 'mach' wust, Evertype, Neutrality, TheBlueWizard, Rich Farmbrough,
Dbachmann, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Ogress, Grutness, Ruud Koot, GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Cethegus, Cassowary, Jimp,
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der235, Rjwilmsi, Mark Ironie, Bloodofox, Perry Middlemiss, SmackBot, Wakuran, Septegram, Hmains, John, Beetstra, Davemon,
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inus, Helpful Pixie Bot, Fylbecatulous, BattyBot, Fiddlersmouth, ThormodMorrisson, AntoninBouda, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
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6.9.2 Images
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wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sendelbach (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
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Museum_Runic_Silver_Animal_Head.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BabelStone
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nal artist: ?
6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 39

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gif/18px-Flag_Schutzstaffel.gif' width='18' height='12' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Flag_
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utors: ? Original artist: ?
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main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tasnu Arakun
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License: Public domain Contributors: Agrell, Sigurd Lapptrummor och runmagi (1934) Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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File:Mjollnir.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Mjollnir.png License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Ogham_futhark_ballymote.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Ogham_futhark_ballymote.png
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Rune-Beorc.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Rune-Beorc.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Cen.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Rune-Cen.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Cweor.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Rune-Cweor%C3%B0.png License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-DoubleCalc.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Rune-DoubleCalc.png License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Dg.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Rune-D%C3%A6g.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Ear.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Rune-Ear.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
40 CHAPTER 6. RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

File:Rune-Eh.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Rune-Eh.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Eoh.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Rune-Eoh.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Eolh.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Rune-Eolh.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Eel.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Rune-E%C3%B0el.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Feoh.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Rune-Feoh.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Gyfu.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Rune-Gyfu.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Hgl.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Rune-H%C3%A6gl.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Ing.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Rune-Ing.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Ior.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Rune-Ior.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Is.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Rune-Is.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Lagu.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Rune-Lagu.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Mann.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Rune-Mann.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Nyd.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Rune-Nyd.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Peor.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Rune-Peor%C3%B0.png License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Rad.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Rune-Rad.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Sigel.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Rune-Sigel.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Stan.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Rune-Stan.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Stan2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Rune-Stan2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Thorn.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Rune-Thorn.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Tir.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Rune-Tir.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Ur.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Rune-Ur.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Wynn.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Rune-Wynn.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Rune-Yr.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Rune-Yr.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Rune-calc.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Rune-calc.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: U+16E3 in the Unicode U16A0 block Original artist: Adam Cuerden
File:Runen_Schlagstempel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Runen_Schlagstempel.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrgould
File:Runes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Runes.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Origi-
nally uploaded to en:Wikipedia (log) by Nickfraser (talk). Original artist: Nick Fraser
File:Runic_letter_ac.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Runic_letter_ac.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Based on the Junicode font Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_algiz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Runic_letter_algiz.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_algiz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Runic_letter_algiz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter algiz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_ansuz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Runic_letter_ansuz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_ansuz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Runic_letter_ansuz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter ansuz.png. Original artist: ClaesWallin
6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 41

File:Runic_letter_berkanan.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Runic_letter_berkanan.png License:

Public domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_berkanan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Runic_letter_berkanan.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter berkanan.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_dagaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Runic_letter_dagaz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_dagaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Runic_letter_dagaz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter dagaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_ehwaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Runic_letter_ehwaz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_ehwaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Runic_letter_ehwaz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter ehwaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_fehu.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Runic_letter_fehu.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_fehu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Runic_letter_fehu.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter fehu.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_gar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Runic_letter_gar.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Based on the Junicode font Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_gebo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Runic_letter_gebo.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_gebo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Runic_letter_gebo.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter gebo.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_ger.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Runic_letter_ger.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Based on the Junicode font Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_haglaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Runic_letter_haglaz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_haglaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Runic_letter_haglaz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter haglaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_haglaz_variant.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Runic_letter_haglaz_variant.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Based on File:Runic letter haglaz.svg Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_ingwaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Runic_letter_ingwaz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_ingwaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Runic_letter_ingwaz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter ingwaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_ingwaz_variant.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Runic_letter_ingwaz_variant.
png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Runic_letter_ingwaz_variant.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Runic_letter_ingwaz_variant.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on File:Rune-Ing.png Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_isaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Runic_letter_isaz.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_isaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Runic_letter_isaz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic_letter_isaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_iwaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Runic_letter_iwaz.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_iwaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Runic_letter_iwaz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter iwaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_jeran.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Runic_letter_jeran.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_jeran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Runic_letter_jeran.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic_letter_jeran.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_kauna.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Runic_letter_kauna.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_kauna.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Runic_letter_kauna.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter kauna.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_laukaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Runic_letter_laukaz.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_laukaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Runic_letter_laukaz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter laukaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_mannaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Runic_letter_mannaz.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_mannaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Runic_letter_mannaz.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter mannaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
42 CHAPTER 6. RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS

File:Runic_letter_naudiz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Runic_letter_naudiz.png License: Public

domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_naudiz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Runic_letter_naudiz.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter naudiz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_os.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Runic_letter_os.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Based on the Junicode font Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_othalan.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Runic_letter_othalan.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_othalan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Runic_letter_othalan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter othalan.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_pertho.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Runic_letter_pertho.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_pertho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Runic_letter_pertho.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter pertho.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_raido.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Runic_letter_raido.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: modication of the glyph in the Junicode font Original artist: Alatius
File:Runic_letter_raido.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Runic_letter_raido.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on original version by ClaesWallin, which in turn was based on Runic letter raido.png, which was based on the
Junicode font. Original artist: Alatius
File:Runic_letter_sowilo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Runic_letter_sowilo.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_sowilo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Runic_letter_sowilo.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter sowilo.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_sowilo_variant.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Runic_letter_sowilo_variant.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: File:Runic letter sowilo variant.png Original artist: Glanthor Reviol
File:Runic_letter_thurisaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Runic_letter_thurisaz.png License:
Public domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_thurisaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Runic_letter_thurisaz.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter thurisaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_tiwaz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Runic_letter_tiwaz.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_tiwaz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Runic_letter_tiwaz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter tiwaz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_uruz.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Runic_letter_uruz.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_uruz.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Runic_letter_uruz.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Based on Runic letter uruz.png, which was based on the Junicode font. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Runic_letter_wunjo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Runic_letter_wunjo.png License: Public
domain Contributors: selfmade image using the free Junicode font Original artist: BK
File:Runic_letter_wunjo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Runic_letter_wunjo.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Based on Runic letter wunjo.png. Original artist: ClaesWallin
File:Rkstenen_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/R%C3%B6kstenen_1.JPG License: CC BY 1.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bengt Olof RADSSON
File:Saleby_kyrkklocka,_Vstergtland.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Saleby_kyrkklocka%
2C_V%C3%A4sterg%C3%B6tland.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Sigurd.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Sigurd.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From
the Nordisk familjebok Original artist:
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Own work Original artist: Moshroum
File:Vaksalastenen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Vaksalastenen.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Venetic_Raetic_Camunic_Lepontic_alphabets.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Venetic_
Raetic_Camunic_Lepontic_alphabets.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Barbax
File:Vg_135,_Hassla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Vg_135%2C_Hassla.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Jungner, Hugo; Elisabeth Svrdstrm (1940-1971). Sveriges runinskrifter: V. Vstergtlands runinskrifter. Stockholm:
Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. ISSN 0562-8016. p. 260 Original artist: Ulf Christofersson
6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 43

File:Viking_futhark_on_bone_lund_sweden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Viking_futhark_

on_bone_lund_sweden.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tasnu Arakun

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