TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Objective ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Type of processes .................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1 Self-Regulating Process .................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Non Self-Regulating Process .......................................................................................... 3
1.3 Background History ................................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Definition ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.5.1 Proportional Action ......................................................................................................... 6
1.5.2 Integral Action ................................................................................................................ 6
1.5.3 Derivative Action ............................................................................................................ 7
1.5.4 Controller gain ................................................................................................................ 7
1.5.5 Deadtime ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Effect of increasing or decreasing value of P,I &D toward process response ........................ 8
1.7 Performance measurement criteria.......................................................................................... 8
1.8 Method to tune PID controller ................................................................................................ 9
1.8.1 Trial and Error Method ................................................................................................... 9
1.8.2 Ziegler-Nichols Method .................................................................................................. 9
1.9 Set point test and load disturbance test ................................................................................. 11
1.9.1 Open loop operation ...................................................................................................... 11
1.9.2 Closed-loop operation ................................................................................................... 12
1.0 CHAPTER 1

1.1 Objective
Objective of this study is to determine the effect of PIDs parameters to the process
controllability. To study the effect of controller gain, effect of integral time, effect of
derivative time and effect of deadtime on the control loop process.

1.2 Type of processes

1.2.1 Self-Regulating Process

Self-regulating processes are processes that are inherently self-regulating. Self-regulated
processes have built-in feedback characteristics that cause the process to tend towards self-
regulation. An example of a self-regulating process is a tank of water with an input of water
entering the tank and an output of water leaving the tank. Lets say the water level in the tank
is constant at 10 inches. Water enters the tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute and leaves
the tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute. As long as this balance is maintained, water level
in the tank will remain constant at 10 inches.

What happens if the outlet valve is opened an 1/8 of a turn and water leaving the tank
changes to a rate of 25 gallons per minute?

Since this is a self-regulating process, the level will actually stabilize at a new position and
maintain that position. Flow out of the tank is proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure across the output valve. As level decreases, the differential pressure will
also decrease, causing the rate of drainage to decrease. At some point, the drainage rate will
once again equal the fill rate, and the tank will reach a new equilibrium point.

Time Constants

Every self-regulated process has a time constant associated with it. The time constant is the
amount of time it takes the process to change 63.2% of the final value of the process. In this
example, the process changes by 10%. The time it takes to change 6.32 inches (63.2% of 10
inches), is the time constant. It takes five time constants in order for the process to complete
the total change.
Process Gain

The time constant is affected by the capacity of the process and the process resistance to
change. The larger the process capacity, the longer the time constant, and the more resistive
elements in the process (small pipes, penetrations, valves, etc), the longer the time constant.

Dead Time

Dead time, by definition, is the time difference between when a change occurs in a process
and when the change is detected. Dead time exists in all processes and is a factor in the
control loop control, which must be addressed when turning the loop.

1.2.2 Non Self-Regulating Process

A non self-regulating process is one where the process does not tend towards self-regulation.
These processes have no self-regulating feedback characteristics and will tend towards being
unstable if not controlled externally.

Take, for example, the initial scenario. The water level in the tank is constant at 10 inches.
Water enters and leaves the tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute. In this process, instead of
having a discharge valve on the tank, a positive displacement pump is used to drain the water.
As long as the balance is maintained, water level in the tank will remain constant at 10
inches.

If we increase the discharge rate of the positive displacement pump to 25 gallons per minute,
what will happen? Initially, as with the self-regulating process shown before, we are
removing 5 more gallons per minute from the tank than we are putting in the tank. This
causes the level to drop. However, unlike the self-regulated process, this drop in level does
not affect the flow out of the tank. A positive displacement pump will discharge a set flow
rate regardless of head pressure. The pump will continue to discharge at a rate of 25 gallons
per minute until the tank is completely empty.
1.3 Background History

Back in 1788, James Watt included a flyball governor, the first mechanical feedback device
with only a proportional function, into his steam engine. The flyball governor controlled the
speed by applying more steam to the engine when the speed dropped lower than a set point,
and vice versa. After that, taylor Instrumental Company introduced the first pneumatic
controller with a fully tunable proportional controller.
However, a proportional controller is not sufficient to control speed thoroughly, as it
amplifies error by multiplying it by some constant (Kp). The error generated is eventually
small, but not zero. In the other words, it generates a steady state error each time the
controller responds to the load.

Around 1930s, control engineers discovered that steady state error can be eliminated by
resetting set point to some artificial higher or lower value, as long as the error nonzero. This
resetting operation integrates the error, and the result is added to the proportional term; today
is known as Proportional Integral Controller. In 1934-1935, Focboro introduced the first PI
controller. However, PI controllers can over-correct errors and cause closed-loop instability.
This happens when the controller reacts too fast and too aggressively; it creates a new set
errors, even opposite to the real error. This is known as hunting problem.

In the mid 1950s, automatic controllers were widely adopted in industries. A report from the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of United Kingdom state, Modern
controlling units may be operated mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electrically.
The pneumatic type is technically the most advanced and many reliable designs are available.
It is thought that more than 90 percent of the existing units are pneumatic. The report
indicated the need to implement controllers in electrical and electronic form.
1.4 Theory

Figure 1.4.1: PID control system

()
() = (1 + + () )

Where is the PID control gain,() is the integral gain, () is the derivative gain

Proportional Response

The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point and the
process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The proportional
gain (Kc) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal. For instance, if the error
term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce a proportional response
of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will increase the speed of the control
system response. However, if the proportional gain is too large, the process variable will
begin to oscillate. If Kc is increased further, the oscillations will become larger and the
system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control.

Integral Response

The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small error
term will cause the integral component to increase slowly. The integral response will
continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the effect is to drive the Steady-
State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the process variable and
set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when integral action saturates a
controller without the controller driving the error signal toward zero.

Derivative Response

The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is increasing
rapidly. The derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable.
Increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter will cause the control system to react more
strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed of the overall control system
response. Most practical control systems use very small derivative time (Td), because the
Derivative Response is highly sensitive to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor
feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can
make the control system unstable

1.5 Definition

1.5.1 Proportional Action

Proportional (P) control has a function in determining the magnitude of the difference
between the set point and the process variable which is indicated as error. Then this
proportional control will applies appropriate proportional changes to the control variable to
eliminate error. Many control systems will, in fact, work quite well with only Proportional
control due to it fast response time and its ability to minimize fluctuation. However, it
contains large offset. It is an instantaneous response to the control error for improving the
response of a stable system. Contrastly, it cannot control an unstable system by itself.
Therefore when the frequencies leaving the system , the gain is the same with a nonzero
steady-state error.

1.5.2 Integral Action

Integral (I) control usually examines the offset of set point and the process variable
over time and corrects it when and if necessary. This integral control has small offset and
always return to steady state but it leads to slow response time. Integral action drives the
steady-state error towards 0 but slows the response since the error must accumulate before a
significant response is output from the controler. Since an integrator introduces a system pole
at the origin, an integrator can be detrimental to loop stability. Only controllers with
integrators can wind-up where, through actuatorsaturation, the loop is unable to comply with
the control command and the error builds until the situation is corrected.
1.5.3 Derivative Action
Derivative (D) control, monitored the rate of change of the process variable and consequently
makes changes to the output variable to provide unusual changes. When there is a "process
upset", meaning, when the process variable or the set point quickly changes - the PID
controller has to quickly change the output to get the process variable back equal to the set
point. Once the PID controller has the process variable equal to the set point, a good PID
controller will not vary the output. Thus, there are two responses occur such as fast response
(fast change in output) when there is a "process upset", but slow response (steady output).

1.5.4 Controller gain

The proportional gain (Kc) determines the ratio of output response to the error signal.
For instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce
a proportional response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will increase the
speed of the control system response. However, if the proportional gain is too large, the
process variable will begin to oscillate. If Kc is increased further, the oscillations will become
larger and the system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control.

1.5.5 Deadtime
Deadtime is a delay between when a process variable changes, and when that change
can be observed. For instance, if a temperature sensor is placed far away from a cold water
fluid inlet valve, it will not measure a change in temperature immediately if the valve is
opened or closed. Deadtime can also be caused by a system or output actuator that is slow to
respond to the control command, for instance, a valve that is slow to open or close. A
common source of deadtime in chemical plants is the delay caused by the flow of fluid
through pipes.
1.6 Effect of increasing or decreasing value of P,I &D toward process response

When parameters of an existing controller have to be tuned, there will be a problem in

the identification of PID controller. Controller structure has to be determined since
manufacturers do not provide data on controller structure whether serial or parallel. Manual
tuning of controller parameters had to be done if they are changed with time. Other than that,
manual tuning of controller parameters also had to be done when change in process
parameters occurred. Manual parameter tuning can be done using trial and error and if rules
shown in the table below:

Parameter Speed of Response Stability Accuracy

Increasing K Increases Deteriorate Improves
Increasing Ki Decreases Deteriorate Improves
Increasing Kd increases Improves No effect

1.7 Performance measurement criteria

Settling time : The time at which the PV reaches 5% of the total change in the

process variable (PV).

Overshoot : Most notably associated with P-only controllers, is the difference fromthe SP
to where the PV settles out at a steady state value.

Decay ratio : The size of the second peak above the new steady state divided by thesize of
the first peak above the same steady state level
1.8 Method to tune PID controller

There are few tuning methods that have been introduced to obtain fast and acceptable
performance.

1.8.1 Trial and Error Method

a. The simple method of tuning PID controller. Once we get the clear
understanding of PID parameters, the trial and error method become relatively
easy.
i. Set integral and derivative terms to zero first and then increase the
proportional gain until the output of the control loop oscillates at a
constant rate. The increase of proportional gain should be in such that
response the system become faster provided it should not make system
unstable.
ii. Once the P-response is fast enough, set the integral term, so that the
oscillations will be gradually reduced. Change this I-value until the
steady state error is reduced, but it may increase overshoot.
iii. Once P and I parameters have been set to a desired values with
minimal steady state error, increase the derivative gain until the system
reacts quickly to its set point. Increasing derivative term decreases the
overshoot of the controller response.

1.8.2 Ziegler-Nichols Method

b. It is another popular method for tuning PID controllers. Ziegler and Nichols
presented two classical methods for determining values of proportional gain,
integral time and derivative time based on transient response characteristics of
a given plant or system.
i. First Method
1. Obtain a unit step response of the plant experimentally and it
may looks shaped curve as shown in figure below. This
method applies, if obtained response exhibit s-shaped curve for
unit step input otherwise it cannot be applied. This curve can
also be obtained by dynamic simulation of the plant.
 2. Obtain two constants, delay time L and time constant T by
drawing a tangent line at the inflection point of the s-shaped
curve.
3. Set the parameters of Kp, Ti, and Td values from the table
given below for three types of controllers.
ii. Second Method
1. It is very similar to the trial and error method where integral
and derivative terms are set to the zero, i.e., making Ti infinity
and Td zero.
2. Increase the proportional gain such that the output exhibits
sustained oscillations. If the system does not produce sustained
oscillations then this method cannot be applied. The gain at
which sustained oscillations produced is called as critical gain.
3. Once the sustain oscillations are produced, set the values of Ti
and Td as per the given table for P, PI and PID controllers
based on critical gain and critical period.
1.9 Set point test and load disturbance test

The principal objective of a feedback controller is typically either disturbance

rejection or setpoint tracking. A controller designed to reject disturbances will take action to
force the process variable back toward the desired setpoint whenever a disturbance or load on
the process causes a deviation.

A cars cruise controller, for example, will throttle up the engine whenever it detects a drop in
the cars speed during an uphill climb. It will continue working to reject or overcome the
extra load on the car until the car is once again moving as fast as the driver originally
specified. Disturbance-rejection controllers are best suited for applications where the setpoint
is constant and the process variable is required to stay close to it.

In contrast, a setpoint-tracking controller is appropriate when the setpoint is expected to

change frequently and the controller is required to raise or lower the process variable
accordingly. A luxury car equipped with an automatic temperature controller will track a
changing setpoint by adjusting the heaters output whenever a new driver calls for a new
interior temperature.

Disturbance-rejection and setpoint-tracking controllers can each do the job of the other (a
cruise controller can increase the cars speed when the driver wants to go faster, and the cars
temperature controller can cut back the heating when the sun comes out),
but optimal performance generally requires that a controller be designed or tuned for one role
or the other. To see why, consider the feedback loop shown in the Control Loop diagram and
the effects of an abrupt disturbance to the process or an abrupt change in the process
variables setpoint.

1.9.1 Open loop operation

First, suppose that the feedback path is disabled so that the controller is operating in open-
loop mode. After a disturbance, the process variable will begin to change according to the
magnitude of the load and the physical characteristics of the process. In the cruise control
example, the sudden resistance added by the hill will start to decelerate the car according to
the hills steepness and the cars inertia.
As a result, the mathematical inertia of the controller combines with the physical inertia of
the process to make the processs response to a setpoint change slower than its response to an
abrupt disturbance. This is especially true when the controller is equipped with integral
action. The I component of a PID controller tends to filter or average-out the effects of a
setpoint change by introducing a time lag that limits the rate at which the resulting control
effort can change.

In the car temperature control example, this phenomenon is evident when the controller starts
turning up the heat upon receiving the drivers request for a warmer interior. The cars heater
will in turn begin to raise the cars temperature at a rate that depends on how aggressively the
controller is tuned and how quickly the interior temperature reacts to the heaters efforts. A
direct disturbance such as a burst of sunshine would typically raise the cars temperature at a
much faster rate because the effects of the disturbance would not depend on the controller
ramping up first.

1.9.2 Closed-loop operation

Of course an open-loop controller cant really reject disturbances nor track setpoint changes
without feedback, unless the controller happens to be equipped with setpoint filtering, the
setpoint response will remain slower than the disturbance response by exactly the same
amount as in the open-loop case.

But since that difference in response times is attributable entirely to the time lag of the
controller, one might wonder if it would still be possible to design a setpoint-tracking
controller that is just as fast as its disturbance-rejection counterpart by tuning it to respond
instantaneously to a setpoint change.

That wont work either. Eliminating the controllers time lag would require disabling its
integral action, and that would prevent the process variable from ever reaching the setpoint.
On the other hand, the controllers mathematical inertia can be minimized without completely
defeating its ability to eliminate errors between the process variable and the setpoint. A fast
setpoint-tracking controller would require particularly aggressive tuning, but that shouldnt
be a problem so long as the controller never needs to reject a disturbance. But if an
unexpected load ever does disturb the process abruptly, a setpoint-tracking controller will
tend to overreact and cause the process variable to oscillate unnecessarily.