Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Maxwell didn't invent all these equations, but rather he combined the four equations made by Gauss (also Coulomb), Faraday,
and Ampere.
But Maxwell added one piece of information into Ampere's law (the 4th equation) -Displacement Current, which makes the
equation complete.
The combination of equations 3 and 4 can explain electromagnetic wave (such as light) which can propagate on its own.
The combination says that a changing magnetic field produces a changing electric field, and this changing electric field
produces another changing magnetic field. Thus the cycle continues and an electromagnetic wave is made and propagates
through the space.
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATIONS
Maxwell's equations can be expressed in two forms:
Gauss's Law
for Static Electric Fields
Faraday's Law of
Induction
Changing magnetic flux through a surface induces an electromotive force (EMF) in any
boundary path of that surface.
A changing magnetic field induces a circulating electric field.
The voltage accumulated around a closed circuit is proportional to the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux it encloses.
Ampere's Law
(with Maxwell's Addition
of Displacement Current)
Gauss's Law
for Static Electric Fields
The electric field produced by electric charge diverges from positive charge and converges
upon negative charge.
Gauss's Law
for Static Magnetic Fields
A circulating electric field is produced by a magnetic field that changes with time.
Ampere's Law
(with Maxwell's Addition
of Displacement Current)
A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and by an electric field that
changes with time.
INTEGRAL FORMS
1. GAUSS'S LAW FOR STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD S
Concepts Meaning
Electric Field
The electric force (newtons) experienced by one coulomb of test charge in the field.
Unit is newtons/coulomb or volts/meter.
Dot Product
n is a vector with length of one pointing in the direction perpendicular to the surface.
At any point on the closed surface we can find a differentn
This represents the component of the electric field vector that is perpendicular to the
surface under consideration
Used to calculate the electric flux
Surface Integral
The analog of fluid flow is very useful for understanding the meaning of the "flux" of a
vector field
Flux of a vector field over a surface is the "amount" of that field that "flows" through the
surface
The Electric Flux Through a Closed Surface
Because any charge located outside the closed surface produces an equal amount of
inward (negative) flux and outward (positive) flux, so the net flux is only determined by the
charges within the closed surface.
If the total enclosed charge is positive, then we have a positive (outward) net flux. If the
total enclosed charge is negative, then we have a negative net flux (inward).
In dielectric materials, charges do not move freely, but may be slightly displaced from
their equilibrium position (called polarization) because the electric field.
Also called magnetic field. The magnetic field is defined using the magnetic force experienced
by a moving charged particle
Like the electric flux, the magnetic flux through a surface is the "amount" of magnetic field
"flowing" through the surface.
For a closed surface, the surface penetration is a two-way street: the outward flux is positive,
and the inward flux is negative. The net flux is the sum of outward flux and inward flux.
The wire aboves has varying density (x) and we want to know its total mass
Imagine dividing the wire into a series of very short segments (N pieces) such that the density i
is approximately constant
The total mass of the wire is then the sum of all the segment masses
If we make the pieces infinitely small (N -> ) , then the summation becomes a line integral
Induced electric fields form closed loops, thus they can drive charged particles around
continuous circuits and produce an electric current
This circulation of electric field is called "electromotive force" or EMF
This is not a force, but rather a force per unit charge integrated over the length of the circuit
Physical this means the work done by the induced electric field in moving a unit charge around
that path.
In other words, it is the energy given to one coulomb of charge as it moves around the circuit.
The integration is simply the magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the closed path C
This magnetic flux is not zero! This is the magnetic flux through a open surface, not a closed
surface. Don't confuse this with Gauss's law for static magnetic field.
Then take a direvative over time (t), this is the rate of change of the magnetic flux
4. AMPERE-MAXWELL'S LAW
Concepts Meaning
An electric current or a changing electric flux through a surface produces a circulating magnetic
field around any path that bounds that surface.
The current and the induced magnetic field follow the right-hand rule as shown below.
This magnetic field circulation is calculated by doing a line integral of thedot product of B
and dl (an infinitely small differential length of the path) on the closed pathC
"Enclosed" means that this current penetrates through any surface which is bounded by the
closed path C
We must consider the direction of the electric current relative to the direction of magnetic
field B's line integration.
The right-hand rule determines whether a current is counted as positive or negative
This electric current is considered as being enclosed since it penetrates any surface
bounded by the closed path C1.
This electric current is considered as not being enclosed because it doesn't penetrate one
of the surfaces bounded by the closed path C2.
This term is the electric flux analog of the changing magnetic flux term in Faraday's law of
induction as mentioned above.
Faraday's law of induction says that a changing magnetic flux through any surface induces a
circulating electric field along a boundary path.
This part was added by Maxwell into the original Ampere's equation. It says that a changing
electric flux through a surface should induce a circulating magnetic field around a boundary of
that surface.
This term solved the capacitor charging/discharging paradox which cannot be counted as an
ecnlosed electric current.
No. Instead we should count the electric field flux change between the plates of the capacitor
(Q and -Q). This electric flux change happens when the capacitor is charging or discharging.
This electric flux change is calculated by integrating electric field E over the bulging surface
which is bounded by the closed path C and then take the direct direvative over time (t).
DIFFERENTIAL FORMS
1. GAUSS'S LAW FOR STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD
In an static electric field, the divergence at one point equals to the electric charge volume density at that point divided
by 0.
So if you know the electric charge distribution, you can calculuate the electric field produced.
Concepts Meaning
The nabla symbol is a mathematical operator (just like the square root symbol). It
means to take derivatives of the quantity following it which is the quantity's gradient.
Del dot operator takes the divergence at a single point in the field.
Divergence measures the tendency at one point that the field vectors "carries"
more material away from it than is brought toward it
Points of positive divergence are "sources"
Points of negative diverngece are "sinks"
Divergence is a scalar quantity (not a vector). But the field that it operates on is a
vector.
Flux is defined over an area, while divergence is defined at individual points, don't
confuse them.
Divergence is the limit of flux through an infinitesimal surface surrounding the point
as defined below.
In Cartesian coordinate, the electric field vector can be decomposed into three
components.
Divergence is a measurement of if there are more "flowing away" from a point than toward that point. It there are more
"flowing away", it is a "source", if there are more "flowing in" then it is a sink.
However, since we have never discovered magnetic monopoles (south pole only or north pole only), there are always
same amount of "flowing out" and "flowing in" at a point in magnetic fields.
This statment stresses that there are no magnetic monopoles.
Concepts Meaning
You get the curl of the point of interest in a vector field A by following the steps below:
1. Make a small circle around the point of interest, call it theclosed path C
2. Calculate the circulation by doing a line integral ofA around path C. This line integral is done by
always keeping the inside of the circle at the left side of the path.
3. Divide this circulation by the area of the circle
4. Make the circle infinitesimal small and the limit is the curl
5. The direction of the curl is then the normal direction of the surface for which the circulation is a
maximum
6. The positive-curl direction is determined by the right-hand rule: if you curl the fingers of your right
hand along the circulation, you thumb points in the direction of positive curl.
The curl of a vector field is a point function and it measures how how much of the vectorA swirls around
the point in question. The curl of a vector field is another vector field, just like any cross product.
Each component of the curl of A indicates the tendency of the field to rotate around the respective axis x,
y, z.
Charge based electric fields diverge from the points of positive charge and converge to points of negative
charge. This type of fields do not circulate back on themselves and their curls are zero at every point.
Induced Fields:
Induced electric fields by changing magnetic fields are very different from charge based electric fields.
Induced fields circulate back onto themselves and have no origination or termination points. Thus
induced electric fields have curl. The faster the magnetic field changes, the larger the curl of the induced
electric field.
4. AMPERE-MAXWELL'S LAW
In an static electric field, the divergence at one point equals to the electric charge volume density at that point divided by
0.
A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and/or by an electric field that changes with time.
Concepts Meaning
All magnetic fields circulate back upon themselves, and it curl is non-zero atexact the locations
through which an electric current is flowing or an electric field is changing.
Just because the field appears to curve doesn't mean that the curl is non-zero everywhere! This is a
common mistake. Look at the picture below.
It looks like the paddlewheel would rotate clockwise owing to the curvature of the field. However, the
downward curvature of the field is offset by the weakening of the field with the distance from the
center of curvature.
The upward-downward push is exactly compensated by the weaker-stronger push and the
paddlewheel does not turn. The curl is zero at this location even though the field lines are curved!
The magnetic field may be curved at many locations, but only at points where electric current is
flowing or the electric flux is changing that the curl is non-zero.
Displacement current density has the units of electric current density (Amps/meters2), and it has an
associated magnetic field just as actual current do.
However, displacement current doesn't represent an actual current of moving charges, but a time-
varying electric field, it is the rate of change of electric field with time.
In dielectric materials (as opposed to vacuum), displacement current also has a contribution from slight
displacement of bounded charges (which is called dielectric polarization).
The displacement current term was a crucial addition to Ampere's Circuital Law that completed
Maxwell's equations and units electricity, magnetism and optics into one single unified
electromagnetics theory.
Adding this term (changing electric field as a source of the magnetic field) extended Ampere's law to
time-dependent fields by eliminating the inconsistency with the principle of conservation of charge.
The key concept here is that a changing electric field produces a changing magnetic field even when
no charges are present and no physical current flows. Through this mechanism, electromagnetic
waves (optical waves included) can propagate through a perfect vacuum, as changing magnetic fields
induce electric fields, and changing electric fields induce magnetic fields.
The electric current density is defined as the vector current flowing through a unit cross-secional area
perpendicular to the direction of the current. Thus it has a unit of amperes per sqare meter (A/m2).
The electric current density in Ampere-Maxwell law includes all currents, including the bound current
density in magnetic materials.
If the number density of charge carriers are n and the charge per carrier is q, then the amount of
charge passing through a unit area perpendicular to the flow per second is:
If J is not uniform:
RECENT ARTICLES
A Plain Explanation of Maxwell's Equations
Aug 02, 2016
Dielectric Strength
May 12, 2016
Electric Dipole
May 10, 2016
Dielectric Polarization
May 02, 2016
QUICK LINKS
Check Order Status
My Account
Return Request
Search Products
Contact Us
About Fosco
GET IN TOUCH
61 Rickenbacker Circle
Suite C
Livermore, CA 94551
Phone: 510-319-9878
Fax: 510-319-9876
Email:
jennifer@foscoconnect.com
daisy@foscoconnect.com
ABOUT FOSCO
Follow Us
53 A c D J M P V
S H A R E S