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Re-esterification of high free fatty acid oils for

biodiesel production
a
Godlisten Gladstone Kombe
a
Department of Chemical and Mining Engineering, College of Engineering and
Technology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O.Box 35131, Dar es salaam Tanzania
Published online: 22 May 2015.

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To cite this article: Godlisten Gladstone Kombe (2015): Re-esterification of high free fatty acid oils for biodiesel
production, Biofuels, DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2015.1039453

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 Biofuels, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2015.1039453

Re-esterification of high free fatty acid oils for biodiesel production

Godlisten Gladstone Kombe *
Department of Chemical and Mining Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, University of Dar es Salaam,
P.O.Box 35131, Dar es salaam Tanzania

(Received 28 January 2015; accepted 7 April 2015)

The high free fatty acids (FFA) in most of the non-edible oils hinders their direct application in the production of biodiesel
by using the traditional homogeneous base transesterification. In this study, a low temperature re-esterification process has
been applied to reduce the FFA in castor oil for base catalysed transesterification. The response surface methodology based
on central composite design was used to model and optimize the re-esterification efficiency under three reaction variables:
reaction time, temperature, and glycerol to oil mass ratio. The optimum conditions for the highest re-esterification
efficiency of 99.01% were found to be temperature of 56
C, reaction time of 85 minutes, and 2.34 g/g glycerol to oil mass
ratio. These conditions reduced the high FFA of crude castor oil from 6.50% to 0.06% which is below the 3%
recommended for alkali catalysed transesterification. The re-esterified oil was then transesterified using homogeneous base
Downloaded by [New York University] at 21:16 26 May 2015

transesterification, resulting into a conversion of 97.95%. Except for viscosity, most fuel properties of the produced
biodiesel were found to be comparable to those of ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards.
Keywords: glycerolysis; re-esterification; biodiesel; feedstock; free fatty acids

1. Introduction viable.[6,7] The high FFA tends to form concurrent soap

At present, the consumption of primary energy in devel-
oped and developing countries is highly dependent on fos-
sil fuels. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource that will
persist in driving up energy costs as oil global production
declines. Alternative, renewable energy sources such as
solar energy, wind, hydro energy and biofuels are under
research.[1] Among the biofuels, biodiesel seems to be at
the forefront due to its environmental credentials such as
renewability, biodegradability and clean combustion
behaviour.[2] Biodiesel has also captured increasing sup-
port as an alternative to fossil diesel because it is non-
toxic, and is essentially free of sulphur and aromatics. It
has lower harmful emissions such as carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide than petroleum diesel
emission used in large transport vehicles. Moreover, its
use will change total dependence on fossil fuels and save
expenditure on petroleum for nations that depend heavily
on petroleum for energy needs.[3]
Biodiesel can be produced from any triglyceride source
such as edible and non-edible oil feedstocks. Edible oil
feedstocks compete with food supply in the long-term and
this accounts for the higher price of biodiesel, as the cost
of the raw materials accounts for 60 to 80% of the total
cost of biodiesel fuel.[4] Non-edible oil feedstocks are less
expensive and do not compete with either food supply or
land for food cultivation.[5] Unfortunately, most non-edible
oil feed stocks have free fatty acid (FFA) contents of above
3% which hinders the use of traditional biodiesel produc-
tion processes, base catalysed transesterification, which is
kinetically much faster and proven to be economically
with the catalyst which reduces the reaction yield and sig-
nificantly interferes with the washing process by forming
emulsions, thus leading to substantial yield losses.[2]
Castor oil from Tanzania contains about 6.5% FFAs,
which is above the 3% level that can be converted to bio-
diesel using an alkaline catalyst. Pre-treatment of this oil
for lowering FFA prior to alkali catalysed transesterifica-
tion is therefore unavoidable. In previous work by Kombe
et al.[8] it has been demonstrated that the new proposed
pre-treatment method, i.e. low temperature re-esterifica-
tion (glycerolysis), could lower effectively the FFA in
Jatropha curcas prior to base catalysed transesterification.
This study reports, for the first time, application of the same
method in pre-treating the FFA in Castor oil. Castor oil is a
unique oil with good solubility in monohydric alcohols; it
consist of approximately 8090% ricinoleic acid, 36%
linoleic acid, 24% oleic acid, and 15% saturated fatty
acids. The triglycerides of ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy-cis-
octadec-9-enoic acid) in which the presence of a hydroxyl
group at C-12 is said to be responsible for unique chemical
and physical properties.[9,10] Surface response methodol-
ogy has been used to model and optimize the FFA pre-treat-
ment in castor oil prior to the production of biodiesel using
alkali catalysed transesterification.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Castor seeds were purchased from the free market in
Dodoma, Tanzania. A hand operated hydraulic press

*Current affiliation: Department of Petroleum and Energy Engineering, College of Earth Science, The University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 259,
Dodoma, Tanzania. Email: kombe@udom.ac.tz

2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 G.G. Kombe
locally designed at the department of Chemical and Min-
ing Engineering in the University of Dar es Salaam was
used to extract castor oil. The seeds were pre-heated to
110
C and fed into cotton bags before being inserted into
a cylinder resting between a horizontal plate and a piston;
the oil escapes through a metal cylinder with perforated
walls of 2.5 mm diameter. The maximum pressure of
1.21 kpa was applied by a hydraulic jack to force the oil
through the perforations, whereas the solid cake was
retained in the cylinder. The extracted oil was allowed to
settle for 24 h before it was carefully decanted. The oil
was then analysed using AOCS Methods and found to
have 6.5% of FFA, 164.1 mg/g of saponification, 0.45%
moisture content and an oxidative stability of 88.7 h. All
chemicals used in the experiments such as 99.5%
CH3OH, 80% H3PO4, glycerol (>99%) and 99% NaOH
in pellet form were of analytical grade.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 21:16 26 May 2015
2.2. Experimental procedure
2.2.1. Chemical re-esterification
Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to
study the variation of re-esterification efficiency with
respect to operating parameters including temperature,
time, and glycerol to oil mass ratio. A 23 full-factorial
central composite design (CCD) for three independent
variables at five levels was employed and the total number
of experiments was 20 D (2k C 2k C 6), where k is the
number of independent variables. The re-esterification
reaction was carried out in a glass batch reactor equipped
with IKA RW20 mechanical digital stirrer and Barnstead
BI electrothermal heating instrument.[8]
Crude castor oil was heated and maintained at a con-
stant set temperature. NaOH catalyst 1.75% wt of oil was
dissolved in glycerol before mixing with oil at 800 rpm
using IKA RW20 mechanical digital stirrer. The experi-
mental factors selected for optimization and their respec-
tive values are provided in Table 1. The variables were
generated using Design-Expert 7 software based on the
preliminary trial experiments.[8]
Experiments were carried out in a random manner to
minimize the effects of uncontrolled factors. The reaction
product mixture was then poured into a separating funnel
and allowed to settle for 3 hours. The top layer comprised
of oil, whereas the bottom layer contained glycerol,
dissolved catalyst and other minor components from the
oil.[8] The final amount of FFA was established and the
re-esterification efficiency was determined using
Table 1. Experimental ranges and levels of the independent
variables.
Level
Variables Coding Unit 1.68 1 0 1 1.68


Temperature A C 30 42 60 78 90
Glycerol to oil mass ratio B g/g 0.66 1 1.5 2 2.34
Time C min 35 45 60 75 85
Equation (1).
 
FFAfinal
Re-esterification efficiency; h D 1 100% (1)
FFAinitial
Where: FFAinitial D Free fatty acid of crude oil
FFAfinal D Free fatty acid of crude oil after pre-treatment
2.2.1.1. Statistical analysis. The Design-Expert 7
(Stat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, USA) statistical software
was used for regression and graphical analysis of the data
obtained. The re-esterification efficiency was calculated
using Equation (1). The re-esterification efficiency as
response variable was fitted in a second-order model in
order to correlate the response variable to the independent
variable. The quality of fii for the model was evaluated by
the coefficients of determination (R2) and its regression
coefficient significance ANOVA was checked with Fish-
ers test (F-test).[11] Response surfaces were developed
using a quadratic polynomial equation obtained from
regression analysis of experimental data.
2.2.2. Production of biodiesel
The molecular weight of castor oil was calculated using
the method in Halvorsen et al. [12] and found to be
927.7 g/mol. Re-esterified oil with low FFA was heated to
60
C in the transesterification glass batch reactor and
stirred at 800 rpm with IKA RW20 mechanical digital
stirrer. The potassium hydroxide (KOH) catalyst 1.7%
based on oil weight was dissolved in the required amount
of methanol (methanol: oil D 10:1) using ultrasonic bath
elmasonic SH075EL at 50
C and added to oil, the reaction
was conducted for 35 minutes.
Unlike transesterification of other crude oils, it was
difficult to separate the phases (biodiesel and glycerol), as
has been observed by several authors.[10,13] The reason
being soap forms a strong emulsion and hence makes it
difficult to see two phases. The strong emulsion formation
is due to the singular chemical composition of castor oil.
[14] In this study therefore, 1 ml of 80% H3PO4 was
added after reaction completion to facilitate phase separa-
tion. The reaction mixture was then allowed to settle in a
separating funnel for 3 h, before separating the glycerol
layer and the top layer including methyl ester fraction.
The methyl ester was removed in a separate flask prior to
washing, purification and test.
2.2.2.1. Fuel properties. The biodiesel fuel properties
namely, gross calorific value, density at 15
C, kinematic
viscosity at 40
C, iodine value, oxidation stability, pour
point, acid value, and FAME content were determined as
per ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards.[15,16]
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Re-esterification process
The response surface design yielded a total of 20 runs in a
random order with their corresponding re-esterification
 Biofuels 3

Table 2. Experimental design and their corresponding results.

Level of variables (actual)

Point Temperature, Glycerol to oil Time, Efficiency Final

Run type A (Wt. %) mass ratio, B (g/g) C (min) (%) FFA (%)

1 Center 60 1.50 60 90.62 0.61

2 Center 60 1.50 60 92.73 0.47
3 Center 60 1.50 60 92.87 0.46
4 Center 60 1.50 60 91.11 0.58
5 Center 60 1.50 60 92.54 0.49
6 Center 60 1.50 60 93.48 0.42
7 Axial 60 2.34 60 96.04 0.26
8 Axial 60 0.66 60 81.18 1.22
9 Axial 90 1.50 60 95.15 0.32
10 Axial 60 1.50 35 92.09 0.51
11 Axial 30 1.50 60 82.71 1.12
12 Axial 60 1.50 85 94.59 0.35
13 Fact 78 1.00 45 89.84 0.66
14 Fact 78 2.00 45 95.21 0.31
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15 Fact 78 2.00 75 95.60 0.29

16 Fact 42 2.00 45 89.64 0.67
17 Fact 42 1.00 75 87.74 0.80
18 Fact 42 1.00 45 81.95 1.17
19 Fact 78 1.00 75 87.50 0.81
20 Fact 42 2.00 75 95.07 0.32

efficiencies as presented in Table 2. A quadratic model
was suggested due to its highest order polynomial with
significance additional terms and non-aliased model. The
model equation based on the actual values for the re-ester-
ification efficiency is expressed by Equation (2).
Efficiency%; h D C 30:69 C 0:95A C 21:72B C 0:15C
0:02AB 6:0910 3 AC C 0:04BC
3:5010 3 A2 4:99B2 C 1:8910 3 C 2
(2)
significant) demonstrating that the model satisfactorily fi
dem the experimental data. Insignificant lack of fit is good,
since a significant lack of fit indicates that there might be
contribution in the regressor-response relationship that is
not accounted for by the model.[17] The value of the deter-
mination coefficient, R2 D 0.9415 means only 5.85% of the
total variations not explained by the model. The value of
the adjusted determination coefficient (Adj.R2 D 0.9416) is
also high to support the model.[18]

Where h D re-esterification efficiency. 3.1.1. Effects of parameters on re-esterification

The results of ANOVA and fitness of the quadratic
model as well as the effect of individual terms and their
interaction on the chosen responses are presented in
Table 3. The Fisher F-test (Fmodel D 35.05) with a very
low probability value (pmodel > F < .0001) shows a very
high significance of the regression model at 95% confi-
dence level.
The p-value less than .05 indicated that the particular
model term is statistically significant. In Table 3 all of the
three model terms studied i.e. temperature (A), glycerol to
oil mass ratio (B) and reaction time (C) were found to
have significant influence on the re-esterification efficiency.
The interaction between model terms A and B, and the two
quadratic terms A2 and B2 were also found to be signifi-
cant. The relatively low value of the coefficient of variation
(CV D 1.68%) indicates a better precision and reliability of
the experiments carried out. The lack of fit test with
p-value of .1426, was not significant (p-value > .05 is not
efficiency
The response of the interactive factors of temperature and
mass ratio after 60 minutes of reaction is shown in Figure 1
(a). The three dimension response surface plots indicated
that the efficiency of re-esterification increased with an
increase in both, glycerol to oil mass ratio and reaction
temperature at a fixed reaction time of 60 minutes.
In Figure 1(b), at a fixed glycerol to oil mass ratio,
high re-esterification efficiency can be attained within a
short reaction time when the reaction was operated at high
temperature. High re-esterification efficiency can also be
attained at low temperature when the reaction was oper-
ated at low temperature but with longer reaction time. At
any given glycerol to oil mass ratio, re-esterification effi-
ciency followed a curvilinear relationship with reaction
time at a fixed reaction temperature of 60
C as in Figure 1
(c); this was due to the fact that an addition of glycerol
increases the rate of re-esterification reaction.[19,20]
 4 G.G. Kombe

Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for model regression.

Sources of variations Sum of squares Df Mean square F-value p-value Prob > F

Model 376.85 9 41.87 17.89 < 0.0001

A-Temperature 88.01 1 88.01 37.60 0.0001
B-Mass Ratio (g/g) 209.48 1 209.48 89.50 < 0.0001
C-Time (min) 13.35 1 13.35 5.70 0.0381
AB 0.30 1 0.30 0.13 0.7276
AC 21.68 1 21.68 9.26 0.0124
BC 0.71 1 0.71 0.30 0.5947
A2 18.56 1 18.56 7.93 0.0183
B2 22.44 1 22.44 9.59 0.0113
C2 2.60 1 2.60 1.11 0.3165
Residual 23.41 10 2.34
Lack of Fit 17.22 5 3.44 2.79 0.1426
Pure Error 6.18 5 1.24
Cor Total 400.26 19
Std. Dev. 1.53 R-Squared 0.9415
Mean 90.88 Adjusted-R2 0.8889
Predicted-R2
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C.V. % 1.68 0.6462

PRESS 141.61 Adeq Precision 14.428

3.1.2. Optimization and model validation for jatropha
oil re-esterification efficiency
The process optimization was done using the numerical
features of the Design-Expert 7. The parameters
involved in optimization were set within the range
between low and high while the re-esterification effi-
ciency was set at maximum value. The software predicted
the following optimum conditions, namely, temperature
of 56
C, glycerol to oil mass ratio of 2.34 g/g and reaction
time of 85 min giving a re-esterification efficiency of
99.00%. The optimum conditions were tried experimen-
tally and gave an average efficiency of 99.01% (corre-
sponding to 0.064% of FFA) which is 0.01% higher than
the predicted value of 99.72%.
Kombe et al. [8] have summarized the works of sev-
eral authors on re-esterification as a pre-treatment for high
FFA as listed in Table 4. Most of the existing researchers
have focused on the use of acidic catalysts which lead
to high temperatures above 120
C and more than
120 minutes of reaction time. In this study, the application

Figure 1. Effect of reaction temperature, time and glycerol to oil mass ratio on castor oil re-esterification efficiency.
 Biofuels 5

Table 4. The effect of chemical re-esterification on the final amount of FFA.

Type of oil Time (h) Temperature (
C) Type of catalyst Excess glycerol (%) Initial FFA (%) Final FFA (%)

Rice bran oil 6 200 P-toluene sulphonic acid 50 15.3 1.6

Rice bran oil 6 200 P-toluene sulphonic acid 50 20.5 3.1
Rice bran oil 4 200 SnCl2 70 24.3 3.0
Rubber seed oil 6 200 SnCl2 4.3 37.69 1.5
Waste cooking oil 4 200 SO42/ZrO2Al2O3 70 44.42 0.71

Table 5. Fuel properties of produced castor biodiesel.

Biodiesel standards

Property Unit Castor biodiesel ASTM D6751 EN 14214

Viscosity at 40
C mm2/s 11.00 1.96.0 3.55.0

Acid value mgKOH/g 0.10 <0.8 <0.5
Gross calorific value MJ/kg 36.86 - -
Iodine value g I2/100g 80.80 - <120
FAME content % 97.87 - >96.5
Downloaded by [New York University] at 21:16 26 May 2015

Density at 15
C kg/m3 0.90 - 0.8600.900

Oxidation stability, at 110
C h 20.30 - >6

of a base catalyst which is said to be more effective has chemical re-esterification has the potential to utilize the
made it possible to run the re-esterification at a low tem- by-product glycerol from the transesterification process,
perature of 56
C.[21] thus lowering the cost of biodiesel production.

3.2. Transesterification Acknowledgment

The transesterification process gave a conversion of
97.95%, following the alkali-catalysed transesterification
using the pre-treated castor oil with 0.0642% of FFA. The
fuel properties of biodiesel tested are summarized in
Table 5. It can be seen that, except for viscosity, castor
biodiesel fuel properties are within the limits recom-
mended in the American and European standards for bio-
diesel i.e. ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards,
respectively. The high viscosity of biodiesel was due to
the presence of a high content of ricinoleic acid.[22]
Despite its high viscosity, biodiesel from castor oil is an
excellent lubricant which is an important feature for fuel
in diesel engines, thus justifying its use when economi-
cally produced.[23]
4. Conclusions
The study showed that a low temperature re-esterification
process can be used as a pre-treatment method for high
FFA feedstock for biodiesel production. The 6.5% FFA in
crude castor oil was reduced to 0.064% by a re-esterifica-
tion process with the following optimum conditions:
2.34 g/g glycerol to oil mass, 85 minutes and temperature
of 56
C. The low temperature re-esterification process has
shown a potential to reduce the FFA to less than 3% which
is required for base catalysed transesterification. Except
for viscosity, biodiesel produced from re-esterified oil
meets the fuel properties required by both ASTM D6751
and EN 14214 standards for biodiesel. Furthermore,
The author wishes to acknowledge the Universiti Sains Malaysia
for laboratory work and NUFU ESEPRIT project at University
of Dar es Salaam for financial support.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
ORCID
Godlisten Gladstone Kombe http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7527-
5653
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