NANOTECHNOLOGY NOTES UNIT: II SHIVAKUMAR.

Unit 2: Properties of Individual Nanoparticles

2.1 Metal nanoclusters

The nanoparticles produced using different methods will come together to form a cluster of
atoms. On such method which is used to form the metal nanocluster is by laser induced
evaporation of atoms, in this method the metal rod or disk is placed in an evacuated chamber
were the laser beam is incident on the metal disk, causing evaporation of atoms from the surface
of the metal. The vapors of the atoms are carried away by a burst of helium/nitrogen/argon gas
causing the cooling and formation of cluster of the metal atoms (Experimental set up in shown
in Fig-1). The cluster formed are then ionized by UV radiation and then passed into mass
spectrometer to measure their mass: charge ratio. The Fig-2 shows the mass spectrum data of
lead clusters formed by laser induced method were the number of ions (counts) is plotted against
number of atoms in the cluster which is equal to mass: charge ratio of the cluster.

Fig-1: Apparatus for laser induced evaporation method

From the Fig-2 the data shows that clusters with 7 and 10 atoms were formed more often
compared to other clusters of different sizes, which means that clusters with 7 and 10 atoms are
more stable compared to clusters of other sizes.

2.1.1 Magic numbers

There are mainly two types of magic numbers namely

Structural magic number

Electronic magic number

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Structural magic number: The structural magic number is equal to number of atoms joining
together to form a define structure of clusters which will be stable compared to other clusters of
atoms. This number is based on structure of clusters mainly depends on number of atoms present
in the clusters and also their arrangement in crystal lattice.

Fig-2: Mass spectrum data of lead clusters

Example: Let us assume that the atoms equal to N will form a cluster which has Face Centers
Cubic (FCC) structure with n no of layers.

The structural magic number for clusters having FCC structure is given by N= 1/3[10n3-
15n2+11n-3]

Where, N= No of atoms in a given layer joined to form a cluster. No of atoms on the surface is
given by Nsurf = 10n2-20n+12.
If shell number or no of layer is n=1, then no of atoms is N=1, and on of atoms on surface
Nsurf =2. If shell number is n=2, then N=13 and Nsurf = 12

Therefore as we consider higher shell number results in different no of atoms which is equal to
the structural magic number given as 1,13,57,153,321,581, respectively for
n=1,2,3,4,5,6,.

The above mentioned series of number are valid only for FCC structured nanoclusters.

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Electronic magic number: Definition: The electronic magic number is equal to total number of
electrons present in a given cluster of atoms whose outer most orbit is filled.

Since the outer most orbit is of the cluster of atoms is filled the amount energy required to
remove the electron from the filled orbit to the next higher energy level will be more compared
to the unfilled orbits of cluster of atoms. Let us consider an example of sodium clusters which
have formed with 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 atoms. If we plot the ionization potential (eV) versus t
number of atoms in a cluster as shown in Fig-3, from Fig-3 we can observe that energy required
for cluster having 2 atoms and 8 atoms is more than clusters of other atoms, from this we can
conclude that cluster having 2 and 8 atoms are more stable than other clusters because with 2 and
8 electrons the outer most orbit will be filled so 2 and 8 in the electronic magic number.

Fig-3: Ionization potential against number o atoms

2.2 Jellium Model of Clusters

Assumptions:

The jellium model assumes the cluster formed due to atoms as one large atom.

The cluster is considered to be spherical in nature similar to the structure of an atom

proposed by Bohr, where the nucleus containing protons (+ve charged) and neutrons
(with no charge) and electrons revolve around them similarly in jellium model, the
positive nuclear charge of each atom present in a cluster is uniformly distributed over a
sphere which is equal to the size of the cluster or large atom.

A spherically symmetric potential well is used to represent the potential describing the
interaction of electrons with positive spherical charge distribution over a sphere.

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Description for jellium model of clusters: Jellium model is one of the mathematical modeling
techniques used to determine the energy levels of nanoclusters formed. Energy levels of
nanoclusters formed is determined by solving the Schrodinger equation (three dimensional wave
equation) based on the assumptions. Fig-4 compares the energy level scheme for a hydrogen
atom and energy level scheme for a spherically positive charge distribution (i.e. the cluster).
From the Fig-4 we can observe that energy level schemes for a hydrogen atom is based on 2n2
rule were n stands for no of energy levels or shell number, on other hand the energy level
scheme for a cluster is obtained by solving the Schrodinger equation. The order of the energy
levels in jellium model is different from that of the hydrogen atoms as shown in the Fig-4.

Fig-4: Energy level scheme of the hydrogen atom and jellium model of a cluster.

Fig-4-a represents the hydrogen atom and Fig-4-b represents the jellium model of cluster. The
superscript in both Fig-4-a and Fig-4-b is equal to the number of electrons that fill the particular
energy level but electronic magic number is defined as total number of electrons in atom or
cluster of atoms whose outer most orbit or outer most energy level is filled. The electronic
magic numbers for hydrogen and the proposed jellium model of cluster is given in the table
below for different energy levels. The numbers 2, 10, 18 corresponds to electronic magic
numbers for He, Ne, Ar respectively and numbers 2, 18, 40 corresponds to electronic magic
numbers for the clusters

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Energy Electronic Electronic Magic Electronic Electronic Magic

level (n) configuration for H2 number for configuration for number for the
atom hydrogen atom clusters clusters
n=1 1s2 2 1s2 2
n=2 1s2 2s22p6 10 1s21p6 1d10 18
n=3 1s2 2s22p63s23p6 18 1s21p6 1d102s2 40
1f142p6

2.3 Geometric properties

The geometric structure of nanoclusters will mainly depend upon size of the clusters. As sizes of
the clusters get reduced from bulk material the structure of clusters also varies. Let consider an
example of Aluminum cluster of 13 atoms i.e. Al13 is considered because 13 is a magic number,
this Aluminum clusters will have FCC structure when the atoms of cluster are around 500-1000
nm i.e. very close to the size of bulk aluminum, as the size reduces structure will change from
FCC to HCP and finally changes to ICOS structure if the size of clusters is less than 5nm.

The bulk aluminum with 13 atoms will also have FCC structure and large cluster will also have
FCC structure as the size of the clusters decreases the structure also varies in the order as shown
Figure 5.

1) FCC: Face centered cubic structure

2) HCP: Hexagonal closed packing

3) ICOS: Icosaherdral Structure.

Fig-5: (a) The unit cell of bulk aluminum; (b) three possible structures

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2.4 Electronic structure

When atoms form a lattice, the discrete energy levels of atoms are smudged out into energy
bands. For metals, the top band that is the conduction band is not totally filled. In the case of a
semiconductor the valence band will is completely filled and there will be a small energy
separation called the energy gap between the filled valence band and the conduction band.

When a metal particles having bulk properties is reduced in size to a few hundred atoms, the
number of energy level in a given interval of energy also called as the density of state in the
conduction band containing electrons will change dramatically. The continuous change in
density of state in the band is replaced by a set of discrete energy levels, which have energy level
spacing larger than thermal energy and gap opens up. The transition from bulk material to a
large cluster and then down to a small cluster of less than 15 atoms are illustrated in Fig-6.

Fig-6: Energy levels of a metal change with the number of atoms

From the Fig-6 we observe that the energy levels in the bulk metal will be very close to each
other and as bulk metal is reduced in size to give a large metal cluster containing around 100
atoms will have a gap between the energy levels and as the large cluster is broken down to a
smaller cluster with less than 15 atoms will result in a increase the gap between the energy
levels, from this we understand that as the size of the bulk metal reduces the electronic structure
will vary and gap between the energy levels increases.

2.4.1 To determine the colour of material based on its energy levels.

The color of a material is determined by the wavelength of light absorbed by the material. The
absorption occurs because electrons are induced by the photons of the incident light to make
transitions between the lower-lying occupied levels and higher unoccupied energy levels of the
materials. Clusters of different sizes will have different electronic structures, and different
energy-level separations.

Let us consider an Example of boron cluster shown in Fig-7, with different no of atoms, as the
cluster size changes the electronic structure will vary as result the energy separation will occur.
The calculated energy levels of boron clusters B6, B8 and B12 show different energy level
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separations. Light induced transition between the lowest level and upper levels determine the
colour of the material.

2.4.2 Method to determine the electronic structure of clusters

One of the methods used to study electronic structure of nanoparticles is UV photoelectron

spectroscopy, here incident UV photon will remove the electron from the outer most orbit of the
atom, the number of electrons removed and energy levels of the removed electrons are counted
The data obtained from the analysis shows the electron count versus the energy in terms of eV.
Since each clusters formed have different size results in discrete energy levels, the data will be a
series of peaks with separations corresponding to the separations of energy levels of clusters.

Fig-7: Examples of Boron clusters

Let us consider an example of copper clusters having 20 atoms and 40 atoms these two clusters
are exposed to UV photoelectron spectroscopy, data obtained from the analysis is given in Fig-8.
The peaks obtained in the Fig-8 correspond to energy gap in the energy levels in clusters. We can
observe that peaks are close in the case Cu40 cluster and were as the peaks are away in case of
Cu20 cluster which signifies that as size of the cluster deceases energy gap in the energy levels
of clusters will increase.

Fig-8: Spectrum of UV photoelectron spectroscopy for Cu20 and Cu40 clusters

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2.5 Reactivity

Electronic structure of nanoparticles depends on the size of the particle; the ability of the cluster
to react with other species should depend on cluster size. This has important implications for the
design of catalytic agents. Effect of size on the reactivity of nanoparticles with various gases can
be studied by the lazer evaporation method, in which gases such as oxygen are introduced into
the region of the cluster beam. A laser beam aimed at a metal disk dislodges metallic particles
that are carried along to a mass spectrometer by a flow of helium gas. Downstream before the
particles in the cluster beam enter the mass spectrometer, various gases are introduced.

Fig 8 shows reactivity of oxygen with aluminum particles. The top figure is the mass spectrum of
the aluminum particles before the oxygen is introduced. The bottom figure shows the spectrum
after oxygen enters the chamber. The results show that two peaks have increased substantially
and certain peaks (12, 14, 19, and 20) have disappeared. The A113 and Al23, peaks have increased
substantially. Peaks for All5 & Al22 to have decreased, data provide clear evidence for the
dependence of the reactivity of aluminum clusters on the number of atoms in the cluster.

Fig-9: Mass Spectra of Al nanoparticles before and after exposure to oxygen gas

2.6 Methods to synthesis the nanoparticles

RF Plasma Method
Thermolysis
Chemical Method
Pulsed Laser method

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2.6.1 RF Plasma Method

Fig: 10: Apparatus for the synthesis of nanoparticles using RF-produced plasma.

Method of nanoparticle synthesis that utilizes plasma generated by RF heating coils, the starting
metal is contained in a pestle in an evacuated chamber. The metal is heated above its evaporation
point using high voltage RF coils wrapped around the evacuated system in the vicinity of the
pestle. Helium gas is then allowed to enter the system, forming high temperature plasma in the
region of the coils. The metal vapor nucleates on the He gas atoms and diffuses up to a colder
collector rod where nanoparticles are formed. The particles are generally passivated by the
introduction of some gas such as oxygen. In the case of aluminum nanoparticles the oxygen
forms a layer of aluminum oxide about the particle.

2.6.2 Thermolysis

In this method the nanoparticles (Fig 11) are prepared by decomposing the solids at high
temperatures having metal cations, and molecular anions or metal organic compounds, here the
experimental setup consists of an evacuated quartz tube in which metal sample namely lithium
azide, LiN3 is placed and heated to 400oC using the furnace. At about 370oC the LiN3
decomposes, releasing N2 gas, which is observed by an increase in pressure on the vacuum
gauge. In a few minute the pressure will come back to its original position indicating that all the
N2 gas is removed. The remaining Li atoms coalesce to form small colloidal metal particles. In
these method particles less than 5nm can prepared.

2.6.3 Chemical Method

Solution combustion method: The metal nitrate or the metal acetate acts as a oxidizing agent
and the fuel like citric acid or urea or glyceine which acts as reducing agent are mixed in
stoichiometry (based on M/F ratio) and are heated to a temperature around 100oC once all water
is evaporated and gel is formed which on further heating results in a redox reaction and
nanoparticles are formed. A surfactant such as oleic acid is added to the solution to coat the
particles and prevent aggregation.

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Fig-11: Experimental setup

2.6.4 Pulsed Laser method

The setup mainly consists of rotating sample holder on which a disk is mounted and this is
placed in a container which is filled with solution which is the metal nitrate acting as oxidizing
agent and fuel like citric acid or urea or glyceine which acts as reducing agent are mixed in
proportions. This solution in the beaker is mixed with help of the rotating sample holder the solid
disk mounted on the holder is subject to the pulsed laser beam creating hot spots on the disk. The
metal nitrate and the fuel will react at the hot spots, resulting in the formation of small
nanoparticles which are separated from the solution using a centrifuge.

Fig-12: Experimental setup

2.7 Inert Gas clusters

As metal atoms and semiconducting atoms, nanoparticles can be assembled from rare gases such
as krypton and xenon and molecule like water. Xenon clusters are formed by the adiabatic
expansion of a supersonic jet of gas through a small capillary into a vacuum. The gas is then
collected by a mass spectrometer, where it is ionized by an electron beam and its mass: energy
ratios are measured as in the case of metals, there are magic numbers i.e. the clusters having a
certain number of atoms are more stable than others, for the case of xenon the most stable
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clusters occurs at particles having 13, 19, 25, 55, 71, 87and147 atoms. Argon also has a similar
structural magic numbers; since the electronic structure of the rare gases is completely filled their
electronic magic numbers are only one for each rare gas cluster sated by 2n2 rule.

The forces that bond the inert gas atoms into clusters are weaker than those that bond the metal
and semiconducting atoms. Even though the electronic shells of the inert gas are filled because of
the movement of the electrons about the atoms, they can have instantaneous electric dipole
movement. P1 an electric dipole movement occurs when a positive charge and negative charge
is separated by some distance.

The electric field of one atom induces the dipole moment on the other adjacent atom, so always
the two inert gas atoms will have attractive potential given by vander walls potential given by

U = 2P1*P2/R3 where P1=electric potential of 1st atom, P2= electric potential of 1st atom and

P2= -2 P1/ R3, therefore the overall vander-wall potential for two rare gas will be given as

U = -4P1/R6= C/R6.

This potential holds good only when the distance between the atoms is more.

As the rare gas atoms come close together there are changes that they may even repel with each
other than the attraction so Vander walls potential will not give n complete potential of the rare
gas atoms interaction so one more term which take care of the repulsion action is given and
overall potential is give as U = B/ R12-C/R6. This equation is also called as the lennard Jones
potential and it is also used to calculate the structure of the inert gas clusters.

2.8 Carbon Molecule

The carbon atoms contain six electrons, which are distributed over the lowest energy level of the
carbon atom. The structure is designated as 1s2, 2s2, 2p2, in the 2p level there are mainly 2px,
2py and 2pz three more levels were in each level there will be two electrons present to make it
completely filled but since there is only 2 electrons in the case of carbon atom the one of the
electron in the 2s state will get excited to the 2p sated and therefore there are four electron is the
outer most orbit of the carbon atom. These four electrons in the outer most orbits of the carbon
atoms are the ones which take part in the chemical bond formation of carbon with other atoms.
Baeyer suggested that cyclic stability relates to how closely the carbon is bonded with other four
atoms, when the carbon is bonded to other four atoms, the angle between any pair of bonds is the
tetrahedral angle 109.5o, any deviation from this angle will lead to strain the bond and hence they
are unstable in nature.

2.8.1 Small Carbon cluster

The mass spectroscopic analysis of the carbon clusters is shown in the Fig-12, from this we can
observe that peaks for cluster less than 30 atoms are large compare to the cluster greater than the
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30atoms hence this significant that carbon cluster less than the 30atoms are more stable
compared to carbon cluster greater than the 30atoms. Structure of small cluster by molecular
orbital theory shows, clusters will have linear or closed non planar monocyclic geometries. The
linear structure that has Sp hybridization occurs when N i.e no of atoms in a cluster is odd and
the closed structure will occur when N i.e no of atoms in a cluster is even.

Fig-13: Mass spectrum of carbon clusters

Fig-14: structures of small carbon clusters.

2.9 Carbon Nanotubes

In 1985 a group of researchers led by Richard Smalley and Robert Curl of Rice University in
Houston and Harry Kroto of the University of Sussex in England made an interesting discovery.
They vaporized a sample of graphite with an intense pulse of laser light and used a stream of
helium gas to carry the vaporized carbon into a mass spectrometer. The mass spectrum showed
peaks corresponding to clusters of carbon atoms, with a particularly strong peak corresponding to
molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms, C60.
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The fact that C60 clusters were so easily formed led the group to propose that a new form or
allotrope of carbon had been discovered. The C60 molecule is also called as fullerene. A
fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid,
or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon
nanotube or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of
stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or
sometimes heptagonal) rings.

Fig-14: Structure of C60

The above diagram mainly contains 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces symmetrically
arranged to form a molecular ball. These ball like molecules bind with each other in the solid
state to form a crystal lattice having FCC structure, in the lattice each C60 molecule is separated
by its nearest neighbor by 1nm, and they are held together by weak Vander wall forces.

2.9.1 Background Leading Up To Carbon Nanotubes

Until the mid-1980s pure solid carbon was thought to exist in only two physical forms,
Diamond and graphite both have different physical structures and properties, however
their atoms are both arranged in covalently bonded networks.
These two different physical forms of carbon atoms are called allotropes.

2.9.2 Discovery of Carbon Nanotubes

The unique geometric properties of this new allotrope of carbon did not end with soccer shaped
molecules, it was also discovered that carbon atoms can form long cylindrical tubes. These tubes
were originally called bucky-tubes but now are better known as carbon nanotubes or CNT for
short. These molecules are shaped like a tube; imagine a sheet of graphite ("graphene sheet")

Carbon nanotubes have unique physical and chemical properties that chemists are trying to better
understand through laboratory research. One of the physical properties of carbon nanotubes is
that its possible to make them only a single atomic layer thick. This means that they can be
about 1/50,000th the thickness of a human hair. Because of the bonding characteristics of carbon
atoms, the physical appearance of carbon nanotubes can often resemble like a rolled up chicken
wire One of the interesting physical properties about carbon nanotubes is that when you have

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two tubes which have slightly different physical structures and they are joined together, the
junction (gap or small space) between them can function as an electronic device.

Fig-15: Structural arrangement of Carbon Nanotube

2.9.3 Methods to prepare carbon nanotubes

There are three basic methods by which carbon nanotubes are made.

Electric arc discharge: A current is passed between two graphite rods, one acting as an
anode and one as a cathode, forming a hot, bright arc of electricity that vaporizes carbon
from the anode and generates plasma of carbon. The carbon recondenses on the cathode
to form nanotubes. This method produces mostly multi-walled nanotubes (i.e. single-
walled nanotubes stacked one inside another), but can produce single-walled nanotubes
with the addition of certain metal nanoparticles on either the anode or the cathode.

Cylinder of about 30 cm in diameter and about 1m in height, equipped with diametrically

opposed sapphire windows located so that they face the plasma zone in view of observing
the arc. The reactor possesses two valves, one for carrying out the primary evacuation
(0.1Pa) of the chamber, the other permitting it to fill with a rare gas up to the desired
working pressure.

Fig-16: Electric arc discharge equipment

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Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Metal catalyst particles (usually iron, nickel or
cobalt) are placed on a surface, such as a silicon wafer, and heated to high temperatures
in the presence of hydrocarbon gas. The high temperature and the catalyst particles break
the hydrogen and carbon atoms in the gas apart. The catalyst particle acts like a seed
and anchors the nanotube to the surface as it grows out from the catalyst, growing longer
and longer as more carbon atoms are released from the gas. This method produces both
multi-walled and single-walled nanotubes depending on the temperature.

Fig-17: CVD reactor vessels

Laser Ablation: A high power laser is used to vaporize carbon from a graphite target at
high temperature. The resulting soot is collected by a water cooled collector. This
method forms single-walled nanotubes.

Fig-18: Lazer ablation technique

2.9.4 Nanotube Geometry

The graphite is a lattice, there are only 2 allowed counting directions, a1 and a2. Starting from an
arbitrary carbon atom, the a1 and a2 directions point towards the closest equivalent carbon atoms
in the lattice. (Figure 1) The chirality is determined by how many times you have to move in the

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a1 direction (n) and how many times you have to move in the a2 direction (m) in order to return
to your starting point. Chirality is notated as (n, m) where n and m is called the chiral numbers.
Zig-zag tubes are (n, 0), armchair tubes are (n, n) and chiral tubes are (n, m).

Fig-19: structure of carbon nanotube

The three possible arrangements are namely

Armchair arrangement of carbon atoms

Zig-zag arrangement of carbon atoms

Chiral arrangement of carbon atoms

For example, to count a (5,0) zig-zag nanotube, choose an arbitrary carbon atom as your starting
point (red star, Figure 2). Move to the closest carbon atom in the a1 direction. This is count
one. Move again in the a1 direction: two continue counting along the a1 direction until you
reaches your starting point. It should take you five counts in the a1 direction to return to
the starting point.

Fig-20: Zig-Zag structure of carbon nanotube.

To count an armchair or chiral tube, it is necessary to move along both the a1 and a2 directions.
If you were to count only along the a1 direction, you would never be able to return to your
starting point It is necessary to count along the a1 direction, then turn and count along the a2
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direction in order to return to the starting point. For example, to count a (3, 3) armchair tube,
choose an arbitrary carbon atom as your starting point (red star, Figure 3). Move to the closest
carbon atom in the a1 direction. Move a total of 3 times in the a1 direction. You will notice that
if you continue in the a1 direction, you will not return to your starting point. From the same
carbon atom you just reached, turn and move 3 times in the a2 direction. You should have
returned to your starting point. Chiral and armchair nanotubes can both be counted in this
manner.

Fig-21: armchair and chiral nanotube structure of carbon nanotube.

2.9.5 Properties of carbon nanotubes

Mechanical properties (tensile strength)

Thermal conductivity properties

Electrical conductivity properties

Vibrational properties

2.9.5.1 Mechanical properties

Stress S on the wire is defined as the load, or the weight per unit cross-sectional area A of the
wire:
The strain e is defined as the amount of stretch L of the wire per unit length L, , where L
is the length of the wire before the weight is attached. By Hookes law says that the increase in
the length of the wire is proportional to the weight at the end of the wire. More generally, we say
stress S is proportional to strain , and

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2.9.5.2 Thermal conductivity properties

CNTs conduct heat very well. A nanotubes thermal conductivity is predicted to be ten times
higher than silver. Unlike metals (which conduct heat by moving electrons), CNTs conduct by
wiggling the covalent bonds between the carbon atoms themselves

2.9.5.3 Electrical conductivity properties

One of the main things that distinguish nanotubes from other nanomaterials is their electrical
properties. Unlike any other known material, nanotubes can have semiconducting properties
(some zig-zag, chiral) and metallic properties (armchair, some zigzag).

2.9.5.4 Vibrational properties

The atoms in a molecule or nanoparticle continually vibrate back and forth. Each molecule has a
specific set of vibrational motions, called normal modes of vibration, which are determined by
the symmetry of the molecule, similarly carbon nanotubes also have normal modes of vibration.
One mode, labeled A1g involves an in and out oscillation of the diameter of the tube. Another
mode, the E2g, mode, involves a squashing of the tube where it squeezes down in one direction
and expands in the perpendicular direction essentially oscillating between a sphere and an
ellipse.

2.9.6 Application of carbon nanotubes

Hydrogen storage: As we move into a new century, there is a global focus on a cleaner
environment and developing renewable energy sources. To that end, a great deal of research is
being devoted to hydrogen fuel cells. When oxygen and hydrogen react in a fuel cell, electricity
is produced and water is formed as a byproduct. If industry wants to make a hydrogen-oxygen
fuel cell, scientists and engineers must find a safe way to store hydrogen gas needed for the fuel
cell. Carbon nanotubes may be a viable option. Carbon nanotubes are able to store hydrogen and
could provide the safe, efficient, and cost-effective means to achieve this goal. Hydrogen atoms
bond to the carbon atoms of the nanotubes, and can be later released with slight changes in
temperature and pressure.

Fig-22: Electrochemical cell used to inject hydrogen into carbon nanotubes

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Chemical Sensors:

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) have
single and several concentric tubes respectively, with a common axis along the length of the
individual CNT.

Higher aspect ratio between the tube length and diameter provides an important characteristic to
CNT to utilize them for large-scale applications. CNT-based electronic gas sensors either in the
form of chemi-resistors or back-gated field-effect transistors have been designed to detect
various gases. CNT are used for CO sensing using several methods of functionalization.

Field-effect transistors (FETs), the switching components of computers, based on

semiconducting carbon nanotubes connecting two gold electrodes, has been demonstrated. When
a small voltage is applied to the gate, the silicon substrate, current flows through the nanotube
between the source and the drain. The device is switched on when current is flowing, and off
when it is not.

2.10 SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTRUCTURES

2.10.1 Compaction and consolidation: Mixtures of iron and copper powders having the
composition Fe85&Cu15 are ball milled for 15 h at room temperature. The material is then
compacted using a tungsten-carbide die at a pressure of 1 GPa for 24 h. This compact is then
subjected to hot compaction for 30 min at temperatures in the vicinity of 400C and pressure up
to 870 MPa. The final density of the compact is 99.2% of the maximum possible density. Figure
23 presents the distribution of grain sizes in the material showing that it consists of nanoparticles
ranging in size from 20 to 70nm, with the largest number of particles having 40 nm sizes.

Fig-23: Distribution of sizes of Fe-Cu nanoparticles

2.10.2 Chill block melt spinning: Radiofrequency heating coils are used to melt a metal, which
is then forced through a nozzle to form a liquid stream. This stream is continuously sprayed over
the surface of a rotating metal drum under an inert-gas atmosphere. The process produces strips
or ribbons ranging in thickness from 10 to 100 pm. The parameters that control the nanostructure
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of the material are nozzle size, nozzle-to-drum distance, melt ejection pressure, and speed of
rotation of the metal drum.

Fig-24: Chill block melting apparatus

2.10.3 Gas atomization: High-velocity inert-gas beam impacts a molten metal. The apparatus is
illustrated in Fig 25. A fine dispersion of metal droplets is formed when the metal is impacted by
the gas, which transfers kinetic energy to the molten metal. This method can be used to produce
large quantities of nanostructured powders, which are then subjected to hot consolidation to form
bulk samples.

Fig-24: Gas Atomization apparatus

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