CAUTION: Based upon the publication date, this document may not contain the latest

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users specific case.

100 Introduction to Fire Protection

Abstract
This section covers the Companys policy on fire protection and discusses the prin-
ciples of combustion. (Refer to Section 200 and Section 300 for application of the
principles.)

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Contents Page

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110 Principles of Fire Protection 100-2

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111 Responsibilities of Personnel
120 Principles of Combustion 100-3
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121 Definitions
122 Fire Triangle
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123 Fuel
124 Flammable Limits
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125 Source of Ignition

126 Spread of Flame
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127 Explosion Hazard

130 References 100-16
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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

110 Principles of Fire Protection

Fire protection programs should be built on these principles:
It is generally better to spend resources on fire prevention than on fire suppres-
sion.
Facilities having fire potential are designed, built, and maintained in a manner
compatible with applicable industry codes and consensus standards.
Fire protection is an integral part of the design, construction, maintenance, and
operation of a facility.
Fire protection programs are maintained and kept up to date by periodic inspec-
tion to ensure effective performance.
Those responsible for implementing fire prevention measures must know the
philosophy behind modern petroleum fire prevention programs and must under-

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stand the fundamentals of ignition and combustion. The Fire Protection

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Manual tries to give this needed information.

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111 Responsibilities of Personnel
Effective fire prevention requires giving the following responsibilities to personnel.
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Management Responsibility
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Responsibility for fire prevention lies ultimately with the management of each
facility. Management may delegate specific parts of fire prevention to subordinate
managers, supervisors, or specialists, but such personnel must be accountable to
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management for properly carrying out the duties assigned them.

Employee Responsibility
Employees are responsible for their personal safety and for the safety of fellow
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employees. This responsibility includes: following procedures outlined by manage-

ment, using and maintaining equipment as instructed, and being alert to unforeseen
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fire hazards. Consistent with their training, employees should help prevent the
spread of fire and minimize any losses.

Employee Fire Fighting Responsibility

Employees must be trained for the level of fire response expected of them. Consis-
tent with this training, response might include varied roles, such as isolation of fuel
sources and suppression of incipient-stage fires. Employees expected to fight fires
beyond the incipient stage require appropriate training and personal protective
equipment.

100-2 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

120 Principles of Combustion

Effective fire prevention requires a thorough understanding of: 1) conditions under
which flammable and combustible materials vaporize; 2) what is meant by an ignit-
able or flammable mixture; and 3) what is meant by a source of ignition and how
combustion spreads from such a source. This section discusses these topics.

121 Definitions
Combustion (burning) is the rapid oxidation reaction between a reducing agent
(fuel) and an oxidizer (usually oxygen in the air) accompanied by the evolution of
heat and usually the production of flame.
Fuel means a material capable of combusting and particularly designates the mate-
rial (gas, liquid or solid) which feeds a fire.
Flammable refers to any material that is easily ignited and burns rapidly, usually

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gases or liquids. A flammable liquid is one having a flash point below 100F, and a
vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psia at 100F.

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Combustible refers to a material that can burn and, with respect to accidental igni-
tion and flame spread, the word implies a lower degree of risk than flammable.
The word combustible is frequently applied to solid fuels and to liquids having a
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flash point at or above 100F.
Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) is the lowest volume % of vapor in air that can be
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ignited.
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) is the highest volume % of vapor in air that can be
ignited.
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Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC) is the minimum oxygen concentration to

support combustion.
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Flash Point is the lowest temperature at which a flame will ignite a vapor of a
combustible liquid in air.
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Auto-Ignition occurs when a substance is mixed with air at a temperature high

enough to initiate an oxidation reaction that will generate enough heat to cause
spontaneous ignition. This can occur when the material released is hot or when the
material is released into a hot environment. (See Section 240 for a detailed discus-
sion.)
Inerting is adding inert gas to reduce the oxygen concentration below the LOC
(at least 2 vol% below LOC is target).
Enriching is adding combustible gas to increase the volume percent above the UFL
(200% of UFL is target).
Dilution is adding air to dilute the volume % vapor below the LFL (25% of LFL is
target).

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

Deflagration is when a flame front propagates by heat and mass transfer. Flame
speeds up to 400 m/sec; pressures 7-9 bar. Most vapor cloud explosions would fall
into this category.
Detonation is when a flame front propagates by shock wave compression at super-
sonic flame speeds of 1,800-2,000 m/sec; pressures up to 20 bar. Generally requires
containment.

122 Fire Triangle

For a fire to start, three things must be present at the same time and place: fuel
(vapor), oxygen (air), and a source of ignition.
1. Fuel must be present in a vaporized form. Liquid fuel mists that are readily
converted to vapor or finely divided solid fuels have much the same combus-
tion characteristics as vapor. (Carbon and some metals are exceptions to the
general rule that fuel must be in the form of vapor before it can burn.)

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2. Oxygen (usually in the form of air) must be present and mixed in suitable
proportion with the fuel vapor to form an ignitable mixture.

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3. A source of ignition (high temperature and sufficient energy to start the chem-
ical reaction of combustion) must be present.
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123 Fuel
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How hazardous a fuel is depends on factors such as the fuels vapor pressure, partial
pressure, flammable limits, and flash point. These factors, as wells as tests to
measure flammability, are discussed next.
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Vapor Pressure
To understand the process of vaporization, consider the boundary surface between a
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liquid and a closed air-free space above it. Molecules of the liquid tend to escape the
liquid state and assume the properties of gas. Other molecules previously released
may strike the liquid surface and re-enter it. When the number of molecules leaving
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and re-entering the surface becomes equal, a state of equilibrium is said to exist. At
equilibrium, the pressure exerted by the molecules in the vapor state is called the
vapor pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Vapor pressure is characteristic of
any liquid. The vapor pressure of a liquid increases as its temperature is raised.
To permit easy comparison, vapor pressures of petroleum liquids are usually
measured at a standard temperature100Fby the Reid method described in
ASTM Standard D-323. See Section 2.3 of API RP 2003 (in Industry Specifica-
tions) for a discussion of vapor pressure and flammability.
From the fire protection standpoint, it is the vapor pressure of petroleum liquid at
the temperature at which it is handled that is significant. This vapor pressure
controls the composition of the air-vapor mixture over the liquid surface.
Because vapor pressure cannot readily be measured in the low range where it is
significant as a criterion of fire hazard, testing a liquid to determine its flash point is
generally used to determine fire hazard. (Flash point is discussed below.)

100-4 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

Partial Pressure
If the space above the liquid should already contain a gas, for example, air vaporiza-
tion will proceed exactly as above. When equilibrium is established, the space
above the liquid will contain just as many vapor molecules as though the air were
not present. Moreover, the vapor exerts the same pressure as it would exert if it
occupied the entire volume by itself. The air is still present, however, and continues
to exert its original pressure. Thus the total pressure exerted by the vapor-plus-air
mixture will equal the sum of these two pressures. The pressures exerted by each of
these components are called their partial pressures. The partial pressure of the
vapor, divided by the total pressure of air-plus-vapor, is the volume percent concen-
tration of the vapor.

Vol%vapor = Pvapor / (Pair + Pvapor)

124 Flammable Limits

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A fuel vapor-air mixture cannot be ignited unless the ratio of vapor to air lies within
certain well-defined limits called the lower and upper limits of flammability. These

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limits are usually expressed in terms of volume percent at atmospheric pressure and
temperature. The smallest concentration (percentage by volume) of fuel vapor in a
vapor-air mixture that can be ignited is called the lower flammable limit (LFL).
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Similarly, the highest percentage by volume of fuel vapor in air in which ignition
can be produced is called the upper flammable limit (UFL). The region between
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these two percentages is called the flammable range.
For gasoline vapors, this range extends from a little over 1% to almost 8% by
volume of gasoline vapor in air. Mixtures containing less than about 1% are said to
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be too lean to burn; they cannot be ignited by any source of ignition, however
intense. Mixtures containing more than about 8% are said to be too rich to burn. A
closed space filled with such a mixture cannot be ignited, but the mixture can be
further diluted so that it will ignite and burn if the mixture is allowed to escape into
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the open air.

Figure 100-1 lists representative hydrocarbons and their respective flammable
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limits.

Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Flammable Range

The oxygen concentration has a major impact on the combustion process.
Figure 100-2 is a flammability diagram of a Methane/Nitrogen/Oxygen Mixture.
The vertical axis represents Methane in Oxygen. As you can see, the LFL is
5% methane and the UFL is 60% methane. If you look at the line representing air on
the chart, the flammable range has been lowered to 5%-15%. As you continue to
decrease the oxygen level by adding nitrogen or methane, the flammable range
continues to narrow to a point where combustion is no longer supported. This
represents the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC). For methane, the LOC is 12%
in nitrogen.

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

Fig. 100-1 Properties of Flammable Liquids and Gases(1) Part of table derived from NFPA 325M, 1994, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA. Used with permission.
Lower and Upper
Flammable Limits(2), Auto-ignition Flash Boiling
Product % by Volume Temperature, F Point,F Point,F
Specific Vapor
Gravity Auto-ignition Density Closed
LFL UFL (Water=1) Temp., F (Air=1) Cup
Acetone 2.5 13 0.8 869 2.0 -4 133
Acetylene 2.5 100 - 581 0.9 (gas) -118
Ammonia 15 28 0.7 1204 0.6 (gas) -28
Benzene 1.3 7.9 0.9 928 2.8 12 176
n-Butane 1.6 8.4 - 550 2.0 (gas) 31
Crude Oil(3) NDA (3)
NDA (3)
.75-1.04 NDA (3)
NDA (3)
<59-199 100-1500

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Diesel(4) 0.6 7.5 <1 428-600 5-6 Per 175-340

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Specification
Ethane 3.0 12.5 - 882 1.0 (gas) -128

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Ethanol 3.3 19 .8 685 1.6 55 173
Ethyl 2.8 18 0.8 572 2.1 <0 95
Mercaptan
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Ethylene 2.7 36 - 842 1.0 (gas) -155
Gasoline(4)
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1.4 7.6 0.7 - 0.8 430-797 3-4 -49 77- 419
(Super
Unleaded)
n-Hexane 1.1 7.5 0.7 437 3.0 -7 156
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Hydrogen 4.0 75 - 932 0.1 (gas) -422

Hydrogen 4.0 44 - 500 1.2 (gas) -76
Sulfide
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iso-Butane 1.8 8.4 - 860 2.0 (gas) 11

JP-4 1.3 8 - 464 - -10 to +30 -
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M85(3)(5) 2 34 <1 725 - 896 2 - 77-419

Methane 5.0 15.0 - 999 0.6 (gas) -259
Methyl 6.0 36 0.8 867 1.1 52 147
Alcohol
MTBE(4) 2.5 15.1 .74 435 3.1 -22 131
n-Pentane 1.5 7.8 0.6 500 2.5 <-40 97
Propane 2.1 9.5 - 842 1.6 (gas) -44
Propylene 2.0 11.1 - 851 1.5 (gas) -53
Toluene 1.2 7.1 0.9 896 3.1 40 231
(1) From NFPA 325M, Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids.
(2) In air at normal atmospheric temperature and pressure.
(3) No data available. Varies by type of oil. Crude oil is considered a flammable liquid.
(4) Data from Chevron Material Data Sheet.
(5) 15% methanol, 85% unleaded gasoline.

100-6 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

Fig. 100-2 Flammability Diagram for the System Methane-Oxygen-Nitrogen at Atmospheric Pressure and 26C. (Cour-
tesy of Bureau of Mines Bulletin, #627, Flammability Characteristics of Combustible Gases and Vapors)

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Besides increasing the flammable range, increasing the oxygen concentration has
the following effects:
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Decreases the energy needed for ignition so that low energy ignition sources
now become hazardous
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Increases the energy of combustion resulting in much more damage from

explosions

Inerting, Enriching and Dilution

Figure 100-3 is the flammability diagram for a methane/inert/air mixture. Note
that this diagram is different from Figure 100-2 in that it uses air as the basis instead
of oxygen and it shows various types of inert gases. The line marked Cst is the stoi-
chiometric mixture line.

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

Fig. 100-3 Flammability Diagram for Methane

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Inerting is the addition of inert gas to reduce the oxygen concentration below the
LOC. Using Figure 100-3, the LOC is reached at about 34% nitrogen and 6%
methane. This equates to a 12% LOC [.21 (100-34-6)]. Per NFPA 69, Chapter 2,
systems should be inerted to an oxygen concentration of at least 2% below the LOC
if the gas is being continuously monitored (for methane this would be 12%-
2%=10% maximum oxygen concentration) or 60% of the LOC if it is not being
continuously monitored (for methane this would be 12%(.6) or 7.2% maximum
oxygen concentration).
Figure 100-3 can also be used to determine the effect of using different types of
inert gas. CO2 and steam are more effective inerting agents in that less inert is

100-8 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

needed to reach the LOC. In other words, the LOC for nitrogen is lower than it is for
CO2 or steam.
Enriching is the addition of flammable gas, usually methane, so that the vapor is
above the flammable range or too rich. Using Figure 100-3, methane would be
added until 200% of the UFL is reached. For methane this would be 15%x2=30%
minimum methane in the mixture.
Dilution is the addition of air until the vapor is below the flammable range or too
lean. Per NPFA 69, for dilution, the concentration should be held at or below 25%
of the LFL. Using Figure 100-3, air would be added until the mixture was
0.25x5=1.25% methane in air.
NFPA 69 is the key resource for the design of inerting enrichment and dilution
systems and for determining purge rates.
Inerting, enriching and dilution systems are active protections which must be
closely managed. Incidents have occurred because these systems have been shut-

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down inadvertently. Key concerns include:
Is the purge gas supply reliable? How do we know when the supply is lost?

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How do we know we have purge flow to the equipment being purged?
What is the impact if purge gas is lost?
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Effects of Hydrocarbon Mixtures on the Flammable Range
The effect of mixing two or more flammable gases on the flammable range can be
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predicted by the following formulas from NFPA 69, Appendix C.

P1 + P2 + P3 + + Pn -
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LowerFlammableLimit = --------------------------------------------------------------------
P1 + P2 + Pn
-------------- -------------- + ------------- -
LFL 1 LFL 2 LFL n
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P1 + P2 + P3 + + Pn -
UpperFlammableLimit = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
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P1 P2 Pn
--------------- + -------------- - + + -------------- -
UFL 1 UFL 2 UFL n

(Eq. 100-1)
where:

P1, P2, etc. = the volume fractions of components 1, 2, 3, etc., of the mixture
LFL1, LFL2, LFL3, etc. = the lower flammable limits of components 1, 2, 3, etc.,
respectively
UFL1, UFL2, UFL3, etc. = the upper flammable limits at components 1, 2, 3, etc.,
respectively

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

Effects of Temperature on the Flammable Range

Increasing temperature of a vapor/air mixture widens the flammable range (see
Figure 100-4). The change in flammable range can be approximated by the
following equations:

LFL t - = 1 0.000721 t 25
-------------------
LFL25

UFL t - = 1 + 0.000721 t 25
--------------------
UFL25

(Eq. 100-2)
where:
LFLt and UFL2 = the lower and upper flammable limits at temperature t in C

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LFL25 and UFL25 = the lower and upper flammable limits at 25C

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and

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t = the vapor temperature in C
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Fig. 100-4 Flammable Limits of a Combustible Vapor as a Function of Temperature, in Air at a Constant
Initial Pressure
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Legend:
AIT
Auto-ignition temperature. The minimum tempera-
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ture at which a material begins to self-heat at a

high enough rate to result in combustionreported
in the Data Guides as the temperature in air at one
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atmosphere.

TL
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Equilibrium temperature at which the lower flam-

mable limit composition exists over liquid in dry air
at one atmosphere (theoretical flash point).

Tu
Equilibrium temperature at which the upper flam-
mable limit composition exists over liquid in dry air
at one atmosphere.

100-10 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

Effect of Pressure on the Flammable Range

Figure 100-5 demonstrates the effect of pressure on flammable range for natural gas
(methane). Clearly increasing pressure widens the flammable range.

Fig. 100-5 Effect of Pressure on Limits of Flammability of Natural Gas-Nitrogen-Air Mixtures at 26C (Courtesy of
Bureau of Mines Bulletin 627, Flammability Characteristics of Combustible Gases and Vapors)

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Flash Point
A fuels flash point is the lowest temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid is just sufficient to produce a mixture at the LFL. A fuels flash point is a
good indicator of flammability. Contrary to what the words might seem to imply,
flash point does not mean the temperature at which a flash appears spontane-
ously; introduction of a source of ignition is essential.
Flash point test. The flash point test involves the concepts of both volatility and
flammable range. Consider a flammable liquid at a temperature so low that the

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

vapor pressure over the liquid surface is insufficient to produce an equilibrium

mixture within the flammable range. As the temperature is slowly increased, the
vapor pressure will rise and the amount of vapor in the mixture above the liquid
surface will increase. Until the LFL is reached, introduction of a source of ignition
such as a small flame into the vapor space will not cause combustion. When the
composition reaches the LFL, introduction of a flame will cause ignition, and flame
will spread momentarily across the oil surface. This is the method used in the
flash point test. See Section 1-2, NFPA 30 in Industry Specifications for accept-
able flash point tests.
There is no generally accepted corresponding test to determine the higher tempera-
ture at which the vapor composition over a liquid passes out of the flammable range
into the too rich region. Consequently, temperatures corresponding to the UFL are
not as generally available as those for the LFL.
Flash points of fuels. The flash point of gasoline, the most commonly used volatile
petroleum liquid, is well below 0F at atmospheric pressure. At ordinary handling

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temperatures, the vapor pressure of gasoline is high enough to produce an equilib-
rium mixture above the UFL in a closed air space.

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Kerosenes and domestic fuel oils usually have flash points within the range 100F
to 150F. For industrial fuel oils, the minimum flash point is usually above 150F.
This means that these oils will not usually produce ignitable mixtures over their
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surfaces unless heated.
Crude oils vary widely as to their characteristics and may range from thin, light
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gravity liquids more volatile than ordinary gasoline to thick heavy substances such
as asphalt. Therefore, to determine the flammability of any particular crude oil, it is
necessary to know its characteristics. So called refinable crude usually contains
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sufficient light components to place it in a flash point classification comparable with

gasoline.
See Figure 100-1 for flash points for selected chemicals.
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125 Source of Ignition

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In the preceding discussion of the fire triangle, the third requirement for fire was
designated simply as source of ignition, with the reservation that, for the partic-
ular chemical reaction concerned, considerations of both temperature and energy are
involved.
An ignition source serves as the starter for the process of combustion. Thereafter,
the heat of combustion itself provides the energy for continuation of the reaction, so
long as properly proportioned supplies of fuel and air are available.
Different fuel substances have different ignition characteristics. The possibility of
ignition is influenced by ambient conditions, by fuel temperature, and by size, dura-
tion, and energy of the potential source of ignition.
It is difficult to strictly define an ignition source and to assign to any fuel substance
a particular ignition characteristic (such as the so-called ignition temperature) that

100-12 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

will be an unvarying property under all conditions. However, general characteris-

tics can be discussed.
Refer to Section 200 for additional information on sources of ignition and their
control. Refer to Section 241 for a discussion of auto ignition.

Ignition Characteristics of Fuel

Fuel substances vary widely in their susceptibility to ignition. Variability depends
on physical state and chemical composition of the fuel, nature of the ignition source,
and conditions under which the two are brought together. For gas-air mixtures, igni-
tion is commonly thought to be an almost instantaneous process, although this is not
true under some conditions discussed later. Solid substances usually must be vapor-
ized before ignition can occur, thus involving a distinct time element. Although
rigid classification is impossible, common fuel substances fall roughly into three
groups:

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Easily ignitedchemically active vapors and gases such as:

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Ignition Energy
Carbon Disulfide 0.15 mJ (millijoules)

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Ethylene 0.07 mJ
Acetylene 0.02 mJ
Hydrogen
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Less easily ignitedhydrocarbon gases and vapors, including all of the prod-
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ucts of petroleum together with most oxygen-containing organic chemicals
such as alcohols, ethers, acetones, etc., that have higher ignition energy require-
ments.
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Ignition Energy
Methane 0.47 mJ (millijoules)
Ethane 0.285 mJ
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Propane 0.305 mJ
Methanol 0.215 mJ
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Dimethylether 0.29 mJ
Methyl Ethylketone 0.53 mJ

Slowly ignitable at low temperatureCellulose-containing solids such as

paper, wood, and rags which, under long exposure to relatively low tempera-
tures, may dry out, char, finally glow and possibly burst into flame.
Within each group the energy required for ignition will vary, depending on the
nature of the ignition source and on the oxygen concentration. If the atmosphere
contains more than the normal amount of oxygen, ignition will be facilitated.
As a point of reference, a spark from the human body as a result of static buildup
walking on a carpet can be in the 110 mJ range.

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

126 Spread of Flame

In a vapor-air mixture of flammable proportions, flame that started at one point will
spread in all directions until all of the mixture is consumed. The rate at which the
flame front movesthe rate of flame propagationis subject to wide variation.
Rates. For mixtures near the upper or lower limit of their flammable range (near
their UFL or LFL), at which the reaction is barely self-sustaining, the flame propa-
gation rate is low1/2 foot per second or lessand no significant pressure rise
results. Mixtures closer to the center of the flammable range produce more vigorous
flames that not only spread faster initially but also tend to accelerate. The flame
propagation rate is also influenced by the nature of the combustible material.
Maximum rates of flame propagation, with accompanying maximum explosive
effects, occur in mixtures slightly on the rich side of the flammable range.
In the open, a petroleum-vapor air mixture may burn at speeds up to about 8 to
10 feet per second, with no spectacular manifestation beyond the appearance of the

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flame and an outward rush of gases characteristic of an unconfined explosion.

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Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCE) are discussed in Section 1200.
If burning occurs in a closed space, the heat of combustion produces a rise in pres-

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sure. This can be eight to ten times the initial pressure. If the pressure exceeds the
strength of the container (e.g., a tank), failure will result and an explosion is said
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to have occurred. If the container is strong enough (e.g., the cylinder of a gasoline
engine), there may be no external manifestation at all.
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Deflagration/detonation. A deflagration occurs when the flame front propagates
by transferring heat and mass to the unburned vapor-air mixture ahead of the front.
Flame speeds can range from 1-350 M/sec and peak overpressures can be as high as
20 times the initial pressure. If the flame front continues unchecked, it can continue
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to accelerate due to the shock wave produced in the front of the flame. A detona-
tion occurs when the flame velocity reaches supersonic speeds of 2000-2500 M/sec.
Peak overpressures can range from 20-100 times the initial pressure. Figure 100-6
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illustrates the impact of distance from the ignition source on flame speed.
The distance required for a deflagration burning at subsonic speeds to accelerate to a
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detonation burning at supersonic flame speed depends on the flammable mixture,

temperature, pressure, the enclosure and its length and configuration, and the igni-
tion source. For these reasons, it is imperative that burning gases be controlled near
the ignition point while the burning rate is manageable. Normally this is considered
to be about 30 pipe diameters, or 15 feet maximum.
The tendency to detonate is associated with a high initial rate of flame travel and
high energy release per unit volume, so it is favored by high initial pressure,
oxygen-enriched atmospheres, and such fuels as hydrogen and acetylene. See
Section 1200 for more information.

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Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

Fig. 100-6 General Effect of Pipe Length on Flame Speed

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Flashback velocity. A type of flame propagation called flashback is best

explained by example. Consider the Bunsen burner. Air and gas in premixed propor-
tions within the flammable range can be ignited above the burner tube, where the
velocity has become slow by expansion of the stream, but the flame does not pass
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down into the tube (or flash back) because the flow velocity of the mixture in the
Bunsen burner tube is higher than the rate of flame propagation in the turbulent
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burning mixture above. If the flow velocity is sufficiently reduced, flashback can
occur. The rate at which flashback occurs is the flashback velocity. Earliest attempts
to measure the rate of flame propagation used the Bunsen burner method.
Flashback velocity depends on composition of the mixture, and to a lesser extent on
tube diameter. Velocities determined by the Bunsen burner method are reproducible
and are free of the variations and uncertainties that accompany burning rates of
mixtures initially at rest in pipes or vessels. Hence, velocities measured by the
Bunsen burner method may be used with confidence in the design of burners and in
the appraisal of risk of flashback in pipes, certain types of flame arrestors, etc.
Flashback velocity for a typical hydrocarbon vapor and air mixture is approxi-
mately 10 feet per second.

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

127 Explosion Hazard

Determining the percentage composition of mixtures of flammable vapor with air is
of great importance. Mixtures that are too lean to burn are not a fire hazard,
although if a mixture should be close to the LFL, consider the possibility that
changing conditions, such as an increase in temperature, might make the composi-
tion flammable.
Mixtures that are too rich to burn are not a fire hazard, but because such mixtures
may become diluted with enough air to become flammable, the surrounding condi-
tions must be carefully reviewed to see if a potential explosion hazard exists.
Mixtures within their flammable range are potentially very dangerous because it
requires only the presence of a source of ignition to produce a fire or explosion. The
degree of hazard depends upon the volume of the mixture, its location, the degree of
confinement, and the likelihood that a source of ignition might accidentally occur.
Flammable mixtures in large volume in partially or wholly confined spaces (tanks,

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basements, etc.) are particularly dangerous because the force of the explosion may

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destroy the enclosure and damage adjacent equipment. The likelihood of severe
destructive effects is increased when the mixture is initially above atmospheric pres-

er
sure in a vessel capable of sustaining a proportionally high pressure before failure.
The hazard is particularly serious if people are required to be in or adjacent to such
structures.
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130 References
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General References
Zabetakis, M. G., Flammability Characteristics of Combustible Gases and Vapors,
ed

U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 627, 1965.

Coward, H. F., G. W. Jones, Limits of Flammability for Gases and Vapors, U. S.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 503, 1952
at

Hilado, C. J., S. W. Clark, Autoignition Temperatures of Organic Compounds,

Chemical Engineering, Sept. 4, 1972, pp 75-80
D

Chemical Safety Data Sheets, Manufacturing Chemists Association, Inc.

Calcote, H. F., C. A. Gregory, Jr., C. M. Barrett, and Ruth B. Gilmer, Spark Igni-
tion Effect of Molecular Structure, Ind. Eng. Chem. 44, 2659, 1952

American Petroleum Institute (API)

API 750 Management of Process Hazards
API 2003 Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Light-
ning and Stray Currents
API 2207 Preparing Tank Bottoms for Hot Work
API 2214 Spark Ignition Properties of Hand Tools

100-16 2004 Chevron USA Inc. All rights reserved. May 2004
Fire Protection Manual 100 Introduction to Fire Protection

American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

ASTM D-323 Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method)

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

NFPA 325M Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and
Volatile Solids
NFPA 69 Explosion Prevention Systems

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Title 29 CFR, Part 1910.38a, Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention
Plans

Chevron
Refining Process Safety Management Guidance Document

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100 Introduction to Fire Protection Fire Protection Manual

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