Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2017

MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY
USEFUL FORMULAS
You should apply those formulas in order to solve exercises, tests and problems.
Furthermore, this manuscript should be allowed for the part of exam problems.
INDEX
Chapter 2. Forming and Shaping Processes. Introduction. .......................................................................... 2
Chapter 3. Forming and Shaping Processes. Presses. ................................................................................ 4
Chapter 4. Forming and Shaping Processes. Cutting and punching. ........................................................... 6
Chapter 5. Forming and Shaping Processes. Rolling. .................................................................................. 7
Chapter 6. Forming and Shaping Processes. Bending. ................................................................................ 8
Chapter 7. Forming and Shaping Processes. Deep drawing. ..................................................................... 11
Chapter 9. Forming and Shaping Processes. Extrusion and drawing. ....................................................... 18
Chapter 11. Machining. Fundamentals. ...................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 13. Machining. Manufacturing costs. ............................................................................................. 20
Chapter 15. Machining. Turning. ................................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 16. Machining. Milling. ................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 16. Machining. Drilling. .................................................................................................................. 28
Chapter 19. CNC ......................................................................................................................................... 29
Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 1 of 34

Vanesa Zorrilla Muoz, Ph.D. Ph.D. candidate
CHAPTER 2. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. INTRODUCTION.
True Stress
True Strain
Engineering Stress
Engineering Strain
Hookes law (elasticity)

E = modulus of elasticity
Plastic Behaviour of metals
: Elastic limit; : Rupture
Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve
Deformation Work
: Stress medium of influence
V: Volume of applied stress
Deformation Work and %.
=u /u = 30-60 % for extrusion; 70-90 %

ideal total
for rolling
W
Wdef =
Temperature (Work)
Aluminum 75C
Steel lower C 280C
Copper 140C
Titanium 570C
Work (consumed) Wdef
WConsum. =
mec
Power (consumed) dWConsum.
PConsum. =
dt
Effects of the elastic deformation = Kn
K, coefficient of resistance
n, the strain hardening factor
n characterizes the mechanical behavior of a material:
n = 1 Perfectly elastic
n = 0 Rigid, perfectly plastic
0 <n <1 Elastoplastic plastic regime
Strain rate v
(significant effect at high T, for steels, = = C m
approx. For T> 500 C) l0
v: speed
m: exponent of rate sensitivity deformation
C: coefficient of resistance
0 <m <1 m = high plastic deformation until break
Ductility index A Atrue

q= 100%
A
1
true = and true = ln
1 q 1 q

CHAPTER 3. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. PRESSES.
Work (done) on a process
A: Working
P: Power A = P dw = k P Max w
w: Stroke utility
k: Coefficient. calculating A
H: Long, stroke
Hydraulic presses Maximum force = Pressure section of
cylinders
(Approx. constant throughout the race,
stroke)
Work(ing) capacity: A Max = P Max W

Hydraulic presses travel speed V = Q (mass) / S
Mechanical presses (work and speed, velocity)

H
W = r(1 - cos ) = (1 - cos )
TDC 2
O
H
R
dW n r
W c= =r (sen + sen 2 )
BDC dt 30 2l
W
P

Position speed punch Constant rotational speed of shaft V Variable
slider.
Cadence Press (continuous operation): n (No

beats / minute)
dW n r
c= =r (sen + sen 2 )
Dt 30 2l
Approximate equation:
n H
c W 1
30 w
H
c 0,105 W n 1( mm / seg )
w
Maximum torque that can withstand the press

axis (M d ):
1
A N = Ecin =( I )
2
Work capacity
2
(n 0 - N 1 ) Decrese the engine speed or rotation rate (rpm) of the
n02 n12
steering wheel work AN = GD 2
(Motor contribution is neglected during the stroke) 7100
G: Flywheel weight
D: Diameter of inertia
Depending on the drop in % of revolutions (s):
s
[1- (1- )]
2 100 2
A N = n0 GD
7100
If the operating speed is adjustable:
nx2
Ax = AN
n02

CHAPTER 4. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. CUTTING AND
PUNCHING.
Cutting forces: Resistence to shear () Approximate relationship: d = traction
For mild steel plates: d 20 daN / mm2
Cutting forces: Resistence to shear

P: Cutting development (P = d, for round holes) F Max = P d e
e: Sheet thickness
Cutting forces: Maximum cutting thickness The force of the punch should be:
d <F < p
p : Compressive strength of the punch.
Round for punching holes in sheet steel:
d 1.6 e (d: diameter of the hole punching)
Cutting forces: Distance between loom and the 2e
material edge
Cutting forces: Cutting work
X: We need to consider that the force is not constant (Ranging A = X F Max E

from 0.5 to 0.8)
Laser: Cutting speed depends on material,

equipment, etc..:
P Laser power (kW) P = X v d t
X It takes into account the heat of vaporization of the
material
v Cutting speed
d Width of cut
t Material thickness

CHAPTER 5. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. ROLLING.
Flat rolling process:
Vf Vrollers
Fordward slip:
Vf: Velocity of the strip Vrollers
Vrollers: The surface speed of the roll
Flat rolling process:
Maximum possible draft: By reducing h h =
0 f 2 R
thicknesses h 0 h F :
: Coefficient of friction
R: radius of the rollers

CHAPTER 6. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. BENDING.
Minimum bend radius
s : Sheet thickness (mm)
10 : Elongation at break (mm) rimin =s 0,0085 B + 0,5
B : Tensile strength (kg / mm2) 10
r i is related to the radius of the punch (r) And with
the width of the V (w):
Generally r <r i andw= 5 to 8 times r i
Defined as Natural bend radius: r i = e and is
obtained for w= 6 and in practice:
e3 w= 6 to 8 times e
e>3 w = 8 to 12 times and
Maximum bend radius
The medium folding line have a radius s Es
ri = mx =
E: Modulus of elasticity
F : Yield strength 2 2 F
Springback
E: Modulus of elasticity
*: Radius after elastic recovery
: Radius that requires folding for
b : Bending stress (Functions of deformation
resistance k F )
2 b
s / 2: Bending elongation = 1
* s E
Transverse bending deformation

k s deformation stress in kg / mm2 10s
t=
k s ri
Material drawn Definition of the starting material and the fold
l = length line:
= Bending angle (rad)
r i = Inner radius of curvature
s = thickness Cutting length: Length of the neutral line (sum
k = correction factor from the following table (neutral of the straight sections and the development
fiber position): of the curves).
r/s 5 3 2 1.2 0.8 0.5

Length of the curved sections:
k 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 l = (R i + K s / 2)

These expressions are similar for the
layout of the folding line!
Work force and bending:

The bending force depends on:
s: Plate thickness L s2 R
(quadratic Fmax =k
V
relationship)
ri: Inside Bend
Radius
L:Pleat length
R : Tensile Work:
V: Opening of the
matrix
In the practice: A = F dh = X Fmax H
e 3V = 6 to 8 times e;e> 3 V = 8 to 12
times e
In these conditions F Max bending (limited to folding
tools):
Work:
K = 1.2 to 1.3 to 0.7 to 0.8 fold and to bending
X: Coefficient for the simplified calculation of bending
work
H: Working stroke of the punch during folding
Theoretical and real stroke: h and hreal
= bending angle
s = thickness = 2 +

V = opening die
2 2
a = free stroke, initial position of the stroke
c = percent related to the working speed

= + ( 2 +)

2 2
Descent of the punch

= ++
2
Maximal force of a cylinder = ( 2 )
Cost for production =

= density of material
V = volume
T = hours of the machine
n = number of machines
p = produced pieces

Energy (J)
S = press work area
() =
Real maximum power

() (/)
= = ()

Cost for production

() () ( )
=

1000 3600

Operative time
4
= + = + =
3 3

CHAPTER 7. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. DEEP DRAWING.
Drawing factor
D: Initial diameter m=d/D
d: Diameter of the punch
Cutting to size
Approximated expression for cylindrical
parts
D = 1.1 (h + d)
Examples of expressions in order

to determine the diameter of the Container form = D of the cutting to size
revolution cutting parts
Steel fuller and clearance

When steel fuller is > clearance, then: Lets
make it a round!
=

= =
/
Graphical determination of axial

symmetric bodies The composite curve r center of gravity is determined by the
m
funicular polygon articulated, considering that the center of gravity
of a quadrant is 0.9 r.
Length L is calculated by a polygon of forces.
Geometric relationships are: R2 = D L; d =2r
m m m

Analytical determination
(Guldin Theorem):
r1 L1 +...+ rn Ln
rm =
L1 +...+ Ln
One deep drawing Drawing ratio, = D / d

D initial diameter and d d punch diameter
or the drawing ratio inverse:
Drawing factor, m = d / D
One deep drawing Analytically, for the relationships:

d / s = 25 to 600 (s = thickness).
Limited deep drawing ratio in a
Good deep drawing materials: 0max = 2.15 - 0.001 (d/s)
stretched 0max
Suitable deep drawing materials: 0max = 2 - 0.0011 (d/s)
f: Punch section
F: Area of cutting to size d = 1,13 f
D = 1,13 F
Multiple deep drawing D Initial diameter
d 1 ... d n Diameter of the punch (at every step)
In each deep drawing:
d = D / 0 d = m0 D
d1= d / 1 d1= m1 d
... ...
dn = d n-1 / n d n = m n d n-1
In the first deep drawing (after annealing): 1 = 1.5 to 1.65
(or 1 = 0max at less)
In subsequent deep drawing: n = 1.2 to 1.33

Blankholder: Maximum Force of
deep drawing K fm
*= D*/ d Deep drawing ratio for the Pz = d s ln *
maximum force F
K fm Resistance against deformation
(average)
F Deep drawing efficiency: f (, D / d)
d Punch diameter
s Plate thickness
Blankholder: Maximum deep

drawing force Pz =n d s B
is the deep drawing tensile
(Equation that conceptually is similar to the other statement,
but this formula expresses all relationships regarding
resistance strength ( B ) and the ratio n = / B)
K fm
= ln
F
0 1
n = 1,2
0mx 1
Blankholder: Materials with high
1, 2
( 0 1)
ability deep drawing
=n
1,15 0, 001 d
s
Blankholder: Materials with
1
( 0 1)
normal ability deep drawing
=n
1 0, 001 d
s

Blankholder: Work of deep
drawing: Ad = x Pz h
1. Double action deep drawing
presses
P z = Maximum force for deep drawing
h = Deep drawing height
x = (0,5 - 0,8). Correction factor
which depends on the material and 0 .
The highest values of x are related to soft

materials. The lower values are related to
hard materials and little deep drawing.
Common sheet: x = 0.65 - 0.75
Blankholder: Work of deep

drawing:
2. Single action deep drawing
presses:
Ad = (xPz +PB ) h
P B = Blankholder force
Blankholder:
2
D ( d +2r ) 2 p ( D 2 d 2 ) p
Force with blankholder
PB =
d ': Inner diameter of the die
4 4
r: Edge radius of deep drawing
p: Specific pressure of the
blankholder
(Analytical or graphical calculation) ( 2 2 )
4
p in Kg/cm2 and B in Kg/mm2
0,5d
p = 0,25 ( 0 1) 2 + B
100s
Edge radius of the die
rM =(5 10)s
Values of low r M for thin sheets and values
of high r M for thick sheets
Edge radius of the punch

Values of r St for thin sides (walls) (d / s = r St = (0,10,3)d
500) and high for thick sides (d / s = 50)

Expression to determine the
clearance (w) s
w=
s: Thickness of the plate D
D: Diameter of cutting to size
d: Diameter of the punch d
In order to deep drawing of
cylinders with smooth walls, it can
be utilized the expression:
w = 0.8 s
Steel fuller (Sf) Sf = 2 s
Deep drawing without

blankholder
h 0,3 3 d 2 s
Cylindrical pieces: the
blankholder can be removed
when the height of the cylinder
wall is:
d (20 25) s
In case of non-circular parts, it is replaced:
d = 2r, where r is the radius of the edge
corners rounding
Cutting to size (cylindrical):

h1
D = d 2 + (d a d 2 )
2
Parts with non-constant

thickness h1 s1
D = d 2 +4 d m
d m = Average diameter of the wall (d + s 1 ) s

Stretching force
B
P =cF1
Regardless of the creep (fatigue) values:
F
( ) 0,88
F = 0,5 - 0,8 (efficiency)
F 1 = Transvertional section after stretching.
c = 0,88 s
s1
for s / s 1 <2.4
F = 0,5 - 0,8 (efficiency)

F 1 = Transvertional section after stretching.
Deep drawing work

x = 0.8 -1.0 (Factor form of the starting cup.
h 1 : (Working) stroke of the punch
A = x P h1
Stretched wall with weakening

Pieces with thinner lateral surface than the A stretching of the wall is 40-45% at each step (30% without
bottom surface are getting. Stretched wall annealing).
with weaking consists of a first deep Cutting to size (cylindrical):
drawing (usually called the stretched the Considering the material with constant volume:
cup) which is followed by one or more
stages with reduced wall thickness (called h1
D = d 2 + (d a d 2 )
2
stretched). s
Parts with non-constant thickness:
h1 s1
D = d 2 +4 d m
s
d m = Average diameter of the wall (d + s 1 )
A stretching of the wall is 40-45% at each step (30% without

annealing).
Cutting to size (cylindrical):
Considering the material with constant volume:
Parts with non-constant thickness:
d m = Average diameter of the wall (d + s 1 )

Technological aspects Recommendations:
Edge Radius of punch and die: Edge radius of the die:
Very small edge radius: which
submit the sheet to an additional rM =(5 10)s
effort of elongation.
Large edge radius: the sheet (Values of low r M for thin sheets and values of high r M for
cannot be hold until the end. Folds thick sheets)
are usually produced. Edge radius of the punch:
r St = (0,10,3)d
Values of r St for thin sides (walls) (d / s = 500) and high for

thick sides (d / s = 50).
Deep drawing clearance width:

Excessive clearance: The sheet Expression to determine the clearance (w):
is not properly seated in the punch s: Thickness of the plate
it is obtained pieces or parts D: Diameter of cutting to size
with little smooth surfaces. d: Diameter of the punch
Insufficient clearance: Tendency
to seizure and possible side or In order to deep drawing of cylinders with smooth walls, it
bottom tears of the piece. can be utilized the expression: w = 1.1 s

CHAPTER 9. FORMING AND SHAPING PROCESSES. EXTRUSION AND
DRAWING.
Extrusion force
A 0 and A F are the initial and final sections
A
F = Ao k ln o
A
f
F=PA
0
Deformation work (A) A=Pw

w is the working stroke of the punch
Extrusion ratio
F0
R=
F 0 and F F are the initial and final sections
Ff
Pressure (P) (IDEAL)

A 0 and A F are the initial and final sections P = u = kF Ln (A0 / AF) = KF
Pressure (P)
Values approx. a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5 P = u = kF [A + b Ln (A0 / AF)]
K F or K fm
F0 L
L 1 and L 0 : Final and initial lengths.
= ln =ln 1
F 1 L0

CHAPTER 11. MACHINING. FUNDAMENTALS.
Cutting Speed
Vc = speed (m/min)
D = Diameter (mm) =
n = rpm
Limits the maximum advance
(finishing): a
2
R t = Roughness (m) Rt = 1000
a = Forward or advance 8r
r = Radius of tool tip
Advance in milling an = z . az
a n = advance per round (milling)
z = N. of teeth (milling)
a z = advance per tooth (milling)
Advance speed (milling) Va = z . az . n
Cutting force
S = Section Chip (forward depth of cut) F =SF =apf
F c = Specific cutting force c c c
Cutting power
Ac = W
Fc = N
= =
a = advance or progress (mm/rev)
p = depth of cut (mm)
fc = Specific energy for cutting (N/mm2);
1GJ/m3= 1000 N/mm2
Chip flow
Q=W
Vc = m/min = =
S = m2
Cutting time of turning
L = length of machining
= =

Time of drilling / boring L l + 0,3D (l +0,3 D)2

l = length of the drill / bore tt = = =
Va an a V c 1000

Cutting time in milling
L = length of milling =

CHAPTER 13. MACHINING. MANUFACTURING COSTS.

Machining times
t= Manufacturing time
t p = Setup time (prior to manufacturing
t =t +T + t
F p m c
operations)
t m = Operating time (unproductive
operation during manufacturing).
t c = Cutting time (processing time)
t not prod = T p + T m (In general, it is

estimated)
t cycle = T m + T c (Inverse of the rate of
production)
Machining costs CT = CF + Cg
C T : Total costs.
C F : Cost of production or direct costs.
C g : General or indirect costs (applied
equally to all products).
Total cost (cost of C =C +C +C +C +C

manufacturing): T m l eq sp t
C m : Cost of raw material.
C l : Cost of direct labor.
C eq : Amortization cost of machinery and
equipment used.
C sp : Cost of special tools.
C t : Cost of tools.
Labor and amortization

S: Cost of work when the operators are C =St
mo F
involved in the process. C =At
A: Hourly cost of amortization equipment. to F
Operating costs
H = Hourly cost of the work C = (S + A) t =Ht
op F F

Economic analysis Times that are varying with v and a: Cutting time
c
and time to change the worn tools (t N ):
ch F
t = T + T + T = T + T N + T (t
F p m t fixed ch F c ch
Time change of 1 edge; n = t / G: Number of edges
F c
per piece).
C =C +C +C +C +C
F m or to h or
C = C + (t N + T ) H + n C
F fixed ch F c F edge
(C : Cost of a tool edge)
edge
Encompassing summands related to tool wear:
C =C +T H+n C +t N H
F fixed
c F edge ch F
C =C + T H + (C +t M) t / T
F fixed c edge ch c
Relative costs of wear tools (C ext C =N C +C

ext tool F edge ch
tool ):
nF: Number of blades used
C edge : Cost of edge
C ch : Tool change cost (cost of
occupancy due to time spent on tool
changes).
Cost of the cutting edge (tool

insert exchange)(C edge ):
C bh : Cost of badge holder
= +
C insert : Insert Cost
n ei : No. edges / insert

n bh : No. badge holder
Taylor tool life

T: tool life in min.
K: constant depending mainly upon the
tool-work materials and the limiting value of
speed (v).
1/n1; 1/n2; 1/n3: exponents so called tool
life exponents depending upon the tool- = /
work materials and the machining / /
environmental. Generally, those exponents
affect tool life maximum and tminimum.
The values k, 1/n1, 1/n2, 1/n3 are available
in Machining Data Handbooks or can be
evaluated by machining tests.
CHAPTER 15. MACHINING. TURNING.

Turning time
L = length (mm)
V a = speed of advance (mm/min) = =
a = advance (mm/rev)
n = speed in rpm
Turning with constant Vc or n Manual Lathes: Engine speed (n) constant:

n = 1000 vc / (p Dmax);
Use the n in order to obtain that vc is equal to
the maximum recommended (D = Dmax).
CNC Lathes:
- Engine speed (n) cte: n = 1000 vc / (p Dmax);
- Constant surface speed (n varies by changing D).
If n is uniform, then tc can be calculated with the value of n
(medium).
Facing time (constant engine L R
speed) tc = =
Va an
1000 vc
n=
D
2 R 2
tc =
1000 a vc
Facing time (constant cutting

speed)
R = radius piece for facing
L R R2
=
Vc = cutting speed in m/min
Va = feed (advance) rate mm/min tc = =
D = workpiece diameter (2 R) V a med a nmed a 1000 vc
a = feed in mm/rev
n = engine speed in rpm
Turning time (cylindered)

l = turning length in mm
c = input blade in mm l +c l
p = depth of cut in mm tc =
G = position angle of the main cutting an an
edge of the tool

1000 V c
c = p tgG y n=
D
Turning with several passes (also

called phases) with constant N L N L D
deep and n tc = =
a n a 1000 vc
Turning with several passes (also

called phases) with constant
depth and vc N L N L Dmed
tc = =
a nmed a 1000 vc
Time of cut thread tip tool

Analogous to turning, but by changing l +c lN p
the forward step (p) and considering that is T ROS = Np
done in several passes (Np) Expression. pn pn
l N p D
As the variation of the diameter (D) is very T ROS =
small for the same expression can be p 1000 vc
used n = constant and vc = constant.
Time cutter taper turning

Li = Length of each pass
p i
i = Number of passes = 10/pmax
p = Depth of cut in mm (constant) Li sen( / 2) p
= Cone angle T con = = = i
a n a n a n sen( / 2)

CHAPTER 16. MACHINING. MILLING.
Cutting speed
D: Drill diameter =
n: Cutting milling rotation speed 1000
Advance (also called feed)

Feed per tooth (a z ): Displacement
corresponding to each tooth on a
complete revolution (mm).
Feed per return (a n ): Displacement of

the cutter milling on a return (mm/rev). an = z a z
Z: Number of teeth.
Feed rate (v a = a min ): Displacement in

one minute (mm/min).
va = a n n = a z z n
Depth
Depth is measured in millimeters and
must be distinguished:
Radial depth (p r ): Measured in the

direction of the radius cutter milling.
Axial Depth (p a ): Measured in the

direction of the axis cutter milling.

Cutting force
fc: Specific cutting force (function of =
material, geometry, cutting parameters,
etc.).
S: Section instant chip. For milling is
variable:
- The chip thickness varies along
the edge of a work.
- The number of edges
simultaneously machining is
variable. For cutter millings, the
oblique teeth cutting edge
length is variable.
Substituting the midsection chip (S m ):
Cutting capacity
S, Fc and Pc are variable for milling (it is =
not so for turning).
Substituting (F c expressed in kgf / mm2): Dn Dn

Vc= (m/ min ) = (m/s)
1000 60000
Replacing: az n z = va (mm/ min )

va p r pa f c
Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Pc = (CV) Page 25 of 34
Vanesa Zorrilla Muoz, Ph.D. Ph.D. candidate 4.500.000
(Valid expressions for cylindrical and
face milling)
va p r pa f c
Pc = (KW)
6.120.000
Chip section and edge

e: chip thickness. =
l: edge length in contact with the
workpiece material.
Chip section considering the

simultaneous work of several S = e l z
edges
z: number of teeth in contact with the
material.
Midsection chip (S m ) =
e m : Average chip thickness
p a : Axial depth
z ' m : Average number of working teeth

z: Number of teeth z = z
: Angle (radian) of the mill at work 2
Cylindrical Milling (p r D <<; emax + emin
small) em =
2
2 pr pr
emax = a z = 2 az
R D
pr
=2
D
Face milling The same expression for S m in cylindrical milling
pr a z
p r a z = l a em em =
la
D pr a z 2
em =
Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx
la =
2 D Page 26 of 34

z = z
2
Cutting time
L : Machining length (axis travel of the tc = L / va
cutter).
V a : Feed speed. The path (L) should
consider the bit completely out of the
piece.
Planned surface with face

L=C + B+C = D+ B
milling
Energy consumed for planned

surface with face milling
=
Planned surface with

cylindrical milling L = B + p(D - p)
Squaring
L = B + 2C = B + 2 p(D - p)

CHAPTER 16. MACHINING. DRILLING.
Force
F p FR aD
= sen F p = p sR sen
2 2 2 2 2
Fc D aD D a D2
M T = = p sc = p sc
2 2 4 2 8
2 ( ( FC 2) (vC 2) )
P c = 2 PC (1FILO ) =
a D vc a D vc
P c = p sc = p sc
2 2 4
Cutting time (helicoidal)

L l + 0 '3 D (l + 0 '3 D) D
tc = = =
Va an a vc 1000
CHAPTER 19. CNC

TABLE OF G FUNCTIONS USED IN THE FAGOR CNC 8025.
Preparatory Functions and others:
(Modal) G00 : Positioning
(Modal) G01* : Linear interpolation
(Modal) G02 : Clockwise circular helical interpolation
(Modal) G03 : Counter-clockwise circular helical interpolation
G04 : Dwell, duration programmed by means of K
(Modal) G05* : Round corner
G06 : Circular Interpolation with absolute center coordinates
(Modal) G07* : Square corner
G08 : Arc tangent to previous path
G09 : Arc programmed by three points
G10 : Cancelation of a mirror image
G11 : Providing a mirror image on X axis
G12 : Providing a mirror image on Y axis
G13 : Providing a mirror image on Z axis
(Modal) G14 : Activation of C axis in degrees
(Modal) G15 : Machining the cylindrical surface of a part
(Modal) G16 : Machining the surface of a part face
G17 : XY plane selection
G18 : XZ plane selection
G19 : YZ plane selection
G20 : Call for standard subroutine
G21 : Call for parametric subroutine
G22 : Definition of standard subroutine
G23 : Definition of parametric subroutine
G24 : End of subroutine
G25 : Unconditional jump/call
G26 : Conditional jump/call if zero
G27 : Conditional jump/call if different from zero
G28 : Conditional jump/call if smaller than zero
G29 : Conditional jump/call if equal to or greater than zero
G30 : Display error code defined by K
G31 : Store present programs datum point
G32 : Retrieve datum point stored by G31
(Modal) G33 : Threadcutting
G36 : Automatic radius blend (controlled corner rounding)
G37 : Tangential approach
G38 : Tangential exit
G39 : Chamfering
(Modal) G40* : Cancellation of radius compensation
(Modal) G41 : Left hand radius compensation
(Modal) G42 : Right hand radius compensation
G43 : Enables compensation
G44 : Cancels compensation
(Modal) G47 : Single block treatment
(Modal) G48* : Cancellation of single block treatment
G50 : Loading of the values in the tool offset table
G51 : Correction of the dimensions of the tool in use
G52 : Communication with FAGOR LOCAL AREA NETWORK
(Modal) G53-G59 : Zero offsets
G64 : Multiple arc pattern machining cycle
G65 : Independent axis execution
G66 : Pattern repeat (roughing canned cycle following part shape)
X, Z: Starting point. Profile.
I: Amount of material removed from the workpiece (Radius).
C: Depth passing (in radius)
L: Excess (Largely) in X and Z (in radius).
H: Feedrate last finishing. If not programmed or programmed with a 0 value, no finishing
pass.
S, E: Blocks in which the profile is defined.
G68 : Roughing canned cycle (X)
G69 : Roughing canned cycle (Z)
(Modal) G70 : Programming in inches
(Modal) G71 : Programming in millimeters
(Modal) G72 : Scaling factor
G73: Axis turn
G74 : Automatic search for machine reference
G75 : Probing
G75 N2 : Probing canned cycles
G76 : Automatic block generation
G80 : Canned cycle cancellation
G81 : Canned turning cycle with straight sections
Turning
X, Z: Absolute coordinates of the starting point.
Q, R: Absolute coordinates of the end point.
C: Step in radios and positive.
L, M: Oversize in X and Z (radius) for finishing (not programmed: 0).
H: Feedrate finish (not programmed: 0).
G82 : Canned facing cycle with straight sections
G83 : Deep hole drilling
Turning
X, Z: Absolute coordinates of the position of the drill.
I: Depth of the drill.
B: Pass in each entry.
D: Safety distance.
K: Dwell at the bottom of the hole.
H: Rapid withdrawal.
C: Safety distance in each new entry.
G84 : Turning with arcs
G85 : Facing with arcs
G86 : Longitudinal threadcutting cycle
Turning:
X, Z: Starting point.
Q, R: Endpoint.
I: Total depth of the thread (in radius). Positive and negative outdoors indoors threads.
B: Depth per pass (in radius). If the depth is positive the number of passes. If negative,
constant depth.
D: Safety distance.
L: Finishing allowance.
C: Thread/spindle pitch (step).
J: Conical screw out.
A: Tool penetration angle.
G87 : Face threadcutting cycle
X, Y, Z: Analogous to the canned cycles G81, etc (relative to the center of the pocket).
I: Pocket depth (it increases referred to the plane when it is working in coordinates).
J, K: Dimensions of the pocket from the center thereof along the axes of the main plane
(XY G17, etc.).
B: Machining pass along the axis perpendicular to the main plane. Positive.
C: Each machining step along the main plane. Positive. If it is not programmed, a value
of of the tool diameter is assumed.
D: Distance between the reference plane (approach) and the workpiece surface.
H: Progress in the last pass machining (finish).
L: Step corresponding to the finishing pass along the main plane.
F: Feedrate in the main plane (forward in the axis perpendicular to advance 50% of F).
N: Number of times to repeat the defined cycle of the block.
G88 : Grooving cycle (X). Block structure (analogous to rectangular pocket, G87)
Turning:
X, Z: Starting point.
Q, R: Endpoint.
D: Safety distance (radius).
K: Waiting time after each entry.
G89 : Grooving cycle (Z)
Structure for milling G81-G86, G89:
N4 G8? G (98 or 99) X + / -4.3 and + / -4.3 Z + / -4.3 I + / -4.3 K3.2 N2
G8?: Canned cycle code.
G98: Withdrawal to the starting
plane.
G99: Withdrawal to the reference
plane (security distance).
X, Y, Z: It depends of the main level
to work.
I: Machining depth (Incremental
coordinates, G91. It refers to the plane).
K: Wait at the bottom of machining before receding.
N: Number of times to repeat.
(Modal) G90* : Programming of absolute coordinates
(Modal) G91 : Programming of incremental coordinates
G92 : Preselection of coordinates and setting of max. S value
G93 : Preselection of polar origin
(Modal) G94 : Feedrate F in mm/min (inch/min.)
(Modal) G95* : Feedrate F in mm/rev (inch/rev.)
(Modal) G96 : Speed S in m/min (feet/min.) (Constant surface speed)
(Modal) G97* : Speed S in rev/min.
G98 : Withdrawal to the plane starting.
G99 : Withdrawal to the reference plane (security distance).
G98/99 G87 X Y Z I J B C D F H L N
J: Radio of the pocket. By positive or negative I keep changing the machining direction.
Milling canned cycles (see the configuration before):
G79: Canned cycle defined by the user.

G80: Canned cycle cancellation.
G81: Drilling cycle.
G82: Facing cycle with straight sections.
G83: Deep hole drilling.
G84: Canned cycle tapping.
G85: Reaming cycle.
G86: Boring cycle with withdrawal in G00.
G87: Rectangular pocket canned cycle.
G88: Circular pocket canned cycle.
G89: Boring cycle with withdrawal in G03 progress of work.
Auxiliary Functions:
Program stop (M00)
Conditional program stop (M01)
End of program (M02)
End of program with return to first block (M30)
Clockwise spindle start (M03)
Counter-clockwise spindle start (M04)
Spindle stop (M05)
Spindle orientation (M19)
Spindle speed range change (M41, M42, M43, M44)
Tool change with M06
Live tool (M45 S)
Synchronized tool (M45 K)
Functions G14, G15, G16, G75 N2 and G76 are only available on the model TS CNC model.
Modal means that once the G functions have been programmed they remain active until
cancelled by another G which is incompatible or by M02, M30, EMERGENCY or RESET. The G
functions marked * are those which the CNC assumes on being turned on or after executing
M02 or M30 or after an EMERGENCY or RESET. Whether G05 or G07 is assumed will depend
on the value assigned to P613(5).
All the Gs required may be programmed in any order in the same block, except G14, G15, G16,
G20, G21, G22, G23, G24, G25, G26, G27, G28, G29, G30, G31, G32, G50, G52, G53, G59,
G72, G73, G74 and G92 which have to be alone in a block. If incompatible G functions are
programmed in the same block, the CNC assumes the one programmed last.
Parametric programming:
F1 : Sum (addition)
F2 : Rest (subtraction)
F3 : Multiplication
F4 : Division
F5 : Square Root
F6 : Square root of the squares sum
F7 : Sine
F8 : Cosine
F9 : Tangent
F10 : Arctangent
F11 : Comparison
F12 : Whole Part
F13 : Integer part plus one
F14 : Whole least one party
F15 : Absolute Value
F16 : Complementation
F17 and F : Special operations
Ordinary subroutines:
Call (G20): It can be performed from any program or another subroutine (regular or parametric).
N4 G20 N2.2
No. No. subroutine repetitions.

If the number repetitions is programmed, the CNC is done only once.
Definition (G22):
N4 G22 N2
G22: Defines the beginning of a subroutine.
N2: Identifies the subroutine:
N4 G24
G24: End of a subroutine.
Other parameters:
T1.1: Tooling number

<No tool. See Table><Pos. stock>


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MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 1 of 34

Hookes law (elasticity)

Deformation Work and %.

=u /u = 30-60 % for extrusion; 70-90 %

Ductility index A Atrue

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 3 of 34

Work(ing) capacity: A Max = P Max W

Mechanical presses (work and speed, velocity)

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 4 of 34

Cadence Press (continuous operation): n (No

Maximum torque that can withstand the press

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 5 of 34

Cutting forces: Resistence to shear

X: We need to consider that the force is not constant (Ranging A = X F Max E

Laser: Cutting speed depends on material,

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 6 of 34

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 7 of 34

Transverse bending deformation

r/s 5 3 2 1.2 0.8 0.5

k 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 l = (R i + K s / 2)

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 8 of 34

Work force and bending:

Descent of the punch

Maximal force of a cylinder = ( 2 )

Cost for production =

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 9 of 34

Real maximum power

Cost for production

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 10 of 34

Examples of expressions in order

Steel fuller and clearance

Graphical determination of axial

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 11 of 34

One deep drawing Drawing ratio, = D / d

One deep drawing Analytically, for the relationships:

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 12 of 34

Blankholder: Maximum deep

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 13 of 34

The highest values of x are related to soft

Blankholder: Work of deep

Edge radius of the punch

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 14 of 34

Steel fuller (Sf) Sf = 2 s

Deep drawing without

Cutting to size (cylindrical):

Parts with non-constant

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 15 of 34

F = 0,5 - 0,8 (efficiency)

Deep drawing work

Stretched wall with weakening

A stretching of the wall is 40-45% at each step (30% without

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 16 of 34

Values of r St for thin sides (walls) (d / s = 500) and high for

Deep drawing clearance width:

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 17 of 34

Deformation work (A) A=Pw

Pressure (P) (IDEAL)

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 18 of 34

Time of drilling / boring L l + 0,3D (l +0,3 D)2

Mechanical Technology. Useful Formulas 2016.docx Page 19 of 34

CHAPTER 13. MACHINING. MANUFACTURING COSTS.

t not prod = T p + T m (In general, it is

Total cost (cost of C =C +C +C +C +C