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W-24 CHAPTER 13 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

13-3 FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION (continued)

Isothermal Flow
Gas flow in long constant-area ducts, such as natural gas pipelines, is essentially iso-
thermal. Mach numbers in such flows are generally low, but significant pressure
changes can occur as a result of frictional effects acting over long duct lengths.
Hence, such flows cannot be treated as incompressible. The assumption of isothermal
flow is much more appropriate.
For isothermal flow with friction (as opposed to the adiabatic flow with friction
we previously discussed), the heat transfer dQ/dm is not zero. On the other hand,
we have the simplification that the temperature is constant everywhere. As for adia-
batic flow, we can start with our set of basic equations (Eqs. 13.1), describing one-
dimensional flow that is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer, and normal
shocks,
r V1 A1 r V2 A2 rVA m  constant 13:1a
1 2

 2 mV
Rx p1 A1 p2 A2 mV  1 13:1b

dQ V2 V2
h1 1 h2 2 13:1c
dm 2 2
Z  :
 2 s1 1 Q
ms dA 13:1d
CS T A

p rRT 13:1e

Dh h2 h1 cp DT cp T2 T1 13:1f

T2 p2
Ds s2 s1 cp ln R ln 13:1g
T1 p1
We can simplify these equations by setting DT 0, so T1 T2, and A1 A2 A. In
addition we recall from Section 13-1 that the combination, h V 2/2 is the stagnation
enthalpy, h0. Using these, our final set of equations (renumbered for convenience) is
m
r1V1 r2V2 rV G constant 13:22a
A
 2 mV
Rx p1 A p2 A mV  1 13:22b

dQ V 2 V12
q h02 h01 2 13:22c
dm 2
Z  :
ms2 s1 1 Q
dA 13:22d
CS T A

p rRT 13:22e
p2
Ds s2 s1 R ln 13:22f
p1
Equations 13.22 can be used to analyze frictional isothermal flow in a channel of con-
stant area. For example, if we know conditions at section 1 (i.e., p1, r1, T1, s1, h1,
and V1) we can use these equations to find conditions at some new section 2 after
the fluid has experienced a total friction force Rx. We have five equations (not includ-
ing the constraint of Eq. 13.22d) and five unknowns ( p2, r2, s2, V2, and the heat
80812 c13a.3d GGS 6/6/08 19:3

13-3 FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION (continued) W-25

transfer q that was necessary to maintain isothermal conditions). As we have seen be-
fore, in practice this procedure is unwieldywe once again have a set of nonlinear,
coupled algebraic equations to solve.
Before doing any calculations, we can see that the Ts diagram for this process
will be simply a horizontal line passing through state 1 . To see in detail what hap-
pens to the flow, in addition to Eqs. 13.22, we can develop property relations as func-
tions of the Mach number. For isothermal flow, c constant, so V2/V1 M2 /M1, and
from Eq. 13.22a we have
r2 V1 M1

r1 V2 M2
Combining with the ideal gas equation, Eq. 13.22e, we obtain
p2 r V1 M1
2 13:23
p1 r1 V2 M2
At each state we can relate the local temperature to its stagnation temperature using
Eq. 12.21b,
T0 k1 2
1 M 12:21b
T 2
Applying this to states 1 and 2 , with the fact that T1 T2, we obtain
k1 2
T02 1 M2
2 13:24
T01 k1 2
1 M1
2
To determine the variation in Mach number along the duct length, it is necessary
to consider the differential momentum equation for flow with friction. The analysis
leading to Eq. 13.18 is valid for isothermal flow. Since T constant for isothermal
flow, then from Eq. 13.18, with dT 0,
 
f kM 2 1 kM 2 dM 2
dx
Dh 2 2 M2
and
f 1 kM 2 dM 2
dx 13:25
Dh kM 4
Equation 13.25 shows (setpdx 0) that the Mach number at which maximum length
Lmax is reached is M 1/ k. Since T is constant, then the friction factor, f f (Re),
is also p
constant.
Integration of Eq. 13.25 between the limits of M M at x 0 and
M 1/ k at x Lmax, where Lmax is the distance beyond which the isothermal flow
may not proceed, gives
fLmax 1 kM 2
ln kM 2 13:26
Dh kM 2
The duct length, L, required for the flow Mach number to change from M1 to M2
can be obtained from
L Lmax1 Lmax2
f f
Dh Dh
L 1 kM12 1 kM22 M2
f 2 2 ln 12 13:27
Dh kM1 kM2 M2
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W-26 CHAPTER 13 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The distribution of heat exchange along the duct required to maintain isothermal
flow can be determined from the differential form of Eq. 13.22c as
  
k1 2
dq dh0 cp dT0 cp d T 1 M
2
or, since T constant,
 
k1 cp T0 k 1
dq cp T dM 2   dM 2
2 k1 2
2 1 M
2
Substituting for dM 2 from Eq. 13.25,
cp T0 k 1kM 4 f
dq   dx 13:28
k1 2 Dh
2 1 M 1 kM 2
2
p
From Eq. 13.28 we note that as M ! 1/ k, then dq/dx ! . Thus, an infinite rate of
heat exchange is required to maintain isothermal flow as the Mach number ap-
proaches the limiting value. Hence, we conclude that isothermal acceleration of flow
in a constant-area duct is only physically possible for flow at low Mach number.
We summarize the set of Mach numberbased equations (Eqs. 13.23, 13.24, and
13.27, respectively, renumbered) we can use for analysis of isothermal flow of an
ideal gas in a duct with friction:

p2 r V1 M1
2 13:29a
p1 r1 V2 M2

k1 2
T02 1 M2
2 13:29b
T01 k1 2
1 M1
2

fL 1 kM12 1 kM22 M12

ln 13:29c
Dh kM12 kM22 M22

13-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued)

Supersonic Diffuser
Analysis of the effects of area change in isentropic flow (Section 13-2) showed that a
converging channel reduces the speed of a supersonic stream; a converging channel
is a supersonic diffuser. Because flow speed decreases, pressure rises in the flow di-
rection, creating an adverse pressure gradient. Isentropic flow is not a completely ac-
curate model for flow with an adverse pressure gradient,2 but the isentropic flow
model with a normal shock may be used to demonstrate the basic features of super-
sonic diffusion.
For isentropic flow, a shock cannot stand in a stable position in a converging
passage; a shock may stand stably only in a diverging passage. Real flow near M 1

2
Boundary layers develop rapidly in adverse pressure gradients, so viscous effects may be important or
even dominant. In the presence of thick boundary layers, supersonic flows in diffusers may form compli-
cated systems of oblique and normal shocks.
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13-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued) W-27

Flow

1 2 3 4

T
p04
5
T0 = constant
p01 4
p1*
T* = constant

2 3

p1
T1

1
s
Fig. 13.22 Schematic Ts diagram for flow in a
supersonic diffuser with a normal shock.

is unstable, so it is not possible to reduce a supersonic flow exactly to sonic speed.

The minimum Mach number that can be reached at a throat is 1.2 to 1.3.
Thus in real supersonic diffusers, flow is decelerated to M & 1.3 in a converging
passage. Downstream from the throat section of minimum area, the flow is allowed
to accelerate to M & 1.4, where a normal shock takes place. At this Mach number,
the stagnation pressure loss (from Eq. 13.41b) is only about 4 percent. This small
loss is an acceptable compromise in exchange for flow stability.
Figure 13.22 shows the idealized process of supersonic diffusion, in which flow
is isentropic except across a normal shock. The slight reduction in stagnation pressure
all takes place across the shock.
In the actual flow, additional losses in stagnation pressure occur during the super-
sonic and subsonic diffusion processes before and after the shock. Experimental data
must be used to predict the actual losses in supersonic and subsonic diffusers [3, 4].
Supersonic diffusion also is important for high-speed aircraft, where a supersonic
external freestream flow must be decelerated efficiently to subsonic speed. Some dif-
fusion can occur outside the inlet by means of a weak oblique shock system [5]. Vari-
able geometry may be needed to accomplish efficient supersonic diffusion within the
inlet as the flight Mach number varies. Multi-dimensional compressible flows are dis-
cussed in Section 13-7, and are treated in detail elsewhere [6, 7].

Supersonic Wind Tunnel Operation

To build an efficient supersonic wind tunnel, it is necessary to understand shock
behavior and to control shock location. The basic physical phenomena are described
by Coles in the NCFMF video Channel Flow of a Compressible Fluid. (See http://
web.mit.edu/fluids/www/Shapiro/ncfmf.html for free online viewing of this film; it is
old but good!) In addition to chokingsonic flow at a throat, with upstream flow
independent of downstream conditionsColes discusses blocking and starting con-
ditions for supersonic wind tunnels.
A closed-circuit supersonic wind tunnel must have a converging-diverging noz-
zle to accelerate flow to supersonic speed, followed by a test section of nearly con-
stant area, and then a supersonic diffuser with a second throat. The circuit must be
completed by compression machinery, coolers, and flow-control devices, as shown in
Fig. 13.23 [9].
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W-28 CHAPTER 13 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

A. Dry Air Storage Spheres G. Cooling Tower

B. Aftercooler H. Flow Diversion Valve
C. 3-Stage Axial Flow Fan I. Aftercooler
D. Drive Motors J. 11-Stage Axial Flow Compressor
E. Flow Diversion Valve K. 9- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section
F. 8- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section L. 11- by 11-Foot Transonic Test Section
Fig. 13.23 Schematic view of NASA-Ames closed-circut, high-speed wind tunnel with supporting
facilities [9]. (Photo courtesy of NASA.)

Consider the process of accelerating flow from rest to supersonic speed in the
test section. Soon after flow at the nozzle throat becomes sonic, a shock wave forms
in the divergence. The shock attains its maximum strength when it reaches the nozzle
exit plane. Consequently, to start the tunnel and achieve steady supersonic flow in
the test section, the shock must move through the second throat and into the subsonic
diffuser. When this occurs, we say the shock has been swallowed by the second
throat. Consequently, to start the tunnel, the supersonic diffuser throat must be larger
than the nozzle throat. The second throat must be large enough to exceed the critical
area for flow downstream from the strongest possible shock.
Blocking occurs when the second throat is not large enough to swallow the
shock. When the channel is blocked, flow is sonic at both throats and flow in the test
section is subsonic; flow in the test section cannot be controlled by varying con-
ditions downstream from the supersonic diffuser.
When the tunnel is running there is no shock in the nozzle or test section, so the en-
ergy dissipation is much reduced. The second throat area may be reduced slightly
during running to improve the diffuser efficiency. The compressor pressure ratio may
be adjusted to move the shock in the subsonic diffuser to a lower Mach number. A com-
bination of adjustable second throat and pressure ratio control may be used to achieve
optimum running conditions for the tunnel. Small differences in efficiency are import-
ant when the tunnel drive system may consume more than half a million kilowatts [10]!

Supersonic Flow with Friction in a Constant-Area Channel

Flow in a constant-area channel with friction is dominated by viscous effects. Even
when the main flow is supersonic, the no-slip condition at the channel wall guarantees
subsonic flow near the wall. Consequently, supersonic flow in constant-area channels
may form complicated systems of oblique and normal shocks. However, the basic
80812 c13a.3d GGS 6/6/08 19:3

13-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued) W-29

behavior of adiabatic supersonic flow with friction in a constant-area channel is

revealed by considering the simpler case of normal-shock formation in Fanno-line flow.
Supersonic flow along the Fanno line becomes choked after only a short length of
duct, because at high speed the effects of friction are pronounced. Figure E.2 (Appendix
E) shows that the limiting value of f Lmax /Dh is less than one; subsonic flows can have
much longer runs. Thus when choking results from friction and duct length is increased
further, the supersonic flow shocks down to subsonic to match downstream conditions.
The Ts diagrams in Figs. 13.24a through 13.24d illustrate what happens when
the length of constant-area duct, fed by a converging-diverging nozzle supplied from

Lb
La La

T0
T0 Shock
p0
p0

1 *
1 *

p 0* T p01 p0*
T p01
T0 = constant T0 = constant

M<1
p* Shock p*
T* = constant T* = constant

M=1
M>1

Process path
1 p1 1 p1
T1 T1

s s
(a) Choked supersonic flow in channel. (b) Choked flow in channel with shock.

Lc Ld

La La

T0 T0
Shock p0
p0

x y 1 *
1 * T p0 p0*
p01 p0* p01
T T0 = constant
T0 = constant p1
T1
M<1 1
y p*
p*
T* = constant T* = constant
x
M=1

1 p1
T1
s s
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle exit (d) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; subsonic
plane. flow in channel.
Fig. 13.24 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Fanno-line flows with normal shocks.
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W-30 CHAPTER 13 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, is increased. Supersonic flow on the

Fanno line of Fig. 13.24a is choked by friction when the duct length is La. When
additional duct is added to produce Lb La, Fig. 13.24b, a normal shock appears.
Flow upstream from the shock does not change, because it is supersonic (no change
in downstream condition can affect the supersonic flow before the shock).
In Fig. 13.24b the shock is shown in an arbitrary position. The shock moves
toward the entrance of the constant-area channel (toward higher initial Mach number)
as more duct is added.
Flow remains on the same Fanno line as the shock is driven upstream to state 1
by adding duct length; thus the mass flow rate remains unchanged. The duct length,
Lc, which moves the shock into the channel entrance plane, Fig. 13.24c, may be cal-
culated directly using the methods of Section 13-3.
When duct length Lc is exceeded, the shock is driven back into the C-D nozzle,
Fig. 13.24d. The mass flow rate remains constant until the shock reaches the nozzle
throat. Only when more duct is added after the shock reaches the throat does the
mass flow rate decrease, and the flow move to a new Fanno line.
If the shock position is known, flow properties at each section and the duct length
can be calculated directly. When length is specified and shock location is to be deter-
mined, iteration is necessary.

Supersonic Flow with Heat Addition in a Constant-Area Channel

Supersonic flow with heat addition in a frictionless channel of constant area is shown
in Fig. 13.25a. Assume the channel is fed by a converging-diverging nozzle, supplied
from a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, and flow is supersonic at state
1 . Heat addition causes state points to move up and to the right along the Rayleigh
line. Figure 13.25a illustrates the condition in which the heat addition is just sufficient
R se Flow is sonic at the exit, so pe p* and Te T*; the heat addition
to choke the flow.
per unit mass, s1 T ds, is represented by the shaded area beneath the Rayleigh line.
A normal shock involves no heat addition, so T0 is constant across a shock. Con-
sequently, a shock in the constant-area channel would not change the heat addition
required to change the flow state from the inlet condition to choking. When the shock
stands at the channel inlet, Fig. 13.25b, the heat addition needed to reach Mach one
at the exit is the same as in Fig. 13.25a; the shaded areas also must be identical.
If more thermal energy is added to flow at the conditions shown in Fig. 13.25b,
the shock will be pushed from the entrance of the constant-area duct back into the di-
verging portion of the nozzle, where the Mach number is lower.
With a shock in the nozzle, conditions at the duct entrance are changed, and heat
addition occurs along a different Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 13.25c. There is no
change in T0 or T* across the shock (thus T03 T04 and T3* T4*), but the Mach num-
ber downstream changes. Additional subsonic diffusion occurs from state 4 to the
nozzle exit (state 5 ), thus moving the choked condition upward on the Ts plane,
allowing for increased heat addition on the new Rayleigh line. All of these changes
occur at the same mass flow rate, because nozzle throat conditions remain unchanged.
The Mach number immediately upstream from the shock (state 3 ) is less than
M1 of Fig. 13.25b; the corresponding temperature, T3, is higher than T1. Since the
shock strength is reduced, the entropy rise across the shock is less, (s4 s3)
(s2 s1). The subsonic diffusion following the shock results in a lower Mach number
and higher temperature at the duct entrance. Thus M5 M2 and T5 T2.
When the heat addition rate is increased enough to drive the shock to the nozzle
throat, a further increase in heat addition will result in a decrease in mass flow rate.
The Mach number at the channel inlet is reduced, M7 M5, and the channel flow
shifts to another new Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 13.25d.
Thus for specified mass flow rate, there is a maximum rate of heat addition for
supersonic flow throughout. For higher rates of heat addition, a shock occurs in the
80812 c13a.3d GGS 6/6/08 19:3

13-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued) W-31

p01 p01
T01 M>1 M>1 T01 M>1 M<1

t 1 e t 1 2 e
Mt = 1 M1 = 2 Me = 1 1200 Mt = 1 Me = 1
1200
p0e
T0e T0e
p0e pe
p01 p01 p02 pe
T01 T01
Te Te

Temperature, (K)
800 T
Temperature, (K)

800 p2 2

1 T1 T1
p1 400 p1
400

0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R

(a) Choked supersonic flow. (b) Choked flow with shock at nozzle exit
plane.

M>1 M<1

p01 p01
M<1 M<1 M<1
T01 T01

t 3 4 5 6 t 7 8
Mt = 1 M4 = 0.701 M6 = 1 Mt < 1 M7 = 0.35 M8 = 1
2000 M3 = 1.5 M5 = 0.407 2000 p08

T08

p06 p8
1600 T06 1600 T8

p6
T6
Temperature, (K)
Temperature, (K)

1200 1200

p02
p01 p01
T01 T01
T04
T5 T7
800 T4 800
Tt
Tt

T3
p3
400 400

0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R

(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; same (d) Subsonic flow throughout; decreased mass flow
mass flow rate, but flow shifts to a new rate and flow shifted to another new Rayleigh
Rayleigh line. line.
Fig. 13.25 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Rayleigh-line flows with normal shocks.
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W-32 CHAPTER 13 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

nozzle and flow is subsonic in the constant-area channel, but the exit flow remains
sonic. If the shock position is specified, the heat addition along the Rayleigh line can
be calculated directly. If the heat addition is specified but the shock position or mass
flow rate are unknown, iteration is required to obtain a solution.
Additional consideration of flow with shock waves is given in [11].