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STRUCTURE

OVERVIEW
Group processes are shaped by unobservable, but influential, group structures. All but the most ephemeral groups
develop written and unwritten norms that dictate conduct in the group, expectations about members roles, and
networks of connections among the members.
What is group structure?
Why do norms, both formal and informal, develop to regulate group behavior?
What kinds of roles are common in groups and how do they influence members?
How can the social structure of a group be measured?
What are status, attraction, and communication networks?
OUTLINE
I. NORMS
A. The Development of Norms
B. The Transmission of Norms
II. ROLES
A. Role Differentiation
B. Group Socialization
C. Role Stress
III. INTERMEMBER RELATIONS
A. Social Network Analysis
B. Status Network
C. Attraction Network
D. Communication Network
E. Social Structure and Interaction: SYMLOG

TERMS
prescriptive norm A consensual standard that relationship role Any position in a group occupied by
identifies preferable, positively sanctioned behaviors. a member who performs behaviors that improve the
nature and quality of interpersonal relations among
proscriptive norm A consensual standard that members, such as showing concern for the feelings of
identifies prohibited, negatively sanctioned behaviors. others, reducing conflict, and enhancing feelings of
descriptive norm A consensual standard that satisfaction and trust in the group.
describes how people typically act, feel, and think in a group socialization A pattern of change in the
given situation. relationship between an individual and a group that
injunctive norm An evaluative consensual standard begins when an individual first considers joining the
that describes how people should act, feel, and think group and ends when he or she leaves it.
in a given situation rather than how people do act, role ambiguity Unclear expectations about the
feel, and think in that situation. behaviors to be performed by an individual occupying
role differentiation An increase in the number of a particular position within the group, caused by a
roles in a group, accompanied by the gradual lack of clarity in the role itself, a lack of consensus
decrease in the scope of these roles as each one within the group regarding the behaviors associated
becomes more narrowly defined and specialized. with the role, or the individual role takers uncertainty
with regard to the types of behaviors expected by
task role Any position in a group occupied by a others.
member who performs behaviors that promote
completion of tasks and activities, such as initiating role conflict A state of tension, distress, or
structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting uncertainty caused by inconsistent or discordant
goals. expectations associated with ones role in the group.
interrole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs specific status characteristic In status
when individuals occupy multiple roles within a group characteristics theory, task-specific behavioral and
and the expectations and behaviors associated with personal characteristics that people consider when
one of their roles are not consistent with the estimating the relative competency, ability, and social
expectations and behaviors associated with another value of themselves and others.
of their roles.
diffuse status characteristic In status
intrarole conflict A form of role conflict that occurs characteristics theory, general personal qualities such
when the behaviors that make up a single role are as age, race, and ethnicity that people consider when
incongruous, often resulting from inconsistent estimating the relative competency, ability, and social
expectations on the part of the person who occupies value of themselves and others.
the role and other members of the group.
status generalization The tendency for individuals
role fit The degree of congruence between the known to have achieved or been ascribed authority,
demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values, respect, and prestige in one context to enjoy relatively
skills, and other characteristics of the individual who higher status in other, unrelated, contexts (e.g., a
occupies the role. celebrity who exercises influence in a group even
though this diffuse status characteristic is not relevant
social network analysis (SNA) A set of analysis in the current group context).
procedures used to describe the structure through
graphic representations and through mathematical solo status The state of being the only group
procedures that quantify these structures. member who is a representative of a specific social
category in an otherwise homogenous group (e.g., a
density The degree of connectedness of groups man in an otherwise all female group).
members, as indexed by the number of actual ties
linking members divided by the number of possible attraction network Patterns of liking/disliking,
ties. acceptance/rejection, and inclusion/exclusion among
members of a group.
degree centrality The number of ties between group
members; the groups degree centrality is the average sociometric differentiation The development of
of the direct connections among group members. stronger and more positive interpersonal ties between
some members of the group, accompanied by
outdegree For nonsymmetric data, the number of ties decreases in the quality of relations between other
initiated by the individual. members of the group.
indegree For nonsymmetric data, the number of ties balance theory A conceptualization advanced by
received by the individual. Fritz Heider which assumes that interpersonal
betweenness The degree to which a group members relationships can be either balanced (integrated units
position in a network is located along a path between with elements that fit together without stress) or
other pairs of individuals in the network. unbalanced (inconsistent units with elements that
conflict with one another). Heider believed that
closeness The distance, in terms of ties, of an unbalanced relationships create an unpleasant
individual from all others in the network. tension that must be relieved by changing some
element of the system.
status differentiation The gradual rise of some
group members to positions of greater authority, communication network Patterns of information
accompanied by decreases in the authority exercised transmission and exchange that describe who
by other members. communicates most frequently and to what extent
with whom.
pecking order A stable, ordered pattern of individual
variations in prestige, status, and authority among Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups
group members. (SYMLOG) Robert Baless theory and observational
system which assumes that group activities can be
expectation-states theory An explanation of status
classified along three dimensions (dominance versus
differentiation in groups which assumes that group
submissiveness, friendliness versus unfriendliness,
members allocate status to group members judged to
and acceptance versus nonacceptance of authority)
be competent at the task at hand and to group
and that groups are more effective when these three
members who have qualities that the members think
aspects of the group align.
are indicators of competence and potential.

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