WATER TREATMENT

Water pollution was viewed primarily as a threat to human health because of the transmission of
bacterial and viral waterborne diseases. In less developed countries, and in almost any country in time
of war, waterborne diseases remain a major public health threat.

GROUND WATER:
Most of the rural areas and many major cities rely on it, although some cities such as Islamabad,
Karachi, Hyderabad etc. get water from a number of other sources.
1. About 80% of Punjab has fresh Groundwater
2. In Sindh, less than 30% of groundwater is fresh
3. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, increasing abstraction has resulted in wells now reaching into saline
layers
4. Balochistan also has saline groundwater

WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Industries use water that obtained from the water treatment system for a variety of purposes, such as
- For manufacturing goods.
- For heating.
- For cooling.
- As carrier of raw material.
- As carrier of waste matter.
- As a solvent.
To prevent any health hazards caused by discharging wastewater into the environment and protect
domestic sewage, the wastewater must be treated before discharge.

Important Contaminants of Concern in Wastewater Treatment

Suspended Solids
Lead to the development of sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater is
discharged into the aquatic environment

Nutrients (P, N2&C)

When discharged into the aquatic environment, these nutrients can lead to the growth of undesirable
aquatic life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land, they can also lead to the pollution of
groundwater.

Priority Pollutants
Organic and inorganic compounds selected on the basis of their known or suspected carcinogenicity,
or high acute toxicity. Many of these compounds are found in wastewater.
Refractory Organics
These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment. Typical examples
include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides.

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are usually discharged to wastewater from commercial and industrial activities and
have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused.

Dissolved Inorganics
Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulfate are added to the original domestic water
supply as a result of water use and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused.

Common Types of Wastewater Treatment Methods

Physical Unit Operations
Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces predominates. Screening, mixing,
flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, filtration, and gas transfer are typical unit operations.
Chemical Unit Processes
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the
addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions.
Precipitation, adsorption, and disinfection are the most common examples used in wastewater
treatment.
Biological Unit Processes
Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological
activity.
Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable organic substances
(colloidal or dissolved) and nutrients (nitrogen & phosphorus) from wastewater.
Basically, these substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and into
biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling.
Mechanical Processes
Screening
1. The first unit operation encountered in wastewater-treatment plants is screening.
2. A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size that is used to retain the coarse
solids found in wastewater.
3. According to the method of cleaning, screens are designated as hand cleaned or mechanically
cleaned.
4. According to the size of openings, screens are designated as coarse or fine. Coarse screens have
openings of inch or more, and fine screens have openings of less than inch.

Oil Separation
It is a process in which Floatables, namely non-emulsified oil and organics separates from wastewater

CPI (Corrugated Plate Interceptors) Units

They consist of stacks of plates or bundles of slanted tubes, usually at 60 degrees, in a vessel or tank.
It has been found that if the plates are tilted at 60 degrees, the solids will slide down the plates and be
collected at the bottom

Flow Equalization
Flow equalization is used to overcome the operational problems caused by flow variations, to improve
the performance of the downstream processes, and is also used as an emergency tank to equalize
wastewater effluent in case of any process failure in the treatment process.

Physical Treatment
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the separation from water, by gravitational settling, of suspended particles that are
heavier than water. Sedimentation is used for separation of grit and particulate matter in the primary
settling basin, separation of biological-floc in the activated-sludge settling basin, and separation of
chemical-floc when the chemical coagulation process is used. It is also used for solids concentration in
sludge thickeners.

Flotation
Flotation is a unit operation used to separate solid or liquid particles from a liquid phase.

Chemical Treatment
Neutralization
Industrial wastes often contain acidic or alkaline components which require neutralization before
discharge or treatment. For wastes that are discharged to receiving waters, a pH between 6 and 9 is
frequently specified by regulatory agencies. For wastes entering biological treatment processes, the
pH should be maintained between 6.5 and 9 for optimum growth of the microorganisms.
Oxidation/Reduction
Oxidants are used in wastewater treatment as a first step in the removal of heavy metals to oxidize
organics or as a last step in a treatment process, to oxidize odoriferous compounds such as hydrogen
sulphide or to oxidize inorganics such as cyanide and for disinfection.
Common oxidation agents used in wastewater treatment:
-Oxygen(O2).
-Chlorine (Cl2).
-Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO).
-Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2).
-Potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
-Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

Chemical Precipitation
Chemical precipitation in wastewater treatment involves the addition of chemicals to alter the
physical state of dissolved and suspended solids and facilitate their removal by sedimentation.

Measurement of Water Quality

In order to determine water quality, one must know how to measure it.
The following methods and technologies are used to measure, monitor and evaluate water
quality.
Each Section discusses parameter specific technology such as sensor operation and the
different methods of measuring said parameter.

Water Quality Measurement Methods

1. Dissolved Oxygen
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
3. Chemical Oxygen Demand
4. Total Organic Carbon
5. Turbidity
6. Color Test & Odor
7. pH
8. Alkalinity
9. Nutrients: Phosphorus and Nitrogen
10. Pathogens
 11. Heavy Metals
12. Total Organic Compounds
13. Water Temperature

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
One of the most important measures of water quality is dissolved oxygen.
Oxygen, although poorly soluble in water, is fundamental to aquatic life.
Without free dissolved oxygen, streams and lakes become uninhabitable to aerobic organisms,
including fish and most invertebrates.
Dissolved oxygen is inversely proportional to temperature, and the maximum amount of
oxygen that can be dissolved in water at 0C is 14.6 mg/L.
The saturation value decreases rapidly with increasing water temperature
The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is usually measured either with an oxygen probe or by
iodometric titration.
The latter method, known as the Winkler test was developed about 100 years ago and is the
standard against which all other measurements are compared.

Winkler Test
Reagent List:
2ml Manganese sulfate
2ml alkali-iodide-azide
2ml concentrated sulfuric acid
2ml starch solution Sodium thiosulfate

Procedure:
1. Carefully fill a 300-mL glass Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) stoppered bottle brim-full with
sample water.
2. Immediately add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the collection bottle by inserting the calibrated
pipette just below the surface of the liquid. (If the reagent is added above the sample surface,
you will introduce oxygen into the sample.) Squeeze the pipette slowly so no bubbles are
introduced via the pipette.
3. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
4. Stopper the bottle with care to be sure no air is introduced. Mix the sample by inverting several
times. Check for air bubbles; discard the sample and start over if any are seen. If oxygen is
present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or floc will appear. When this floc has settle to
the bottom, mix the sample by turning it upside down several times and let it settle again.
5. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface of the sample.
Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc. At this point, the sample is
"fixed" and can be stored for up to 8 hours if kept in a cool, dark place. As an added precaution,
 squirt distilled water along the stopper, and cap the bottle with aluminum foil and a rubber
band during the storage period.
6. In a glass flask, titrate 201 mL of the sample with sodium thiosulfate to a pale straw color.
Titrate by slowly dropping titrant solution from a calibrated pipette into the flask and
continually stirring or swirling the sample water.
7. Add 2 mL of starch solution so a blue color forms.
8. Continue slowly titrating until the sample turns clear. As this experiment reaches the endpoint,
it will take only one drop of the titrant to eliminate the blue color. Be especially careful that
each drop is fully mixed into the sample before adding the next. It is sometimes helpful to hold
the flask up to a white sheet of paper to check for absence of the blue color.
9. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the sample is equivalent to the number of milliliters
of titrant used. Each mL of sodium thiosulfate added in steps 6 and 8 equals 1 mg/L dissolved
oxygen.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand, is a measurement of the amount
of dissolved oxygen (DO) that is used by aerobic microorganisms when decomposing organic
matter in water.
BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The rate of oxygen
consumption is affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain
kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the water
The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less
oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life.
The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic
organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.
BOD is affected by the same factors that affect dissolved oxygen. BOD measurement requires
taking two measurements.
One is measured immediately for dissolved oxygen (initial), and the second is incubated in the
lab for 5 days and then tested for the amount of dissolved oxygen remaining (final).
This represents the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to break down the organic
matter present in the sample during the incubation period.

BOD Test
The BOD test takes 5 days to complete and is performed using a dissolved oxygen test kit.
The BOD level is determined by comparing the DO level of a water sample taken immediately
with the DO level of a water sample that has been incubated in a dark location for 5 days.
The difference between the two DO levels represents the amount of oxygen required for the
decomposition of any organic material in the sample and is a good approximation of the BOD
level.
1. Take 2 samples of water
2. Record the DO level (ppm) of one immediately using the method described in the dissolved
oxygen test.
3. Place the second water sample in an incubator in complete darkness at 20o C for 5 days. If you
don't have an incubator, wrap the water sample bottle in aluminum foil or black electrical tape
and store in a dark place at room temperature (20o C or 68 F).
4. After 5 days, take another dissolved oxygen reading (ppm) using the dissolved oxygen test kit.
5. Subtract the Day 5 reading from the Day 1 reading to determine the BOD level. Record your
final BOD result in ppm.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an indicative measure of
the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution.
It is commonly expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI
units is milligrams per litre(mg/L).
A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in water.
The most common application of COD is in quantifying the amount of oxidizable pollutants
found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater.
One problem with the BOD test is that it takes 5 days to run. If the organic compounds were
oxidized chemically instead of biologically, the test could be shortened considerably.
Such oxidation can be accomplished with the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test.
Because nearly all organic compounds are oxidized in the COD test, while only some are
decomposed during the BOD test, COD results are always higher than BOD results.
One example of this is wood pulping waste, in which compounds such as cellulose are easily
oxidized chemically (high COD) but are very slow to decompose biologically (low BOD).
The standard COD test uses a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid to oxidize the
organic matter (HCOH), with silver (Ag+) added as a catalyst.
A simplified example of this reaction is illustrated below, using dichromate (Cr2072-) and
hydrogen ions (H+).

A known amount of a solution of K2Cr207 in moderately concentrated sulfuric acid is added to

a measured amount of sample, and the mixture is boiled in air.
In this reaction, the oxidizing agent, hexavalent chromium (Crvi), is reduced to trivalent
chromium (Criii).
After boiling, the remaining Crvi is titrated against a reducing agent, usually ferrous
ammonium sulfate.
The difference between the initial amount of Crvi added to the sample and the Crvi remaining
after the organic matter has been oxidized is proportional to the chemical oxygen demand.

TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON

Total organic carbon (TOC) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is
often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical
manufacturing equipment
Total organic carbon is measured by oxidizing the organic carbon to C02 and H20 and
measuring the C02 gas using an infrared carbon analyzer.
 The oxidation is done by direct injection of the sample into a high-temperature (680-950C)
combustion chamber or by placing a sample into a vial containing an oxidizing agent such as
potassium persulfate, sealing and heating the sample to complete the oxidation, then
measuring the C02 using the carbon analyzer.

Generally, TOC measurement involves:

1. Oxidizing organic carbon in a sample;
2. Detecting and quantifying the oxidized product (CO2);
3. Presenting the result in units of mass of carbon per volume of sample (liquids) or per mass of
solid (solids).
Carbon in the sample is first converted to CO2 by the combustion furnace for TOC and TC (total
carbon) analysis or by the IC (Inorganic carbon) sparger for IC analysis.

TURBIDITY
Water that is not clear but is dirty, in the sense that light transmission is inhibited, is known
as turbid water.
Many materials can cause turbidity, including clays and other tiny inorganic particles, algae,
and organic matter.
In the drinking water treatment process, turbidity is of great importance, partly because turbid
water is aesthetically displeasing, and also because the presence of tiny colloidal particles
makes it more difficult to remove or inactivate pathogenic organisms.
Turbidity is measured using a turbidimeter.
Turbidimeters are photometers that measure the intensity of scattered light. Opaque particles
scatter light, so scattered light measured at right angles to a beam of incident light is
proportional to the turbidity.
Formazin polymer is currently used as the primary standard for calibrating turbidimeters, and
the results are reported as nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).

COLOR, TASTE, & ODOR

If your water suddenly changes color
no matter what color it becomes
it could indicate a public health concern.
Green or Blue water: Usually caused by corrosion of copper plumbing. If corrosion is occurring,
dripping water will leave a bluish-green stain on porcelain fixtures. Certain metals that can get into
drinking water from corrosion, such as copper or lead, may pose a health concern. Overly corrosive
water may cause a problem with the homes piping. If you suspect corrosion, contact your water utility
or a licensed plumber.
Black or dark brown water: Often caused by manganese in the water or pipe sediment.
Manganese does not pose a threat to human health. If it doesnt clear after a few minutes of flushing
all your cold water faucets and toilets, wait about an hour and try again.
 Brown, red, orange or yellow water: Usually caused by iron rust. Galvanized iron, steel, or cast
iron pipes in a home or business, or the water main can cause rusty water. While unpleasant and
potentially damaging to clothes and fixtures, iron in drinking water is not a human health concern.
Milky white or cloudy water: Usually caused by tiny air bubbles. If your water is white, fill a clear
glass with water and set it on the counter. If the water starts to clear at the bottom of the glass first,
the cloudy or white appearance is trapped air. It is not a health threat and should clear in a few
minutes.
TASTE AND ODOR
If a taste or odor occurs at every water faucet on the property, the cause is probably the main water
supply. If it occurs only in certain faucets, the problem is the fixtures or pipes supplying those specific
faucets. If the problem goes away after running the water for a few minutes, the problem is
somewhere in your household plumbing system. The best way to reduce taste and odor caused by
your plumbing is to run the faucet for several minutes, put some water in a container, and then store
it in the refrigerator.
Petroleum, gasoline, turpentine, fuel, or solvent odors: These odors are rare, but potentially
serious. Do not use the water.
Metallic taste: Minerals, such as iron or copper, may leach into the water from the pipes.
Chlorine, chemical, or medicinal taste or odors: Adding chlorine to the water or the interaction
of chlorine with a build-up of organic matter in your plumbing system may cause the taste or
odor to be strong.
Sulfur or rotten egg odor: Bacteria growing in your sink drain or hot water heater may cause
odor.
Moldy, musty, earthy, grassy, or fishy odor: Bacteria growing in a sink drain or from organic
matter such as plants, animals, or bacteria that are naturally present in lakes and reservoirs
during certain times of the year may cause odor.
Salty taste: High levels of naturally occurring sodium, magnesium, or potassium may cause a
salty taste.

pH and Alkalinity

pH:
pH is a way of expressing the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution. As acids and bases in solution
dissociate to yield hydrogen ions [H+ ] and hydroxyl ions [OH-] respectively, pH is used to indicate
the intensity of the acidic or alkaline condition of a solution.

Alkalinity:
Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of dissolved substances in water and equals
the amount of strong acid required to lower the solution from initial pH to about 4.5. Many materials
may contribute to the alkalinity of water. For most practical purposes, it is due primarily to presence
of salts of weak acids (mainly bicarbonate and carbonate) and hydroxide (at high pH).

pH and Alkalinity
pH and alkalinity are key water quality parameters in environmental engineering practice. In the
water supply and treatment fields, these parameters have great influence on the chemical coagulation,
disinfection and softening processes, and corrosion control for water distribution pipe networks.
Effective chemical coagulation of water, for instance, occurs only within a specific pH range.

Test of pH
(i) Calibrate the pH meter according to instructions supplied by the Lab staff.
(ii) Pour sample into a clean beaker.
(iii) Rinse the probe thoroughly with distilled water to prevent any carry-over. Switch to pH mode.
(iv) Immerse the probe in the sample.
(v) Establish equilibrium between probe and sample by stirring to insure homogeneity. Gently drop a
stirring bar into the sample and place the beaker on a magnetic stirrer. Start the magnetic stirrer and
adjust the speed to give thorough but gentle mixing.
(vi) Read and record the pH.
(vii) Rinse the electrode thoroughly with distilled water.
(viii) When not in use, the electrode should be replaced in the beaker containing water.

Test of Alkalinity
(i) For each sample, place 100 mL of sample in an Erlenmeyer flask.
(ii) Add 3 drops of methyl orange indicator solution to the flask.
(iii) Titrate sample with 0.02 N H2SO4 (sulphuric acid), constantly swirling the flask content above a
white surface until just after the colour of the flask content change from yellow to red.
(iv) Record the volume of titrant used.
(v) Calculate Total Alkalinity as follows:

Solids
o Total solids include any material left in a container after the water is removed by evaporation,
usually at 103-105C.
o Total solids can be separated into total suspended solids (solids that are retained on a 2.0
~Micro filter) and total dissolved solids (dissolved and colloidal material that passes through
the filter).
o The difference between total suspended solids and total dissolved solids is illustrated in the
following example:
A teaspoonful of table salt dissolves in a glass of water, forming a water-clear solution. However, the
salt will remain behind if the water evaporates. Sand, however, will not dissolve and will remain as
sand grains in the water and form a turbid mixture. The sand will also remain behind if the water
evaporates. The salt is an example of a dissolved solid, whereas the sand is a suspended solid.

PATHOGENS
A large number of infectious diseases may be transmitted by water, among them typhoid and
cholera.
Although we clearly desire drinking water that is not contaminated by pathogens (disease-
causing organisms), determining whether the organisms are present in water, and whether
they represent a health threat, is relatively complicated
How can we measure for bacteriological quality?
The answer lies in the concept of indicator organisms that, while not necessarily directly
harmful, indicate the possible presence of other pathogens.
The indicator most often used is Escherichia coli (E. coli), a member of the coliform bacteria
group (coliform bacteria are nonspore forming, rod-shaped bacteria capable of fermenting
lactose within 48 h at 35C).
Although many coliforms occur naturally in aquatic environments, E. coli, often called fecal
coliforms, are associated with the digestive tracts of warm-blooded animals.

Testing of Pathogens
There are several ways to measure fecal coliforms.
One of the most widely used methods is the membrane filter (MF) technique.
A water sample is filtered through a sterile micropore filter by suction, thereby capturing any
coliforms.
The filter is placed in a Petri dish containing a sterile culture medium that promotes the growth
of the fecal coliforms while inhibiting other organisms.
After 24 h of incubation at 35"C, the number of shiny metallic red dots (fecal coliform colonies)
is counted.
The concentration of coliforms is typically expressed as coliforms/100 mL of sample

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals such as arsenic, copper, and mercury can harm aquatic organisms, or Bio-
accumulate in the food chain, even if the metal concentration in water is relatively low.
Consequently, the method of measuring metals in water must be very sensitive.
 There are a large variety of methods available to measure metals in water samples, and the
choice of method often depends on the desired sensitivity as well as cost.
Heavy metals are usually measured using flame, electro-thermal (graphite furnace), or cold-
vapor atomic absorption (AA), inductively coupled plasma (ICP) and inductively coupled
plasmas spectrometry (ICPMS), and colorimetric techniques.
Samples can be filtered and analyzed for dissolved metals or digested using strong acids to
measure total metals.

Testing of Heavy Metals

In flame AA a solution of lanthanum chloride is added to the sample, and the treated sample is
sprayed into a flame using an atomizer.
Each metallic element in the sample imparts a characteristic color to the flame, whose intensity is
then measured spectrophotometrically.
Graphite furnace AA methods use an electrically heated device to atomize metal elements, and can
measure much lower concentrations of metals than flame AA, but often have matrix interference
problems caused by salts and other compounds in the sample.
Cold vapor AA is used primarily to measure arsenic and mercury. Inductively coupled plasma and
ICPMS are less sensitive to matrix problems and cover a wide range of concentrations.

Settling Tank Design and Operation

Particles settle in one of three general ways
Class 1: Discrete particle settling occurs when particles settle unhindered by container walls or
neighboring particles.
Class 2: Flocculent settling occurs when neighboring particles come into contact with each other,
changing particle size and hindering settling.
Class 3: Thickening occurs when the entire mass of particles settle with the same velocity, and there
is no interparticle movement.