Welcome to The Course on

HVAC DESIGNING
Presented by
Engr. Waqar Ahmed
 CHAPTER #1

Introduction to HVAC
Problem Solving Attitude
Define the Objective
Define the Problem
Define the Alternative Solution
Evaluate Alternatives
Selection of Alternative
Check
Implement the Selective Alternative
Evaluate
The Basics of HVAC
Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning
Refer to Equipments, distribution
networks and Terminals either used
individually or collectively to provide
filtered fresh air, heating and Humidity
control of the Building.
Comfort
Comfort is primary
intent of HVAC
systems.
Productivity
Building Durability
Health
HVAC Cycle
Mechanical Cooling Cycle

Mechanical Heating Cycle

Mechanical Cooling Cycle
Mechanical Heating Cycle
HVAC Component
HVAC Component: Condensor

1 Expension
Valve
2 Fan
3 Compressor
4 Heat
exchange coils
HVAC Components: Air Handler
1 Heat exchange coils
2 Fan
2

1
HVAC Components: DUCT System
HVAC Component: DUCT
System
Supply Ducts

Supply
Plenum

Air Return Grille

Handler

Return
Plenum
Designing for Operation and
Maintenance
vKeep It Simple
vProvide adequate space and
Accessibility for Equipment
vWritten maintenance and operation
procedures
vBasic training for operators
What is heat?
Heat is a form of energy created by
motion of atoms and molecules.
What is temperature?
Temperature measures the average
kinetic energy of random motion of
atoms and molecules

Ek = m(v - v )
1 3
E k = k BT
2

2 2

m (v - v )
1
T=
2
i i
3k B N i
Principles of Heat Transfer
Heat Energy cannot be destroyed
Heat always flows from a higher
temperature substance to a lower
temperature surface
Heat can be transferred from one
substance to another
Heat Transfer
The science of how heat flows is called
heat transfer.
There are three ways heat transfer works:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Heat flow depends on the temperature
difference.
Thermal Equilibrium

Two bodies are in

thermal equilibrium
with each other when
they have the same
temperature.
In nature, heat
always flows from hot
to cold until thermal
equilibrium is
Heat Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat through

materials by the direct contact of matter.
Dense metals like copper and aluminum
are very good thermal conductors.
26.1 Heat Conduction
The ability to
conduct heat often
depends more on
the structure of a
material than on the
material itself.
n Solid glass is a
thermal conductor
when it is formed
into a beaker or cup.
Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of a material

describes how well the material conducts
heat.
 26.1
Thermal
Conductivit
y

Heat conduction
in solids and
liquids works by
transferring
energy through
bonds between
atoms or
molecules.
Heat conduction
The rate of heat transfer by conduction
Q
T2 - T1
Q = -kA
L
k - thermal conductivity.
Heat conduction
T2 - T1
Q = -kA
L

T1 - T2
Q= Rth = L /(kA)
Rth
Thermal resistance
Heat conduction
Fouriers 1
law of heat
st

conduction
q=Q/A is the rate of heat transfer per unit cross-
sectional area, or heat flux.

T2 - T1 r
q = -k q = -kT
L
The negative sign represents that heat flows in
the direction opposite to temperature gradient
 Convection

Convection is the
transfer of heat by the
motion of liquids and
gases.
n Convection in a gas
occurs because gas
expands when heated.
n Convection occurs
because currents flow
when hot gas rises and
Convection

When the flow of

gas or liquid comes
from differences in
density and
temperature, it is
called free
convection.
When the flow of
gas or liquid is
Convection

Convection depends
on speed.
Motion increases
heat transfer by
convection in all
fluids.
Convection
Convection depends
on surface area.
If the surface
contacting the fluid is
increased, the rate of
heat transfer also
increases.
Almost all devices
made for convection
Forced Convection

Both free and forced convection help to

heat houses and cool car engines.
Newtons law of cooling

The rate of heat transfer from an object

to the surround fluid by convection is
given byQ = - hA(T - T )
W

Q is the rate of heat transfer by convection to the

surrounding fluid.
A is the objects exposed area.
T and TW are the fluid free-stream temperature and
object temperature, respectively.
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient.
Radiation

Radiation is heat
transfer by
electromagnetic waves.
Thermal radiation is
electromagnetic waves
(including light)
produced by objects
because of their
temperature.
Radiant Heat

We do not see the

thermal radiation
because it occurs
at infrared
wavelengths
invisible to the
human eye.
Objects glow
different colors at
Radiant Heat
A rock at room
temperature does not
glow.
The curve for 20C
does not extend into
visible wavelengths.
As objects heat up they
start to give off visible
light, or glow.
At 600C objects glow
dull red, like the burner
on an electric stove.
 Radiant Heat
As the temperature rises, thermal
radiation produces shorter-
wavelength, higher energy light.
At 1,000C the color is yellow-
orange, turning to white at 1,500C.
If you carefully watch a bulb on a
dimmer switch, you see its color
change as the filament gets hotter.
The bright white light from a bulb is
thermal radiation from an extremely
hot filament, near 2,600C.
Radiant Heat
The total power emitted as thermal
radiation by a blackbody depends on
temperature (T) and surface area (A).
Real surfaces usually emit less than the
blackbody power, typically between 10 and
90 percent.
The Kelvin temperature scale is used in the
Stefan-Boltzmann formula because thermal
radiation depends on the temperature
above absolute zero.
 Stefan-Boltzmann formula

Surface area (m2)

Power
(watts)
P = s AT4

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)
Application: Energy-efficient
Buildings
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 kg of a material by one degree (C or
K).
1) C water = 4184 J / kg C
2) C sand = 664 J / kg C
Units:
BTU
kcal
Sensible Versus Latent Heat
The amount of energy required to melt
or boil a certain amount of material is
called a latent heat.

Sensible heat is heat energy when

added or removed from a substance,
results in a measureable change in Dry
bulb Temperature.
Heat Generated By People
Metabolism activates in human body
generates more heat than it needs

Heat is transferred from human body by

convection and radiation to the
environment surrounding the body.
Adult generates excess heat at the rate
of 450Btu/hr (132 Watt)
Factor Affecting Human
Comfort
Dry Bulb Temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Fresh Air
Clean Air
Noise level
Adequate lighting
Proper furniture and work surface
Air Conditioning System
Overview
Geographical site condition(latitude,
longitude, wind velocity, precipitation
etc)
Out door design condition(temperature,
humidity etc)
Indoor design condition
Building characteristics(materials, size,
shape)
Air Conditioning Overview(
Contd)
Operating schedules( location,
orientation, shading)

Additional consideration(type of air-

conditioning system, fan energy, fan
location, duct heat loss and gain, duct
leakage, type and position of air return
system)
Indoor Design Condition
Climate Data Requirements
To reduce energy cost of a building

To use natural energy as far as

possible, instead of mechanical system
and power.

To provide comfortable and healthy

environment for people.
Classification of Climates
Cold climates, Where the main problem
is the lack of heat
Temperate climate, where there is a
seasonal variation between under heating
and overheating but neither us very
severe
Hot-dry(arid) climates, where the main
problem is overheating, but air is dry.
Warm-humid climates, it is aggravated
by very high humidity
Six categories of climates
Warm-humid: 15 N and South of the
equator, e.g. Colombo, Jakarta etc.
Warm-humid Island: equatorial and
trade wind zones, e.g. Philippines etc.
Hot-dry desert: 15 to 30 North and
South, e.g. Baghdad etc
Hot-dry maritime desert: Latitudes
as Kuwait, Karachi, etc
Six categories of climates
Composite Monsoon: Tropic
Cancer/Capricorn, e.g. Lahore,
Mandalay, Delhi. Etc.
Tropical uplands: Tropic Cancer 900 to
1200meters above sea level, e.g.
Mexico City, Nairobi etc.
 CHAPTER #2

AIR Conditioning
Basics
Basic Principle of Air-Conditioning
Absorb Energy From one place and
release it to another place.
High Temperature
Reservoir

Heat Rejected

R Work
Input

Heat Absorbed

Low Temperature
Reservoir
Fiction about Air Conditioning

Most people think that air conditioners

lower temperatures in their homes
simply by pumping cool air in.
The Reality.
The warm air from your house is being
removed and recycled back in as cooler
air. This cycle continues until
thermostat reaches the desired
temperature.
Detail Cycle
Exhaust air treatment

Fresh air treatment

(make-up air) Terminal air treatment
+
at production room level

Production Room
Central air handling unit
Window AC Unit
Split System
Chilled-water and Cooling-
tower AC Units
Cooling Tower
Principle of Cooling Tower

Cooling tower use the principle of

evaporative or wet bulb cooling in
order to cool water
Types of cooling Towers With
Respect to Heat Transfer
W et cooling tow ers or simply cooling towers
operate on the principle of evaporation. The working
fluid and the evaporated fluid (usually H2O) are one
and the same.
Dry coolers operate by heat transfer through a
surface that separates the working fluid from
ambient air, such as in a heat exchanger, utilizing
convective heat transfer. They do not use
evaporation.
Fluid coolers are hybrids that pass the working
fluid through a tube bundle, upon which clean water
is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied
Basic Refrigeration Cycle

Condenser
Compressor

Expansion
Valve

Evaporator
Refrigeration Cycle
Air-conditioning and Refrigeration
Cycle Diagrammatic View
Thermal energy moves from left to right through five loops of
heat transfer:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Indoor air Chilled Refrigerant Condenser Cooling
loop water loop loop water loop water loop

68
Basic HVAC Equipment
Fans / Blowers
Furnace / Heating unit
Filters
Compressor
Condensing units
Evaporator (cooling coil)
Control System
Air Distribution System
Components

Weather louvre To prevent insects, leaves, dirt and

rain from entering
Silencer To reduce noise caused by air
circulation
Flow rate controller Automated adjustment of volume of
air (night and day, pressure control)
Control damper Fixed adjustment of volume of air
Components
Heating unit To heat the air to the proper
temperature
Cooling unit/ To cool the air to the required
dehumidifier temperature or to remove moisture
from the air
Humidifier To bring the air to the proper humidity,
if too low
Filters To eliminate particles of predetermined
dimensions and/or microorganisms
Ducts To transport the air
System Types and Common Terms

Packaged Rooftop Constant Volume

Unit
Variable Volume
Split System Indoor Air Quality
Heat Pump Direct Expansion
Geothermal
Air to Air
Hydronic (water)
PTAC / PTHP
Packaged Rooftop Units
Split System

Ductwork

Heating
and Cooling
Equipment

FURNACE

A/C UNIT
Temperature &
Humidity Controls
Heat Pump
Operate on simple
refrigeration cycle
Reversing the cycle
provides heating
Temperature
limitations
Air to air
Water source
Geothermal
Lake coupled
Variable Air Volume
Variable Speed
Supply Fan Supply Ducts

VAV Box
Filters
Cool Coil w/Temp Reset

Heat Coil w/Temp

Return Air

Reheat Coil
Reset

T T

Zone Thermostat

Variable Speed Return Ducts

Return Fan

HVAC-76
Terminal Units
Variable volume: Constant volume:
Parallel Series
Hydronic systems
Pumps
Piping
Valves
Control Devices
Thermostats
n Manual
n Programmable
Optimum Start
DDC Systems
Variable Speed Drives
Automatic Valves and Dampers
Outdoor Sensors
Major Equipment
Chillers

Boilers

Cooling Towers
Economizers
Economizers are mechanical devices
intended to reduce energy
consumption, or to perform another
useful function like preheating a fluid.
Air Economizers
Air-side economizers can save energy in
buildings by using cool outside air as a means of
cooling the indoor space. When the enthalpy of
the outside air is less than the enthalpy of the
recirculated air, conditioning the outside air is
more energy efficient than conditioning
recirculated air. When the outside air is both
sufficiently cool and sufficiently dry (depending
on the climate) the amount of enthalpy in the air
is acceptable to the control, no additional
conditioning of it is needed; this portion of the
air-side economizer control scheme is called free
cooling.
Economizers
Free cooling source: When available, use cool outdoor air
instead of mechanically cooled air.
Minimum supply 55 oF and
of outside air up
55 oF 85%
outside
air
85%
80 oF exhaust 80 oF

Normal Operation Economizer Operation

Outside air dampers are Outside air dampers are fully
positioned to provide the open. Maximum outside air is
minimum outside air provided

HVAC-83
Economizers

Air Side Water Side

Air Distribution

Ductwork
n Metal
n Flexible
n Ductboard
Grilles, Louvers,
& Registers
Dampers
n Shut off
n Fire
n Smoke
Sealants
Supports
Additional Equipment
Energy Recovery Units
Desiccant Systems
Additional Equipment
Heat Exchangers
Humidifiers
Silencers
Mechanical Dehumidification

Return air is mixed with ventilation air

Cold coil condenses moisture

Heat is added back (electric or gas) so that

room air is not over cooled- Reheat
Filter
Improved Ventilation Effectiveness

Mechanically provide filtered and

dehumidified outdoor air to the
breathing space
Vary ventilation based on the
number of occupants and process
loads - changes in occupancy can
be measured by CO2 sensors
Consider designs that separate
ventilation and space conditioning
Utilize heat recovery systems to
reduce system size and ventilation
energy costs
Improved Ventilation Effectiveness
Effective mixing of
ventilation air within space
Net positive pressure in
the southeast; exhaust
from appropriate spaces
Provide clean outdoor air,
avoid:
n loading docks
n exhaust vents
n plumbing stacks
n waste collection
n stagnant water
Chapter#3
Cooling & Heating Load Estimation

Presented By Waqar Ahmed

Basic Concepts
Thermal load
n The amount of heat that must be added or
removed from the space to maintain the
proper temperature in the space
When thermal loads push conditions
outsider of the comfort range, HVAC
systems are used to bring the thermal
conditions back to comfort conditions
Basic Concepts
Purpose of HVAC load estimation
n Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)

n Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or size

n Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load profiles

n Form the basis for building energy analysis

Cooling load is our main target

n Important for warm climates & summer design

n Affect building performance & its first cost

Building Survey & Load
Estimation
Orientation of building
Use of Space(s)
Physical Dimension of Space(s)
Ceiling height
Column and beams
Construction material
Building Survey & Load
Estimation
Surrounding conditions
Windows
Doors
Stairways and elevator
People
Lighting
Motors
Building Survey & Load
Estimation
Appliances

Ventilations

Thermal Storage

Continuous or Intermittent Operation

Location of Equipment &
Services
Available Spaces
Possible obstruction
Location of out door air intake
Power Services
Water Services
Steam Services
Refrigeration, brine or chilled water
Location of Equipment &
Services
Existing air conveying equipment and
ducts
Drains
Control facilities
Foundation and Support
Sound and Vibration control
requirement
Location of Equipment &
Services
Accessibility for moving equipment
Codes, local, and national
Pictorial Explanation
Load Estimation Methods
Total Equivalent Temperature Difference/Time
Average(TETD/TA)

Cooling Load Temperature Differences/Cooling Load

Factor(CTD/CLF)

Transfer Function Method(TFM)

Heat balance (HB) & Radiant Time Series

Manual J Method for Residential applications &

Manual N for Commercial Buildings.
PART - I
Summer Cooling Load
Cooling Load Principles

Terminology:
n Space a volume w/o a partition, or a
partitioned room, or group of rooms
n Room an enclosed space (a single load)
n Zone a space, or several rooms, or units of
space having some sort of coincident loads or
similar operating characteristics
w Thermal zoning
Cooling Load Principles
Space and equipment loads
n Space heat gain (sensible, latent, total)
n Space cooling load / space heating load
n Space heat extraction rate
n Cooling coil load / heating coil load
n Refrigeration load
Instantaneous heat gain
n Convective heat
n Radiative heat (heat absorption)
Convective and radiative heat in a conditioned space
Conversion of heat gain into cooling load
Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from Lights
Cooling Load Principles
Moisture transfer
n Two paths:
w Moisture migrates in building envelope
w Air leakage (infiltration or exfiltration)
n If slight RH variation is acceptable, then
storage effect of moisture can be ignored
w Latent heat gain = latent cooling load
(instantaneously)
What if both temp. & RH need to be
controlled?
Cooling Load Components

Cooling load calculations

To determine volume flow rate of air system
To size the coil and HVAC&R equipment
To provide info for energy
calculations/analysis
Two categories:
External loads
Internal loads
External Loads
The sun rays entering windows
The sun rays striking the walls and roof
Air Temperature outside the
conditioned space
Air vapor Pressure
Direction of Wind Blowing
Ventilation through Out side air
Internal Loads
People
Lights
Appliances
Electric calculating devices
Electric Motors
Hot pipes and tanks
Miscellaneous
Cooling Load Components

Cooling coil load consists of:

Space cooling load (sensible & latent)
Supply system heat gain (fan + air duct)
Return system heat gain (plenum + fan + air
duct)
Load due to outdoor ventilation rates (or
ventilation load)
Conversion of heat gain into cooling load
 Cooling coil load

Cooling load
Cooling Load Calculation
Space heat gain

Space cooling load

Space heat extraction rate

Cooling coil load

Cooling Loads Classified by
Kinds of Heat
Sensible Heat

Latent Loads
Sensible Loads
Solar heat gain through building
envelops(exterior walls, glazing, skylights,
roof, roofs over crawl space)
Ventilation air and infiltration through
cracks in the building, doors and window
People in the building
Equipment in the building
Lights
Latent Loads
People (Breathing)
Cooking equipment
Housekeeping, floor washing
Appliances or machinery that
evaporates water
The total cooling load is the summation
of sensible and latent loads.
Cooling Loads Classified by
Inside-Outside Environment
External Load

Internal Load
External Loads
Sensible loads through:
Opaque envelope assemblies (roofs, walls,
floors)
Ventilation and filtration (air leakage)

Latent loads trough:

Ventilation and filtration

Heat Transfer Concepts
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Resistance
U=1/R
U value is the rate of heat
in Btu/hr through a one cubic ft

area when one side is 1DEGREE F Warmer

Q=U x A(T2-T1)
Conduction Through Roofs,
External Walls & Glass
Q=U*A*(CLTD)
U=Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass

A=Area of building, wall or glass

calculated from building plans

CLTD=Cooling Load Temperature

Difference for roof, wall or glass
Sunlit Surfaces
Most Exterior surfaces of a building are
exposed during some portion of day.
Light and radiant heat can pass through a
transparent surface, neither pass through an
opaque or non-transparent surface.
Certain amount of radiant energy is
transferred to roof, when it strikes its
surface, resulting in increase in surface
temperature.
Time of Peak Cooling Load
Example Office Space (Room101)
Office Detail (Room 101)
Detail of Office ( Contd)
Outdoor Design Conditions
St Louis Missouri

0.4% 1% 2%
DB WB DB WB DB WB
95F 76F 93F 76F 90F 74F
U-factor
Description Of U-factor
U factor For Example Wall
CLTD Factor for West-Facing
Wall
Conduction through Sunlit
Surfaces
Qwall=0.06 x 380 x 22= 502Btu/hr

Qroof=0.057x2700x80 =12,312 Btu/hr

Qwall= 0.33 x36.3 x 12=144W

Qroof=0.323 x 250.7 x 44 = 3,563W

U-factor Windows
Conduction through Window

Q windows= 0.63 160 13=1310Btu/hr

Q windows= 3.56 14.4 7 = 359 W

Load Reduction Strategies
Interpreting the conductive heat transfer
equation,
Q = U * A * T
A building construction with low U-value (air-to-
air transmittance) will reduce all forms of
conduction heat transfer through the building
envelope.
Insulating the walls with materials such as
fiberglass, cellulose, Styrofoam, etc shall result in
a much lower rate of heat transfer through the
walls when the outdoor temperatures exceed the
indoor temperature.
Load Reduction Strategies
Roof Insulation

A significant portion of a buildings heat loss

and heat gain occurs through its roof and
walls. The most effective means of reducing
the heat transfer rate is to maximize R-value
by adding thermal insulation. Insulation
serves to limit the
Conduction of heat through the building
shell. For buildings with a large amount of
roof area, such as a single-story retail facility,
reducing heat gain through the roof can be
an important consideration.
Load Reduction Strategies
Roof & Wall Color

Lighter colors and reflective coatings

reflect more of the suns heat than
darker colors.
The choice of the surface color is not of
significant importance but the
absorbance and surface conductance
are important.
Solar Load Through Glass
Q = A * (SHGC) * (CLF)

A = area of roof, wall or glass

calculated from building plans

SHGC= Solar Heat Gain Coefficient.

CLF = Solar Cooling Load Factor.

Solar Cooling Load
Factor(CLF)
Direction that the window faces
Time of day
Month
Latitude
Construction of interior partition walls
Type of floor covering
Existence of internal shading devices
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
The amount of solar heat energy
allowed to pass through a window

Example:0.40
Means
Allow 40% through and turns 60% away
Energy Flow through Window
Glazing
When solar radiation strikes on glazing,
1) Part of the radiant energy is reflected
back outdoors.
2) Part of the radiant energy is absorbed
within the glass.
3) The remainder is transmitted directly
indoor.
4) The absorbed portion comes out again
and flows either outward or inward
Load Reduction Strategies
There are various methods available to the
designer; among the few are:
1) Window Orientation (architectural aspect)
2) 2) Type of Window Glasses
3) 3) Special glass (Glazing Attributes)
4) 4) Type of Window Frames
5) 5) Window Dressing (Internal blinds/Roller
Shades/Curtains)
6) 6) Ventilation & Air tightness
7) 7) External shading
Partitions, Ceilings & Floors
The equation used for sensible loads from the
partitions, ceilings and floors:
Q = U * A * (Ta -Trc)
U= Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or
glass.
A= area of partition, ceiling or floor calculated
from building plans
Ta= Temperature of adjacent
Trc= Inside design temperature of conditioned
space (assumed constant)
Ventilation & Infiltration Air
Q sensible = 1.08 * CFM * (To Tc)
Q latent = 4840 * CFM * (W o Wc)
Q total = 4.5 * CFM * (ho hc)
CFM = Ventilation airflow rate.
To= Outside dry bulb temperature, F
Tc = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil,
F
Wo = Outside humidity ratio, lb (water) per lb (dry air)
Wc= Humidity ratio of air leaving the cooling coil, lb
(water) per lb (dry air)
ho = Outside/Inside air enthalpy, Btu per lb (dry air)
hc = Enthalpy of air leaving the cooling coil Btu per lb
(dry air)
Infiltration Air
No building is 100% tight and all buildings
allow some level of air flow through the
building envelope. The infiltration is the
uncontrolled airflow through cracks and
openings in the building.
The estimated average velocity in either
half of the door is 100 feet per minute for
a doorway 7' high at a 60F temperature
differential. The velocity will vary as the
square root of the height of the doorway
Infiltration Air
For example, the rate of infiltration through a
door 8' high and 4' wide, with a 100F TD
between the air-conditioned space and the
ambient can be estimated as follows:
Velocity = 100Fpm x (v8 x v100)/(v7 x v60)
= 138 fpm
Estimated Rate of Infiltration per door
opening = (138 fpm x 8 ft x 4 ft) / 2 =
2208 cfm
Load Reduction Strategies
Dont over pressurize.
Control ventilation rates to minimum
requirements.
The ventilation rate should be calculated based on
the actual number of occupancy expected and not
on air changes.
The mechanical exhaust systems should be
interlocked to the fresh air supply systems.
Wherever possible, maximize return air re-
circulation. Where not possible evaluate
possibilities of recovering energy from the exhaust
air through heat wheels or heat pipes etc.
Internal Loads
Sensible & latent loads due to people.
Sensible loads due to lighting.
Sensible loads due to power loads
and motors
(elevators, pumps, fans & other
machinery).
Sensible & latent loads due to
appliances.
People
Q sensible = N * (QS) * (CLF)

Q latent = N * (QL)
QS, QL = Sensible and Latent heat gain from
ccupancy
N= number of people in space.
CLF= Cooling Load Factor, by hour of
occupancy.
CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of
cooling is off at night or during weekends.
Load Reduction Strategies
The actual occupant load is usually
about one third of the maximum
seating capacity.
An office plan may show a chair at
every desk, as well as one or two other
chairs for visitors. In most cases, the
visitors chairs will be empty most of the
time. Analyze carefully !!!
Lights
The lights result in sensible heat gain.
Q = 3.41 * W * FUT * FBF * (CLF)
W = Installed lamp watts input from
electrical lighting plan or lighting load data
FUT= Lighting use factor, as appropriate
FBF= Blast factor allowance, as appropriate
CLF= Cooling Load Factor, by hour of
occupancy. Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is
24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during
weekends.
Load Reduction Strategies
Installation of energy efficient fluorescent
lamps (T8) in place of conventional
fluorescent lamps (T12)
) Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps
(CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps
Installation of metal halide lamps in place of
mercury / sodium vapor lamps
Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic
ballasts in place of conventional ballasts
Power Loads & Motors
Three different equations are used under different
scenarios:
(a)Heat gain of power driven equipment and motor
when both are located inside the space to be
conditioned
Q = 2545 * (P / Eff) * FUM * FLM
P =Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or
manufacturers data
Eff= Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM= Motor use factor (normally = 1.0)
FLM= Motor load factor (normally = 1.0)
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Power Loads & Motors
(b)
Heat gain of when driven equipment is located
inside the space to be conditioned space and
the motor is outside the space or air stream.
Q = 2545 * P * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or
manufacturers data
Eff= Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM= Motor use factor FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Power Loads & Motors
(c)
Heat gain of when driven equipment is located
outside the space to be conditioned space and
the motor is inside the space or air stream
Q = 2545 * P * [(1.0-Eff)/Eff] * FUM * FLM
P =Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or
manufacturers data
Eff=Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor FLM =Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Load Reduction Strategies
Always buy equipment with Energy Star label.
Laser printers consume more energy than inkjet
printers.
Color printers use more energy than black and white.
Liquid crystal displays use less energy than
conventional monitors.
Laptops draw about one-tenth the power of a
conventional desktop computer. You can connect a
laptop computer to a conventional monitor and still
save almost half the energy of a standard computer.
Appliances
Q = 3.41 * W * Fu * Fr * (CLF)

W = Installed rating of appliances in watts.

Fu = Usage factor.
Fr = Radiation factor.
CLF= Cooling Load Factor, by hour of
occupancy. Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is
24 hours or of cooling is off at night or
during weekends.
Heat Gain From HVAC System
Supply Fan Heat Loads

Duct Heat Gain

Supply Fan Heat Load
The heat energy is calculated as follows:
Q = 2545 * [P / (Eff1 * Eff2)]

P = Horsepower rating from electrical

power plans or manufacturers data
2545= Conversion factor for converting
horsepower to Btu per hour
Eff1= Full load motor and drive efficiency
Eff2 = Fan static efficiency
Duct Heat Gain
Unless the return ductwork system is
extensive and un-insulated or passes
over a non-conditioned space, only the
heat gained by the duct supply system
is significant. This heat gain is normally
estimated as a percentage of the space
sensible cooling load (usually 1% to
5%) and applied to the temperature of
the air leaving the cooling coil in the
form of temperature increase.
Cooling Load Distribution
Graph
Part-II

Winter Heating Loads

Winter Heating Load
The heat loss is divided into two groups:
The heat transmission losses
through the
confining walls, floor, ceiling, glass,
or other surfaces
The infiltration losses through cracks
and openings, or heat required to
warm outdoor air used for
ventilation.
Heat Transmission Loss
Heat loss by conduction and convection
heat transfer through any surface is given
by:
Q sensible = A * U * (Ti To)
Where Q = heat transfer through walls,
roof, glass, etc.
A = surface areas
U = air-to-air heat transfer coefficient
Ti = indoor air temperature
To = outdoor air temperature
Floor on Slab
The slab heat loss is calculated by using the
following equation:
Q = F* P * (Ti-To)
Where: F = the Heat Loss Coefficient for the
particular
construction and is a function of the degree
days of heating.
P = the perimeter of slab Ti = the inside
temperature To = the outside temperature
Infiltration and Ventilation
Loss
Q sensible = V * <air * Cp * (Ti To)
Where:
V = volumetric air flow rate
2)<air is the density of the air
3) Cp = specific heat capacity of air at
constant pressure
4) Ti = indoor air temperature
5) To = outdoor air temperature
Moisture Loss
The energy quantity associated with net
loss of moisture from the space is latent
heat loss which is given by:
Q latent = V * )air * hfg * (Wi Wo)
Where V = volumetric air flow rate )air is
the density of the air
Wi = humidity ratio of indoor air
Wo = humidity ratio of outdoor air
hfg = latent heat of evaporation at indoor
air temperature
Cooling Load Vs Heating Load
Calculation
There is usually a much greater outdoor
temperature variation over a 24-hour period in
summer than there is in winter.
Heat gain is a plus factor in winter heating, but
it may be a major part of the load for summer
cooling.
There is the matter of the moisture content of
summer air-latent heat-which has a great deal to
do with human comfort. Much of this moisture
must be removed from the indoor air in order to
attain a comfortable condition, and this moisture
load is a load on the cooling equipment.
Cooling Load Vs Heating Load
Calculations
Internal heat sources such as lights,
machinery, appliances, and people
constitute cooling loads in summer,
whereas in winter the heat from these
sources is a plus factor.
Chapter # 4

Supply & Return Air

Calculation
Supply Air Calculations
Calculations for the design supply air quantities are
dependent on the type of system used.
Assumptions need to be made to assist in the use of the
cooling load calculations for equipment selection and
sizing.
For constant air volumes with reheat type of system, the
design supply air quantities required are based on the
peak requirements for each space. However, if the system
selected allows for air flow to each zone to vary based on
load, the peak load on an air conditioning unit serving
several zones or spaces is not equal to the sum of the
peak loads of each zone, but will be that amount
necessary to handle the maximum coincident load on the
system at a given time.
Supply Air Calculations
Supply air flow rate to a space is based only on the
total space sensible heat load, thus
CFM = 1.08 x [Q sensible / (TR TS)]
CFM = air flow in cubic feet per minute
1.08 = conversion constant = 0.244 X (60/13.5)
0.244 = specific heat of moist air, Btu/lb of dry air
13.5 = specific volume of moist air, cu-ft. per lb of
dry air (@70F, 50% RH) Q sensible = total room
sensible heat gain, BTU per hr. TR = Room dry bulb
temperature, F TS = Room supply air dry bulb
temperature, F (not necessarily the same as the
temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil).
Space Design Conditions
When a design engineer performs a cooling load
calculation, one of the first things that must be done is to
set the indoor design condition. For most of the comfort
environments, this condition is generally 75 F dry bulb
(DB) and 50 percent RH, or 62.5 F wet bulb (WB)
temperature.1 While this condition is a design goal, in
reality the space dry bulb temperature is the only
parameter that is maintained by a room thermostat
setting. The RH or WB of the conditioned space, on the
other hand, is not controlled unless specifically addressed
in the system design. Extra air conditioning system
apparatus and/or controls will be needed if the room RH
or WB is also to be maintained.
Coil Leaving condition
The RH of the coil leaving condition is a function
of both physical and operating characteristics of
the cooling coil.
Decreasing the coil heat-transfer surface--
i.e., fewer rows, fewer fins per inch, or
increasing the air velocity through the coil-
-will result in a lower RH coil leaving
condition.
Conversely, a coil having a larger heat-transfer
surface and/or lower face velocity will have a coil
leaving air condition closer to the saturation line-
-i.e., a higher RH.
Air System affects RH
The interrelating factors that can affect
the RH (or WB) of the conditioned space
in an air conditioning system include:
Latent load of the conditioned space
Outdoor air condition
Cooling coil leaving air condition
Type of air handling equipment
selected for the air conditioning
system
Chapter#5
Design Factors and Inputs
Introduction
A building experiences a range of cooling &
heating loads at any point of time in any
given year, ranging in magnitude from zero
(no cooling required) to whatever the
maximum load happens to be that year.
Design cooling
load is a load near the maximum magnitude,
but is not normally the maximum. This should
become clear when the design factors and
assumptions behind the calculations are
understood.
Design Factor
Conduction/convection of heat through walls,
roofs, floors, doors and windows
Radiation through windows and heating effects on
wall and roof surface temperatures
Thermal properties of buildings (Insulation, glass
transmittance, surface absorbtivity)
Building thermal mass and corresponding delay of
indoor temperature change
Construction quality in preventing air, heat, and
moisture leakage
Heat added/lost with ventilation air needed to
maintain air quality (code compliance)
Design Factor
Heat generated by lights, people, appliances, and equipment
Heat added/lost by air, water, and refrigeration distribution
systems
Heat generated by air and water distribution equipment
Moisture added/lost with ventilation air to maintain air
quality and code compliance Moisture movement through
building envelope Moisture generated by occupants and
equipment Activity level, occupancy patterns, and make-up
(male,
female, child) of people Acceptable comfort and air quality
levels of occupants Weather conditions (temperature, moisture,
wind speed,
latitude, elevation, solar radiation, etc.)
Design Input
Information regarding the outdoor
design conditions and desired indoor
conditions are the starting point for the
load calculation.
Obtain Building Characteristics
Materials of construction for external walls, roofs,
windows, doors, internal walls, partitions, ceiling,
insulating materials and thick nesses, external wall
and roof colors
1) Architectural plans, sections and elevations
2) Building size, orientation (N, S, E, W, NE, SE,
SW,
NW, etc), dimensions, location, fenestrations,
ground reflectance etc.
3) External/Internal shading 4) Occupancy
type and time of day
Check The Following
Type of structure, heavy, medium or light
Is structure insulated?
Is structure exposed to high wind?
Amount of glass
Length of reduced indoor temperature
What type of cooling or heating devices will be used?
Select and/or compute U-values for walls, roof,
windows, doors, partitions, etc.
Select Out Door Design and
Weather Conditions
Design outdoor temperature
Location and Latitude
Altitude
Weather data (coincident dry bulb and
wet bulbtemperatures, daily range)
Wind direction and speed
Check The Following
What is daily temperature range,
minimum/maximum?
Are there significant variations from
ASHRAE weather data?
Select Indoor Design
Conditions
Temperature and relative humidity for each
space/room
Permissible variation or control limits of the
temperature and relative humidity
Room Pressurization requirements
Ventilation rate: Determine if there is special
equipment such as kitchen or lab hoods that require
a minimum exhaust rate and eventually shall affect
the ventilation rate.
Room function, number of occupants and the period
of occupancy in each room
Check The Following..
Estimate temperatures in un-
conditioned spaces

Infiltration or ventilation load in

accordance with ASHRAE Standard 62
Operation Scedule
Lighting requirements, types of lighting fixtures
Appliances requirements such as computers, printers,
fax machines, water coolers, refrigerators, microwave
miscellaneous electrical panels, cables etc
Heat released by the HVAC equipment.
Number of occupants, time of building occupancy
and type of building occupancy.
Determine area of walls, windows, floors, doors,
partitions, etc.
Compute conduction heat gains for all walls,
windows,floors, doors, partitions, skylights, etc.
Operation Schedule
Compute solar heat gains for all walls, windows, floors,
doors, partitions, skylights, etc.
Infiltration heat gains are generally ignored unless space
temperature and humidity tolerance are critical.
Compute ventilation heat gain required.
Compute internal heat gains from lights, people, and
equipment.
Compute sum of all heat gains
Consider equipment and materials, which will be brought
into building above inside design temperature.
Cooling load calculations should be conducted using
industry accepted methods to determine actual cooling
load requirements.
Typical Assumptions
Weather conditions are selected from a long-term
statistical database. The conditions will not necessary
represent any actual year, but are representative of the
location of the building. ASHRAE has tabulated such data.
The designer may select a severity of weather that seems
appropriate for the building type in question--although
energy codes often specify what data shall be used (to
minimize over-sized systems).
The solar loads on the building are assumed to be those
that would occur on a clear day in the month chosen for
the calculations.
The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design
capacity.
Typical Assumptions
The ventilation rates are either assumed on air
changes or based on maximum occupancy expected.
All building equipment and appliances are
considered to be operating at a reasonably
representative capacity.
Lights and appliances are assumed to be operating
as expected for a typical day of design occupancy.
Latent as well as sensible loads are considered.
Heat flow is analyzed assuming dynamic conditions,
which means that heat storage in building envelope
and interior materials is considered.
Duct System
Duct Design
The purpose of air condition in ductwork is to deliver air
from the fan to the diffusers which distribute the air to
the room.
Air Moves Through the Ductwork in Response to a
Pressure Difference Created by the Fan
The necessary pressure difference will be a function of
the way the ductwork is laid out and sized.
The objective of duct design is to size the duct so as to
minimize the pressure drop through the duct, while
keeping the size (and cost) of the ductwork to a
minimum.
Proper duct design requires a knowledge of the factors
that effect pressure drop and velocity in the duct.
Duct System Pressure
Total Pressure, TP, is Related to the Energy in the Air
Stream, and is equal to:
TP = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure

Static pressure and velocity pressure increase and

decrease as the air proceeds through the ductwork,
depending on the cross-sectional area of the flow.

The total pressure of the airstream decreases as the air

proceeds through the ductwork due to the conversion of
mechanical energy to heat caused by friction
Duct System Pressure
Velocity Pressure
VP=(V/45005)

Where:
VP = Velocity Pressure, inches H2O
V = Velocity, feet per minute
Static Pressure Losses
Frictional Losses
Due to fluid viscosity and turbulence in
the flow through the ductwork, and
occur along the entire length of the
ductwork
Dynamic Losses
Result from flow disturbances caused
by fittings that change the airflow
direction or area.
Frictional Loss Calculation
Velocity Reduction Method
Velocity at the fan discharge is pre-selected. The duct
system is designed to provide progressively lower duct
velocities as the air proceeds from the main duct to the
branches.
Static Regain Method
The ducts are sized so the increase in static pressure at
each take-off offsets the pressure loss of the succeeding
section of ductwork.
Equal Friction Method
The duct is sized to result in a constant pressure loss per
unit length of duct.
Fundamentals

Velocity
n fpm
Q
V=
A
Velocity Pressure
n in. w.g. 2
V
pv =
4005
Fundamentals
Static Pressure
n Total Pressure Velocity Pressure
Total Pressure (loss)
n Darcy Weisbach Equation

2
12f L V
Dp = -------------- + SC r ------------
Dh 1097
Design Procedures
Arrange outlets/inlets
Adjust calculated air quantities for
n Heat gain/loss
n Leakage
w Duct
w Equipment (VAV box)
w Accessories (dampers, sensors, access
doors,etc.)
n Space pressurization
Design Procedures
Select outlet sizes based on
manufacturer's data
Sketch the system (connect the dots)
Divide the system into sections
n Section is any change in flow, size, shape
Size the system using
required/preferred method
Design Procedures
Calculate the system total pressure loss
Layout the system in detail
n Space limitations
n Obstructions/coordination concerns
Resize duct sizes to balance
Analyze noise levels
n Use sound attenuation where necessary
Design Methods Overview
Equal Friction
n Size ductwork based on a constant
pressure loss per unit length (.08-.1 in.
w.g. per 100 ft.)
n Larger sizes require less energy but have a
higher initial cost
n Smaller sizes require more energy but will
have a reduced initial cost.
n Practical for simple systems
n Duct Calculators
Design Methods Overview
Static Regain
n Obtain the same static pressure at diverging flows
w Change duct sizes down stream
n Iterative process best handled by computers
n Start the process by selecting a maximum velocity in the
root section
n Higher velocities require more energy but have a lower
initial cost
n Lower velocities require less energy but have a higher initial
cost
Design Methods Overview
Extended Plenum
n Low operating cost
n Easier to balance
n Less fittings
n Easy to modify for (tenant changes)
Design Methods Overview
Constant Velocity
n Used primarily for material conveyance
n Maintain sufficient velocities to suspend
material
n Converging flows should offset
Design Considerations
Stack Effect
n Height of the building
n Elevator shafts, stairwells, other shafts
Wind effect
n Prevailing wind direction
n Shape of building and nearby objects
n Location of intakes and exhausts
Design Considerations
Inlet and outlet conditions
n Fan curves are ideal
n Inlet conditions to avoid
w Pre-rotation
w Turbulent flow
n Can not be correct by simply adding to the
required pressure
n Results in a new curve
Design Considerations
Inlet and outlet conditions
Design Considerations
Fan system effect
Comments
Avoid using extractors
n Poor airflow
n Noise
Use an elbow for the final branch in a
duct run.
n Cushion effect
Boot taps
n Best performance for cost
Acoustics
If it is good for airflow it is usually good
for acoustics.
Three components:
n Source
n Path
n Receiver
Acoustics
Acoustics
Acoustics
Easy Math
Acoustics
Weighting
n Human ear is less sensitive to low and high
frequencies
n More sensitive to mid-frequencies
Acoustics
A-Weighting
n Usually used for outdoor sound calculations
NC
n Sound is fitted to a curve
n Based on 8 frequencies
n Does not evaluate the overall shape of the curve
n Most used method
n NC-35
n 63 Hz 8K Hz
Acoustics
ROOM CRITERIA Mark II (RC)
Evaluates the shape
Currently ASHRAES preferred method
Acoustics
Start with quiet equipment
Locate air-handling equipment in less
sensitive areas
Allow for proper fan outlet conditions
n Rectangular length 1.5 x largest dimension
n Round length 1.5 x diameter
Acoustics
Use radiused elbows where possible
Larger ductwork reduces velocity and
reduces generated noise
Avoid abrupt changes in layout
Place dampers away from outlets
Flexible connections to equipment
Acoustics
Power splits
n Ratio of areas

w L1 = 10 log (A1 (A1 + A2))

w L2 = 10 log (A2 (A1 + A2))

n Units dB, applies across all frequencies,
straight subtraction
Acoustics
Low Frequency Noise
n Breakout Break in
n Rectangular
w Where breakout noise is beneficial
w Do not use where break in noise is a concern
n Round
w Does not allow as much breakout
w Does not allow as much break in
n Thicker liner attenuates lower frequencies
Acoustics
Medium-High frequency
n Easier to attenuate than low
n Lined or double walled duct
n Lengthen runs if necessary
n Silencers
Acoustics
Silencers
n Can be very effective at attenuating sound
w Insertion loss
n Pressure drops
n Generated noise
n Elbow
n Locate in the wall or as close as possible
n Do not locate right off of a fan
Acoustics
Reactive silencers
n Low to no pressure drops
Dissipative
n No fill use baffles and chambers
High Performance Houses
Introduction
High performance homes have different space
conditioning requirements (i.e. Energy Star
Homes)

Standard air distribution system design, selection,

and installation practices dont address high
performance homes fully

Need to engineer and install the air distribution

system for improved air delivery at lower cfms
Before you Begin

Set performance goals and responsibilities

n What is acceptable and what is not?

n What are the energy and system performance
criteria?
n What are the aesthetic criteria?
n Determine expectations amongst builder and
trades
n What is the process for accountability
n Testing and verification process
(Commissioning)
Procedure Manual J
Procedure used to estimate the heat loss and
gain of conventional residential structures for
the purpose of HVAC sizing
Determine room-by-room loads

Manual J examines:
n Enclosure elements

n Air leakage

n System losses / gains

n Sun position

n Latent and internal gains

Manual J Heat Loss
Manual J Heat Gain
Manual S Equipment
Selection
Bridge between Manual J and Manual D

Obtain detailed manufacturers information and

review it to be sure you have what you need
w Detailed capacities for heating & cooling
equipment
w Combination ratings for cooling & heat pumps
w Evaporator coil info
w Fan performance info at different speeds &
external static pressures

Use proper correction factors for high altitude applications

Manual J Equipment Selection
Manual J
Peak Heating and Manual J Loads
Total required heating output 65,540
Cooling House Loads Required sensible cooling output 29,362
Room-by-Room Loads Required total cooling output 36,058

& Required
Newhouse Manual J calculations back of house facing east, inground basement, bay window options
Peak Heating Load Peak Cooling Load
Room BTUH % of total CFM BTUH % of total CFM
Study 4,033 6.2% 82 1,033 2.9% 39
Rec Room 8,571 13.1% 175 1,878 5.2% 71
Bath 168 0.3% 3 94 0.3% 4
Storage 3,025 4.6% 62 563 1.6% 21
Family 6,722 10.3% 137 5,540 15.4% 210
Kitchen/Nk 4,201 6.4% 86 4,226 11.7% 161
Dining 4,705 7.2% 96 2,348 6.5% 89
Living 4,873 7.4% 99 2,441 6.8% 93
Foyer 1,512 2.3% 31 939 2.6% 36
 Equipment Selection Example
Size furnace to
meet peak
heating load for
the house

69,000 x 0.90
= 62,100

91,000 x 0.90
= 81,900

Manual J Loads
Total required heating output 65,540
Required sensible cooling output 29,362
Required total cooling output 36,058
 Equipment Selection Example
Size condensing
unit & matching
indoor coil to
meet peak
cooling load for
the house

Manual J Loads
Total required heating output 65,540
Required sensible cooling output 29,362
Required total cooling output 36,058