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1. Independent assortment
2. Segregation of Mendelian Traits
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Mendelian Traits
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Inheritance of Mendelian Traits
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Inheritance of Mendelian Traits
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Values of data
Most valuable data become worst
through wrong data representation,
improper design (experimental),
analysis and misinterpretation
Worst data become valuable through
proper data representation, managing
through proper data analysis and
interpretation
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Error
Error is the collective noun for
any departure of the result from
the "true" value.
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Statistical Errors
Known degrees of imprecision in the
procedures used to gather and process
information
Four main sources of statistical error:
(1) Sampling error
(2) Error due to wrong Measurement
(3) Analytical error
(4) Error in interpretation
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Pre-analytical error
Analytical error
Post-analytical error
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The standard Deviation
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Standard
deviation (SD)
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Field where from errors can arouse
Step 1: Are there outliers in Y and X?
Unaccepted data (outlier)
Step 2: Do we have homogeneity of variance?
ANOVA, MANOVA, ANCOVA, CCA, DCA etc
Step 3: Are the data normally distributed?
t-test, linear regression, GLM etc
Step 4: Are there lots of zeros in the data?
GLM, multivariate analysis CCA, DCA, RDA etc (ecological data)
Step 5: Is there collinearity among the covariates?
if ignored, confusing statistical interpretation significant vs
insignificant, multiple linear regression, GLM, RDA and CCA etc.
Step 6: What are the relationships between Y and X variables?
Univariate analysis- response variable vs coveriable
Step 7: Should we consider interactions?
continues vs categorical variables (eg. wing length vs sex and month)
Step 8: Are observations of the response variable independent?
independent vs independent and dependents vd dependents is misleading17
Pre-analytical error
Hypothesis (H0 & HA)
Assumption
Modeling of experiment
Sampling
Error due to Design of
Experiment (DOE)
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Sampling Error
Inaccuracy in predictions about
a population that results from the
fact that we do not observe
every subject in the population
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Errors in Sampling
Nonsampling error
Poor sample design
Sampling (statistical) error
Biased sample
Depends on sample size
Tradeoff between cost of sampling and
accuracy of estimates obtained by
sampling 20
Statistical Errors
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Example:
Wrong Decision Due to Error
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Analytical error
Sample No.
Homogeneity of variances
Normality/ homogeneity of
variance test
Ad Hoc or Post Hoc Test
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Post-analytical error
Misinterpretation due to lack of
proper application of theoretical
knowledge
PCA, CCA, DCA etc
Wrong Interpretation due to Error
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CCA
Graph
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DCA
Graph
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Axis-1 Axis-2 Axis-3 Axis-4 Total
inertia
Eigenvalues 0.384 0.044 0.008 0.003
Length of gradient 1.859 0.955 0.867 0.860
Species-Environmental correlations 0.986 0.901 0.865 0.000
Cumulative percentage variance of species 31.2 34.8 35.4 35.7 1.231
data
Cumulative percentage variance of 49.5 62.2 0.0 0.0
species-environment relation
Monte Carlo test of significance F-ratio 1.886
of all canonical axis P-value 0.044
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Example:
Wrong Decision Due to Error
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Analytical errors
1. Random or unpredictable deviations
between replicates, quantified with the
"standard deviation".
2. Systematic or predictable regular
deviation from the "true" value,
quantified as "mean difference" (i.e. the
difference between the true value and
the mean of replicate determinations). 30
Analytical errors
3. Constant, unrelated to the
concentration of the substance
analyzed (the analyte).
4. Proportional, i.e. related to the
concentration of the analyte.
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The sources of error
Using the same set of data both to formulate hypotheses
and to test them.
Taking samples from the wrong population or failing to
specify the population(s) about which inferences are to
be made in advance.
Failing to draw random, representative samples.
Measuring the wrong variables or failing to measure
what youd hoped to measure.
Using inappropriate or inefficient statistical methods.
Failing to validate models. include all of the following:
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DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
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Mistake # 2
Using the wrong statistical procedure in
analyzing data.
Includes failing to check that necessary
assumptions are met.
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Example:
Wrong Decision Due to Wrong
Analysis
Paired T for AFTER - BEFORE
Conclude mean pulse rate after is greater than mean pulse rate before.
Example:
Wrong Decision Due to Wrong Analysis
Gender X N Sample p
Male 33 59 0.559322
Female 54 79 0.683544
The difference in male and female phone usage becomes even more
significant. We are 95% confident that the difference in the
averages is now more than 35 minutes.
Mistake #5
Fishing for significant results. That is,
performing several hypothesis tests on a
data set, and reporting only those results
that are significant.