Vol 6 No 1 - November 2015

Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.
org
Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
IJHSS.NET
Vol. 6, No. 1
November 2015
Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
International
Journal of
Humanities &
Social Sciences
Aajhss.org
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
AAJHSS.ORG
Vol 6, No 1 November 2015
Table of Contents
An investigation of Victorian municipal public health plans for strategies 1
that alleviate food insecurity- a qualitative case study
Ms Brydie Clarke and Dr Jan Moore
Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.s I Have a 17

Dream
Dr Trisnowati Tanto and M.Hum
What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context 25

Dr Namita Rajput and Ms Bharti
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1-16, IJHSS
An investigation of Victorian municipal public health plans

for strategies that alleviate food insecurity- a qualitative
case study
Ms Brydie Clarke and Dr Jan Moore

School of Health and Social Development,
Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.
Abstract
Access to safe nutritious food is vital for health, however many Victorians are food insecure.
This study aims to explore whether Victorian Municipal Public Health Plan (MPHP) documents
include strategies to reduce food insecurity and to understand how the process of local
government planning may impact on the inclusion of strategies within these high level plans. A
case study of three Municipal Councils in Victoria, Australia employed two data gathering
methods: (1) MPHP documents were critiqued to assess decisions made regarding the inclusion
of FI within the MPH plans; (2) Qualitative interviews with Local Government Authority (LGA)
staff were conducted to establish what the barriers and enablers for the inclusion of strategies to
support food security were. LG organisational culture, structures and planning processes,
workforce capacity and access and utilisation of evidence all impacted on whether strategies to
reduce food insecurity were included in MPHP plans. The findings indicated that greater
direction is needed from state government regarding strategic planning approaches that build a
more cohesive planning environment. Interventions that focus on organisational culture and
capacity to support evidence informed, integrated MPH planning are required to enable
strategies that promote food security at local government level.
Keywords:
Food insecurity, health planning, healthy public policy, public health, local government, evidence
informed decision making
1 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
Introduction
Regular access to safe nutritious food is vital for health, however as many as 300,000 Victorians
are regularly at risk of being food insecure (McCaughey Centre for Community Wellbeing, 2014).
The term food insecurity (FI) can be described as not having regular or certain access to safe,
nutritionally adequate and culturally appropriate foods (Burns, Jones, Frongillo, 2010; Vichealth
2005). FI is associated with poorer physical health outcomes, particularly in both children and
elderly populations (Ramsey, Giskes, Turrell & Gallegos, 2012) and can increase the risk of
conditions such as cardiovascular disease, obesity and diabetes (Gowda, Hadley & Aiello, 2012;
Pan, Sherry, Njai, Blanck, 2012; Seligman, Jacobs, Lopez & Tschann, 2012). In addition, FI can
impede the successful management of these chronic illnesses (Bengle, Sinnett, Johnson, Johnson,
Brown & Lee, 2010; Seligman, Jacobs, Lopez & Tschann, 2012), augment the risk of mental ill
health and may compromise psychosocial functioning (Hamelin, Beaudry and Habicht, 2002).
These potential negative health and social impacts can result in a significant burden not only on
individuals and families, but also across the wider community.
The definition of FI implies individuals should not have to rely on acquisition of food through
socially unacceptable means such as food banks or other Emergency Food Relief (EFR) services.
However, EFR programs are common approaches used to support individuals and families
experiencing FI (Furber, Quine, Jackson, Laws & Kirkwood, 2010). In Australia, the demand for
EFR services is rapidly increasing, with over 500 such community food programs (CFPs)
currently operating in Victoria alone (FareShare, SecondBite & VicRelief, 2011). A recent study
found that Victorian CFPs were able to provide only 66 per cent of the food required to meet
the demands of their local communities (FareShare, SecondBite & VicRelief, 2011). Whilst CFPs
can provide positive health and social benefits to clients (Furber, Quine, Jackson, Laws &
Kirkwood, 2010), they are largely reliant upon a voluntary workforce and food donations. Thus,
EFR programs do not provide a sustainable solution to this public health issue (Wood, 2012). To
develop strategic answers to this complex situation, the current reliance on EFR needs to be
strengthened by policy and food system planning to not only improve EFR coordination, but to
create supportive environments that enable individuals to obtain a regular supply of fresh healthy
foods in more socially acceptable ways (Burns et al., 2010; ).
Understanding and acting on the number of underlying social determinants of FI is important to

enable the development of environments where nutritious food is readily accessible and
affordable for all community members. Social determinants that have been identified as barriers
to food security include poverty, inadequate housing and transportation access and other forms
of social disadvantage (Foley, Ward, Carter, Coveney, Tsortos & Taylor, 2009; Walker, Keane
and Burke 2010). In Victoria, the financial barriers to healthy food that are experienced by many
vulnerable groups have worsened in recent years. For example, increasing food prices coupled
with rising housing prices (Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI), 2011),
pharmaceuticals and utility costs (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2011) in
combination with reduced social safety nets (Phillip & Nepal 2012) have made it difficult for low
socio economic status (SES) groups to readily access nutritious food. This was emphasised by a
recent study which found that the cost of a healthy meal plan equated to 47 per cent of
disposable income for welfare dependant families compared to only 16 per cent for average
income families (Landrigan & Pollard 2011).
Whilst levels of community FI continue to rise in Victoria, Local Government Authorities

(LGAs) are well placed to create opportunities to develop better food access. In doing so, LGAs
need to consider what strategies can be established and incorporated in the development of
MPHPs to alleviate FI at a local government level. This requires a systematic approach whereby
strategies to support food security at the individuallevel are employed in conjunction with those
aimed at improving community capacity and upstream policy and environmental interventions
(Pomerleau, Lock, Knai & McKee 2005; Slade, 2009). Local government sits in an opportune
position to implement this systems approach and combine top-down policy interventions with
integrated, locally relevant, individual-level interventions, influencing the determinants of food
access and availability (Sacks, Swinburn, Lawrence, 2009; Yeatman, 2009). The close links that
exist between local governments, local stakeholders and the community, as well their legislative
authority and obligations to develop and implement locally applicable policies and plans,
provides potential for a coordinated approach to food security.
Although Australian local governments are becoming increasingly involved in food and nutrition
activities, the degree of involvement remains highly varied (Yeatman, 2009). Strategies have
traditionally focused on supporting short-term relief activities such as food banks and soup
kitchens or individual capacity building strategies involving community education and training
strategies (Slade, 2005; ,Lawton, 2011; Montague, 2011). There is opportunity for action given
the community level in which local governments operate, however current involvement through
planning and policy development, to support the redesign of local food supply or determinants
of food access, appears to be limited (Lawton, 2009; Allendar, Gleeson, Crammond, Sacks,
Lawrence, Peeters, Loff & Swinburn 2012). Understanding why this is so, is important in order
to achieve future changes in local food systems, hence investigation of process regarding
consideration of FI at local government level is necessary.
Victorian policy and planning context

Victorian local governments have been required to develop Municipal Public Health Plans
(MPHPs) since 1988 with the Public Health and Wellbeing Act in 2008 formalising the responsibility
of local governments to apply a public health approach in their planning. This revision mandates
that council seek to protect, improve and promote public health and wellbeing within the
municipal district (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008). This new legislation identified a need for
LGAs to not only protect the population from infectious disease but also promote the
conditions in which persons can be healthy through supportive built, social, economic and
natural environments (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008).
The revised act strengthened the requirements of local government public health planning
through the inclusion of new key principles, which include utilisation of evidence, community
consultation and evaluation (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008). The act also specifies clear
functions of council for improving and promoting public health, including creating
environments supportive of good health, managing public health planning at the local level and
facilitating and supporting local agencies whose work influences public health and wellbeing
(Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008).
As a result under the new act each LGA must develop a MPHP within the period of 12 months
after each local government general election. In doing so LGA plans must demonstrate
examination of data about the community health status and their determinants, provide
opportunities for involvement of people in the local community during development,
implementation and evaluation of the plan, as well as specify how the council will work in
partnership with the Department of Health and other agencies to implement initiatives, projects
and programs to accomplish the objectives of the plan. When developing the MPHP documents,
LGAs are required to use the Environments for Health framework, which is underpinned by a social
determinants approach. As such, MPHPs provide an ideal mechanism for strategic actions to be
developed and principles incorporated into local government policy and planning schemes to
ultimately improve local food access and availability (Allendar et al. 2012).
Development of MPHPs is a relatively new task for many local councils, with staff facing
challenges in prioritisation, planning and implementing interventions within a climate of
increasingly scarce resources (Brackertz, 2013; Pricewaterhousecoopers 2006). Although capacity
for strategic planning has been growing in local government across Australia (Prior & Herriman,
2010), staff required to formulate MPHP documents face difficulties such as inexperience,
competing values, rationalities and access to evidence during the complex development process
(Howlett, 2007; McDougall, 2007).
Currently there is little known in regard to how well Victorian local governments have
incorporated strategies within their MPHPs to improve access and availability of healthy foods
within their local community. Furthermore, there is little information on the process undertaken
by local government organisations when developing their MPHPs and how this influences the
inclusion of various strategies and objectives that may impact upon FI. Therefore, the aims of
this paper aims are to 1) identify the degree in which the MPHP documents include food
insecurity as an issue and set out key objectives and priorities to reduce community food
insecurity, and 2) give insight into why objectives or strategies to support a reduction in FI were
or were not included within MPHPs.
Methods
A qualitative embedded case study approach provided a framework in which to investigate the
MPHP development process of three LGAs in Victoria and how process and decision-making
contributed to, or prevented strategic action on food access and availability to be incorporated
into MPHP documents. An embedded design, was selected as opposed to a single case study, as
it allows subunits of analyses may be incorporated so that a more complex design is developed
(Yin 2003).
The case study also involved a two-stage process. In stage one, MPHP documents were reviewed
to identify if they included statements of issue identification, as well as any objectives or
strategies relating to FI. Stage two involved qualitative interviews with staff from the three LGAs
to develop an understanding of the influences surrounding the inclusion or omission of FI
objectives or strategic actions.
The MPHP documents were accessed from each LGA website and were imported into the
qualitative analysis NVivo9 software to facilitate document analysis. This involved looking for
content that identified food insecurity as an issue, as well as any content relating to objectives,
strategies or actions to reduce community food insecurity.
To understand the process of MPH plan development within each LGA, three qualitative semi-
structured interviews were conducted in 2011, with Key Informants (KI) from differing
Victorian LGAs. The data from the three sites; interview and document findings make up this
case study example.
Ethical approval to conduct the research was provided by Deakin University Human Research
Ethics committee. KIs were recruited through the local government Chief Executive Officers
who were asked to provide organisational consent for participation in the study. To be eligible to
participate in the interviews, individuals had to have played a significant role during the process
of developing the councils most recent MPHP, such as social planners or strategic planners. In
order to meet ethical standards set by Deakin University, anonymity of participants was
provided. This was to prevent any potential participants recruited into the study feeling coerced
to participate, or to mitigate any risk to the participants in regard to the data they provided
influencing their existing workplace relationships. Hence, the names of the local government
sites are not provided to protect confidentiality of participants.
The face-to-face interviews were audio-recorded and conducted in a safe, neutral location,
nominated by the participant. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and were presented to
participants who then had an opportunity to review and reflect upon the interview content, to
ensure accuracy and enhance validity (Green, Willis, Hughes, Small, Welch, Gibbs & Daly, 2007;
Mays and Pope, 2000). As part of the analysis process, the audio files were listened to and the
revised transcripts were reread to allow greater familiarisation with and immersion in the data
(Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olsen, Spiers, 2002). Transcripts were then inductively analysed using
NVivo9 software. This involved reducing content through a process of coding, categorisation
and identification of themes (Creswell 2007; Green et al. 2007). Data gathering and analysis was
conducted in a concurrent and iterative manner, whereby initial interpretations from stage one
were utilised to inform the subsequent data collection and analysis phases. This inductive
approach was considered appropriate given the studies exploratory nature and the case study
method employed (Blignault & Ritchie, 2009; Stake, 2000). In addition, it is important to note
that an interpretivist perspective was used throughout this process, whereby the examination of
peoples lived experiences and perceptions of reality appreciates the context (Denzin &Lincoln,
2011). This is also shaped by the researchers experience and worldview (Denzin &Lincoln,
2011).
Case selection
The time and resource allocations of the project limited the research to three LGA cases studies.
Ensuring balance and variety of cases was pertinent, for natural generalisability; to give the
greatest opportunity for learning (Stake, 2000). As such, a purposive sampling method, based on
key demographic characteristics was used to select three LGAs. The initial pool of municipalities
was based on evidence of moderate to high demand for food relief, which was ascertained
through the Victorian based food relief agency SecondBite (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral
communication, 2 June 2011). From this initial group, LGAs were selected to ensure adequate
diversity of demographic characteristics such as total population, age distribution, cultural
diversity and socio-economic disadvantage.
Local Government Area one (LG1) was a suburban municipality with a large population and
with a high demand for community food relief (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral communication, 2 June
2011). This largely reflected the heightened social disadvantage experienced within the locality.
LGA two (LG2) was a large peri-urban municipality experiencing significant regional population
growth. LG2 rated better than LG1 in terms of overall social disadvantage according to national
datasets. The final case, (LG3) was a small suburban population with significantly higher average
wealth and less social disadvantage. LG2 and LG3 also had reportedly high demand for
community food relief (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral communication, 2 June). The municipalities had
similar median ages, with LG3 being slightly older (median age of 40 years) than LGA 1 and
LG2 (median age of 35 years). LG2 had significantly high levels of multiculturalism with 56 per
cent of the population born outside Australia compared to LG1 and LG3 which had rates of 22
and 18 respectively. Table one provides a summary of the characteristics for all the LGAs
selected for inclusion.
Table 1: Population characteristics of included Local Government Areas
Municipality Population Number Geographical area SEIFA index 1

(sq/kms)
LG1 90000 25 1060

LG2 125 000 120 900
LG3 200 000 1000 995
1The SEIFA index is a an indicator for Socio-economic Indexes for Areas and is a summary measure of several socio-economic conditions
within an area. It Incorporates measures of: relative socio-economic disadvantage, relative socio- economic advantage and disadvantage,
economic resources, and education and occupational status ABS. The lower the SEIFA score the more disadvantaged is the community
(ABS, 2013)
Results
Food insecurity content within MPHP documents
There was a varying degree of strategic action upon FI across the LGAs. Examination of the
MPHP from LG1 uncovered content that clearly addressed FI. There was a clear definition of FI
and how this issue translates to suboptimal nutritional and health status, as well as providing
recent data on the prevalence of FI experienced across the municipality. Furthermore, the
document contained a strategic objective to improve the availability and affordability of healthy
foods, particularly for disadvantaged populations. It also contained an extensive range of broader
goals and strategies or actions, which could support the underlying determinants of FI.
For LG2 healthy nutrition was a priority within the MPHP with a strategy related to enhancing
food access through community development, licensing and regulation or land use and urban
planning. In addition, the plan contained objectives associated with the enhancement of local
fresh food production. However, the MPHP document did not contain any explicit reference to
the term FI nor was there any supporting content within the document that recognised other
potential underlying factors of poor nutrition, such as low income, limited education and social
isolation.
The MPHP from LG3 recognised FI as an issue for a small proportion of residents. LG3s plan
included data on the levels experienced within the community, as well as, a statement reporting a
funding allocation to a local community organisation which, amongst other material support,
provided food vouchers to vulnerable community members (although the percentage of this
funding used to support FI strategies remained unclear). The document did not contain any
objectives or strategies relating to food access, food availability or affordability.
All the three MPHPs, developed by the LGAs, did have a strong focus on supporting the social
inclusion for community members, as well as, listing a number of strategies to improve the built
environment in terms of public transport and the use of public space, all of which are
determinants of FI. However, there was significant scope within MPHP to draw on affordability
and availability of nutritious foods to support the most vulnerable community members, but
such areas were not discussed in any of the municipal plans critiqued.
Influences on the inclusion of food insecurity within MPHP documents

The next section discusses the key themes to emerge from the qualitative interviews with LGA
practitioners. Highlighted are the enablers on MPHP decision-making regarding the inclusion of
food insecurity strategies to tackle the issue in the local communities.
Access and utilisation of evidence

Access to local evidence that identified the social health issues within individual municipalities
was a pivotal barrier to the effectively examining FI during the planning process. Practitioners
relied heavily on general health status data, such as, the Victorian Population Health Survey
(VPHS) and Community Indicators Victoria (CIV) data sets.
More and more we are actually relying on the population health survey data.as you know it was only
recently that the Victorian Population Health Survey (VPHS) went down to a local government level, so prior
to that we, along with a lot of other local councils, weren't quite sure how the state wide and the south-eastern
area data how fit with us So we have just basically used the data through Community Indicators Victoria.
[Key Informant (KI), LG1]
We found that we dont really have good local evidence. So thats where we have been working in the last couple
of years is to try and get the local evidence. [KI, LG2]
Evidence from these sources formed the basis of the initial health priority identification process,
provided information to support community consultation activities and was used during strategic
decision making discussions with councillors. However, such data sets are limited in
understanding the nature of complex public health issues. For example, information regarding
food security from these data sources is drawn from one question: Have there been any times
in the last 12 months when you ran out of food and could not afford to buy more? (McCaughey
Centre for Community Wellbeing, 2014). Informants suggested that this epidemiological
measure did not allow a deep understanding of population groups within their community who
are at greater risk. Nor do these measures provide any information on the possible causes or
consequences of FI for these individuals. As such, a lack of detail regarding FI creates a
significant barrier to prioritising FI, as well as, for identifying appropriate mitigation strategies to
include within the MPHPs. This finding supports existing advocacy calling for more
comprehensive data collection on both individual and community food security in Australia
(Moore 2011; Innes- Hughes, Bowers, King, Chapman, Eden 2010; Budge & Slade 2009).
Specifically, a Victorian community data set would be helpful in ascertaining the specific barriers
to nutritious food in Victorian municipalities to help identify locally relevant strategies to act
upon these.
It is important to consider the different forms of evidence and application within the planning
process. Evidence and how it relates to public health planning has been described using three
categories; type 1: descriptions and analysis of determinants of health and disease and their
distribution across the population. In Victoria, type 1 evidence primarily used by local
government authorities is in the form of the aforementioned VPHS or CIV epidemiological data;
type 2, refers to the assessment of intervention options for those most effective in changing
health outcomes or risk factors; type 3: Assesses interventions which are best implemented in a
given context to achieve the desired effects (Skovgaard, Nielson & Aro 2007).
When asked about the use of evidence or data for strategy development, LGA informants
referred only to type 1 evidence in their priority decision-making process, thus, missing
information that considers what interventions have been demonstrated to be most effective and
for whom. This may have been due to the informants playing a lesser role in the planning for
selection and implementation of strategies, hence, tending to focus on the prioritisation process
only. Given the lack of discussion of evidence of effectiveness, it remained unclear as to whether
only issues with developed and implementable solutions were more likely to be prioritised.
Irrespective of the influence on priority setting, given the critical role that intervention selection
plays for achieving intended outcomes, this finding is salient and supports continued advocacy
for the development and trial of interventions that support the increased use of evidence of
effectiveness within the local government setting (Armstrong, Waters, Dobbins, Anderson,
Moore, Petticrew, Clark, Pettman, Burns, Moodie, Conning & Swinburn 2013; Armstrong,
Prosser, Dobbins & Waters, 2010; Thomas, Hodge & Smith 2009; Pettmann, Armstrong,Pollard,
Evans, Stirrat, Scott, Davies-Jackson, Waters 2013; Petticrew, Platt, McCollam, Wilson, Thomas,
2008).
Capacity to apply an integrated planning approach

Informants also identified that LG organisational culture and structures influenced the extent to
which an integrated approach to planning and development of the MPHP was achieved. In
particular, barriers to effectively engage stakeholders across the various departments of council
were experienced by informants, limiting stakeholder involvement or discussion of the lived
experiences of individuals and populations groups within the LGA, regarding FI.
An integrated planning approach was evident when support from organisational leaders meant
that departments outside of the community and health directorates were receptive to initial
communication and continuing engagement in the decision-making process throughout MPHP
development.
We ran focus groups with the departments across council in the initial phase to identify priorities and to
set the priorities and get their buy-in and input. Then personally I went to each of those areas and sat down
with them and helped them develop an action plan, I wrote it up, sent it back to them, got them to review it,
got them to put in performance indicators and timelines, identify whose responsible and then from there
we held another focus group to get people to once again have a look at it, to make sure they are aware of the
objectives particularly the ones that relate to them make sure they were still on track and that their actions
were still viable So pretty much all of the team leaders and managers whose work relate to whats in here
[referring to the MPHP document] were involved from the very start.
[KI, LGA 2]
If senior management were not encouraging however, this lead to difficulty in gaining input from
areas of council integral for tackling the broader issues of food access and availability.
I invited all departments pretty much... the people who wanted to come, and did come, were your classic Youth
Services, Aged Services, Social Services, pretty much, like the Social Development Department...we got less
representation from Planning Development and less representation from the City Works which is the waste
management, transport and parking development... So of the really the traditionally blokey areas there's less
attendance. [KI, LG1]
So Id like to see maybe a more cohesive approach across council... Whilst the environmental health department
are involved, which is fantastic, there's other departments in council that would be really good to be involved in
it but I havent found a way to get there yet.
[KI, LG3]
Although the above passage demonstrates an important ideological shift in that the practitioner
identified the importance of using an Environments For Health approach, it does highlight the
challenges in implementing this integrated style of planning. Therefore engaging senior
management across departments is critical to ensure buy-in from various planning, transport and
economic department staff whose work relates directly to food access. This adds to previous
research that has highlighted senior management support as critical for achieving
interdepartmental collaboration for successful MPHP development (Thomas, Hodge & Smith,
2009; Davey, 2006) and is despite the relatively recent legislative changes that require local
governments to use an integrated Environments For Health approach to MPH planning. As such
legislation in this case may not be enough, but rather, in some cases, strategies are also needed to
ensure LG senior management recognise MPHPs as an important tool within council policy and
planning and support cross-organisation participation (McBride & Hulme 2001).
This may also be a reflection of broader issues experienced by local governments in terms of
resourcing capacity and systems to support high level strategic planning (Tan & Artist 2013). The
historical context of local government within the Australian federal polity and recent increase in
roles and responsibilities for local government in planning and service provision, which arguably
have been unmatched by concomitant increases in financial capacity, may in part explain, this
limited workforce capacity and support for integrated strategic planning, even when leadership is
supportive (Brackertz, 2013). Therefore, these findings may also indicate the need for
interventions to optimise organisational capacity, culture and systems to support integrated
planning (Armstrong et al. 2013; Pettmann et al. 2008).
Organisational culture
Organisational culture also influenced how food and nutrition issues were situated politically. For
example, a more traditional organisational culture evident at one LG, which considered public
health activities to be broader than the local government remit, hindered the inclusion of food
access and availability strategies into their MPHP.
...some of these staff have been here for twenty years and they started working when health was considered quite
different. The traditional thought is that health is all about clean water, and of course it is about clean water
you can't argue with that but I had to say that it is also the environments for health and its all interlinked.
[KI, LG1]
Another example of this was given when an informant stated that council wanted to do the
right thing by all of the rate payers and as a result was careful to consider ...things that that might sit
well with [the] community [KI, LG1] during the strategic decision making process. As such, they
emphasised that either senior council staff or the broader community would need to first
consider food security as an issue before it could justifiably be included as a priority in future
strategic plans:
... if a councillor got behind it [food security]... if a councillor said what are we doing about this [be]cause it
looks like a real issue that would probably, that might spark [action] the issue speaking to people is
probably the important thing. [KI, LG3]
These findings suggest that although food security is becoming increasingly acknowledged as an
issue within the Victorian context, more advocacy is needed to increase the communitys
awareness and to gain councillors and senior executive support for action upon this issue. This
is consistent with previous research that found real or perceived community needs are perhaps
the strongest drivers of local council policy change (Allendar et al. 2012). Described by de Leeuw
(2007) as cultural rationality, this reflection of values, ethics and what is perceived social opinion
is argued to be most crucial for priority setting in local government.
Networks and partnerships

Community networks were also vital to enhance MPHP development, for both increasing local
council awareness of food security as an issue and by providing resources to local government in
regard to how this problem may be mitigated. For example, differences the perception of the
severity of FI within the community were evident despite the measured incidence of FI and
demand for food relief being similar for the three municipalities.
All key informants acknowledged their regions Primary Care Partnerships (PCPs) or the Food
Alliance2 as being both an important information source and/or a facilitator for the development
and implementation of strategies to support food security. Similarly, the Municipal Association
Victoria (MAV) and the Victoria Local Government Association (VLGA) were also identified as
being important for providing information in regard to FI. Working with food systems
stakeholders such as these better-enabled practitioners to identify efficacious food security
interventions to suit local contexts and integrate these into the MPHPs. This adds to evidence
that encourages local governments to engage with community partnerships and alliances for the
enhancement of public health activities (Thomas et al. 2009, de Leeuw 2007).
2
The Food Alliance is a partnership network between the local government and various charitable
organisations including food rescue and emergency food relief providers, as well as broader community based
organisations.
Informants also generally perceived the role of local government as being the facilitator of new
and existing community networks and as communication channels across the local community.
We decided that council itself cannot do a lot of the implementation. It actually has to come from agencies and
people who are actually working with the people who are food insecure ... So that [having the food alliance
network] has been really good [be]cause it has enabled these people to go off and do these things... to work on
those areas.
[KI, LG3]
Whilst it is important for local governments to work with and enhance networks and
partnerships, their involvement at a higher policy level is essential. With the literature suggesting
that urban and strategic planning mechanisms have the greatest potential to influence food
access, availability and affordability (Montague 2011; Allendar et al. 2012; Enns, Rose, de Vries &
Hayes 2008; Pretorius, 2008).
Discussion
This case study demonstrates that there was variation in the identification of FI as an issue
within Victorian Local Government Authorities. There was also a discordant degree of inclusion
of objectives and strategies to reduce FI across the local government areas included in this
embedded case study. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine Victorian local
government Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plans for content related to food insecurity.
This is also the first study of how the MPHP planning processes influenced inclusion and
prioritisation of food insecurity within MPHP planning documents.
The case study illuminated a number of planning process influences upon MPHP development,
which impacted whether FI was included as a priority by the local governments in these strategic
documents. These influences were: access and utilisation of evidence, capacity for integrated
planning, organisational culture and networks and partnerships. Whilst there are no known
studies, specifically focused on local government MPHP planning decision-making and food
insecurity, there have been two studies of local government planning or policy within the area of
healthy eating more broadly (Allendar et al. 2012, Yeatman, 2003). The findings herein support
Yeatmans study (2003), which found evidence and organisational factors as important influences
of local food and nutrition policies. The other by Allender and colleagues (2012), found
leadership support, political ideology and external groups as the key influences on local policy
decision making (although this study looked at both healthy eating and physical activity policy
decision-making).
The results do also support a growing body of literature internationally, exploring the influences
on various policy development processes (at local, state and national levels) and how these
impact upon the inclusion strategies focused on healthy eating or nutrition (Craig, Felix, Walker
& Phillips 2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, Johnson, Krieger, MacDougall, Payne,
& Chan, 2015; Ulmer, Rathert, Rose, 2012; Yeatman, 2003). Many of these studies have
identified organisational factors (Craig, et al. 2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et
al. 2015; Ulmer et al., 2012; Yeatman, 2003), access and utilisation of evidence (Quinn, et. al,
2015; Yeatman, 2003;), and the role of networks and partnerships (Freudenberg, 2015; Craig, et
al. 2010; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et al., 2015; Ulmer, et al., 2012) as critical to food and nutrition
being included in government policies or plans. These studies also, however, found other factors
such as political ideology, personal values and beliefs and issue framing as critical (Craig, et al.
2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et al. 2015; Ulmer et al., 2012; Yeatman, 2003).
Therefore, future studies focusing on food insecurity policy or plan development may benefit by
exploring the role of such factors in decision-making.
This study has a number of limitations. As a qualitative case study, this research may be
questioned in regard to the ability to generalise the findings beyond this context. However, given
that the case study context is provided, the learnings outlined herein may be amenable to
naturalistic generalisation (Yin, 2014). It must also be acknowledged that data was collected
following a time lapse between when the strategic planning process undertaken by those
involved was carried out and the conducting the interviews for this case study. This may have
resulted in recall bias (Patton, 1999). Furthermore, the study investigated only the content of the
MPHPs not the strategies currently being implemented at each council. This is important to
consider, given that it has been noted that opportunity exists for enhancement of local
government processes not only developing, but also for, delivering these high level plans (Tan &
Artist 2013). Furthermore, the study did not look at associations between the inclusions of FI
objectives and strategies in MPHP documents and the impact of these on community levels of
FI. This was beyond the scope of this study but is recommended that future research be
undertaken to examine the association between government strategic priorities and changes at
the community level.
A number of strategies were employed to help enhance the reliability of the study, including use
of an immersive analytical process (conducted by BC), which involved continuous reflection, and
self-conscious data collection, analysis and interpretation (Mays & Pope, 2000). In addition, the
use of purposively sampling of interviewees, who were given the opportunity to view transcripts
for accuracy, as well as, the studies use of verbatim quotes which allowed direct access to
respondents views, increases the trustworthiness of findings (Hannes, 2011). As such the case
study presented provides authentic examples of current Victorian local government MPH
planning processes and the implications for strategic action upon FI.
5. Conclusion
This qualitative case study of Victorian MPH planning found numerous underlying factors
influenced the ability of local government practitioners to formulate strategic actions upon FI.
These included an unmet need for comprehensive and meaningful data on FI, inadequate access
to, and utilisation of evidence of effectiveness, as well as organisational culture and systems that
limited an integrated approach to plan development. The study provides important insights for
policy makers and practitioners working to influence local public health planning in support of
food insecurity. In particular, the findings suggest that the development of systems to support
access to and utilisation of evidence, as well as to enhance policy networks and partnerships may
assist in food insecurity being incorporated into local government MPHP priorities and strategic
actions.
References
Allendar, S., Gleeson E., Crammond B., Sacks G., Lawrence M., Peeters P., Loff B., Swinburn,
B. (2012). Policy changes to create supportive environments for physical activity and healthy
eating: which options are the most realistic for local government. Health Promotion International,
27(2), 261-273.
Armstrong R., Prosser L., Dobbins M., Waters E., (2010). Knowledge translation and exchange
for obesity prevention. In Waters E., Swinburn B.A., Seidell, J.C., Uauy R. (Eds). Preventing
Childhood Obesity: Evidence Policy and Practice. Melbourne: Wiley-Blackwell.
Armstrong R., Waters E., Dobbins M., Anderson L., Moore L., Petticrew M., Clark R., Pettman
T.L., Burns C., Moodie M., Conning R. & Swinburn, B. (2013). Knowledge translation
strategies to improve the use of evidence in public health decision making in local
government: intervention design and implementation plan. Implement Science, 8, 121.
http://dx.doi:10.1186/1748-5908-8-121.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2013. Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas. Retrieved from
http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/seifa.
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC). (2011). State of the Energy
Market. Melbourne: Australian Energy Regulator.
Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI) (2011). Housing Affordability.
Melbourne: AHURI.
Bagley P., Lin V., Sainsbury P., Wise M., Keating T., Roger K. (2007). In what way does the
mandatory nature of Victorias municipal public health planning framework impact on the
planning process and outcomes. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 4(4), 1-9.
Bengle R., Sinnett S., Johnson T., Johnson M.A., Brown A., Lee J.S. (2010). Food insecurity is
associated with cost-related medication non-adherence in community dwelling, low-income
older adults in Georgia. Journal of Nutrition Elder, 29, 17091.
Blignault I., Ritchie J. (2009). Revealing the wood and the trees: reporting qualitative research.
Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 2, 140-145.
Brackertz N.(2013). Political Actor or Policy Instrument? Governance Challenges in Australian
Local Government. Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, 12, 1-19.
Budge T. & Slade C. (2009). Integrating land use planning and community food security: A new agenda for
government to deliver on sustainability, economic growth and social justice. Melbourne: Victorian Local
Government Association.
Burns C, Jones S.J., Frongillo E.A. (2010). Poverty, Household Food Insecurity and Obesity. In
Waters E., Swinburn B.A., Seidell, J.C., Uauy R., (Eds). Preventing Childhood Obesity:
Evidence Policy and Practice (pp. 129-137). Melbourne: Wiley-Blackwell.
Craig, R. L., Felix, H. C., Walker, J. F., & Phillips, M. M. (2010). Public Health Professionals as
Policy Entrepreneurs: Arkansas's Childhood Obesity Policy Experience. American Journal of
Public Health, 100(11), 2047-2052.
Creswell J.W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design (2nd ed.) London: Sage Publications.
Davey P.J. (2006). Municipal Public Health Planning and implementation in local government in Queensland:
Achievements Barriers and Success factors. Brisbane: Griffith University.
De Leeuw E. (2007). Policies for Health. The effectiveness of their development, adoption, and
implementation. In: McQueen D., Jones C.M., (Eds). Global perspectives on Health Promotion
Effectiveness. New York: Springer publishing.
Denzin NK, Lincoln YS. (2011). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (4th ed.) London: Sage
Publications.
Enns J., Rose A., de Vries J. & Hayes, J. (2008). A seat at the table: A resource guide for local
governments to promote food secure communities. Vancouver: Provincial Health Services Authority.
FareShare, SecondBite & VicRelief Foodbank (2011). Community Food Programs in Victoria: A
report on the food needed and the infrastructure required. Melbourne: SecondBite.
Foley W., Ward P., Carter P., Coveney J., Tsortos G., Taylor, A. (2009), An ecological analysis of
factors associated with food insecurity in South Australia, 2002-7. Public Health Nutrition,
13(2), 215-221.
Freudenberg, N., & Atkinson, S. (2015). Getting food policy on the Mayoral table: a comparison
of two election cycles in New York and London. Public Health, 129(4), 295-302.
Furber S., Quine S., Jackson J., Laws R., Kirkwood D. (2010). The role of a community kitchen
for clients in a socio-economically disadvantaged neighbourhood. Health Promotion Journal of
Australia, 21(2), 143-5.
Gowda C., Hadley C. & Aiello A.E. (2012). The association between food insecurity and
inflammation in the US adult population. American Journal of Public Health, 102(8), 1579-86.
Green J., Willis K., Hughes E., Small R., Welch N., Gibbs L., Daly J. (2007). Generating best
evidence from qualitative research: the role of data analysis. Australia and New Zealand
Journal of Public Health, 31(6), 545-550.
Hannes, K. (2011). Critical appraisal of qualitative research Supplementary guidance for inclusion of
qualitative research in cochrane systematic reviews of interventions. Retrieved from
http://cqrmg.cochrane.org/supplemental-handbook-guidance.
Hamelin AM, Beaudry M, Habicht JP. (2002). Characterization of household food insecurity in
Quebec: food and feelings. Social Science & Medicine, 54(1), 119-32.
Howlett M. (2007). Policy analytical capacity and evidencebased policy-making: Lessons from
Canada. Canadian Public Administration, 52(2), 153-75.
Innes-Hughes C., Bowers K., King L., Chapman K., Eden B. (2010). Food security: The what,
how, why, and where to of food security in NSW. Sydney: The Physical Activity Nutrition
Obesity Research Group (PANORG), Heart Foundation NSW and Cancer Council NSW.
Landrigan T., Pollard C., (2011). Food access and cost survey, Western Australia, 2010. Perth:
Department of Health.
Lawton A. (2011). Understanding the role of local government in supporting community food
security programs through the experiences of community kitchen participants within
Blacktown City, Western Sydney, Australia. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.
Mays N., Pope C. (2000). Qualitative research in healthcare: assessing quality in qualitative
research. British Medical Journal, 330(1), 5052.
McBride T., Hulme A. (2001). Continuing uncertainties for Victorian Municipal Public Health
Plans. Australian Journal of Primary Health, 6(2), 6-18.
McCaughey Centre for Community Wellbeing (2011), Community Indicators Victoria Indicators
Survey. [Online] Available: http://www.communityindicators.net.au/ (15 May 2014).
McDougall C., de Leeuw, E. (2007) Healthy Public Policy. In: Keleher H., MacGougall C.,
Murphy B. (Eds). Understanding health promotion (pp. 199-215). Sydney: Oxford University
Press.
Montague M. (2011). Local government and food security: An evidence review. What we know
about what works and what might work. Melbourne: Public Health Unit, NorthWest
Metropolitan Region and Department of Health.
Moore M. (2011), Public Health Association of Australia National Food Plan Consultation.
Melbourne: Public Health Association of Australia.
Morse J., Barrett M., Mayan K., Olsen K., Spiers J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing
reliability and validity in qualitative research, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 1-
19.
Mosier, S. L. (2013). Cookies, Candy, and Coke: Examining State Sugar-Sweetened-Beverage Tax
Policy from a Multiple Streams Approach. International Review of Public Administration,
18(1), 93-120.
Pan L., Sherry B., Njai R., Blanck H.M. (2012). Food Insecurity Is Associated with Obesity
among US Adults in 12 States, Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(9), 1403
1409.
Patton, MQ. (1999). Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Health Services
Research, 35;1189-1208.
Petticrew M., Platt S., McCollam A., Wilson S., Thomas S. (2008). We're not short of people
telling us what the problems are. We're short of people telling us what to do": An appraisal of
public policy and mental health. BMC Public Health, 8:314.
Pettmann, T.L., Armstrong R., Pollard B., Evans R., Stirrat A., Scott I., Davies- Jackson G.,
Waters E., (2013). Using evidence in health promotion in local government: contextual
realities and opportunities, Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 24,72-75.
Phillip B. & Nepal B. (2012) Going without: Financial Hardship in Australia. Canberra: National
Centre for Social and Economic Modelling (NATSEM).
Pomerleau J, Lock K, Knai C. McKee, M. (2005) Effectiveness of interventions and programmes
promoting fruit and vegetable intake. London: World Health Organization.
Pretorius J. (2008). Supportive environments for physical activity and healthy eating project. Phase one: options
paper. Brisbane: Heart Foundation and State Government of Queensland.
Pricewaterhousecoopers (2006). National Financial Sustainability Study of Local Government.
Canberra: Australian Local Government Association.
Prior J., & Herriman, J. (2010). The emergence of community strategic planning in New South
Wales, Australia: Influences, challenges and opportunities. Commonwealth Journal of Local
Governance, 7,45-77.
Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008 (Austl), Retrieved from
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/phawa2008222/.
Quinn, E., Johnson, D. B., Krieger, J., MacDougall, E., Payne, E., & Chan, N. L. (2015).
Developing Local Board of Health Guidelines to Promote Healthy Food Access - King
County, Washington, 2010-2012. Preventing Chronic Disease, 12, E58. doi:
10.5888/pcd12.140544.
Ramsey R, Giskes K, Turrell G, Gallegos D. (2012). Food insecurity among adults residing in
disadvantaged urban areas: potential health and dietary consequences. Public Health Nutrition,
15(2), 227-37.
Seligman H.K., Jacobs E.A., Lpez A., Tschann J., Fernandez A. (2012), Food insecurity and
glycemic control among low-income patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 35(2), 233-8.
Sacks G., Swinburn B. & Lawrence M. (2009). Obesity policy action framework and analysis
grids for a comprehensive policy approach to reducing obesity. Australia and New Zealand
Health Policy, 10:76-86.
Skovgaard T., Nielson, M.B.D., Aro A.R. (2007). Evidence in health promotion and disease prevention.
Copenhagen: Danish National Board of Health.
Slade, C. (2009). The role of Local government in food security: A literature Review. Melbourne: Latrobe
University.
Stake R. (2000) Case studies. In Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, (Eds). The handbook of qualitative research
(2nd ed.) (pp. 435454). London: Sage Publications.
Tan SF, Artist S (2013). Strategic Planning in Australian Local Government: A comparative analysis of state
frameworks. Sydney: Australian Centre of Excellence for Local Government, University of
Technology.
Thomas M.M., Hodge W., Smith B.J. (2009). Building capacity in local government for
integrated planning to increase physical activity: evaluation of the VicHealth MetroActive
program. Health Promotion International, 24(4), 353-362.
Ulmer, V. M., Rathert, A. R., & Rose, D. (2012). Understanding Policy Enactment: The New
Orleans Fresh Food Retailer Initiative. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(3,
Supplement 2), S116-S122.
VicHealth (2005). Healthy Eating- Food security Investment Plan 2005-2010. Melbourne:
VicHealth.
Walker, R.E., Keane, C.R., Burke, J.G. (2010). Disparities and access to healthy food in the
United States: A review of food deserts literature. Health Place, 16(5), 876-884.
Wood B. (2011). Narrowing The Gap: An Integrated Approach to Improving Food Security.
Melbourne: Council to Homeless Persons.
Yeatman H. (2009). Action or inaction? Food and nutrition in Australian local governments.
Public Health Nutrition, 12(9), 1399-1407.
Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th edn. ed.). london Sage
Publications
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.s

I Have a Dream
Dr Trisnowati Tanto, M.Hum

English Department, Faculty of Letters,
Maranatha Christian University, Bandung, Indonesia
Abstract
In the case of speeches, a writers style of writing or speaking is worth analyzing, especially when
this style can serve as a powerful tool to convey the writers message as well as to attract the
readers or listeners attention in keeping on reading or listening and appreciating the writer or
speaker more. In this case, a writer or speaker can use certain linguistic features to function as
foregrounding elements in the text. This paper focuses on the use of metaphors as a rhetorical
figure used by Martin Luther King in his speech, I Have a Dream. Furthermore, this paper will see
how these metaphors become interesting and effective foregrounding elements that can attract
the readers or listeners attention. The method used in analyzing this is the descriptive method
with the referential technique. The grand theory used is Stylistics, which is a study of style in
language, or more specifically, the study of distinctive linguistic features. This analysis results in
the findings that the metaphors in the speech are proved to be a powerful feature in conveying
Kings messages.
Keywords: speech, foregrounding elements, metaphors, rhetorical figure.
Introduction
As a social creature, communication is a vital aspect in human life. People are related to one
another by communicating. We can communicate and exchange our thoughts, opinions or
feelings to other people. Nevertheless, the ways of communication should be based on the
context, participants and the communication goals as well.
There are many options of how to communicate something. A speaker has to choose
one of the best styles in delivering the message appropriately. When it comes to choosing
something, there must be a good reason for that. The speaker has to decide the choice of the
style that he or she uses for a special purpose or intention.
According to Leech (1994: 12) style is the linguistic characteristic of a particular text. In
Linguistics, the study which deals with the style of language is Stylistics. Stylistics is simply
defined as the (linguistic) study of style (Leech, 1994: 13) and it describes what use is made of
language (Leech, 1994: 13). In Stylistics we are able to explain something explicitly or implicitly
how language serves a particular artistic function (Leech, 1994: 13).
Leech (1994: 210) also states that rhetoric is one of the topics in Stylistics. Rhetoric deals
with some features of language that create "the art or skill of effective communication. (Leech,
1994: 210) By using rhetoric in our communication, we will achieve such communicative ends at
a different level. Besides being able to make the communication successful in transferring our
ideas, we can also produce effective and beautiful form of communication. Moreover, when one
tries to communicate ones ideas through writing, one must think more deeply, as readers with
different points of view will read it. It is possible that the reader may not see something exactly
as the writer sees.
In our daily life, there are many examples of the use rhetorical figures in our daily life: in
speeches, advertisements, song lyrics or any texts. A writer must make a text interesting, clear,
persuasive, and memorable, so that they will pay attention to, understand, believe, and remember
the ideas it communicates. (Harris, 2011: para. 5).
Analyzing the use of metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther Kings I Have a Dream is
interesting. Martin Luther King was active and a very important figure in the civil rights
movement in America. He fought for gaining social reformation, especially in the abolishment of
the practice of racial discrimination, but he did not approve of any kinds of violence. Besides, he
was also known as a very good writer. All this was internationally recognized, which was obvious
from the Nobel Peace Prize that he got in 1964. (Biography of Martin Luther, Jr.)
He succeeded in changing the history through his phenomenal speech, I Have a Dream, delivered
on August 28, 1963 in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Basically this speech contains
the description of the sufferings of African Americans caused by the practice of racial
discrimination in America. King also intended to make the federal legislation to pay attention to
this issue and make changes. (I Have a Dream-Background). The speech is very powerful and
that leads to the analysis of the rhetorical figures, especially the metaphors, which are used in the
speech and how they give a big impact to the speech.
The topic of Stylistics is significant because it encourages us to be more critical in understanding

an effective way of communicating an idea. Thus, when reading a text, we will learn to take a
deeper meaning through some of the rhetorical figures that are used in the text. Besides learning
how to comprehend the context of the text, we can also learn to appreciate the form or style of
the language so that we can get pleasure from the artistic value of the speech. Moreover, we can
also be encouraged to think out of the box in dealing with the issue of stylistics. In brief, we are
expected to be able to communicate better on a meaningful level.
In this article the metaphors that Martin Luther King, Jr. uses in the speech I Have a Dream are
discussed in detail and his purpose of using those metaphors in the speech.
Method
This research is a descriptive research. After intensively reading the data source, which is a text in
the form of a speech, the data are collected by selecting the metaphors used by the speaker. The
metaphors collected are limited to the ones describing the black Americans condition before
and after the decree of the emancipation was made. The data was then analyzed based on the
literal meaning of the words used in the metaphors and related to the context.
Theoretical Framework
In analyzing a text, we need to pay attention to the type, the way in which language is used in the
text, and the writers intention or reason for choosing a certain style. Style is linguistic
characteristics of a particular text. (Leech, 1994: 12) In a text we can see the style in detail and
focus on what words or structures are specifically chosen to others. In Linguistics, we have the
study of style defined as the analysis of distinctive expressions in language and the description
of its purpose and effect (Verdonk, 2010: 4) called Stylistics. In Stylistics we also deal with
literary appreciation and linguistic description in order to get the aesthetic function as well as
linguistic evidence. (Leech, 1994: 13)
In this stylistic analysis what is focused more are the outstanding forms and structures.
Each of these element holds a promise of stylistic relevance with the readers or listeners
interest or emotions (Verdonk, 2010: 6). This means that the reader or listener is influenced
psychologically by these outstanding elements in a text, which is termed as foregrounding in
stylistics. Foregrounded elements often include a patterning of parallelism in a texts
typography, sounds, word choices, and grammar or sentence structure. (Verdonk, 2010: 6)
Other potential markers are repetitions of some linguistic element, and deviations from the
rules of language in general or from the style we expect in particular text type or content.
(Verdonk, 2010: 6)
Actually, we can say that one communication is successful when the speaker initiates a
message which is encoded into a text, and then it is decoded successfully into a message by the
hearer. (Leech, 1994: 210) The message from the speaker is delivered as it is to the hearer.
However, there are additional standards of success which make the communication more
effective as well as having an artistic value, which is called rhetoric. Therefore, basically rhetoric
is the set of principles for achieving communicative ends at a certain level in the traditional
sense of art or skill of effective communication (Leech, 1994: 210). More specifically, rhetoric
of the text deals with the superficial expressive form of language, as it is determined by syntax,
phonology, and graphology. (Leech, 1994: 211)
Furthermore, by using rhetoric, the speaker leads and draws the hearer to get the
affection expected, such as feeling or emotion (angry, pleased, love, satisfied, etc). (Peacham,
1997: para. 1)
Rhetorical figures generally are the figures of decoration and variety that help the hearer
to pay attention, help them to believe on the speaker and emphasis, association, beauty, and
organization that will help them remember. (Harris, 2011: para. 5)
According to Leech (1994: 214), there are five kinds of rhetorical figures, namely end-
focus, segmentation, simple and complex sentences, iconicity and cohesion. Besides, Harris
(2011: para. 5) adds some more kinds of rhetorical figures. There are metaphor, repetition,
understatement, antithesis, asyndeton, hyperbole, euphemism, allusion, and parenthesis. In this
thesis, I only focus on the use of repetition and metaphors as they are dominantly used in the
text analyzed.
Aristotle says "It is metaphor above all else that gives clearness, charm, and distinction to
the style." (Harris, 2011: para. 26). A metaphor is a type of figure of speech in which there is a
comparison between two things. Thus, there must be some similarities between the two objects
or ideas being compared. (Mangrum &Strichart, 2011: para. 1)
Metaphors are used in a way to make the hearer get a picture or an image in their mind,
once the speaker conveys the message. Therefore, through a metaphor we can explain things by
making the abstract or unknown concrete and familiar. (Harris, 2011: para. 26) Besides, a
metaphor also enlivens by touching the reader's imagination. (Harris, 2011: para. 28)
Furthermore, it affirms one more interconnection in the unity of all things by showing a
relationship between things seemingly alien to each other. (Harris, 2011: para. 28)
There are several reasons why a speaker uses metaphors when delivering his or her
message. The first one, metaphors can help readers or listeners to better understand something
about the object or idea to which the metaphor is being applied. (Mangrum & Strichart, 2011:
para. 3). The second reason is that metaphor can make speaking and writing more lively and
interesting, so that it can communicate a great deal of meaning with just a word or a phrase.
(Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para. 4). The last reason is that metaphor implies something, so the
hearer has to think what they are hearing.(Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para. 5)
One of the examples of metaphors can be found in this sentence The teenage boy's
stomach was a bottomless pit. (Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para.8) If a pit has no bottom, it
will never be full no matter how often it is filled. It is a metaphor because here a pit is compared
to the teenage boys stomach, which means that he always feels hungry and wants to eat. The
writer encourages the reader to have a better understanding about how big the teenage boys
appetite is by imagining a bottomless pit. The writer does not imply the meaning directly; on the
other hand, the reader has to think what they are reading in another way, that is by imagining
that the boys stomach is like a bottomless pit. Furthermore, the writer prefers the phrase
bottomless pit to make the writing more lively and interesting to read, so that it can
communicate the meaning well.
Discussion
When using metaphors, a speaker conveys the meaning implicitly, but it helps the hearer think
more logically and globally. It turns out that when the metaphors are given, the hearer is
encouraged to logically think further to get the meaning behind the metaphors. In the speech,
King uses metaphors which are closely related to the black Americans life, like nature, so that
they are able to understand and remember the points. Furthermore, metaphors can make the
speech more interesting to read.
There are 17 data of metaphors found in the speech, and they can be classified into the
metaphors used to describe the black Americans condition before the decree is made (13 data)
and metaphors used to describe the black Americans condition after the decree is made (4 data).
The metaphors of the first classification of metaphors can be seen in the following:
(1) flames of withering injustice
(2) the long night of their captivity
(3) crippled by the manacles of segregation
(4) the chains of discrimination
(5) a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity
(6) the whirlwinds of revolt
(7) jangling discords of our nation
(8) quicksands of racial injustice
(9) sweltering summer of the Negros legitimate discontent
(10) mountain of despair
(11) the dark and desolate valley of segregation
(12) sweltering with the heat of injustice
(13) sweltering with the oppression
(King, Jr., 1963)
King uses some metaphors to describe the black Americans condition before the decree
is made. King states that the condition is like data (2) a long night of captivity. Captivity is the
state of being kept as a prisoner or in a confined space. Furthermore, in this metaphor, the word
night is engaged with the negative sense. The word night can be related to the period of darkness.
It is not the literal darkness, but it represents the life of the black American before the decree
was made. Hence, the black American are not only described as being captivated but they are
also described as being in the state of darkness, lacking a clear direction, because we can hardly
see something in the dark, even something near. King intensifies his explanation of the black
Americans condition by adding the word long. It emphasizes the duration of the captivity which
did not take place in a glance, but for a very long time.
Furthermore, King also portrays the condition as (7) the jangling discords. The word
jangling means to make an unpleasant sound, like two pieces of metal hitting each other, while
discord is harsh confused mingling of sounds. Both jangling and discord have a negative meaning.
King takes the similarity between the jangling discords and the situation of the black American
before the decree was made, which is unpleasant, messy, and complicated.
King also relates the black Americans condition to data (10) the mountain of despair.
The word despair means the feeling of having lost all hopes. The word despair clearly has a
negative meaning. It describes the feeling of the black American; they have already lost heart and
given up all hope or expectation. This desperate condition is intensified by the word mountain,
which suggests something big, tall, and solid.
The next metaphor that King uses is (5) a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast
ocean of material prosperity, in which the two main ideas, namely island of poverty and a vast
ocean of material prosperity, seem to contradict each other. It is amazing how King describes
that actually the black American lived in both conditions. Basically, the word island has a neutral
meaning. It is a piece of land surrounded by water; however, in the speech the word island does
not stand alone. There is an adjective used to describe what kind of island the black American
lives on. It is a lonely island. The word lonely means sad and spent alone, unhappy because there
are no friends or people to talk to. We can see that King shows the similarity between a lonely
island and the condition of the black American. It is the same as the black Americans condition
as they are unhappy without anyone who supports and helps them. Besides, no one can get on or
off an island without crossing the water first. This means that we are separated from others by
water. King further tells about a vast ocean of material prosperity. Therefore, one barrier for
the black American is the prosperity that surrounds them. This condition is so ironic because
they live in a poor condition and suffer from the lack of everything in the midst of great
prosperity. The words lonely and poverty, which refer to the black American, obviously have a
negative meaning. The intensity of the black Americans negative condition is heightened when
an ironic situation is added by the other metaphor.
There is one topic that is highlighted by King in his metaphors. It is about racial injustice.
Data (1) flames of withering injustice, (12) sweltering with the heat of injustice, and (13)
sweltering with the heat of oppression all illustrate injustice. The word injustice is preceded by
the word withering, and sweltering. Withering means intended to make somebody feel silly or
ashamed. (Hornby, 2011: 1708) It has more or less the same meaning as the word sweltering.
Sweltering is to be very hot in a way that makes us feel uncomfortable. (Hornby, 2010: 1511)
How the black Americans must have felt at that time because of the intense injustice happening
to them is illustrated by the word sweltering again by King, in (9) sweltering summer of the
Negros legitimate discontent. Thus, when the summer described here is a sweltering summer, it
can be imagined how unbearable it is. Through these metaphors, King wants to show how
uncomfortable the Negros life before the decree is made. King defines the intensity of injustice
that happened at that time by including the words flames and quicksand, as in data (8) quicksands
of racial injustice.
As we know, flame is different from fire. It is one of the visible manifestations of the
combustion process and the main source of heat from a fire. (Johnson and Miyanishi). In this
context, the word flames is associated with the negative meaning, because King uses that word to
describe the high intensity of the injustice for the black American. In addition, King intensified
the condition by comparing the condition to the quicksand. Quicksand is deep wet sand that we
sink into if we walk on it (Hornby, 2010: 1201) or a situation that is dangerous or difficult to
escape from. Being in a quicksand, we are not able to move and do anything. Quicksand limits
our moves and actions. Once we sink into it, we will find it difficult to escape and survive. It is
exactly the same as what happened to the black American. The racial injustice stopped their
movement, so that they could not move forward and they became passive. In this metaphor,
once again King uses words which carry a negative meaning.
Talking about racial injustice, King brings the discussion narrower, to the segregation,
discrimination and oppression that has happened many times in the black Americans life. In the
table, we can see there are two metaphors, (3) crippled by the manacles of segregation and (4)
(crippled by) the chains of discrimination. Literally speaking, crippled means to damage
somebody's body so that they are no longer able to walk or move normally. (Hornby, 2010:
348) The word crippled, which has a negative meaning, is used to give a picture about the Negros
condition. They are seriously damaged so that they cannot run their life normally. King compares
the thing that made the black American crippled to two things; the manacles and the chain. The
manacle and the chain here are closely related to the power of segregation and discrimination
which have bound them tightly. Segregation and discrimination have a negative meaning. Both
of them stand for more or less the same thing. It is about treating someone in an unfair way.
Thus, a much bigger negative sense is created when those negative words are joined with the
words chain and manacles, which are usually made out of metal or strong material. It stresses on
how powerful the bondage of segregation and discrimination was.
King also compares the black Americans condition related with segregation to (11) the
dark and desolate valley. Valley is an area of low land between hills or mountains, often with a
river flowing through it; the land that a river flows through. (Hornby, 2010: 1648)
Connotatively, valley is considered a low point or condition. As valleys are between mountains
or hills, and below them, the word valley signifies the low condition of the Negro. Furthermore,
King elaborates the condition of the valley, with the adjectives dark and desolate. Therefore, in
this metaphor, the negative associative meaning of the word valley is even more emphasized by
the negative adjectives dark and desolate.
King tries to portray that the opposition happened not in one time only, but like
whirlwinds, as seen in data (6) the whirlwinds of revolt. It keeps spinning around until it causes
a lot of problems for the black American. It is clearly seen that both whirlwinds and revolt contain a
negative meaning, which leads to the understanding that the black Americans condition here is
portrayed negatively.
From all the diction that King uses in the metaphors, it is obvious that all of the words
either have or are associated with a negative meaning. Thus, we can conclude that actually King
wants to tell the hearer that before the decree is made, the black American was poor, unhappy,
desperate and treated unfairly. All the good things or conditions did not seem belong to them.
King also gives a great picture of what will happen after the decree is made. The
metaphors illustrating the black Americans condition at this moment are as follows:
(14) the sunlit path of racial justice
(15) the solid rock of brotherhood
(16) an oasis of freedom and justice
(17) a beautiful symphony of brotherhood
(King, Jr., 1963)
We believe those great things will not happen until the decree is really taking control over
the black Americans life. Now, he describes the condition by associating it with the sunlit path
of justice, solid rock and beautiful symphony of brotherhood, and an oasis of freedom and
justice. King puts positive diction in describing the condition. He states racial justice as the sunlit
path and oasis. The word sunlit means illuminated by direct light from the sun, while oasis has a
meaning of a fertile spot in a desert, where water is found. (Hornby, 2010: 1497) Sunlit can refer
to something bright which is good, because if there is light, darkness will disappear. As a result,
all the negative things will be left behind, as the black American is walking to a better future of
racial justice. It is the same with the word oasis. If we are wandering in the desert without any
water, without any food, and without any hope anymore, but suddenly we hear about oasis, we
will extremely be full of joy at the moment. It is like what happens to the black American. They
have been suffering for a long time and now King offers them hope of racial justice. From both
metaphors, we can see the same points that the black American will find hope, justice and
chance to live a better life after the decree is made.
King not only gives the black American hope of racial justice, but also a wonderful
picture of living in unity. He emphasizes on how beautiful they are by giving the picture of
beautiful symphony and solid rock. It is interesting why King still puts the adjective solid and
beautiful, which is redundant. Symphony is a long complicated piece of music for a large
orchestra, in three or four main parts (called movements). (Hornby, 2010: 1514) Surely, it must
be harmonized and beautiful. What is more, when we talk about a rock, it will be associated with
something strong and solid. Therefore, we can say that those adjectives are really unnecessary; on
the other hand, King thoughtfully uses redundancy in order to emphasize how beautiful
condition is, after the decree is made.
Conclusion
There are seventeen data of metaphors in the speech. All the data of metaphors are used
properly to describe the condition of the black American before and after the decree is made. In
order to describe those conditions, which are abstract, King has his own way. First, from all the
data of metaphors, most of them are closely related to nature, such as night, summer, ocean,
quicksand, mountain, etc. Only two of the metaphors are related to the black Americans
experience, such as manacles and chain.
King is really wise in choosing certain words in the metaphors. He does not use a
sophisticated yet unfamiliar words, but simple words that can be understood easily by the hearer.
I think nature is one of the most general things. It means all people are considered to know it so
that it can be seen, felt and heard easily. It does not require high education and deep thinking to
know it.
Besides, King is really thoughtful in using the words or phrases, most of which are
closely related to their past life as slaves in the plantations. As a result, King uses some words
like chain and manacle to describe the segregation. In my opinion they will understand the
metaphors easily, because those objects are usually found when they are in the plantations.
Besides, they are also the things they can see, so that they are familiar enough for the Black
American. The use of simple and familiar words in the metaphors becomes Kings style in
delivering the message.
References
Harris, Robert A. A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices. Retrieved 24 February 2014 from
http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm.
Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Eighth ed. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
King, Jr. Martin L. (1963). I Have a Dream. Retrieved 30 November 2014 from
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm
Leech, Geoffrey N., Michael H Short. (1994). Style in Fiction. London and New York: Longman.
Mangrum, Charles T. and Stephen S. Strichart. What is Metaphor? Retrieved 30 November

2014 from http://www.how-to-study.com/mobile/article.asp?id=7
Martin Luther King Biography. U.S Government Research Papers. Retrieved 15 Feb 2014 from
http://www.studymode.com/essays/Martin-Luther-King-49060602.html.
Peacham, Henry. A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms. Retrieved 29 January 2014 from

http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/rhetglos.htm
Soukhanov, Anne H. (1996). The American Heritage Dictionary. Third ed. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Verdonk, Peter. (2010). Stylistics. Fifth ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context
Dr Namita Rajput Ms Bharti (Corresponding Author)

Associate Professor in Commerce Assistant Professor in Management
Sri Aurobindo College, University School of Management Studies
University of Delhi Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
namitarajput27@gmail.com bharti.1119@gmail.com
Abstract
With education sector becoming a business model in itself, numerous colleges and universities
have been established, churning out thousands of business management graduates every year in
the market. The limited jobs and employment prospects existing lead to filtration of the talent
pool, giving opportunities to only a few who have the relevant skills and capabilities. The present
paper focuses on assessing the quality of education imparted by business schools in India and the
opportunities for further development. We have interviewed the human resource managers and
executives of companies across industries in Delhi/NCR to provide how businesses think about
education and higher studies, particularly Master of Business Administration. We have used t-test
to find out what type of skills- functional or soft skills are relevant to the employers. Further, a
framework to study the quality of education in business schools in India has also been devised
that can be used to assess the various factors and processes that affect the education quality in
institutions. The paper concludes that general skills and not functional and technical add more
value to an individual and hence are of more significance. The findings help in reducing the
disparity between academia and business practitioners.
Keywords: business schools; skills; education; MBA; master of business administration;

academia; business practitioners
Introduction
Asking why we need education is more important than getting education
The world is placing an increased emphasis on the enlargement of human capital the
qualities, information, skills and motivations and knowledge embodied in people. The most
relevant and frequently used term in academic circles has been lifelong learning which deals
with the increasingly rapid changes underway in modern societies. The youth needs to be
empowered and equipped with updated knowledge, opportunities and skills on an ongoing basis.
This has lead to an increased need for better capabilities and competencies. The OECD Review,
2001, termed these as workplace competencies, and elaborated that they are as much an
indispensable capabilities as traditionally technical and academic skills have been. Jobs are short
run focus, but in the long run skills and sufficient quality of human resources are required to run
the economy and make it prosper. Although academic qualifications and degrees are necessary,
but so are the occupational skills like behavioral skills, for instance listening, communication,
empathy, problem solving, patience, dealing with peers. (Lerman 2008, Heckman, Stixrud, and
Urzoa 2006; Heckman and Rubinstein 2002; Almlund et al. 2007). Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua
(2006) find that except for college graduates, non-cognitive skills exert at least as high and
probably higher impact on job market outcomes than do cognitive skills.
Growth of Management Education in India
After liberalization, the scenario of Indian business education changed dramatically with many
new universities and business schools opening in India. The influx of numerous global
corporations in various sectors ranging from pharmaceuticals, insurance, FMCG, banking and
engineering sectors led to sizeable increase in demand for professionals with managerial skills. It
was then that a distinction between commerce graduate and management graduate was made.
The skills of a commerce graduate were different from that of a management graduate and it fell
short of demands of the executive positions. Commerce graduates were equipped to solve and
analyze accounting problems but were unable to handle the management component of the job.
The reorganization of skills market from commerce graduates to management graduates lead to
evolution of new courses and further reinforced the perception of management education as a
coveted degree. The business education model has witnessed commercial success, however, its
relevance to the changing and dynamic needs of the businesses today has raised doubts. The
primary idea behind getting the management degree is to acquaint oneself with the needs of the
business world and provide solutions that promote long term sustainability. The job specific
capabilities no longer hold primary significance for employers. The world is converging to a
dynamic knowledge based economy where the capacity to continually adapt and upgrade the
skills is indispensable. The concept of employability helps in bridging the gap between education
and work. The specific skills and qualities required include that of resourcefulness, adaptability,
flexibility, empathy and are significant ingredients for professional success. Hillage and Pollard
(1998) define employability as having the capability to gain initial employment, maintain
employment and obtain new employment if required. India had a culture of teaching
management since 1886 when the first school set up was Commercial School of Pacchiappa
Charties in Chennai, Southern India. Since the 19th century, there have been world class
management institutions that have been set up and flourished in India starting from 1920 when
Sri Ram College of Commerce was established to 1961 when the Government received the grant
from Ford Foundation for setting up the Indian Institutes of Management at Calcutta and
Ahmadabad. This helped in a substantial way to bring the model of the American Business
education to India. Also the world reputed business schools like Sloan School of Management
and Harvard Business School set up collaboration with the Indian Institutes of Management to
exchange pedagogy and faculty. By 1990's total of six IIM's had been established apart from
other world renowned management institutions. As on date, there are a total of 18 IIM's across
India, many of which have started the admissions in the current year itself. Apart from IIM's,
MBA degree is offered by various sate and central universities departments, autonomous
institutes approved by AICTE and on distance education program as well. As per the recent
report by AACSB 2013, the total number of educational institutes in India offering MBA are
approximately 3600. With approximately 600 million of population in the age group of 0-24
years presently, the expectation is that the country will have close to 60% of its population in the
working age group between 15- 59 years by 2022. Being the youngest nation in the world, the
country will reap the benefits of the demographic dividends in the future. With regional
disparities and the closed methodology of education, this is both an opportunity and challenge.
India needs to equip itself with the workforce that is employable with diverse skills and
capabilities. Assuming that education and curriculum taught in business schools will provide the
individual with all skills-both technical and soft, is unreasonable. If the professional success of a
student was related to the MBA education then having an MBA degree should lead to career
advancement in terms of work profile and salary over other students without MBA degrees. Also
a management graduate should have better career prospects after studying management lessons
and should be more prepared for the business world and should be more successful. Contrary to
this, there are economic reasons for the little advantage that MBA education provides. With so
many universities admitting students for MBA, the supply of management graduates has
increased. Also, the course acts like a cash cow for the providers of business education. The
demand has however not kept pace with the supply which has lead to minimum effect that a
business degree might have on the professional aspect of an individual. Pfeffer & Long (2002)
argue that the grades or MBA degree earned are not related to the career success. Also the
business school research and management practices are not related significantly. The number of
students failing business schools evaluations and examinations is not much and as a result the
student credentials do not serve as a screen of minimum competency standards. As per the study
by ASSOCHAM, (2013), B-schools have been losing their shine and producing only 10% of the
students that are actually employable. The study cites quality of management education and lack
of infrastructure as the primary reasons. Also the course curriculum of business schools in India
is highly quantified and based on analytics. Little attention is paid to what is actually required in
the real corporate world. The soft skills for instance interpersonal capabilities, leadership, conflict
resolution methods are not given the kind of attention they deserve. Little emphasis is placed on
teaching methodology, and more on the syllabus. Clinical training, experiential learning, role
plays form a part of methodologies of only a few business schools. Business schools have been a
huge success story across the globe, but the relevance of business education and the output is
under doubts. Adopting the teaching patterns and methods from other schools has lead to the
loss of centrality on which the entire concept of business education is built. Students learn to talk
about business, but it is not clear they learn business. In India, majority of the management
schools have the same curricula that lays too much focus on building analytics and no emphasis
on problem solving, interpersonal skills, leadership lessons. The history of business and global
giants is an evidence that a business degree is not a ladder to succeed. Bill Gates, Mark
Zukerberg, Steve Jobs are global examples of college drop outs who have made history in the
world of business. The implication being that a business degree is no guarantee for success. The
functional skills will keep changing with the jobs and over the course of the career. However,
skill development is a continuous process and needs to be integrated in the entire education
system. The present paper focuses on assessing the quality of education imparted by business
schools in India and the opportunities for further development. India being the nation with a
future demographic dividend and on the growth trajectory has an important role to play in the
world economics. This can only happen if the nation treads the path of knowledge economy
and develops skills necessary to sustain in the business. The paper is divided into following
sections: Section I, i.e. the present section is the introduction and talks about the business
education in India. Section II is the review of literature followed by Section III on research
objectives and methodology. Section IV is the interpretation of results followed by Section V of
conclusion and implications. Last section VI is references.
Section II: Review of Literature

Gordon and Howell (1959) in their report concluded that the curricula offered was narrow and
too simple. They urged the schools to include math, arts, science and strategy in the courses.
Montmore and Stone (1990) conclude that the business world perceives the purpose of
education is to provide graduates with communication skills, team work, leadership and problem
solving while for the student, the purpose is to improve earnings and career prospects. Wright et.
al. (1994) describe the changes necessary in the marketing curricula for skill updation of the
students to meet the future needs of the employer. They also suggest using the active learning
processes to develop a culture of collaborative activities. Lastly the authors conclude that new
skills are teachable and can be imbibed in the syllabus to help students meet future challenges.
Pfeffer and Fong (2002) concluded that the MBA degrees and qualification acquired in business
school did not enhance people's career in terms of salary or job profile. Pfeffer and Fong (2004)
study the business schools in the USA and how many of the problems confronting these are a
result of a market-like orientation with little professional ethos. They conclude by suggesting a
few measures that can be employed in the management schools in USA and can be replicated
outside the country too. Emiliani (2004) described that there is a need to improve the way in
which a course is taught to eliminate waste and improve the quality and relevance. The lean
practices lead to better management of time, lesser ambiguity and improved outcomes. Emiliani
(2005) studies the applicability of kaizen practices in improving the quality of business education
and concludes that it is an effective process and a value proposition for the students of
management. Punia and Kundu (2005) write that even though students qualify all the
requirements of a business administration degree, yet they are unable to find employment. As
many as 50 to 70% change jobs. The cause may lie in the course offerings and the methodology.
Shahaida et al (2006) propose a conceptual framework to incorporate all the factors that
act as input for quality education. The authors propose to test this framework using structural
equation model. Sharma and Saxena (2010) concluded that the gap that exists between the
knowledge delivered at business schools and the industry expectations can be filled by integrating
management education and industry. Proper support from both sides will help in overcoming
the barriers. David et. al. (2011) do a content analysis of 200 corporate job descriptions and
reveal 140 specific skills required. The paper also examines 200 resumes of the graduates and
observed low to no proficiency on the job description-derived skill sets. The study concludes
that there exists a disparity between school of business focus and practitioner needs. Kalpana
Sahoo(2012) cite that Indian management education system should deliver education and
training so as to enable a professional to adjust to the changing needs of the business.
Information technology should be utilized to give productivity dimension to management
education. Gour et. al. (2013) have studied the perception of the faculty to improve the
education quality among management students to match with the demands of the industry. They
conclude that electives and curriculum contents improved the employability skills of the
students.
The above studies imply that the basic course structure and curriculum is similar across
most of the business schools. Even the textbooks used are alike , as a result of which the
functional and analytical knowledge delivered to students is somewhat homogeneous in nature.
However the differentiating factor among the graduates is their personal attributes and skills that
are acquired and developed over the time period. The businesses want candidates who have
higher than average capabilities and credentials.
Section III: Research Objectives and Methodology
There is a general agreement that knowledge of relevant skills should be the basis of
management schools, yet there is no consensus on what those skills should be. The paper has
two sets of objectives.
Set 1: Our paper seeks to provide a framework to clarify what the employer thinks about
employability.
Following are the sub-objectives:
1. To study what skills constitute employability for an employer
2. To study what relevant skills can be taught in the business school
3. To study the various methods by which we can bridge the gap between industry and
academia
To answer the first objective, interviews with 40 employers, HR executives and recruiters were
carried out across industries in Delhi/ National Capital Region. The questionnaire consisted of
various skills, both functional or technical and soft skills, that a management graduate should
have to be eligible for a job. The employees were then asked to rate the skills on a scale of 1 (not
important) to 10 (highly important). To answer the second and third objectives, we look at what
skills should be taught in the business school and different types of methods of learning that can
be included in the teaching methodology. The objectives have been studied by dividing the skills
into two basic groups :
Group 1 consisted of general skills. These have been called as core competencies and are related
more to the personal attributes of an individual. The second component of general skills is the
communication skills like basic computer knowledge, reading, writing, verbal communication.
Group 2 included the specific skills required for each type of job. These were the technical or
functional skills that were subject related.
The next step was to confirm the responses of the executives statistically using t-test. The null
hypothesis is the mean of general skills is equal to the mean of specific skills across the jobs.
Set 2: To develop a comprehensive framework to study the factors and processes that impact
the quality of education imparted in business schools in India.
Sample Size
For the first set of objectives, a total of 67 companies were contacted, out of which executives of
40 companies agreed to answer the questionnaire. The companies spanned across different
sectors like fast moving consumer goods (FMCG), banking, insurance, manufacturing, telecom
and e-commerce and IT. The companies were located in Delhi/ NCR. Although the sample size
was small, yet the results can be generalized to a larger population since the interviews spanned
across the companies in various sectors and industries which resulted in a natural and balanced
mix of the executives. Also since the study is conducted on a primary data collection method, it
can be taken as an attempt to gain original insight to bridge the gap between industry
expectations and business knowledge. The overall questionnaire was divided into 3 sections:
(i) What is the importance of General and Specific skills?: skills related to the personality of an
individual and functional aspect of the job respectively
(ii) What should be taught by the business schools?
(iii) What should not be included in the curriculum?
The executives were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 the relevance of each type of skill
provided in the questionnaire. The responses from all the questionnaires were then entered into
the data base and reviewed. The answers were then reviewed from the point of view of the
industry. This helped in analyzing the skills relevant for each type of sector. The responses were
then generalized to be applied to a larger population.
For the second set of objective, we have developed a graphical framework depicting the
relationship between various factors and processes that impact the quality of business school
output. The framework is based on three pillars of quality: i.e. quality of inputs, quality of
systems and procedures and quality of outcome. The result is a measurable framework that can
be tested statistically.
The three pillars of quality are:
A. Input quality: This pillar is measured in terms of inputs and resources that B-schools in
India utilize. The quality and superiority of these inputs has an impact on the output. Inputs
are measured in terms of :
1. Administration quality and management: The vision of vice chancellors, dean, head of
the department or promoters in case of private institutes impact the administration and
thus output of a business school.
2. Student profile: This is judged during the entrance tests and regular examinations in the
management school. The work experience of the student is also a factor that impacts the
quality.
3. Faculty profile: The number of resource persons, knowledge base of faculty, their work
experience have an impact on the quality of education.
4. Accreditation from external authorities: To be recognized by the regulators and external
authorities like NAAC, UGC, AICTE the colleges have to fulfill certain eligibility criteria.
We have taken the quality and nature of recognition. The quality of parameters that are
necessary to be fulfilled by the institutes is studied. This has an impact on the business
school.
5. Facilities and resources: The infrastructure facilities of library, online databases,
investment in statistical tools, R&D facilities are included.
B. Systems and Procedures quality: This pillar measures the quality of processes, systems
and procedures that facilitate in imparting education in business school. It is measured in
terms of :
1. Teaching methodology: The pedagogy of the institute, lecture deliveries, and
teaching approach that faculties follow have an impact on the quality of outcome.
Only syllabus or curriculum teaching adds no value to student. Experiential
learning, case studies, onsite projects have an impact on the student quality and
education.
2. Workshops and programs: In order for business schools to deliver quality in
education, the faculty has to be continuously updated of the new techniques,
processes, researches and development in their respective fields. Faculty
development programs, research methodology workshops are imperative for the
development of faculty to add value.
3. Corporate relations: The business schools prepare students to find a stand in the
real world of business. Thus, the industry interface and interactions with
corporate is indispensable for the students to understand how the "real world"
actually operates. Consultancy projects, seminars and conferences, internships
give direct exposure to the student in terms of reality.
C. Quality of outcome : This pillar measures the final impact of inputs and systems and
procedures on the value added in the students. It has been measured in terms of:
1. Consultancy and Research projects: If the industry is of the opinion that the
academic research in institutes can be applied to the real circumstances, then it
can be measured in terms of number of consultancy projects that are conducted
by the academia on behalf of the industry.
2. Academic profile: It can be measured in terms of subjects and courses delivered
to the graduates, grades and their academic performance.
3. Non academic profile: The performance of students in extra circular activities,
placements in terms of salary packages offered, seminars organized is an outcome
that can be measured to have an impact on the personality of the student.
We have devised the above mentioned criteria to study the quality of education in
business schools. The parameters have been drawn from the existing literature and
during interviews with the executives.
Section IV: Analysis and Interpretation of Results
Set 1: Employer's perception about employability

Objective 1: To study what skills constitute employability for an employer
It is often seen and experienced in practice that the business schools focus too much on the
academics, and in the process miss out on the skills that should be honed in the students to help
them get the job and later to sustain themselves in the career and prosper professionally. As can
be seen from the table 1, these soft skills are of maximum significance to the employer across all
industries. The reliability and ability to work in teams and groups leads to an increased
employability factor among the students. These factors have been rated the highest on the rate
scale by the respondents. More emphasis on people skills are placed by the executives. Factors
like proactive, integrity, leadership qualities are preferred by the employers across all seven
categories. Soft skills like motivation, conflict resolution, flexibility were valued high by the
employers. These skills have been rated at 8-9 on the 10-point scale. Communication skills like
verbal and written communication, reading and data interpretation were the attributes desired by
the executives. Also proper knowledge of English language was desired amongst all the sectors,
especially consulting, banking and insurance and other service related industries, where customer
interface is more. They were rated lower than the first set of core competencies with ratings in
the range between 6-8.The functional knowledge was the least valued amongst the skills
required by the employers. Subject related know how and technical knowledge had minimum
impact on the job prospects of a business graduate across sectors.
Table 1: Key Skills of Individuals in an Organization: Industry wise

Self Confidence, focus, motivation, technical skills, verbal and communication
Banking skills, self discipline, basic computer knowledge
Verbal communication, problem solving, teamwork, reliability, basic computer
Insurance knowledge, open mind, flexibility
Verbal and written communication, problem solving, teamwork, flexibility,
Consultancy reliability, creativity, delegation
FMCG passion, shared objectives, willingness to learn, leadership, integrity, teamwork
Technical skills, verbal and written communication, advanced computer skills,
Information Technology teamwork, use of modern tools, flexibility, reliability
Technical skills, knowledge application, problem solving, willingness to learn,
Manufacturing teamwork, system design, reliability
teamwork, integrity, basic computer knowledge, self motivated, flexibility, verbal
Telecom and written communication, problem solving
creativity, system design, knowledge of contemporary issues, customer service,

E-Commerce entrepreneurship, flexibility, understand to take directions.
Table 2: t-Test for Differences in Importance of Specific skills and General skills
Mean of Specific Mean of General
Skills Skills Difference
Mean 7.462777778 9.183888889 1.721111
Variance 19.96592712 0.076731046 -19.8892
Observations 40 40
Pearson Correlation 0.765026827
Hypothesized Mean
Difference 0
Df 39
t Stat -5.697602281
P(T<=t) one-tail 1.30887E-05
t Critical one-tail 1.739606716
P(T<=t) two-tail 2.61774E-05
t Critical two-tail 2.109815559
From the results it can be seen that the mean of general skills is more than the mean of specific
skills. Also since p<0.05, we reject the null hypothesis. Thus we conclude that general skills are
rated higher than the cognitive or functional skills by the employers. The statistical results follow
the qualitative responses already presented above. Thus our first objective has been answered.
Objective 2: To study what relevant skills can be taught in the business school
The answer to the second objective followed from the first one itself. The results above show
that more emphasis needs to be placed on general and soft skills including core competencies in
MBA program. Thus, more emphasis should be laid on educating students about the importance
of skills that add to the employability factor. Most of the human resource executives who
answered the questionnaire revealed that it is the soft skills that help the employees to rise in
their career ladder . The ability to think creatively and negotiate with the clients, empathize with
colleagues are in short supply and as such not many graduates are able to get the job at the first
place or are not able to sustain in the organization. The business schools should put more focus
on teaching these soft skills rather than functional knowledge. Also instead of using textbooks
for teaching such courses, experiential methods like role plays, group discussions, active learning
methods should be employed by the faculty to facilitate pragmatic learning.
Objective 3: To study the various methods by which we can bridge the gap between
industry and academia
From the responses of the executives, following are the ways in which the gaps between industry
expectations and academia can be bridged:
a. Reshaping of existing teaching methodology: The age old examination process and
memorization of answers is redundant in evaluating students. These answers and questions
that are mostly theoretical in nature are never practically applicable to any real situations that
the organizations face. Business schools should focus on learning and understanding rather
than memorization. The course structure and curriculum that has become degenerative over
the time should be revamped and more practical approaches to teaching and evaluation
should be introduced. The new methodologies will enable students to participate and become
active learners.
b. Active learning process should be introduced: Collaborative, teamwork and participative
learning process should be employed in the class that prepare the students well. In the
process, knowledge is not merely transferred, rather creative ideas are generated. This also
fosters the team spirit.
c. Introduction of cross functional specialization courses: The specialization courses taught
in business schools need to be changed to include topics that are cross functional. Inter-
departmental communication and inter-functional knowledge is a virtue that is considered
significant.
d. Developing management skills: Effective self management skills enable in overcoming
personal and professional hurdles. Teamwork along with collaborations help in better
management during crisis. Time management should also to be included whereby students are
made to learn to stick to the deadlines. This will help them in prioritizing work as per the time
available. Also, the courses taught should include the concepts of flexibility and changes. The
students should be adaptive to constant changes that occur in real world business scenarios.
e. Developing Entrepreneurship skills: Business simulation models and incubation centers
should be developed and promoted in business schools whereby students with entrepreneur
spirit can conceive their ideas. Also external and internal factors can act like stimuli and enable
the students to think "out-of-the-box" and provide creative solutions.
f. Industry interface: Interactions with industry, real time consultancy projects and on
campus programs with the corporate should be encouraged. This adds to the problem solving
skills of the students and also provides them with first-hand and real time experience.
With the few above mentioned approaches incorporated in the business school model, the
output of the business schools will not only follow the expectations of the industry, but also has
the potential to surpass them in the future.
Set 2: Following framework has been devised to study the quality parameters and factors that
affect the business school education outcomes. Statistical method of structural equation
modeling can be applied on it to measure the quality of business school education.
Input Quality Systems and Outcome

Procedures Quality Quality
Administration Teaching Consultancy

quality and Methodology projects
management
Student Profile
Faculty Academic
Profile Profile
Workshops and
Programs
Accreditation Non
Corporate
from external academic
authorities Relation profile
Facilities and Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework

resources for Business Education Quality:
Structural Equation Modeling
Section V: Conclusion and Implications
Through the study, we have attempted to gather an insight into the business of business schools.
With an ever growing population of MBA graduates in the market, and the number of education
institutes that provide students with the business management degrees, the increase has not been
reflected in the job opportunities and career prosperity for them. The present study is an attempt
to understand the gap that exists between the business school output and the industry outlook.
We have studied two sets of objectives. The first set was to study the skills that are valued and
considered relevant by the employers and how to bridge the gap in them. The sample consisted
of interviews from human resource executives of companies in Delhi/National Capital Region.
The companies were a broad mix of different sectors. Responses were carried out using surveys
and a structured questionnaire. The skills were divided into two major categories: specific or
functional and general or soft skills. T-test was performed on the responses from executives to
find out which of the two groups of skills was more relevant. We conclude that general or soft
skills were considered more important than the technical knowledge by the corporate.
Communication skills in terms of written and verbal were rated high and were desirable in a
candidate. reason could be that as the world is increasingly converging and becoming an inter-
connected economy, there is an inclination towards hiring those candidates that have a global
appeal. A possible explanation can be that applicants applying for the same job can have diverse
academic backgrounds, and as such the only way to find the best talent is by differentiating them
using soft skills. Also the companies have on the job trainings and other induction programs
where specific functional knowledge about the job is imparted to the employees on a regular
basis. We also conclude that business schools should focus more on teaching these soft skills to
the students rather than their functional knowledge and should employ innovative methods that
involve the students as primary participants to give first-hand experience rather than promoting
passive learning. Businesses today operate in multi dimensional set up where geographical lines
have blurred and interdepartmental dependency has increased. Thus, readymade and one-size-
fits-all solutions are not valued. Different situations would demand different degree of
management skills. Also an employee who has the "willingness to learn" will be able to cope
better with the circumstances than someone who just has the technical knowledge that might be
readily applicable to the situation.
The second set of objective included the development of conceptual framework to find
the relationship between the quality of inputs and output in business school education. A
multidimensional structure was formed that included a total of 11 parameters to gauge the
quality of inputs, systems and procedures and the final output. Structural equation modeling can
be further applied on this model to test for the relevance of the parameters that determine the
quality of education. To sum up, the management schools should be teaching the present
generation to be innovative and creative to lead the future into growth and opportunities. For
this to happen, they have to be taught in way that forces them to think beyond textbooks.
Implications of the study
Our research attempts to question the practice of management schools in India. The research
has several implications:
1. Further research can be done in this area. Our study evaluates the skills necessary with
reference to the industry and sector to enhance the employability factor among
graduates. A study can be attempted to evaluate the skills necessary on the basis of jobs
and work profiles.
2. The research has been conducted using the sample companies in Delhi/ NCR. Similar
research can be conducted on a national level to study if skill requirement is affected by
regions. Also a step ahead can be taken to compare companies outside India with Indian
counterparts. This will give a broader and appropriate conclusion as to management
education relevance.
3. A survey can be conducted among the senior management to evaluate the key growth
areas (KGA) for the employees based on the skill set present.
4. It can be deduced from the study that even though business schools are doing extensive
research on diverse topics, yet the research is not grounded into actual business reality.
This study is an attempt to bridge the gap between academia and business world. New
teaching methodologies can be employed by the faculty that encourage active learning
process.
5. The analysis of the study can be applied to other domains like engineering as well. It can
be used to study the skill gaps in engineers in India.
6. Business schools can establish a corporate relationship group to have an interface with
the industry. Also entrepreneurship development programs can be focused upon.
7. The conceptual model so formed can be tested using structural equation modeling. This
will validate the framework.
The research provides a direction for business schools in India to change their philosophy and
education pattern so as to groom participative students into successful employees.
References
B-schools increasingly loosing shine in India. (2013). ASSOCHAM.
Business School Data Guide ( 2013). , AACSB International.
Gordon, R., & Howell, J. (1959). Higher education for business. New York, Columbia
University Press.
Heckman, J. and Y. Rubinstein (2001). The Importance of Non-cognitive Skills: Lessons
from the GED Testing Program. American Economic Review, 91(2):145-149.
Heckman, J.,J., Stixrud, J., Urzua, S. (2006). The Effects of Cognitive and Non-cognitive
Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior. Journal of Labor Economics ,
Vol. 24, No. 3.
Hillage, J. & Pollard, E. (1998). Employability: Developing A Framework For Policy
Analysis. Research Brief 85, Department for Education and Employment.
Lalit Kumar Sharma (2011). Integration of Industry and Management Education: Future Of
India.
Lerman, R., (2008). Widening the Scope of Standards Through Work-Based Learning. 30th
Research Conference of the Association for Public Policy and Management, Los Angeles,
California.
M.L. Emiliani, (2004). Improving Business School Courses By Applying Lean Principles And
Practices. Quality Assurance in Education, Vol. 12 Issue: 4, pp.175 - 187.
M.L. Emiliani, (2005). Using Kaizen To Improve Graduate Business School Degree
Programs. Quality Assurance In Education, Vol. 13 Issue: 1, pp.37 - 52.
National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship,(2015). Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship.
Pfeffer, J. and Fong, C. T. (2004). The Business School Business: Some Lessons from the
US Experience. Journal of Management Studies, 41: 15011520. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
6486.2004.00484.x
Pfeffer, J., & Fong, C. T. (2002). The End Of Business Schools? Less Success Than Meets
The Eye. Academy Of Management Learning and Education, 1(1), 7895.
Shahaida, P., Rajashekar, H., & Nargundkar, R. Quality of Management Education in India:
Development of a Conceptual Framework. International Journal of Management Practices
and Contemporary Thoughts
Datar, M. Srikant, Garvin, A. David & Cullen, G. Patrick. (2010). Rethinking the MBA:
Business Education a Crossroads. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
Sahoo, K., (2012). Present Scenario of Management Education in India. SIES Journal of
Management, Mar2012, Vol. 8 Issue 1, p74
Gour, D, Trivedi, P., Trivedi, A., (2013). Evaluation of Quality of Management Education in
Indore - Students perspective. International Journal of Research in Management Science and
Technology Vol. I Issue. III
Wright, L. K., Bitner, M. J., & Zeithaml, V. A. (1994). Paradigm Shifts In Business
Education: Using Active Learning To Deliver Services Marketing Content. Journal Of
Marketing Education, 16(3), 5-19.
Punia, B. K., & Kundu, S. C. (2005). Management Education In India: Towards Quality
Standards And Global Competitiveness. Deep And Deep Publications.
SOURCE TYP

Vol 6 No 1 - November 2015

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vol 6 No 1 - November 2015

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.

Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.s I Have a 17

What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context 25

An investigation of Victorian municipal public health plans

Ms Brydie Clarke and Dr Jan Moore

Understanding and acting on the number of underlying social determinants of FI is important to

Whilst levels of community FI continue to rise in Victoria, Local Government Authorities

Victorian policy and planning context

Municipality Population Number Geographical area SEIFA index 1

LG1 90000 25 1060

Influences on the inclusion of food insecurity within MPHP documents

Access and utilisation of evidence

Capacity to apply an integrated planning approach

Networks and partnerships

Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.s

Dr Trisnowati Tanto, M.Hum

Keywords: speech, foregrounding elements, metaphors, rhetorical figure.

The topic of Stylistics is significant because it encourages us to be more critical in understanding

Mangrum, Charles T. and Stephen S. Strichart. What is Metaphor? Retrieved 30 November

Peacham, Henry. A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms. Retrieved 29 January 2014 from

What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context

Dr Namita Rajput Ms Bharti (Corresponding Author)

Keywords: business schools; skills; education; MBA; master of business administration;

Asking why we need education is more important than getting education

Growth of Management Education in India

Section II: Review of Literature

Section IV: Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Set 1: Employer's perception about employability

Table 1: Key Skills of Individuals in an Organization: Industry wise

creativity, system design, knowledge of contemporary issues, customer service,

Input Quality Systems and Outcome

Administration Teaching Consultancy

Facilities and Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework

Implications of the study

You might also like