Last Update: 6 December 2017

ZOO
Part I
Isotopes, radioactivity detection & their application in biology M 127
M
Atoms of some elements exist in move than one form, the different forms being called isotopes. All the
isotopes of a given element have the some number of protons and electrons (some atomic number) and
therefore have identical chemical properties. However, they differ in the neutron content of their nuclei &
therefore have different masses.
Radionuclide
A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus, which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy
which is available to be imparted either to a newly-created radiation particle within the nucleus, or else to an
atomic electron. The radionuclide, in this process, undergoes radioactive decay, and emits a gamma ray(s)
and/or subatomic particles. These particles constitute ionizing radiation. Radionuclides may occur naturally,
but can also be artificially produced.
Radionuclides are often referred to by chemists and physicists as radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes, and
play an important part in the technologies that provide us with food, water and good health. However, they
can also constitute real or perceived dangers.

Origin
Naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories: primordial radionuclides, secondary
radionuclides and cosmogenic radionuclides. Primordial radionuclides originate mainly from the interiors of
stars and, like uranium and thorium, are still present because their half-lives are so long that they have not
yet completely decayed. Secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of
primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides. Cosmogenic isotopes,
such as carbon-14, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to cosmic
rays.
Artificially produced radionuclides can be produced by nuclear reactors, particle accelerators or by
radionuclide generators:
Radioisotopes produced with nuclear reactors exploit the high flux of neutrons present. The neutrons
activate elements placed within the reactor. A typical product from a nuclear reactor is thallium-201
and Iridium-192. The elements that have a large propensity to take up the neutrons in the reactor
have a high Barnes Number.
Particle accelerators such as cyclotrons accelerate particles to bombard a target to produce
radionuclides. Cyclotrons accelerate protons at a target to produce positron emitting radioisotopes
e.g. fluorine-18.
Radionuclide generators contain a parent isotope that decays to produce a radioisotope. The parent is
usually produced in a nuclear reactor. A typical example is the technetium-99m generator used in
nuclear medicine. The parent produced in the reactor is molybdenum-99.
Trace radionuclides are those that occur in tiny amounts in nature either due to inherent rarity, or to half-
lives that are significantly shorter than the age of the Earth. Synthetic isotopes are not naturally occurring on
Earth, but they can be created by nuclear reactions.

Uses
Radionuclides are used in two major ways: for their chemical properties and as sources of radiation.
Radionuclides of familiar elements such as carbon can serve as tracers because they are chemically very
similar to the non-radioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and ecological processes treat them in
a near identical way. One can then examine the result with a radiation detector, such as a geiger counter, to
determine where the provided atoms ended up. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in
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which the carbon dioxide contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that had laid down
atmospheric carbon would be radioactive.
In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. Radioactive chemical
tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic information about a person's internal
anatomy and the functioning of specific organs. This is used in some forms of tomography: single photon
emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography scanning.
Radioisotopes are also a promising method of treatment in hemopoietic forms of tumors, while the success
for treatment of solid tumors has been limited so far. More powerful gamma sources sterilise syringes and
other medical equipment. About one in two people in Western countries are likely to experience the benefits
of nuclear medicine in their lifetime.
In biochemistry and genetics, radionuclides label molecules and allow tracing chemical and physiological
processes occurring in living organisms, such as DNA replication or amino acid transport.
In food preservation, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after harvesting, to kill parasites
and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and vegetables.
In agriculture and animal husbandry, radionuclides also play an important role. They produce high intake of
crops, disease and weather resistant varieties of crops, to study how fertilisers and insecticides work, and to
improve the production and health of domestic animals.
Industrially, and in mining, radionuclides examine welds, to detect leaks, to study the rate of wear, erosion
and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a wide range of minerals and fuels.
Most household smoke detectors contain the radionuclide americium formed in nuclear reactors, saving
many lives.
Radionuclides trace and analyze pollutants, to study the movement of surface water, and to measure
water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as the flow rates of streams and rivers. Natural radionuclides are
used in geology, archaeology, and paleontology to measure ages of rocks, minerals, and fossil materials.

Dangers
If radionuclides are released into the environment, through accident, poor disposal, or other means, they can
potentially cause harmful effects of radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are
excessively used during treatment or in other ways applied to living beings. This is called radiation
poisoning. Radionuclides can also cause malfunction of electrical devices.

Nomenclature & frequency of appearance:

To distinguish between isotopes, mass no. is added to the symbol of the
element; for example, Oxygen has three naturally occurring isotopes, O16 , O17&
O18. One isotope is usually much commoner then other; for example the ratio of
presence of O16 :O17 :O18 = 99.759% : 0.037% : 0.204%. Those frequency
were high which is normally non-radioactive & stable form while others
radioactive & unstable.

Why some isotopes are radioactive?

Some combinations of protons and natural give nuclei which can excise without
change for a long time. There nuclei are said to be stable. Other combinations
gives unstable nuclei, that is they tend to break up or decay, emitting particles
and radiation. Such nucleus are said to be radioactive and can easily be detected
using various instruments as,
1) Geiger- Muller tubes
2) Scintillation counter

A. Geiger-Mller tube
A Geiger-Mller tube (or GM tube) is the sensing element of a
Geiger counter instrument that can detect a single particle of ionizing
radiation, and typically produce an audible click for each. It was
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named for Hans Geiger who invented the device in 1908, and Walther Mller who collaborated with Geiger
in developing it further in 1928.[1] It is a type of gaseous ionization detector with an operating voltage in the
Geiger plateau.

Description and operation

A Geiger-Mller tube consists of a tube filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon or argon, in some cases
in a Penning mixture, and an organic vapor or a halogen and contains electrodes, between which there is a
voltage of several hundred volts, but no current flowing. The walls of the tube are either metal or the inside
coated with metal or graphite to form the cathode while the anode is a wire passing up the center of the tube.
When ionizing radiation passes through the tube, some of the gas molecules are ionized, creating positively
charged ions, and electrons. The strong electric field created by the tube's electrodes accelerates the ions
towards the cathode and the electrons towards the anode. The ion pairs gain sufficient energy to ionize
further gas molecules through collisions on the way, creating an avalanche of charged particles.
This results in a short, intense pulse of current which passes (or cascades) from the negative electrode to the
positive electrode and is measured or counted.
Most detectors include an audio amplifier that produce an audible click on discharge. The number of pulses
per second measures the intensity of the radiation field. Some Geiger counters display an exposure rate (e.g.
mRh), but this does not relate easily to a dose rate as the instrument does not discriminate between radiation
at different energy

GM tubes
The usual form of tube is an end-window tube. This type is so-named because the tube has a window at one
end through which ionizing radiation can easily penetrate. The other end normally has the electrical
connectors. There are two types of end-window tubes: the glass-mantle type and the mica window type. The
glass window type will not detect alpha radiation since it is unable to penetrate the glass, but is usually
cheaper and will usually detect beta radiation and X-rays. The mica window type will detect alpha radiation
but is more fragile.
Most tubes will detect gamma radiation, and usually beta radiation above about 2.5 MeV. Geiger-Mller
tubes will not normally detect neutrons since these do not ionise the gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes
can be produced which either have the inside of the tube coated with boron or contain boron trifluoride or
helium-3 gas. The neutrons interact with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles or with the helium-3
nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and electrons. These charged particles then trigger the normal
avalanche process.
Quenching
The G.M. tube must produce a single pulse on entry of a single particle. It must not give any spurious pulse
and recover quickly to the passive state. But unfortunately the positive Ar ions that eventually strike the
cathode become neutral Ar atoms in an excited state by gaining electrons from the cathode. The excited
atoms return to the ground state by emitting photons and these photons cause avalanches and hence spurious
pulses.
To prevent the current from flowing continuously there are several techniques to stop, or quench the
discharge. Quenching is important because a single particle entering the tube is counted by a single
discharge, and so it will be unable to detect another particle until the discharge has been stopped, and
because the tube is damaged by prolonged discharges.
External quenching uses external electronics to remove the high voltage between the electrodes. Self-
quenching or internal-quenching tubes stop the discharge without external assistance, and contain a small
amount of a polyatomic organic vapor such as butane or ethanol; or alternatively a halogen such as bromine
or chlorine.
If the diatomic gas(quencher) is introduced in the tube, the positive Ar ions, during their slow motion to the
cathode, would have multiple collisions with the quencher gas molecules and transfer their charge and some
energy to them. Thus neutral Ar atoms would reach the cathode. The quencher gas ions in their turn reach
the cathode, gain electrons thereform and move into excited states. But these excited molecules lose their
energy not by photon emission but by dissociation into neutral quencher molecules. No spurious pulses are
thus produced.
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Invention of halogen tubes
The halogen tubes were invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947, and are now the most common form, since
the discharge mechanism takes advantage of the metastable state of the inert gas atom to ionize the halogen
molecule and produces a more efficient discharge which permits it to operate at much lower voltages,
typically 400600 volts instead of 9001200 volts. It also has a longer life because the halogen ions can
recombine whilst the organic vapor cannot and is gradually destroyed by the discharge process (giving the
latter a life of around 108 events).
Describe The Operation of A Geiger-Miiller (G-M) Detector
a. Radiation detection b. Quenching
c. Positive ion sheath
The Geiger-Miiller or G-M detector is a radiation detector
that operates in Region V, or G-M region, as shown on
Figure 23. G-M detectors produce larger pulses than other
types of detectors. However, discrimination is not possible,
since the pulse height is independent of the type of
radiation. Counting systems that use G-M detectors are not
as complex as those using ion chambers or proportional
counters.
Figure: Gas Ionization Curve
The number of electrons collected by a gas-filled detector varies as applied voltage is increased. Once the
voltage is increased beyond the proportional region, another flat portion of the curve is reached; th is is
known as the Geiger-Muller region. The Geiger-Muller region has two important characteristics:
The number of electrons produced is independent of applied voltage.
The number of electrons produced is independent of the number of electrons produced by the initial
radiation.
This means that the radiation producing one electron will have the same size pulse as radiation producing
hundreds or thousands of electrons. The reason for this characteristic is related to the way in which
electrons are collected.
When a gamma produces an electron, the electron moves rapidly toward the positively charged central
wire. As the electron nears the wire, its velocity increases. At some point its velocity is great enough to
cause additional ionizations. As the electrons approach the central wire, the additional ionizations produce
a larger number of electrons in the vicinity of the central wire.
As discussed before, for each electron produced there is a positive ion produced. As the applied voltage is
increased, the number of positive ions near the central wire increases, and a positively charged cloud
(called a positive ion sheath) forms around the central wire. The positive ion sheath reduces the field
strength of the central wire and prevents further electrons from reaching the wire. It might appear that a
positive ion sheath would increase the effect of the positive central wire, but this is not true; the positive
potential is applied to the very thin central wire that makes the strength of the electric field very high. The
positive ion sheath makes the central wire appear much thicker and reduces the field strength. This
phenomenon is called the detector's space charge. The positive ions will migrate toward the negative
chamber picking up electrons. As in a proportional counter, this transfer of electrons can release energy,
causing ionization and the liberation of an electron. In order to prevent this secondary pulse, a quenching
gas is used, usually an organic compound.
The G-M counter produces many more electrons than does a proportional counter; therefore, it is a much
more sensitive device. It is often used in the detection of low-level gamma rays and beta particles for this
reason. Electrons produced in a G-M tube are collected very rapidly, usually within a fraction of a
microsecond. The output of the G-M detector is a pulse charge and is often large enough to drive a meter
without additional amplification. Because the same size pulse is produced regardless of the amount of
initial ionization, the G-M counter cannot distinguish radiation of different energies or types. This is the
reason G-M counters are not adaptable for use as neutron detectors. The G-M detector is mainly used for
portable instrumentation due to its sensitivity, simple counting circuit, and ability to detect low-level
radiation.

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Summary
The operation of Geiger-Miller detectors are summarized below.
G-M Detector Summary
The voltage of a Geiger-Miller (G-M) detector is set so that any incident radiation produces the
same number of electrons.
As long as voltage remains in the G-M region, electron production is independent of operating
voltage and the initial number of electrons produced by the incident radiation.
The operation voltage causes a large number of ionizations to occur near the central electrode as
the electrons approach.
The large number of positive ions form a positive ion sheath which prevents additional electrons
from reaching the electrode.
A quenching gas is used in order to prevent a secondary pulse due to ionization by the positive
ions.

B . Scintillation counter
A scintillation counter measures ionizing radiation. The sensor, called a scintillator, consists of a
transparent crystal, usually phosphor, plastic (usually containing anthracene), or organic liquid (see liquid
scintillation counting) that fluoresces when struck by ionizing radiation. A sensitive photomultiplier tube
(PMT) measures the light from the crystal. The PMT is attached to an electronic amplifier and other
electronic equipment to count and possibly quantify the amplitude of the signals produced by the
photomultiplier.
The scintillation counter is based on the work of Antoine Henri Becquerel, who discovered the
phosphorescence of certain uranium salts. Scintillation counters are widely used because they can be made
inexpensively yet with good quantum efficiency. The quantum efficiency of a gamma-ray detector (per unit
volume) depends upon the density of electrons in the detector, and certain scintillating materials, such as
sodium iodide and bismuth germanate, achieve high electron densities as a result of the high atomic numbers
of some of the elements of which they are composed. However, detectors based on semiconductors, notably
hyperpure germanium, have better intrinsic energy resolution than scintillators, and are preferred where
feasible for gamma-ray spectrometry. In the case of neutron detectors, high efficiency is gained through the
use of scintillating materials rich in hydrogen that scatter neutrons efficiently. Liquid scintillation counters
are an efficient and practical means of quantifying beta radiation.

Scintillation Counter Apparatus

When a charged particle strikes the scintillator, a flash of light is produced, which may or may not be in the
visible region of the spectrum. Each charged particle produces a flash. If a flash is produced in a visible
region, they can be observed through microscope and counted - an impractical method. The association of a
scintillator and photomultipier with the counter circuits forms the basis of the scintillation counter apparatus.
When a charged particle passes through the phosphor, some of its atoms get excited and emit photons. The
intensity of the light flash depends on the energy of the charged particles. Caesium iodide (CsI) in crystalline
form is used as the scintillator for the detection of protons and alpha particles; sodium iodide (NaI)
containing a small amount of thallium is used as scintillator for the detection of gamma waves.
The scintillation counter has a layer of phosphor cemented in one of the end of the photomultiplier. Its inner
surface is coated with photo-emitter with less work potential. This photoelectric emitter is called as
photocathode and is connected to the negative terminal of a high tension battery. A number of anodes called
dynodes are arranged in the tube at increasing positive potential. When a charged particle strikes the
phosphor, a photon is emitted. This photon strikes the photocathode in the photomultipier, releasing an
electron. This electron accelerates towards the first dynode and hits it. Multiple secondary electrons are
emitted, which accelerate towards the second dynode. More electrons are emitted and the chain continues,
multiplying the effect of the first charged particle. By the time the electrons reach the last dynode, enough
have been released to send a voltage pulse across the external resistors. This voltage pulse is amplified and
recorded by the electronic counter.

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Scintillation counter as a spectrometer
Scintillators often convert a single photon of high energy radiation into high number of lower-energy
photons, where the number of photons per megaelectronvolt of input energy is fairly constant. By measuring
the intensity of the flash (the number of the photons produced by the x-ray or gamma photon) it is therefore
possible to discern the original photon's energy.
The spectrometer consists of a suitable scintillator crystal, a photomultiplier tube, and a circuit for
measuring the height of the pulses produced by the photomultiplier. The pulses are counted and sorted by
their height, producing a x-y plot of scintillator flash brightness vs number of the flashes, which
approximates the energy spectrum of the incident radiation, with some additional artifacts. A
monochromatic gamma radiation produces a photopeak at its energy. The detector also shows response at
the lower energies, caused by Compton scattering, two smaller escape peaks at energies 0.511 and 1.022
MeV below the photopeak for the creation of electron-positron pairs when one or both annihilation photons
escape, and a backscatter peak. Higher energies can be measured when two or more photons strike the
detector almost simultaneously (pile-up, within the time resolution of the DAQ chain), appearing as sum
peaks with energies up to the value of two or more photopeaks added.
Description and operation of Scintillation counter
A particle or radiation detector which operates through emission of light flashes that are detected by a
photosensitive device, usually a photomultiplier or a silicon PIN diode. The scintillation counter not only
can detect the presence of a particle, gamma ray, or x-ray, but can measure the energy, or the energy loss, of
the particle or radiation in the scintillating medium. The sensitive medium may be solid, liquid, or gaseous,
but is usually one of the first two. The scintillation counter is one of the most versatile particle detectors, and
is widely used in industry, scientific research, medical diagnosis, and radiation monitoring, as well as in
exploration for petroleum and radioactive minerals that emit gamma rays. Many low-level radioactivity
measurements are made with scintillation counters. See also Low-level counting; Particle detector;
Photomultiplier.
Scintillation counters are made of transparent crystalline materials, liquids, plastics, or glasses. In order to be
an efficient detector, the bulk scintillating medium must be transparent to its own luminescent radiation, and
since some detectors are quite extensive, covering meters in
length, the transparency must be of a high order. One face of the
scintillator is placed in optical contact with the photosensitive
surface of the photomultiplier or PIN diode (see illustration). In
order to direct as much as possible of the light flash to the
photosensitive surface, reflecting material is placed between the
scintillator and the inside surface of the container.
Diagram of a scintillation counter.
In many cases it is necessary to collect the light from a large
area and transmit it to the small surface of a photomultiplier. In
this case, a light pipe leads the light signal from the
scintillator surface to the photomultiplier with only small loss.
The best light guides and light fibers are made of glass, plastic,
or quartz. It is also possible to use lenses and mirrors in conjunction with scintillators and photomultipliers.
See also Optical fibers.
A charged particle, moving through the scintillator, loses energy and leaves a trail of ions and excited atoms
and molecules. Rapid interatomic or intermolecular transfer of electronic excitation energy follows, leading
eventually to a burst of luminescence characteristic of the scintillator material. When a particle stops in the
scintillator, the integral of the resulting light output, called the scintillation response, provides a measure of
the particle energy, and can be calibrated by reference to particle sources of known energy. Photomultipliers
or PIN diodes may be operated so as to generate an output pulse of amplitude proportional to the
scintillation response.
When a particle passes completely through a scintillator, the energy loss of the particle is measured. When a
gamma ray converts to charged particles in a scintillator, its energy may also be determined. When the
scintillator is made of dense material and of very large dimensions, the entire energy of a very energetic
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particle or gamma ray may be contained within the scintillator, and again the original energy may be
measured. Such is the case for energetic electrons, positrons, or gamma rays which produce electromagnetic
showers in the scintillator. Energy spectra can be determined in these various cases by using electronic
equipment to convert amplitudes of the output pulses from the photomultiplier or PIN diode to digital form,
for further processing by computers or pulse-height analyzers.

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