Last Update: November 16, 2006 Part II

E.T - 13
SPECIES DISTRIBUTION
Species Distribution
Distribution of animal can be described in various way. It can be discussed in term of time and
space. There are two aspects of distribution.
1. Temporal distribution Distribution is time.
2. Spatial distribution Distribution is space.
Now, there are two aspect of spatial pattern of distribution.

i) Vertical distribution :- When distribution in relation to depth is called vertical distribution.

ii) Horizontal distribution :- When distribution occur in surface of the plane is called Horizontal
distribution.

Vertical distribution :- In terrestrial ecosystem the different species prefer to live in different attitude.
Within the same population there may be vertical in distribution. e.g.- Human being
Vertical distribution is more important in aquatic ecosystem where the creatures show dial variation
in distribution. The same may be true for soil organism. They also show dial pattern of distribution with
respect to their vertical distribution. Similarly seasonal variation is also important.

Horizontal distribution :- Main type of distribution is Horizontal spatial type of distribution. Here is micro
distribution pattern. In any area many species may be distributed into 3 basic pattern of distribution.
a) Randomly distribution.
b) Regularly distribution.
c) Contagious distribution.
But, to which, one more pattern of distribution, is
d) colonial or strongly clump distribution.
e)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Regular
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Randomly distribution :- Here individuals are randomly distributed. Distribution of one individual is
independent of the distribution of other individual. This is not influenced by other individual. It is possible if
the environment is uniform. But in earth environment is not uniform. Therefore this type of distribution is
more in nature. But still it is form.
e.g.- Clam (Mulinia lateralis)
which is found in intertidal zone.

Clumped

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Regular Distribution :- In this distribution all individuals are distributed at regular intervals that means
individuals are distributed at even distance. In order to have in regular distribution environment should be
homogeneous. This type of distribution is very rare in nature particularly in animal. In commonly seen in
man made plantation and agro-ecosystem.
Clumped distribution :- This is also called aggregated distribution. This type of distribution individuals are
clumped or aggregated together in some area where the environment condition is most favourable since
environment is not homogeneous. Here, individuals are also present in between clumped.
Colonial or strongly clumped distribution :- In colonial type of distribution individuals make some sort of
colony or individuals are strongly aggregated or clumped. There is no individuals in between colony. This
type of distribution mainly seen in sedentary animals or social animals.
How we judge the distribution?
Distribution can be solved with the help statistical analysis. In horizontal pattern of distribution to
sample and study the relationship between variance (S2) & mean ( X or m). Then me can analysis the
horizontal pattern of distribution. When-

S2
S 2 m, then 1
m
2 S2
S
same as, S 2 m, 1
m
S2
S m,
2
1
m X
If, S2=m, that type of distribution is called random distribution.
If, S2>1, that type of distribution is clumped. If S2<1, that type of distribution is regular.
e.g.- 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 are 5 sample and their mean have same i.e.
1=5
2=5 X 5 & S2 0
X X 1
2
3=5
4=5
5=5
So, random distribution
But there is a problem. For, this purpose, different type of indices are available which are clumping
index. All index of clumping are based on variance and mean ratio.

1) Fischers Co-efficient of dispersion :-

6
It was developed by Fischer (1960).
X X
2 5

CD X = Number of individual
X N 1
4
S
3
X = mean 2
N = Number of sample.
1
S2
This is simple ratio. If CD tends to 1 then that type of distribution 1 2 3 4 5 6
X
X
is called random distribution.
If CD>1, i.e. contagious distribution, if CD<1, i.e. Negative contagious (tending towards regularity). If there
is only mean and variance, then this is absolutely regular distribution. If plot graphically by putting X in x-
axis & S2 in Y-axis.
2) For unity significance test :-

2 2 N N 1
2
N=Number of sample.
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 If taking 5 sample any value which is deviating by range 1 1.52 should be random. (-0.48 to 2.52)
is random distribution, greater than 2.52 it is contagious distribution (>2.52) and less than 0.48 is regular
distribution (<0.48). This Co-efficient is suitable only is large no of sample.
This has been modified by different author. This concept is dependent only no of individual. The
modifications are.
a) Early modification which was suggested by Neyman (1939) and it is contagious index.
S2 X
d
X
b) Index of clumping was developed by David and Moore (1954).
S2
d 1 , where
2 2

X
c) Index of clumping :-
S2
IC 1
m
When m=0, then O represent random pattern of distribution. Maximum regularity and this is
clumping distribution.
d) Further modified by green (1966) and this is greens index.
IC
GI
n 1
IC = Index of clumping
n = Number of individual.
e) L. Loyed (1967) further modified and put another index which is called mean crowding
* S2 *
X X 1 X = mean crowding
X
= X IC IC = index of clumping
*
L. Loyed compared mean & mean crowding X

*
When, X X , then the pattern of distribution is random.
*
When, X X , then the distribution is regular
*
X X , then the distribution is contagious
*
X X , then the distribution is random.
If, Value exceed 1, i.e. Contagious
Value < 1, i.e. Negatively Contagious
Value = 1, i.e. random.
S2 m
f) Hills index which was developed by Hill (1973).
m2
*
n X
g) Finally Marisita index (1973) which is Id
n 1 X

It was modification of L-Loyd index According to Ludwig & Reynolds (1988) Greens index is most
suitable. But Fischers Co-efficient is most simple distribution.
Why should a species Contagiously distributed?
1) In these area where environment is favourable individuals are prefer to occupy or aggregated
there.

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 2) These species which lay large number of eggs or youngs they are initially aggregated &
distributed in random manner depending upon their locomotory power.
Some important factors also govern the horizontal distribution, such as-
Availability of foods (environmental condition)
Locomotory availability.
Other mechanism of dispersion.

Co-efficient of similarity :-
Diversity is of 3 types - , & .
- diversity Diversity within a habitat.
- diversity Diversity between habitats in the same region.
- diversity Diversity between two region.
In order to study degree of similarity or Co-efficient of similarity is analysed.
Earliest Co-efficient of similarity proposed by Jaccards index of similarity (1907).
j
Jaccards Co-efficient = cj =
ab j
j
cj , where,
ab j
a = number of species in the 1st habitat
b = number of species in the 2nd habitat.
J = number of species which are common to both habitats.
The index varies from 0 to 1. 1 indicating total similarity and 0 indicating no similarity. Increase in
similarity the index gradually increase.
Subsequently this is modified by Sorensens and he developed quotient of similarity.
Q
or Cs = Sorensons quotient of similarity.
S
2j
Cs
ab
The index varies from 0 to 1. If the index exceed 0.5 then the sites are considered as similar. If the
index less than 0.5 then they are considered as dissimilar.
Thus the another modification was developed Kulezenskis Co-efficient of similarity
1 j
Ck Cs =
2 ab
Here, the index varies from 0 to 0.5.
In these 3 type of similarity most ecologist prefer the Cs. But all these indices have disadvantage &
too much emphasis given a presence or absence of similarities of species or organisms.
Therefore, puts too much emphasis on rare species where capture depends on chance. In order to
eliminate this draw back Bray & Curtis (1957) have modified the index, bringing into consideration in
abundance of species also.
2 jN
cN
aN bN
N = number of individuals
aN = total number of individual of all species present in the 1st habitat.
bN = Total number of individual of all species present in the 2nd habitat.
jN = Sum of lesser value of individual of both habitat where both species were found.
Here index varies from 0 to 1.
0 No similar.
1 Similar.
0.5 Cut of value.
< 0.5 Dissimilar.
> 0.5 Similar.

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 Such studies relating to diversity may be important in biological assessment of environmental
stress. Suppose environmental stress is compared after one year of industry starting.
1. e.g.
Species Habitat (A) Habitat (B)
1 10 5
2 5 0
3 0 5
4 3 5
5 7 10
Total 35 25

2 jN 2 5 3 10 36
CN 0.6
aN bN 35 25 60
2. e.g.- Suppose you are comparing two habitat arbitrarily.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
Habitat A *47 41 23 15 5 *2 *1 0 0 134
Habitat B 50 *28 *5 *6 *1 0 3 6 1 100

* = lesser value
Total lesser value = 88
Whether two habitats are similar or dissimilar.
a = Total number of species present in 1st habitat = 7
b = Total number of species present in 2nd habitat = 8
j = 6 species are common to both the habitat
j
So, Jaccards Co-efficient cj
a b j
6
cj 0.6
786
2j 2 6 12
cs 0.8
a b 7 8 15
1 1
c k c s 0.8 0.4
2 2

Inter specific association :-

Under what circumstances two species live together?
i) If they require similar environmental condition for survive.
ii) If there is a some inter specific association between two species
iii) Combination of this two.
(Inter specific association means symbiotic relationship, prey-predator relationship nutritional reamirement,
host-parasitic relation etc.)
When two species are not expected to be present together?
i) Environmental requirements are different.
ii) If there is ammensalism or antibiotic relationship. i.e. ve relationship.
How can we analysis the association of two species :-
Association between two species can be analysed with the help of index of association. Different
scientist proposed the different index, of them two are-

1. Index of association which was proposed by Whittaker & Fairbark (1959) and subsequently modified
by south wood (1966).

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 Index of association by Southwood is Iai
Ji
I ai 2 0.5
A B
This based in the number of individual, not sample.
A = Total number of individual of 1st species of all the sample.
B = Total number of individual of 2nd species of all the sample.
Ji = Total number of individual of both the species in these sample in which they occur together.
e.g. A & B are two species and take 5 sample.
Number A B Ji
1 7 5 12
2 3 5 8
3 0 1 X
4 2 1 3
5 3 3 0
Total 15 15 23
23
I ai 2 0.5
15 15
=?
The index ranges from 1 to +1
+1 stands for complete +Ve association
-1 stands for complete -Ve association
0 stands for presence of two species by chance.
According to Southwood (1966) under 4 circumstances positive association results-
1. If both the species require exactly similar environmental condition.
2. If there is some mutualism between two species
3. Both the above two points jointly acts on.
4. If there is a prey-predator relationship.

1. The 2nd method developed by Cole (1949) and it is a modified chi-square method. This method based
on the number of samples. Here + ve stands for presence of species and ve stands for absence of species
If both species are present then It is regarded as a and when both species are absent than it is regarded as
d. If species II is present and species II-I is absent it regarded as b. If species II-I is present and species II is
absent it regarded as C. So, occurrence of species I & species II is compared to a t2-table.

Species-I
+ -
+ a b b+a
Sp-II
- c d c+d
a+c b+d a+b+c+d=x

Now + ve Maximum positive association

-ve Maximum Negative association
0 association is expected by chance.
Depending upon the situation the formula is used, the co-efficient of association (C) is calculated
If, bc ad & d a
ad bc
c (i )
a b a c
If, bc > ad and a > d
ad bc
c (ii )
b d c d
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If, ad bc and cb
ad bc
c (iii )
a b b d
If, ad bc and b c
ad bc
c (iv )
a c c d
Expected value calculated by
a
a b a c [ T = total number = n ]
T
b
a b b d
T
c
c d a c
Degrees of freedom df = (2-1) = 1
T
d
c d b d
T
Formula of chi-square test is-

t
2 0 e
2
[ e = expected value ]
e
Yets correction is needed.
Significance of deviation is judged by t2-table
Problem :- A survey of two species of deer mice. (Peromyscus leucopus & P. maniculatus). Among 192
sample P. maniculatus occur exclusively at 133 & P. leucopus is 14 and both species is 26 & none 19.
Ans :- Here,
a = 26
b = 133
c = 14
d = 19
ad bc
c , because bc>ad, a>d.
b d c d
26 19 133 14

133 19 14 19
494 1862 1368
= -0.273
152 133 5016
So, association is negative but whether is significant or not?
a
a b a c 26 14 26 133 33
T 192
b
b d a b 14 19 26 14
6.88 7
T 192
c
c d a c 133 19 26 133 126
T 192
d
c d b d 133 19 14 19 26
T 192

Observes value (o) Expect value (e) o-e (o-e-0.8) (o-e-0.5)2

26 33 -7 56.25 1.7045
14 7 7 42.25 6.0357
133 126 7 42.25 0.3353
19 26 -7 56.25 2.1635

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 t
2 o e 0.52 10.239
e
df = 1
t 02.05 (1) 3.84
Significant P < 0.05
If, any fe < 5.
Df = 1
Yates Correction is to be applied.

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