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STATIC CLING (i) Glass (ii) Flannel (iii) Wool (iv) Silk (v) Hard Metal (vi)
An electrical phenomenon that accompanies Hard rubber (vii) Sealing wax (viii) Resin (ix) Sulphur
dry weather causes these pieces of papers to stick
to one another and to the plastic comb. Electron theory of Electrification
Due to this reason our clothes stick to our
body. Nucleus of atom is positively charged.
The electron revolving around it is negatively
ELECTRIC CHARGE: Electric charge is charged.
characteristic developed in particle of material They are equal in numbers, hence atom is
due to which it exerts force on other such electrically neutral.
particles. It automatically accompanies the With friction there is transfer of electrons,
particle wherever it goes. hence net charge is developed in the particles.
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But because free quarks do not exist and their directly proportional to the product of the charges,
sum is always an integral number, it does not Inversely proportional to the square of the distance
violet the quantization rules.) between them and
Acts along the straight line joining the two charges.
Conservation of Charges
Like conservation of energy, and Momentum,
the electric charges also follow the rules of
conservation.
1. Isolated (Individual) Electric charge can neither
be created nor destroyed, it can only be
transferred.
2. Charges in pair can be created or destroyed.
Example for 1.
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e0 is permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value No, In S.I. System, the fundamental quantity is
is e0 = 8.85 x 10-12 coul2 / N x m2 Electric current and its unit is Ampere.
If point charges are immersed in a dielectric medium, Therefore coulomb is defined in its terms as
then e0 is replaced by e a quantity-characteristic of the under:
matter involved in such case. For vacuum e = e0 Coulomb is that quantity of charge which
passes across any section of a conductor per
second when current of one ampere flows
through it, i.e.
1 coulomb=1 Ampere x 1 sec
Permittivity, Relative Permittivity and Dielectric
Constant
In cgs electrostatic system, the unit of charge is
Permittivity is a measure of the property of the
called as STATECOULUMB or esu of charge.
medium surrounding electric charge which determines
In this system electrostatic constant c=1 for
the forces between the charges.
Its value is known as Absolute permittivity of that
Medium e vacuum or air,
More is Permittivity of medium, less is coulombs Force. One stat coulomb is defined that amount of charge
For water, permittivity is 80 times than that of vacuum, which when placed at a distance of 1 cm in air from an
hence force between two charges in water will be 1/80 equal and similar charge repel it with a force of one
time force in vacuum (or air.) dyne.
Relative Permittivity(er) : It is a dimension-less
characteristic constant, which express absolute In cgs electromagnetic system, the unit of charge is
permittivity of a medium w.r.t. permittivity of vacuum called ABCOULOMB or emu of charge
or air. It is also called 1 Coulomb = 3 x 109 statcoulomb
Dielectric constant (K) K= er = e/e0 = 1/10 abcoulomb
\ 1 emu = 3x1010 esu of charge
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position vectors be (OA) and (OB). Then If a number of Forces F11, F12,F13,F1n are acting on a single
AB=. According to triangle law of vectors : charge q1 then charge will experience force F1 equal to
+ =
= - and vector sum of all these forces .
= - F1 = F11 + F12 + F13 + + F1n
X
(ii) According to Coulumbs law, the Force 12 exerted on q1
1 qq
by q2 is given by : 12 = 21 where 21 is a unit
||
4
vector pointing from q2 to q1 . We know that 21 = ||
=
( )
|
|
Hence, general Vector forms of Coulumbs equation is
1
21 = qq
( ) and
|
4
| NUMERICALS FOR PRACTICE
1
12 = |
qq
)
(
4
|
1.How many electrons must be removed from the sphere to give it
a charge of +2 C . Is there any change in the mass when it is
Comparison of Electrostatic and Gravitational Force given this positive charge. How much is this change?
1. Identical Properties :
Both the forces are central forces, i.e., they act along 2. Two identical charged copper spheres A and B have their centers
the line joining the centers of two charged bodies. separated by a distance of 50 cm. A third sphere of same size but
1
Both the forces obey inverse square law, F uncharged is brought in contact with the first, then brought in
r
Both are conservative forces, i.e. the work done by contact with the second and finally removed from both. What is
them is independent of the path followed. the new force of repulsion between A and B?
Both the forces are effective even in free space.
2. Non identical properties : 3. A central particle of charge q is surrounded by two circular
a. Gravitational forces are always attractive in rings of charged particles, of radii r and R, such that R > r. What are
nature while electrostatic forces may be attractive or the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the
repulsive. central particle due to other particles.
b. Gravitational constant of proportionality does not
depend upon medium, the electrical constant of
proportionality depends upon medium.
c. Electrostatic forces are extremely large as
compared to gravitational forces
1 . (1.610)
Ans : Fe= = 9x109 Newton
4
Fe / Fg = 2.26 x 1039
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q X 2q
Bearing
h W h
Q Q
+q a -q (b) If one of the Cs+ ion is missing the crystal is said to have defect.
How much will be the force on chlorine ion in that case?
DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE
Electric charge on a body may be concentrated at a
point, then it is called a point charge. If it is
3 - E due to areal distribution of charge:
distributed all over, then it is called distribution of
charge. Depending on shape of it is given different
names
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genius Physics..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
E DUE TO +q
ALONG
4- E due to volumetric distribution of charge
E DUE TO q
OPPOSITE TO
NET ELECTRIC FIELD
DIPOLE
E due to +q , E+q
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genius Physics..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
IF R>>L Then, E=
4
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electric Field at A is stronger than field at B.
Electric Field at equatorial line is half of the field on
axial line in strength and opposite in direction. Properties of Electric Lines of Force :
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-q B C
Field Lines due to some charge configurations. Hence dipole will not make any linear motion.
1.Single positive or negative charge
Torque on dipole: A couple of force is acting on the
body of dipole system at different points, the forces
are equal and opposite in uniform field. Hence they
form a couple of forces which create a torque.
Therefore dipole is capable of rotation in a uniform
electric field. The moment of forces or Torque is
NOTE :
Energy with Q at B is q VB
Potential Energy of a dipole kept in Electric field :
Difference of Energy UA UB = q (VA VB)
1. dipole in Equilibrium ( P along E ):-
A dipole is kept in Electric field in equilibrium Using work energy theorem . W = q ((VA VB)
condition, dipole moment P is along E
Or, VA VB = W/q & UA UB = W.
To calculate Potential Energy of dipole we calculate
work done in bringing +q from zero potential i.e. to If VB = 0 { At Potential V = 0 , Inside
location B, and add to the work done in bringing q Earth VE = 0}
from to position A.
1.The work done on q from up to A Then VA = W / q
= -(Work done up to B + Work done from B to A) This equation gives definition of potential V at
2.Work done on +q = +(Work done up to B) point A as under :-
Adding the two
Total work done = Work done on q from B to A Potential of a point in electric field is the work
= Force x displacement done in bringing a unit charge from infinity (Zero
= -qE x 2L = - 2qLE potential) to that point, without any acceleration.
=- P.E Expression of potential at a point due to source
This work done convert into Potential Energy of dipole charge Q :-
U= -P. E
If P and E are inclined at angle to each other then Let there be a charge Q which creates
magnitude of this Potential Energy is electric field around it. Point P is at distance r
U = - P E Cos from it. Lets calculate potential at this point.
P
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genius Physics..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
dr
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2) Potential due to +ve charge is +ve - q & + q are placed at A & B. Point P is on equatorial
line
Potential due to ve charge is ve
Every point on equatorial line is equidistant from +q &
Potential due to a dipole -q. Therefore +ve & -ve potential are equal Hence net
potential is zero.
1) At a point on axial line:-
Potential at every point on equatorial line of dipole is
r zero.
2L
Q
At P V+q =
4 0 (r l )
Q
V-q =
4 0 (r l ) N
1 1
Total V = V+q + V-q =
r l r l
2Ql P
= =
4 0 ( r l )
2 2
4 0 ( r 2 l 2 )
Q Q
V+q = =
4 0 PB 4 0 (r L cos )
Q Q
V-q = =
4 0 PA 4 0 (r L cos )
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Q X 2 LCos
=
4 0 (r 2 L2Cos )
PCos
Or V=
4 0 (r 2 L2Cos ) In case of non-conducting sphere of charge. potential
keeps on increasing up to centre as per diagram.
If r > > L
Q r
PCos
Then, Or, V = P
4 0 r 2
v
0,0 R r
Potential due to spherical shell
A body of potential v is placed inside cavity of shell
with potential V then potential of the body become
V+v
V+v
v V
Gauss's Law
Electric Flux
Think of air blowing in through a window. How much
air comes through the window depends upon the speed
of the air, the direction of the air, and the area of the
Proof:- Suppose E is
window. We might call this air that comes through the
not at right angle to equipotential surface, and makes window the "air flux".
angle with it. Then it has two components, E Cos
along surface and E Sin normal to surface due to We will define the electric flux for an electric field
component E Cos , force q E Cos should be that is perpendicular to an area as
created on surface and it should move the charge. But
=EA
we find that charges are in equilibrium. i.e.
E Cos = 0 ;
since E = 0, therefore Cos = 0 or = 900
Hence E is always at right angle to equip. surface.
ii) V2 V1 = dv = - E Cos . dr
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=E A
A=An
Gausss Law : Total electric flux though a closed
surface is 1/ times the charge enclosed in the
where n is a unit vector pointing perpendicular to the
surface.
area. In that case, we could also write the electric flux
across an area as E=q /
=E A cos or
.
At the small area flux d =
=E A
= . . 0
To find the flux through all of a closed surface, we need
to sum up all these contributions of over the entire =
4
ds (E= , Cos0=1)
4
surface,
=
4
Cos
For a sphere is 4r2.
We will consider flux as positive if the electric field E
goes from the inside to the outside of the surface and
we will consider flux as negative if the electric field E = x 4r2.
4
goes from the outside to the inside of the surface. This
Or, = q /
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Guassian Surface : It is an imaginary surface in the Electric field due to a plain surface : -
electric field which is There is a very large plain surface having sueface
1.closed from all sides density . There is a point P at normal distance r .
2. Surface is Symmetrical about the charges in it
3. Electric field on the surface is symmetrical Lets consider a Gaussian surface, in shape of a cylinder
which has axis normal to the sheet of charge and
Electric field due to line charge : containing point P at its plain surface (radius a ).
Electric charge is distributed on an infinite long straight
conductor with linear charge density . We have to Electric field E is normal to the surface containing
find Electric field on a point P at normal distance r. charge hence it is normal to the plain surface of
cylinder and parallel to curved surface.
Consider a Gaussian Surface in the shape of a cylinder
having axis along conductor. It has radius r so that
point P lies on the surface. Let its length be l. curved
++++
The electric field is normal to conductor, hence it is
symmetrical to the surfaces of these cylinder. plain
+++++++ plain
+
+
-E ++++++ a E
++++++
+++++++
= .
Now . for curved surface + .
for 2
plane surfaces.
+ = . 90 + . 0 + . ( 0)
plain = for plain surfaces 2E ( E is uniform)
+
= 2Ea2
+
The charge enclosed inside Gaussian surface q = .A
+
Or, q = a2
+ P curved
+ E
= q /
Applying Gausss Law : .
+
+ a
Putting values 2Ea2 =
+
+ r Or E=
2
+
+
Electric Field due to charge distributed over a
+
spherical shell :-
.
Now .
= .
for curved surface + for 2
plane surfaces.
= . 0 + . 90
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+
+ +
+ +
+ R + Lets consider a Gaussian surface, a concentric
r
+ + spherical shell of radius r passing through P.
+ + P E
+ +
+ + Then charge contained inside Gaussian surface is Zero.
+ +
+ .
According to Gausss Theorem = q /
If q is zero then . = 0.
As ds is not zero then E = 0
The spherical shell or spherical conductor has total It is very important conclusion reached by Gausss Law
charge q, surface charge density , radius R. We have that Electric field inside a charged shell is zero.
to find Electric Field E at a point P at distance r . The electric field inside conductor is Zero. This
phenomenon is called electrostatic shielding.
Case 1. If P is outside shell.
Lets assume a Gaussian surface, which is a concentric Variation of E with r ( distance from centre)
sphere of radius r and P lies on its surface.
Electric field is normal to surface carrying charge.
Hence it is radially outward. Therefore for a small area
on the Gaussian surface ds E is normal to surface i.e.
angle between
and is 0.
Surface
=
for complete area of Gaussian surface 1
Now . . E
E=0
= . . 0 = E (E is uniform)
= E x 4r2. (for spherical shell = 4r2 )
Charge within Gaussian surface = q Electric Field due to (filled-up) sphere of charge
(Volumetric distribution of charge) :
Applying Gausss Law : . = q /
Gaussian Surface
Putting values E x 4r = q /
2
Charged Sphere
+++++++++
Or E=
4 ++++++++
++ + + + + + + +
r
This expression is same as electric field due to a point +++++++++ R
charge q placed at distance r from P. i.e. In this case if + + + + + + + +P +
complete charge q is placed at the centre of shell the
+ + + + + +++ + +
electric field is same.
+++++++++
+++++++++
Case 2. If P is on the surface.
In above formula when r decrease to R the electric ++ + + + + + + +
field increase. +++++++++
+++++++++
On the surface (replace r with R) E=
4 +++++++++
Hence this is electric field on the surface of a shell and
its value is maximum compared to any other point. + +++ + + + + + +
+++++++++
Case 3. If P is within the surface. Or r< R +++++++++
Charged Shell + +++++++++
+ + Case I. When+P+is+ Out
+ + +side
+ + sphere.
+ Same as in the case
+ +
+ R + + + + +
of charged shell E = + + + + +
r
+
+
+
+ Gaussian Surface
+ + + + +4
++++
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+ + +++++++++
+ +
+ + +++++++++
+ +++++++++
genius Physics..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
1 2
(iii) System of Four charges
E1 = - + E1 = + E1 = +
2 2 + 2 Four charges make six pairs : Potential Energy U=
+ +
+ + 4 + 4 + 4 + 40 + 4
+ 4
E2 = - + E2 = - 2 + E2 = + 2
2
+ + The energy is contained in the system and not by
+ + any one member. But it can be used by one or
E=E1+E2= - + E=0 E=E1+E2= +
+ more members.
+ +
+ +
+ +
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+ +
+ +
+
genius Physics..Pradeep Kshetrapal Electrostatics 2011
Potential at each point is equal. Introduction : Its a device used to create very high
potential which is used for experiments of nuclear
Electric field is always normal to surface. physics in which a charged particle with very high
energy is required to hit the nucleus as target.
Charge is distributed unevenly. Charge per unit area is
more at the surface which has smaller radius. Principles : The following principles are involved in the
Therefore charge density is always more on the device.
corners. 1.Charge on a conductor always move to and stay on
the outer surface.
2.Pointed Corners conduct charges very effectively.
E (corona discharge )
3.If charge q is given to a body, its potential increases
by relation V=
4
4. If a body of small potential v is placed inside a shell
having potential V, then the body acquires potential
V+v
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CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
Relation between Equipotential surfaces and E-Lines Unit of capacitance : Unit of capacitance is
farad, (symbol F ).
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Therefore capacitance C = = q/ = 4 C =
4
4Krr
and Spherical capacitor. C = log
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR : -
Combination of capacitors
Since single conductor capacitor do not have large Capacitors can be combined in two ways. 1. Series
capacitance , parallel plate capacitors are and 2. Parallel.
constructed.
Series Combination :
Principle : Principle of a parallel plate capacitor is If capacitors are connected in such a way that we can
that an uncharged plate brought bear a charged proceed from one point to other by only one path
plate decrease the potential of charged plate and passing through all capacitors then all these capacitors
are said to be in series.
hence its capacitance (C = ) increase. Now it can
take more charge. Now if uncharged conductor is
earthed, the potential of charged plate further
decreases and capacitance further increases. This
arrangement of two parallel plates is called parallel
plate capacitor.
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+
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1 1 1
Energy stored in the capacitor U = 2
= 2 = 2 cv2
1 1
Energy per unit volume u = 2 cv2/V = 2
work while passing through connecting wire. The further calculations. Calculations are done for c1
energy is lost in form of heat of connecting wire. c2, c3 and c4 only.
Expression for energy lost : In the above two Dielectrics: are non conducting materials. They do not have
capacitors the energy contained in the two before free charged particles like conductors have. They are two
1 1 types.
connection, E1 = 2 c1v12 + 2 c2v22 . . . . . . . (i) i. Polar : The centre of +ve and ve charges do not
coincide. Example HCl, H2O, They have their own
+ dipole moment.
Common Potential after connection, V = ii. Non-Polar : The centers of +ve and ve charges
+
Combined capacitance + coincide. Example CO2 , C6H6 . They do not have
their own dipole moment.
1 + In both cases, when a dielectric slab is exposed to an
Energy in combination : 2
( + ) ( ) electric field, the two charges experience force in opposite
+
directions. The molecules get elongated and develops i.
surface charge density p and not the volumetric charge
Hence Loss in energy : E1 E2 density. This leads to development of an induced electric
field Ep , which is in opposition direction of external electric
1 1 1 +
= { 2 c1v12 + 2
c2v22 } { 2 ( + ) ( )} field Eo . Then net electric field E is given by E = E o - Ep . This
+
indicates that net electric field is decreased when dielectric
is introduced.
1
= 2
( ) (v v)
+ Eo
The ratio = K is called dielectric constant of the dielectric.
E
Eo
It is a positive number which confirm that there is Clearly electric field inside a dielectric is E= .
K
loss of energy in transfer of charges. Hence Dielectric polarization : when external electric field E0 is
applied , molecules get polarized and this induced dipole
1
loss of energy = 2
( ) (v v) moment of an atom or molecule is proportionate to applied
+
electric field. i.e. p Eo
or p = E
Or, it is redrawn as under : The induced charge p is due to this polarization, hence
p = .
Q
or ( 0 + ). =
S
In the above arrangement, if ratio c1/c2 = c3/c4
then the bridge is said to be balanced. In such case . =
or
the potential at point Q and S are equal.
is called electric displacement in dielectric.
The quantity
The potential across c5 is zero hence it does not
carry any charge. In this way it is not participating We can prove that K = 1+ e
in storage of charges. Then it can be omitted for
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