Glossary of Organisation Behavior

absenteeism Failure to show up for work. (4)

acceptance theory of authority The theory that the manager's authority depends on the subordinate's
acceptance of the manager's right to give directives and to expect compliance with them. (16)
accommodation Occurs when the parties' goals are compatible and the interaction between groups is relatively
unimportant to the goals' attainment. (11)
adhocracy This structure is typically found in young organizations in highly technical fields. Within it, decision
making is spread throughout the organization, power resides with the experts, horizontal and vertical
specialization exists, and there is little formalization. (17)
administrative hierarchy The system of reporting relationships in the organization, from the lowest to the
highest managerial levels. (16)
affect A person's feelings toward something. (4)
affinity group Collections of employees from the same level in the organization who meet on a regular basis to
share information, capture emerging opportunities, and solve problems. (11)
agreeableness A person's ability to get along with others. (4)
all-channel network In this type of network, all members communicate with all other members. (10)
applied research Conducted to solve particular problems or answer specific questions. (Appendix A)
assimilation The process through which a minority group learns the ways of the dominant group. In
organizations, this means that when people of different types and backgrounds are hired, the organization
attempts to mold them to fit the existing organizational culture. (3)
attitudes A person's complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people. (4)
attribution theory Suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based on observations of certain
characteristics of that behavior. Employees observe their own behavior, determine whether it is a response to
external or internal factors, and shape their future motivated behavior accordingly. (4, 6)
authoritarianism The belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems
such as organizations. (4)
authority Power that has been legitimized within a particular social context. (16)
autonomous work groups Groups used to integrate an organization's technical and social systems for the
benefit of large systems. (17)
avoidance (negative reinforcement) The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after
exhibiting behavior. Avoidance occurs when the interacting parties' goals are incompatible and the interaction
between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals. (6, 11)

basic research Involves discovering new knowledge rather than solving specific problems. (Appendix A)
behavioral approach Approach to leadership that tries to identify behaviors that differentiated effec-tive leaders
from nonleaders. It uses rules of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions. (13, 15)
benefits An important form of indirect compensation. (8)
"big five" personality traits A set of fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations. (4)
bounded rationality The idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and
alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it. (15)
brainstorming A technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in the
development of numerous alternative courses of action. (15)
burnout A general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much
pressure and has too few sources of satisfaction. (9)

career A perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviors associated with work-related experiences and activities
over a person's life span. (Appendix B)
career pathing The identification of a certain sequence of jobs in a career that represents a progression through
the organization. (Appendix B)
career planning Process in which individuals evaluate their abilities and interests, consider alternative career
opportunities, establish career goals, and plan practical development activities. (Appendix B)
career stages The periods in which an individual's work life is characterized by specific needs, concerns, tasks,
and activities. (Appendix B)
career management The process of implementing organizational career planning. (Appendix B)
case study An in-depth analysis of one setting. (Appendix A)
centralization A structural policy in which decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the
organizational hierarchy. (16)
certainty Condition under which the manager knows the outcomes of each alternative. (15)
chain network In this type of network, each member communicates with the person above and below, except for
the individuals on each end who communicate with only one person. (10)
change agent A person responsible for managing a change effort. (19)
channel noise A disturbance in communication that is primarily a function of the medium. (10)
charisma A form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance from others. (14)
charismatic leadership A type of influence based on the leader's personal charisma. (14)
circle network In this type of network, each member communicates with the people on both sides but with no
one else. (10)
classical conditioning A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned
stimulus. (6)
classical organization theory An early approach to management that focused on how organizations can be
structured most effectively to meet their goals. (1)
coercive power The extent to which a person has the ability to punish or physically or psychologically harm
someone else. (14)
cognition The knowledge a person presumes to have about something. (4)
cognitive dissonance The anxiety a person experiences when he or she simultaneously possesses two sets of
knowledge or perceptions that are contradictory or incongruent. (4, 15)
collaboration Occurs when the interaction between groups is very important to goal attainment and the goals
are compatible. (11)
collectivism The extent to which people emphasize the good of the group or society. (3)
command group A relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships; usually included in
the organization chart. (11)
communication The social process in which two or more parties exchange information and share meaning. (10)
communication and decision-making The stage of group development where members discuss their feelings
more openly and agree on group goals and individual roles in the group. (11)
communication networks Networks that form spontaneously and naturally as the interactions among workers
continue over time. (10)
compensation package The total array of money (wages, salary, commission), incentives, benefits, perquisites,
and awards provided by the organization to an employee. (8)
competition Occurs when the goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to
meeting goals. (11)
competitive strategy An outline of how a business intends to compete with other firms in the same industry. (2)
compressed work week A situation in which employees work a full forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional
five days. (7)
compromise Occurs when the interaction is moderately important to meeting goals and the goals are neither
completely compatible nor completely incompatible. (11)
conceptual skills Used to think in the abstract. (2)
configuration An organization's shape, which reflects the division of labor and the means of coordinating the
divided tasks. (16)
conflict A disagreement among parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics. (11)
conflict model A very personal approach to decision making because it deals with the personal conflicts that
people experience in particularly difficult decision situations. (15)
conflict resolution Occurs when a manager resolves a conflict that has become harmful or serious. (11)
conflict stimulation The creation and constructive use of conflict by a manager. (11)
conscientiousness The number of goals on which a person focuses. (4)
consideration behavior Involves being concerned with subordinates' feelings and respecting subordinates'
ideas. (13)
contingency approach An approach to organization design where the desired outcomes for the organization
can be achieved in several ways. (17)
contingency perspective Suggests that, in most organizations, situations and outcomes are contingent on, or
influenced by, other variables. (1)
contingency plans Alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or
rendered inappropriate. (15)
continuous improvement Perspective suggesting that performance should constantly be enhanced. (8)
continuous reinforcement With this type of reinforcement, behavior is rewarded every time it occurs. (6)
contributions An individual's contributions to an organization include such things as effort, skills, ability, time,
and loyalty. (4)
control and organization The stage of group development where the group is mature; members work together
and are flexible, adaptive, and self-correcting. (11)
controlling The process of monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and its members to keep
them directed toward their goals. (2)
cosmopolite Links the organization to the external environment and may also be an opinion leader in the group.
(10)
creativity A person's ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas. (4)
cultural values The values that employees need to have and act on for the organization to act on the strategic
values. (18)

decision making The process of choosing from among several alternatives. (15)
decision-making roles There are four basic decision-making roles: the entrepreneur, the disturbance handler,
the resource allocator, and the negotiator. (2)
decision rule A statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of
the decision situation. (15)
decoding The process by which the receiver of the message interprets its meaning. (10)
defensive avoidance Entails making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact with
associated issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution. (15)
delegation The transfer to others of authority to make decisions and use organizational resources. (16)
Delphi technique A method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts.
(15)
departmentalization The manner in which divided tasks are combined and allocated to work groups. (16)
diagnostic skills Used to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to
problems. (2)
distress The unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events. (9)
division of labor The way the organization's work is divided into different jobs to be done by different people.
(16)
divisionalized form This structure is typical of old, very large organizations. Within it, the organization is divided
according to the different markets served. Horizontal and vertical specialization exists between divisions and
headquarters, decision making is divided between headquarters and divisions, and outputs are standardized.
(17)
downsizing The process of purposely becoming smaller by reducing the size of the workforce or shedding
divisions or businesses. (2)
dual-structure theory Identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which affect
dissatisfaction. (5)
dysfunctional behaviors Those that detract from organizational performance. (4)

effort-to-performance expectancy A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance.
(6)
employee-centered leader behavior Involves attempting to build effective work groups with high performance
goals. (13)
empowerment The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve
problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority. (7, 18)
encoding The process by which the message is translated from an idea or thought into transmittable symbols.
(10)
entry stage (exploration stage) Characterized by self-examination, role tryouts, and occupational exploration.
(Appendix B)
environmental complexity The number of environmental components that impinge on organizational decision
making. (17)
environmental dynamism The degree to which environmental components that impinge on organizational
decision making change. (17)
environmental uncertainty Exists when managers have little information about environmental events and their
impact on the organization. (17)
equity The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others. (6)
equity theory Focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived
inequity. (6)
ERG theory Describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs. (5)
escalation of commitment The tendency to persist in an ineffective course of action when evidence reveals that
the project cannot succeed. (15)
establishment stage (settling-down stage) Stage in which the individual gets more recognition for
improvement. (Appendix B)
ethics An individual's personal beliefs about what is right and wrong or good and bad. (2, 15)
eustress The pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events. (9)
exit (withdrawal) stage Characterized by a pattern of decreasing performance as individuals prepare to move
on or retire. (Appendix B)
expectancy theory Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood
they perceive of getting it. (6)
expert power The extent to which a person controls information that is valuable to someone else. (14)
extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows
that behavior. (6)
extraversion The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is
characterized by more social discomfort. (4)

feedback The process in which the receiver returns a message to the sender that indicates receipt of the
message. (10)
fidelity The degree of correspondence between the message intended by the source and the message
understood by the receiver. (10)
field experiment Similar to a laboratory experiment but is conducted in a real organization. (Appendix A)
field survey Typically relies on a questionnaire distributed to a sample of people selected from a larger
population. (Appendix A)
fixed-interval reinforcement Provides reinforcement on a fixed time schedule. (6)
fixed-ratio reinforcement Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors. (6)
flexible reward system Allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suits their needs. (8)
flexible work schedules (flextime) These schedules give employees more personal control over the hours they
work each day. (7)
formal group Formed by an organization to do its work. (11)
formalization The degree to which rules and procedures shape the jobs and activities of employees. (16)
friendship group A group that is relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social
relationships among its members. (11)

gatekeeper An individual who has a strategic position in the network that allows him or her to control information
moving in either direction through a channel. (10)
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) Identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and
exhaustion. (9)
general environment The broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates, including
political-legal, sociocultural, technological, economic, and international factors. (17)
goal A desirable objective. (8)
goal acceptance The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own. (8)
goal commitment The extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal. (8)
goal compatibility The extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same
time. (11)
goal difficulty The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. (8)
goal specificity The clarity and precision of a goal. (8)
grapevine An informal system of communication that coexists with the formal system. (10)
group Two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by
each other person. (11)
group cohesiveness The extent to which a group is committed to staying together. (11)
group composition The degree of similarity or difference among group members on factors important to the
group's work. (11)
group performance factors Composition, size, norms, and cohesiveness. They affect the success of the group
in fulfilling its goals. (11)
group polarization The tendency for a group's average postdiscussion attitudes to be more extreme than its
average prediscussion attitudes. (15)
group size The number of members of the group; it affects the number of resources available to perform the
task. (11)
groupthink Occurs when a group's overriding concern is a unanimous decision rather than critical analysis of
alternatives. (11, 15)
hardiness A person's ability to cope with stress. (9)
Hawthorne studies Conducted between 1927 and 1932, these studies led to some of the first discoveries of the
importance of human behavior in organizations. (1)
Hersey and Blanchard model Identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with
different levels of organizational maturity on the part of followers. (13)
hierarchy of needs theory Maslow's hierarchy that assumes human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of
importance. (5)
human organization Rensis Likert's approach that is based on supportive relationships, participation, and
overlapping work groups. (16)
human relations Movement based on the assumption that employee satisfaction is a key determinant of
performance. It marked the beginning of organizational behavior. (1)
human relations approach Suggested that favorable employee attitudes result in motivation to work hard. (5)
human resource planning Forecasting the organization's human resource needs, developing replacement
charts (charts showing planned succession of personnel) for all levels of the organization, and preparing
inventories of the skills and abilities individuals need to move within the organization. (Appendix B)
hygiene factors These factors are extrinsic to the work itself. They include factors such as pay and job security.
(5)
hypervigilance A frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy. (15)

ideal bureaucracy Weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and
procedures designed to create an optimally effective system for large organizations. (16)
impression management A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her own image in the
eyes of others. (14)
incentive systems Plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of
performance. (8)
incremental innovation Continues the technical improvement and extends the applications of radical and
systems innovations. (18)
incubation A period of less intense conscious concentration during which a creative person lets the knowledge
and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop. (4)
individual differences Personal attributes that vary from one person to another. (4)
individualism The extent to which people place primary value on themselves. (3)
inducements The tangible and intangible rewards provided by organizations to individuals. (4)
inequity The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others. (6)
influence The ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviors of others. (14)
informal group A group that is established by its members. (11)
informational roles The monitor, the disseminator, and the spokesperson. (2)
initiating-structure behavior Involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know
what is expected of them. (13)
innovation The process of creating and doing new things that are introduced into the marketplace as products,
processes, or services. (18)
insight The stage in the creative process when all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during
incubation come together to produce a breakthrough. (4)
intention A component of an attitude that guides a person's behavior. (4)
interactionalism Suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals'
behavior. (1)
interest group A group that is relatively temporary and informal and is organized around a common activity or
interest of its members. (11)
interpersonal demands Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and personality conflicts. (9)
interpersonal roles There are three important interpersonal roles: the figurehead, the leader, and the liaison. (2)
interpersonal skills Used to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups. (2)
intrapreneurship Entrepreneurial activity that takes place within the context of a large corporation. (18)
isolate Individual who tends to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others. (10)
isolated dyad Two people who tend to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others. (10)

argon The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or social group. (10)
job analysis The process of systematically gathering information about specific jobs to use in developing a
performance measurement system, to write job or position descriptions, and to develop equitable pay systems.
(8)
job characteristics approach Focuses on the motivational attributes of jobs. (7)
job characteristics theory Identifies three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness of the work,
experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results. (7)
job design How organizations define and structure jobs. (7)
job enlargement Involves giving workers more tasks to perform. (7)
job enrichment Entails giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform them. (7)
job hopping Occurs when an individual makes fewer adjustments within the organization and moves to different
organizations to advance his or her career. (Appendix B)
job rotation Systematically moving workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and
boredom. (7)
job satisfaction The extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. (4)
job sharing A situation in which two or more part-time employees share one full-time job. (7)
job specialization Advocated by scientific management. It can help improve efficiency, but it can also promote
monotony and boredom. (7)
job-centered leader behavior Involves paying close attention to the work of subordinates, explaining work
procedures, and demonstrating a strong interest in performance. (13)

laboratory experiment Involves creating an artificial setting similar to a real work situation to allow control over
almost every possible factor in that setting. (Appendix A)
leader-member exchange (LMX) This model of leadership stresses the fact that leaders develop unique working
relationships with each of their subordinates. (13)
leadership Both a process and a property. As a process, leadership involves the use of noncoercive influence.
As a property, leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to someone who is perceived to use influence
successfully. (13)
Leadership Grid Evaluates leadership behavior along two dimensions, concern for production and concern for
people, and suggests that effective leadership styles include high levels of both behaviors. (13)
leadership substitutes Individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's
ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction and performance. (14)
leading The process of getting the organization's members to work together toward the organization's goals. (2)
learning A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience. (6)
learning organization An organization that works to facilitate the lifelong learning and personal development of
all of its employees while continually transforming itself to respond to changing demands and needs. (8)
least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale Presumes to measure a leader's motivation. (13)
legitimate power Power that is granted by virtue of one's position in the organization. (14)
liaison An individual who serves as a bridge between groups, tying groups together and facilitating the
communication flow needed to integrate group activities. (10)
life change Any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation; too many life changes can lead to
health problems. (9)
life trauma Any upheaval in an individual's life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviors. (9)
linking role A position for a person or group that serves to coordinate the activities of two or more organizational
groups. (11)
locus of control The extent to which people believe their circumstances are a function of their own actions
versus external factors beyond their control. (4)
long-term orientation Focused on the future. (3)
LPC theory of leadership Suggests that a leader's effectiveness depends on the situation. (13)

Machiavellianism A personality trait. People who possess this trait behave to gain power and to control the
behavior of others. (4)
machine bureaucracy This structure is typical of large, well-established organizations. Work is highly
specialized and formalized, and decision making is usually concentrated at the top. (17)
management by objectives (MBO) A collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals
cascade down throughout the organization. (8)
management functions Set forth by Henri Fayol; they include planning, organizing, command, coordination, and
control. (16)
management teams Consist of managers from various areas; they coordinate work teams. (12)
masculinity The extent to which the dominant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition
of money and material goods, rather than concern for people, relationships among people, and the overall quality
of life. (3)
mastery stage The stage where individuals develop a stronger attachment to their organizations and lose some
career flexibility; performance may vary. (Appendix B)
matrix design Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each; typically combined are a product or
project departmentalization scheme and a functional structure. (17)
mechanistic structure This structure is primarily hierarchical. Within it, interactions and communications are
typically vertical, instructions come from the boss, knowledge is concentrated at the top, and loyalty and
obedience are required to sustain membership. (17)
medium The channel or path through which the message is transmitted. (10)
mentoring Occurs when an older, more experienced person helps a younger employee grow and advance by
providing advice, support, and encouragement. (Appendix B)
Michigan leadership studies These studies defined job-centered and employee-centered leadership as
opposite ends of a single leadership continuum. (13)
motivation The set of forces that lead people to behave in particular ways. (5)
motivation and productivity The stage of group development in which members cooperate, help each other,
and work toward accomplishing tasks. (11)
motivation factors These factors are intrinsic to the work itself. They include factors such as achievement and
recognition. (5)
motive A factor that determines a person's choice of one course of behavior from among several possibilities. (5)
multicultural organization The multicultural organization has six characteristics: pluralism, full structural
integration, full integration of informal networks, an absence of prejudice and discrimination, equal identification
among employees with organizational goals for majority and minority groups, and low levels of intergroup conflict.
(3)
mutual acceptance The stage of group development that is characterized by members sharing information
about themselves and getting to know each other. (11)

need Anything an individual requires or wants. (5)

need for achievement The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than in the past. (5)
need for affiliation The need for human companionship. (5)
need for power The desire to control the resources in one's environment. (5)
need theories of motivation These theories assume that need deficiencies cause behavior. (5)
negative affectivity People who possess this trait are generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a
negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood. (4)
negative emotionality Characterized by moodiness and insecurity; those who have little negative emotionality
are better able to withstand stress. (4)
negative reinforcement (avoidance) The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after
exhibiting behavior. (6)
negotiation The process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement even though they
have different preferences. (15)
noise Any disturbance in the communication process that interferes with or distorts communication. (10)
nominal group technique Technique in which group members follow a generate-discussion-vote cycle until they
reach an appropriate decision. (15)
nonprogrammed decision A decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established
decision rule. (15)
norm A standard against which the appropriateness of a behavior is judged. (11)

occupation A group of jobs that are similar with respect to the type of tasks and training involved. (Appendix B)
Ohio State leadership studies These studies defined leader consideration and initiating-structure behaviors as
independent dimensions of leadership. (13)
open system A system that interacts with its environment. (17)
openness The capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information. (4)
optimism The extent to which a person sees life in relatively positive or negative terms. (9)
organic structure This structure is set up like a network. Within it, interactions and communications are
horizontal, knowledge resides wherever it is most useful to the organization, and membership requires a
commitment to the organization's tasks. (17)
organization A group of people working together to attain common goals. (16)
organization chart A diagram showing all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal
communication in the organization. (16)
organization climate Current situations in an organization and the linkages among work groups, employees,
and work performance. (18)
organization culture The set of values that helps the organization's employees understand which actions are
considered acceptable and which unacceptable. (18)
organization development The process of planned change and improvement of the organization through
application of knowledge of the behavioral sciences. (19)
organization structure The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which the organization
does its work. (16)
organizational behavior The study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human
behavior and the organization, and the organization itself. (1)
organizational behavior modification (OB mod) The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings. (6)
organizational citizenship The extent to which a person's behavior makes a positive overall contribution to the
organization. (4)
organizational commitment A person's identification with and attachment to an organization. (4)
organizational downsizing A popular trend aimed at reducing the size of corporate staff and middle
management to reduce costs. (17)
organizational environment Everything outside an organization. It includes all elements, people, other
organizations, economic factors, objects, and events that lie outside the boundaries of the organization. (17)
organizational goals Objectives that management seeks to achieve in pursuing the firm's purpose. (16)
organizational politics Activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources
to obtain their desired outcomes. (14)
organizational socialization The process through which employees learn about the firm's culture and pass their
knowledge and understanding on to others. (18)
organizational stressors Factors in the workplace that can cause stress. (9)
organizational technology The mechanical and intellectual processes that transform inputs into outputs. (17)
organizing The process of designing jobs, grouping jobs into units, and establishing patterns of authority
between jobs and units. (2)
outcome Anything that results from performing a particular behavior. (6)
overdetermination Occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees
and systems behave as expected to maintain stability. (19)

participation The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work. (7)
path-goal theory of leadership Suggests that effective leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to
desired rewards (goals). (13)
perception The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the
environment. (4)
performance behaviors The total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to
display. (4)
performance measurement (performance appraisal) The process by which someone (1) evaluates an
employee's work behaviors by measurement and comparison with previously established standards, (2)
documents the results, and (3) communicates the results to the employee. (8)
performance plan An understanding between an employee and a manager concerning what and how a job is to
be done such that both parties know what is expected and how success is defined and measured. (8)
performance-to-outcome expectancy An individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to
certain outcomes. (6)
perquisites Special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers. (8)
personal power Resides in the person, regardless of the position he or she fills. (14)
personality The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another. (4)
person-job fit The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by
the organization. (4)
physical demands Stressors associated with the job's physical setting, such as the adequacy of temperature
and lighting and the physical requirements the job makes on the employee. (9)
planning The process of determining an organization's desired future position and the best means of getting
there. (2)
pluralistic organization An organization that has diverse membership and takes steps to fully involve all people
who differ from the dominant group. (3)
position power Resides in the position, regardless of who is filling that position. (14)
positive affectivity People who possess this trait are upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being,
and see things in a positive light. (4)
positive reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting
behavior. (6)
power The potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group. (14)
power distance The extent to which less powerful persons accept the unequal distribution of power. (3)
practical approach The approach to decision making that combines the steps of the rational approach with the
conditions in the behavioral approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations.
(15)
PRAM model This model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building
relationships, reaching agreements, and maintaining relationships. (15)
prejudices Judgments about others that reinforce beliefs about superiority and inferiority. (3)
preparation Usually the first stage in the creative process. It includes education and formal training. (4)
primary dimensions of diversity Factors that are either inborn or exert extraordinary influence on early
socialization: age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, race, and sexual orientation. (3)
primary needs The basic physical requirements necessary to sustain life. (5)
problem solving A form of decision making in which the issue is unique and alternatives must be developed and
evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule. (15)
problem-solving teams Temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the workplace. (12)
procedural justice The extent to which the dynamics of an organization's decision-making processes are judged
to be fair by those most affected by them. (18)
process-based perspectives These perspectives focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their
needs. (6)
product development teams Combinations of work teams and problem-solving teams that create new designs
for products or services that will satisfy customer needs. (12)
productivity An indicator of how much an organization is creating relative to its inputs. (2)
professional bureaucracy This structure is characterized by horizontal specialization by professional area of
expertise, little formalization, and decentralized decision making. (17)
programmed decision A decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed. (15)
psychological contract A person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the
organization and what the organization, in return, will provide to the individual. (4)
punishment An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior. (6)

quality The total set of features and characteristics of a product or service that determine its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs. (2)
quality circles Small groups of employees from the same work area who regularly meet to discuss and
recommend solutions to workplace problems. (12)
quality of work life The extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences
in the organization. (19)

radical innovation A major breakthrough that changes or creates whole industries. (18)
rational decision-making approach A systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions. (15)
receiver The individual, group, or organization that perceives the encoded symbols; the receiver may or may not
decode them and try to understand the intended message. (10)
reengineering The radical redesign of organizational processes to achieve major gains in cost, time, and
provision of services. (17)
referent power Exists when one person wants to be like or imitates someone else. (14)
refreezing The process of making new behaviors relatively permanent and resistant to further change. (19)
reinforcement The consequences of behavior. (6)
reinforcement discrimination The process of recognizing differences between behavior and reinforcement in
different settings. (6)
reinforcement generalization The process through which a person extends recognition of similar or identical
behavior-reinforcement relationships to different settings. (6)
reinforcement theory This theory is based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences. (6)
reliability The extent to which a measure is consistent over time. (Appendix A)
research design The set of procedures used to test the predicted relationships among natural phenomena.
(Appendix A)
responsibility An obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output. (16)
rethinking Looking at organization design in totally different ways, perhaps even abandoning the classic view of
the organization as a pyramid. (17)
reward power The extent to which a person controls rewards that another person values. (14)
reward system The system that consists of all organizational components, including people, processes, rules
and procedures, and decision-making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in
exchange for their contributions to the organization. (8)
risk Condition under which the decision maker cannot know with certainty what the outcome of a given action will
be but has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes. (15)
risk propensity The degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions. (4)
role A set of expected behaviors associated with a particular position in a group or organization. (9)
role ambiguity Arises when a role is unclear. (9)
role conflict Occurs when the messages and cues constituting a role are clear but contradictory or mutually
exclusive. (9)
role demands Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to play. (9)
role overload Occurs when expectations for the role exceed the individual's capabilities. (9)

satisficing Examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found. (15)
schedules of reinforcement Indicate when or how often managers should reinforce certain behaviors. (6)
scientific management One of the first approaches to management. It focused on the efficiency of individual
workers and assumed that employees are motivated by money. (1, 5)
scientific research The systematic investigation of hypothesized propositions about the relationships among
natural phenomena. (Appendix A)
secondary dimensions of diversity Factors that are important to us as individuals and to some extent define us
to others but are less permanent and can be adapted or changed: educational background, geographic location,
income, marital status, military experience, parental status, religious beliefs, and work experience. (3)
secondary needs The requirements learned from the environment and culture in which the person lives. (5)
selective perception The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts
our beliefs. (4)
self-efficacy The extent to which we believe we can accomplish our goals even if we failed to do so in the past.
(4, 8)
self-esteem The extent to which a person believes he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual. (4)
self-reactions Comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards. (15)
semantics The study of language forms. (10)
short-term orientation Focused on the past or present. (3)
simple structure This structure is typical of relatively small or new organizations and has little specialization or
formalization. Within this structure, power and decision making are concentrated in the chief executive. (17)
social learning Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter
their own behavior as a result. (6)
social loafing The tendency of some members of groups to put forth less effort in a group than they would when
working alone. (11)
social responsibility An organization's social responsibility is its obligation to protect and contribute to the social
environment in which it functions. (2)
social subsystem Includes the interpersonal relationships that develop among people in organizations. (17)
socialization The process through which individuals become social beings. (18)
sociotechnical systems approach An approach to organization design that views the organization as an open
system structured to integrate the technical and social subsystems into a single management system. (17)
source The individual, group, or organization interested in communicating something to another party. (10)
span of control The number of people who report to a manager. (16)
stereotypes Rigid judgments about others that ignore the specific person and the current situation. Acceptance
of stereotypes can lead to the dangerous process of prejudice toward others. (3)
stereotyping The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute. (4)
strategic values The basic beliefs about an organization's environment that shape its strategy. (18)
strategy The plans and actions necessary to achieve organizational goals. (17)
stress A person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on
that person. (9)
structural change A systemwide organization development involving a major restructuring of the organization or
instituting programs such as quality of work life. (19)
structural imperatives The three structural imperatives, environment, technology, and size, are the three
primary determinants of organization structure. (17)
suboptimizing Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on
other aspects of the organization. (15)
superleadership Occurs when a leader gradually and purposefully turns over power, responsibility, and control
to a self-managing work group. (14)
superordinate goal An organizational goal that is more important to the well-being of the organization and its
members than the more specific goals of interacting parties. (11)
surface value The objective meaning or worth a reward has to an employee. (8)
symbolic value The subjective and personal meaning or worth a reward has to an employee. (8)
system A set of interrelated elements functioning as a whole. (1, 17)
systems innovation Creates a new functionality by assembling parts in new ways. (18)

task demands Stressors associated with the specific job a person performs. (9)
task environment This environment includes specific organizations, groups, and individuals that influence the
organization. (17)
task group A relatively temporary, formal group established to do a specific task. (11)
team A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common
performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. (12)
technical (task) subsystem The means by which inputs are transformed into outputs. (17)
technical skills The skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization. (2)
technology The mechanical and intellectual processes used to transform inputs into products and services. (2)
telecommuting A work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site. (7)
Theory X Concept described by Douglas McGregor indicating an approach to management that takes a negative
and pessimistic view of workers. (1)
Theory Y Concept described by Douglas McGregor reflecting an approach to management that takes a positive
and optimistic perspective on workers. (1)
360-degree feedback Performance management system in which people receive performance feedback from
those on all sides of them in the organization: their boss, their colleagues and peers, and their own subordinates.
(8)
total quality management (TQM) A form of management that focuses on the customer, an environment of trust
and openness, working in teams, breaking down internal organizational barriers, team leadership and coaching,
shared power, and continuous improvement. Use of this approach often involves fundamental changes in the
organization's culture. (8)
trait approach This approach attempted to identify stable and enduring character traits that differentiated
effective leaders from nonleaders. (13)
transformational leadership The set of abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change, to
create a vision to guide that change, and to execute that change effectively. (14)
transition management The process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change. (19)
transmission The process through which the symbols that represent a message are sent to the receiver. (10)
trial stage (socialization stage) Stage in which individuals more specifically explore jobs and performance
begins to improve. (Appendix B)
turnover When people quit their jobs. (4)
type A People who are extremely competitive, highly committed to work, and have a strong sense of time
urgency. (9)
type B People who are less competitive, less committed to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency. (9)
Type Z firm This type of firm is committed to retaining employees; evaluates workers' performance based on
both qualitative and quantitative information; emphasizes broad career paths; exercises control through informal,
implicit mechanisms; requires that decision making occur in groups and be based on full information sharing and
consensus; expects individuals to take responsibility for decisions; and emphasizes concern for people. (18)

uncertainty Condition under which the decision maker lacks enough information to estimate the probability of
possible outcomes. (15)
uncertainty avoidance The extent to which people prefer to be in clear and unambiguous situations. (3)
unconflicted adherence Continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks. (15)
unconflicted change Involves making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks. (15)
unfreezing The process by which people become aware of the need for change. (19)
universal approach An approach to organization design where prescriptions or propositions are designed to
work in any circumstance. (17)

valence The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person. (6)
validity The extent to which a measure actually reflects what it was intended to measure. (Appendix A)
valuing diversity Means putting an end to the assumption that everyone who is not a member of the dominant
group must assimilate. The first step is to recognize that diversity exists in organizations so that we can begin to
manage it. (3)
variable-interval reinforcement Varies the amount of time between reinforcements. (6)
variable-ratio reinforcement Varies the number of behaviors between reinforcements. (6)
verification The final stage of the creative process where the validity or truthfulness of the insight is determined.
(4) The feedback portion of communication in which the receiver sends a message to the source indicating
receipt of the message and the degree to which he or she understood the message. (10)
vigilant information processing Involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs
and benefits before making a decision, and developing contingency plans. (15)
virtual organization A temporary alliance between two or more organizations that band together to undertake a
specific venture. (17)
virtual teams Teams that work together by computer and other electronic communication utilities; members
move in and out of meetings and the team itself as the situation dictates. (12)
Vroom's decision tree approach to leadership This model attempts to prescribe how much participation
subordinates should be allowed in making decisions. (13)

wheel network In this type of network, information flows between the person at the end of each spoke and the
person in the middle. (10)
work teams Include all the people working in an area, are relatively permanent, and do the daily work, making
decisions regarding how the work of the team is done. (12)
workforce diversity The similarities and differences in such characteristics as age, gender, ethnic heritage,
physical abilities and disabilities, race, and sexual orientation among the employees of organizations. (3)
work-life relationships The interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life. (9)
workplace behavior The pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences
organizational effectiveness. (4)
Accommodating. Conflict management style that is low on assertiveness and is high on
cooperativeness. It involves a deliberate decision to let the other partys goals get met
with little concern or unconcern for yourself.
Ad hoc committee. A type of group which is a relatively temporary task group existence
of which limits to complete the specific task assigned.
Adhocracy. An organizational design which has minimal formalization and order with
selectively decentralized decision making at the support staff. This design is a highly
informal, organic, rather than mechanistic, configuration in which specialists work in
teams.
Affective commitment. The degree to which the employee is loyal to the organisation
owing to the reason that he or she respects and appreciates the organisational vision,
mission and strategic goals. It is the extent to which an employee is attached with his
or her organization and is interested in staying within it because his or her values are
congruent with the organizations dominant values.
Alderfers ERG theory. A needs theory developed by Clayton P. Alderfer in 1972 which
focuses on that humans have three basic need categories such as Existence, Relatedness
and Growth.
Anchoring. A recommendation for achieving success in distributive negotiation under
which, final offer is presented by showing the gains received by the other negotiator
so that he/she accepts the offer.
Assertiveness. One dimension of conflict resolution in the model developed by Thomas
meaning the extent to which you want your own concerns satisfied.
Attitude. A persistent way of a persons thinking, feeling, and intending to behave toward
some object. It shows how one thinks, feels, and tends to behave with regard to
people or/and things.
Attribution approach. A leadership approach in which within a certain period of time, job
performance of subordinates is generally evaluated by their leader who observes his
or her followers job performance and then attempts to ascribe why this behaviour
(job performance) met, failed to meet or exceeded his or her performance
expectations.
Authority. The legal right to influence another person. It is the legitimate right of a
manager to obey others, give orders, to use resources and to make decisions.
Autocratic style. A leadership style in which the leader has low in consideration but high
in initiating structure (in the Ohio State University studies).
Avoiding. Conflict management style that is low on both assertiveness and
cooperativeness. It involves a deliberate decision not to take any action on a conflict
or to stay out of the conflict.
BATNA. Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement. It is the best-case scenario that is
available to you if you cannot reach agreement in the negotiation at hand.
Benchmarking. A systematic attempt of comparing products, processes and people with
those of competitive organizations in order to imitate and improve on them.
locking role. A type of role that is concerned with preventing the group from achieving
its goal. It includes activities of a group member which focus on his or her own well-
being, often at the expense of other group members, disturbing the group reach its
goal.
Bluffing. A tactic negotiators play. It is an act of deceiving the other party by making
him/her believe that you will do something when indeed you have no intention of
doing it.
Boss-centered leader. A more autocratic manager who displays leadership behaviour
toward left of the Tannenbaum and Schmidts Leadership Continuum.
Boundaryless organization. A new organizational design. It is an organization where chain
of command is attempted to eliminate, spans of control are made unlimited, and rigid
departments are replaced with empowered teams. It is an organization where the
traditional boundaries which separated an organization into separate departments are
made blurred (rather than having clearly defined roles of managers and non-managers
and precise hierarchical systems).
Brainstorming. A well-known group structure for the purposes of generating alternatives
and forming creative ideas. It involves a free-wheeling, face-to-face meeting where
group members are encouraged to speak freely. Members can present their ideas in a
casual way without feeling restricted by accepted ways of doing things.
Centralization. Concentration of decision-making authority at the top of the
organizational hierarchy.
Chain of command. The formal channel through which authority, responsibility and
communications are routed. It involves a series of superior-subordinate relationships
starting at the top of the organization with the chief executive officer and progressing
down to the lowest level employee.
Change agent. The assistant who may be an insider (a very senior manager) or an
outsider (a consultant) appointed to facilitate the planned change.
Changing. The second step in the planned organizational change introduced by Kurt
Lewin. It involves a serious attempt to substitute new attitudes, ideas, values,
behaviours, and practices for old ones.
Charismatic leadership. The ability based on charisma to influence others to achieve
leaders goals. There are three major types or styles of charismatic leadership:
envisioning, energizing, and enabling.
Coercive power. A type of power that is the ability to punish others.
Cognitive dissonance. The tension which occurs within the person when there is a conflict
or inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour.
Cognitive intelligence. The general reasoning ability which refers to a systematic process
of arriving at a particular conclusion by thinking carefully about all information that is
given or available. It can be divided into specific mental abilities such as non-verbal
reasoning, verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, analytical reasoning, logical
diagrams reasoning, symbolic reasoning, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning,
and abstract reasoning.
Collaborating. Conflict management style that is high on both assertiveness and
cooperativeness. It involves a serious open and thorough discussion of the conflict and
arriving at a solution which makes both parties satisfy.
Collectivism. The degree to which people in a country prefer to act as members of groups
instead of individuals.
Command group. A type of formal group of people who are officially linked in the
organizational hierarchy. It is a relatively permanent formal group consisting of
individuals who directly report to a given manager.
Committee. A task group which is a formal group of people who are appointed to
perform certain special works or tasks. There are two types of committees: standing
committees and ad hoc committees.
Competency barriers. Obstructions which occur owing to the reasons that the sender does
not possess a good ability to do writing or speaking, and that the receiver does not
possess a good ability to do listening or reading.
Competing. Conflict management style that is high on assertiveness and is low on
cooperativeness. It involves a deliberate decision to be very assertive and
uncooperative.
Complementary transaction. A transaction involving that the stimulus made by the person
from one ego state becomes parallel with the response given by the other from an
ego state.
Compromising. Conflict management style that is intermediate or average on both
assertiveness and cooperativeness. It involves a situation where each party gives up
something to reach a solution to the conflict which is acceptable to the both parties.
Conflict. A serious disagreement at least between two persons or parties with regard to an
important thing in which either persons or parties are interested. It is a dispute,
turmoil, fight, struggle or agitation which arises due to a reason or reasons at work
needing a resolution.
Consideration. A leadership behaviour in which leader demonstrates concern with the
welfare of subordinates and establishes good relationships with them.
Contingency approach. An OB perspective which suggests that solutions to problems
depend on elements of the situation.
Continuance commitment. The degree to which the employee is loyal to the organisation
owing to the reason that he or she cannot afford to leave. It is the extent to which an
employee is attached with his or her organization and is interested in staying within it
because his or her resigning has a huge cost that is unaffordable.
Continuous reinforcement. The application of reinforcers for each occurrence of expected
or relevant behaviour. Each exhibition of the behaviour is reinforced.
Cooperativeness. One dimension of conflict resolution in the model developed by
Thomas meaning the extent to which you want to see other partys concerns satisfied.
Core values. Values which are in the dominant culture and which are the primary values
that are accepted throughout the organization.
Counterpower. Power possessed by a subordinate on whom a superior has to depend on
to get much work done.
Criterion of justice. Individuals who are similar in terms of responsibilities and
contributions should be treated similarly and individuals who are dissimilar in terms of
responsibilities and contributions should be treated dissimilarly.
Criterion of rights. An action that does not violate the rights of the parties is ethical. A
human being has certain fundamental rights which need to be accepted, respected and
protected. One right is the right of privacy (right to choose own life style off the job;
to deny access to information about private affairs).
Criterion of utility. An action that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of
people is moral.
Customer satisfaction. The extent to which customers of the organization are happy
because of meeting their relevant needs and/or wants.
Decentralization. Distribution of decision-making authority throughout the organizational
hierarchy.
Decoding. An important step of the communication process in which the receiver does
interpreting and trying to make sense of the message. By decoding the message the
receiver understands what the sender wants to convey or express.
Delphi method. A special kind of expert survey that involves gathering the judgments of
experts for use in decision making or predicting a future state of affairs (e.g.,
employee job vacancies, corporate sales in 5 years). Its purpose is to obtain the most
reliable consensus of opinion of a group of experts with regard to the issue.
Democratic style. A leadership style in which the leader is high on both consideration and
initiating structure (in the Ohio State University studies).
Departmentalization. The process of grouping jobs into organizational departments
(sections).
Devils advocacy. A technique that induces a constructive conflict in group decision-
making process. A proposed plan or solution for the problem given by a person or a
group is presented to another person who is supposed to act as the devils advocate
who will attempt to come up with problems with the proposed plan or solution and
suggest reasons why it should not be adopted.
Dialectical inquiry. A technique in which two sub groups present two alternative
proposals for a problem and final proposal is developed after a debate between the
two proposals.
Distributive justice. One dimension of organizational justice. It is the degree to which
employees perceive outcomes they receive as fair.
Distributive negotiation. A type of negotiation in which relevant parties compete over the
distribution of a fixed sum of value with the intention of gaining as much as possible.
Each of relevant parties attempts to obtain the biggest slice of the pie which is fixed.
Divisional structure. An organizational design which has separate autonomous business
units, each of which responds to the market in which it operates. This is a moderately
decentralized structural configuration divided according to different markets served
with existence of horizontal and vertical specialization between divisions and
headquarters.
Dominant culture. The type of organizational culture that is common to all members of
an organization. It is more powerful influencing all the members of the organization;
more important requiring all the members to follow; and more noticeable than other
subcultures.
Downward communication. The flow of messages from superiors to subordinates. It is
transmitting of information from top to down or from a higher level to a lower level
or levels.
Dysfunctional conflict. Conflict which is dysfunctional exists when disagreement and
opposition of the relevant parties do not support the achievement of organizational
goals and improvement of job and organizational performance.
Ego state. One of the three behavioural patterns or psychological positions (parent, adult,
and child) by which people interact with each other. Ego states (in the transactional
analysis) are not related to the chronological age of a person but they are related with
the behavioural aspects of age.
Electronic brainstorming. A modified version of brainstorming allowing group members
to generate and share ideas through computers.