Structural Survey

Passive fire protection

Ron Smith,
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Ron Smith, (1993) "Passive fire protection", Structural Survey, Vol. 11 Issue: 2, pp.142-149, https://
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 Passive fire protection
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Ron Smith
Introduction
From the moment a building begins to
take shape on the drawing board its route
to completion is inevitably guided by a
complicated network of statutory regula-
tions which require careful and accurate
interpretation.
In general terms there are five major
requirements relating to fire which must
be met when designing a building. They
fall into the following categories:
(a) protecting the structure from collapse
for a specified period;
(b) containing fire by sub-dividing large
areas into manageable risks (compart-
mentation)
142
R o n S m i t h has spent the past 29 years
actively involved with fire protection
materials and installations both within the
UK and overseas. Prior to this he spent 15
years in an architects' office designing large
industrial and commercial buildings and
also lectured part-time in the Building
Department at the Southend-on-Sea College
of Technology. Following his retirement in
May 1991 he has worked part-time as the
Technical Consultant for the Association of
Specialist Fire Protection Contractors and
Manufacturers.
(c) providing safe, adequate means of
escape;
(d) providing fire separation between
adjoining or adjacent buildings;
(e) controlling the properties of materials
and their surfaces used in the building.
The architect (specifier), the building con-
trol officer and the fire officer are primari-
ly responsible for ensuring that these
requirements are complied with but,
invariably, assistance in the design of the
fire protection system or application is
given by the members of the Association
of Specialist Fire Protection Contractors
and Manufacturers (ASFPCM).
 Structural Survey
There are two recognised methods
adopted for the specification of passive fire
protection applications in the United
Kingdom. These are:
(a) those which specifically state which
materials are to be used. In these spec-
ifications the materials are usually
nominated by a brand name, often
with the added qualification for the
use of other materials as 'or equal and
approved'.
(b) those which give the specific period of
fire resistance required, and which
may also give a preferred system; com-
monly referred to as performance
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specifications. This approach is more
likely to be used on large buildings or
building complexes.
This paper considers some of the major
spheres of influence which can affect the
design of the passive fire protection of a
building passive fire protection materi-
als and applications, fire tests, Building
Regulations and the possible influence of
future European legislation.
Passive fire protection materials
In order to gain acceptance within the
scope of the Section Factor Concept
(which is dealt with below under the head-
ing 'Fire Resistance Tests'), passive fire
protection materials supplied and installed
by ASFPCM members have been subject-
ed to British Standard fire tests. In order
to obtain such approvals, 13 steel sections
are tested with varying thickness of fire
protective materials and, by means of lin-
ear regression analysis, thicknesses for
varying section sizes and degrees of fire
protection are calculated. Passive fire resis-
tant materials can be divided into five
main groups. Approximate prices are
given below and are based on one hours
fire protection (The reader should be
aware that these prices give only an
143
Smith
impression; each job will have different
requirements.)
Sprays
These are factory blended lightweight site-
applied materials, based upon vermiculite
or mineral wool and various binders. This
form of passive fire protection is generally
applied direct to the surface of the steel,
and follows the contour of the section,
although it is possible to spray onto an
expanded metal lathing to form a 'box
section'. For internal use these materials
can be applied direct to unprimed steel,
but those which can be used externally
should only be applied to steelwork which
has been adequately protected against cor-
rosion. The cost range of such materials is
from low to medium 6-10 per sq.
m.
Boards
These are cut and fitted to the steelwork
on site using mechanical methods such as
screws, straps and lightweight angles,or arc
glued and pinned. Many boards are avail-
able, based upon vermiculite, mineral
wool, calcium silicate, plasterboard or
combinations of materials. It is usual to fix
boards in a 'box configuration' but for
very deep steel sections it is advisable to
fix the boards to follow the profile of the
steel. Board systems are particularly suit-
able for the protection of columns where
an accurate line is required for decorative
purposes. The cost range varies from
medium to high 14-24 per sq. m.
Intumescents
These specialised decorative coating sys-
tems foam or expand in a fire to provide a
protective carbonaceous char layer. The
materials can be site- or workshop-applied
and are of particular benefit in cases
where an architect wishes to express the
steel structure. They are also suitable for
use in old buildings where the profile of
cast iron or wrought iron elements must
 Structural Survey
be retained to maintain the character of
the building. A variety of colours are
available. Intumescents are in the cost
range of medium to high 20-30 per
sq. m.
Preformed sections
These are either preformed, or metal
encased board systems which are work-
shop manufactured to specific sizes
required for a particular building. Care
must be taken to ensure that the casings
are of the correct size, and junctions
between the head of a column casing and
a beam need special attention. These sys-
tems have an attractive decorative appear-
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ance, provide good durability, and have
the advantage of speed of application. The
cost range is high 40+ per sq. m.
Fire barrier 'quilts' or 'blankets'
The products consist of mineral wool
fibres treated with resin which when cured
form a loose, lightweight homogeneous
mat. The resultant mats arc reinforced
with 25mm galvanised chicken wire,
which is stitched with wire to the face of
the material. These products, when used
as fire barriers, are normally supported
and fixed with mild steel or slotted angles.
Their main use tends to be for subdividing
roof spaces into fire resistant compart-
ments or to span separating wall/floor
junctions etc. One 50mm thickness will
provide a half-hour barrier and a double
thickness will provide one hour. These
materials can also be provided with an
aluminium foil face. The cost range is
medium to high 30-40 per sq. m.
Penetration seals and firestops
A combination of various materials to pre-
vent the passage of smoke and flames,
these materials are expected to protect
openings ranging from small (for one or
two pipes), to large openings through
which many cables or pipes of varying
diameters pass. Penetration seals and
144
Smith
firestops are usually manufactured on site
to suit specific requirements. The cost is
therefore very high.
Code of Practice
In order to ensure the correct use and
installation of passive fire protection mate-
rials, the Association of Specialist Fire Pro-
tection Contractors and Manufacturers
has introduced an Industry' Code of Prac-
tice. Copies arc available from the Secre-
tary, ASFPCM, PO Box 111, Aldershot,
Hants GU ll 1 YW; Tel 0252 21322; Fax
0252 333901.
British Standard fire tests
It should be emphasised that there is no
such thing as a 'standard fire' but, in
order to determine the performance of
materials, components or systems in a fire,
it has been necessary to establish an
acceptable system of standard fire tests
and relevant criteria. In the UK, the
BS476 series of fire tests (outlined below)
arc used to define the performance
requirements of passive fire protection
materials.
Fire tests can be divided into two main
sectors under the general headings of
'Reaction to fire' and 'Fire Resistance'.
The difference between these two groups
is that the Reaction to Fire series of tests
incorporates parts of BS476 which define
the test requirements for the performance
of materials in a fire, and include com-
bustibility, ignitability, fire propagation,
surface spread of flame, and heat release.
These tests provide data relating to indi-
vidual materials or components.
Fire Resistance tests, on the other hand,
incorporate parts of BS476, but also estab-
lish the ability of an element of structure
(beam, column, wall, floor) to remain in
position, supporting its designed load for a
given period of time. These tests are based
upon a standard time/temperature curve
for the fire, and are intended to enable
 Structural Survey
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assessments to be made of how an element
will perform in a fire.
While Reaction to Fire tests are impor-
tant, it is not intended to discuss them in
greater detail here, but merely list the des-
ignated number of the test and its basic
objective(s).
Reaction to Fire tests - s u m m a r y
BS476: Part 4 is the combustibility test
to determine if a material or component
can be classified non-combustible. There is
no 'halfway house' with the results, as a
material will be classified combustible or
non-combustible. A material composed
throughout of non-combustible or low
combustible material is classified as Class
' O ' in the Building Regulations.
145
Smith
BS:476: Part 5 is an ignitability test, a
very basic test which establishes whether
or not a material continues to flame for
more than 10 seconds after a small flame
has been removed from the surface.
BS:476: Part 6 is the fire propagation
test (rate of heat release) which provides a
means of measuring the contribution that
a burning material makes to a developing
fire. This test is used, in conjunction with
BS 476: Part 7 to establish if a material
can be designated Class 'O' as defined in
the Building Regulations.
BS 476: Part 7, the surface of flame test,
determines the extent of flamespread
across the surface of a material caused by
radiant heat, for a given period of time. A
pilot flame is applied to the material for
 Structural Survey Smith

one minute at the beginning of the test,

and resultant classifications are given as
Class 1, 2, 3 or 4. A Class 1 performance
in this test, coupled with a fire propaga-
tion index not exceeding 12 and a sub-
index not exceeding 6 to BS476: Part 6,
will enable a material to be classified as
Class ' O ' .
BS476: Part 11, is used to assess 'limited
combustibility' and Part 13 establishes
methods for measuring the ignitability of
materials subjected to thermal irradiance
(secondary ignition).

Fire Resistance tests

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Until 1987, BS 476: Part 8 was the refer-

ence document for fire resistance testing of
elements of structure, but this Standard
was then replaced with BS 476: Parts 20,
21, 22, 23 and 24. BS 476: Part 8 has
recently been officially withdrawn by the
British Standards Institution, although it
remains a reference document in the
Building Regulations.
It will perhaps be useful, before describ-
ing the new tests, to provide a suitable
definition for the term 'Fire Resistance'. It
may best be defined as the ability of an given period of time within the con-
element of structure to fulfil its design cri- straints required by the test method.
teria for a given period of time, when test-
ed in accordance with the relevant parts of (b) Integrity (impermeability)
BS 476. It must be remembered, however, The ability of a specimen of a separat-
that the resultant test report does not nec- ing (compartmentation) construction to
essarily give an accurate indication of how contain a fire for a specified period
long the element would survive in a real against collapse, cracks and fissures,
fire in a real building, but it does provide and sustained flaming on the surface
a basis for comparing the performance of not exposed to the fire (the unexposed
alternative materials and constructions. surface).
BS476: Part 20: 1987, 'Method of deter-
mination of the fire resistance of elements
of construction' has these basic criteria of (c) Insulation
performance: The ability of a specimen of a separat-
ing construction (wall, floor) to restrict
(a) Stability the temperature rise of the unexposed
The ability of a specimen of a load- surface to not more than an average
bearing element (beam, column, wall, of 140C (180C maximum) above
floor) to support its designed load for a ambient temperature.

146
 Structural Survey
The fire resistance of an element of struc-
ture is thus the minimum time in which it
will satisfy some, or all, of the above crite-
ria. Generally, it can be assumed that
beams and columns have to satisfy stabili-
ty requirements only, whereas separating
elements of structure have to satisfy all
three requirements, ie: stability, integrity
and insulation. Figures 1 and 2 show typi-
cal arrangements for testing structural steel
beams and columns.
BS476: Part 21 'Fire tests on building
materials and structures. Load-bearing ele-
ments of construction' details the testing of
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beams, columns, floors, flat roofs and
walls. In addition to the general require-
ments of stability, integrity and insulation,
maximum deflection and rate of deflection
for beams, and maximum deformation of
columns are also specified.
Part 22 of the Standard, 'Non-load
bearing elements of construction', covers
fire test requirements for partitions, insu-
lated, partially insulated and uninsulated
floorsets and shutters, ceiling membranes
and glazed elements. Again, integrity and
insulation are of prime importance in
these tests.
Part 23, 'Contribution of components',
defines specifications for acceptance of sus-
pended ceilings protecting steel beams,
and for intumescent door seals whereas
Part 24 , 'Fire resistance of ventilating
ducts', specifies stability, insulation and
integrity requirements for ducts.
If one considers the number of fire tests
which would be required for periods of
fire resistance from half-an-hour to four
hours, and then relates each of these to
cover all standard structural steel beam
and column sections, it will be appreciated
that it would be virtually impossible to test
every individual application and section.
In an effort to overcome this problem,
but at the same time to ensure adequate
fire resistance of structural elements, the
ASFPCM Product Appraisal Panel Com-
147
Smith
mittee, which included representatives
from the Building Research Establishment
Fire Research Station, London Scientific
Sendees, the Loss Prevention Council and
the Warrington Fire Research Centre, has
established appraisal procedures for pas-
sive fire protection materials. These proce-
dures have been accepted for use in the
Building Regulations and are referred to
as the Section Factor Concept, or the
Hp/A Method. Full details of this widely
adopted system are given in 'Fire Protec-
tion for Structural Steel in Buildings'1,
which is available from the ASFPCM at
the address given earlier in this paper.
This publication gives tables of Hp/A
ratios for all UK standard steel sections.
It is common knowledge that the effect
of fire on load-bearing elements is to
weaken them. As steel elements grow hot,
their yield stress declines and the strength
of timber sections is reduced by charring.
Passive fire protection consists, therefore,
in the application of high temperature
insulation materials, or boards, to ensure
that the critical temperatures of structural
elements are not exceeded for the required
period. The properties of such materials,
or boards, and the method of their appli-
cation should therefore ensure that they
are capable of absorbing deformation of
the protected structure without detach-
ment.
Building control
The Building Regulations 1991
(England and Wales)
Approved Document B
The main objective of the Building Regu-
lations is to ensure the safety of the occu-
pants of the building and of members of
the rescue services, to provide adequate
means of escape and to protect adjacent
buildings from the effects of fire. The
increased fire resistance requirements for
 Structural Survey
multi-storey buildings as indicated in the
Building Regulations therefore reflects
concern over the possible consequences of
fire in such structures, with specific consid-
eration being given to access by the rescue
services, means of escape, and the implica-
tions of collapse for the occupants both of
the affected building and of neighbouring
buildings.
The UK Building Regulations are large-
ly based upon the findings of the 1946
Fire Grading Report 2 , which concluded
that premises with fire loads of up to 60kg
of wood per sq. m of floor area required
one hour's fire resistance, 60-120kg/sq. m
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required two hour's, and 120-240kg/sq. m
required four hour's fire resistance. Since
the report utilised data from real fires and
correlations with standard fire resistance
tests, at present denominated BS476:1987:
Parts 20-24 (see above), the Regulations
can be considered to be founded upon
modern fire engineering philosophies.
Recent developments
On 19th March, 1990, the Department of
the Environment published a Consultative
Document proposing radical changes to
Approved Document B 'Fire Spread:
the Building Regulations for England and
Wales'. Some of these proposed changes
became operative on 1st June, 1992. The
ASFPCM, insurance companies, chief fire
officers, the Fire Brigades Union and
many others had campaigned against a
reduction of passive fire protection
requirements and an extension to the per-
mitted 'trade-off' against the installation of
sprinklers. The following outline discusses
the proposed changes which in some
instances reduce the passive fire resistance
requirements from four hours to two.
Approved Document B (B1/2/3/4/5)
relates to Means of Escape, Internal fire
spread (linings), Internal fire spread (struc-
ture) External fire spread, and Access and
facilities for the fire service. It also defines
seven 'Purpose Groups' which detail the
148
Smith
purpose for which a building is intended
to be used. Purpose Group 1 (Residential
dwellings) is divided into three sections,
Purpose Group 2 (Residential institution-
al/others) into two sections and Purpose
Group 7 (Storage and other non-residen-
tial) into two sections.
The new Regulations require fire resis-
tant periods ranging from half-an-hour to
two hours, according to the purpose for
which the building is to be used, and give
actual ratings based upon the height of the
building, the depth of any basement, the
quantity of combustible materials per unit
of floor area, and the occupancy. The
higher period for fire resistance of two
hours relates to basements, where there
are greater difficulties in fighting a fire,
and for flats and other residential proper-
ties, offices, premises used for assembly
and recreation, shops and industrial and
storage buildings above 30m high. The
new Regulations have eliminated four
hours' protection in all cases, but where
buildings are over 30m high the inclusion
of sprinklers is a mandatory requirement,
in addition to the two-hour passive fire
protection installation, except in flats and
institutional and other residential build-
ings, not including dwelling houses.
In the past, the size of compartments
was limited, in the main, by floor area
and/or volume, but in those instances
where no such limits were specified, high-
er periods of fire resistance were required.
The 1991 Regulations do not include any
limits to the compartment sizes of many
buildings and now allow unlimited floor
areas for multi-storey buildings, with the
exception of those for assembly & recre-
ation, shop and commercial premises and
industrial and storage buildings. The Reg-
ulations also permit the floor areas in
shops, assembly and recreational buildings,
industrial buildings and storage buildings
to be significantly increased by 100 per
cent if sprinklers are installed.
 Structural Survey
The question arises: what effect will
these amendments will have on the maxi-
mum travel distances for the safe evacua-
tion of a building?
Two hours' fire resistance is adequate
for the evacuation of a building, and for
most fire-fighting needs, and active fire
protection systems, such as sprinklers, play
a useful role in the initial suppression and
control of a fire. However, it is the writer's
view that the 'trade-off between passive
fire resistance and sprinklers, as given in
Approved Document B (1991), relies on
the effective installation and maintenance
of the sprinkler system, but the maintenance
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of sprinkler installations does not appear
to be subject to any legislative require-
ments, and lack of such attention might
lead to the malfunction of the installed
system. Buildings must remain structurally
sound in order that fire brigade personnel
can reach, control, and extinguish the fire,
which passive fire protection of the build-
ing enables them to do.
European aspects
The European Technical Committee GEN
TC 127 has been working towards the
rationalisation of tests for fire safety in
buildings, but it is not anticipated that the
general requirements will become manda-
tory for at least five years, as the Euro-
pean Commission has recently instigated a
further three-year research project to
examine reaction to fire tests. Topics
which will continue to be considered by
149
Smith
the experts who form TC 127 include
non-loadbearing elements, loadbearing ele-
ments, service installations, door and shut-
ter assemblies, roofs, raised floors, etc, but
this work is progressing without a mandate
from the EC.
The Assessment Techniques being con-
sidered for European implementation are
the Differential Equation Approach, which
will probably be similar to that described
in Eurocode 3 Part 10 (or BS5950: Part
8), the Linear Regression Analysis based
upon a four-term analysis of temperature,
thickness, H p / A and time (the ASFPCM
system is based upon a similar method)
and graphical presentation which will give
guidance on how test results may be
examined graphically.
The Commission does not seem close to
reaching a consensus relating to fire tests,
but it is advisable to keep a close watch
on all developments, as eventually manu-
facturers will be seeking an EC mark for
their products in order to overcome cur-
rent barriers to trade for fire protective
materials.
REFERENCES
1 'Fire protection for Structural Steel in Buildings',
ASFPCM, 1992, 30. Ref: CI/SfB (29) Hh 2
(K21).
2 Post-war building studies No 20. Fire grading
report: Part one. Produced by a joint committee
of the Building Reasearch Board and
Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research.
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