AIRCRAFT LANDING GEAR SYSTEM (AIRCRAFT UNDERCARRIAGE)

DEFINITION

This is the structure on the a/c or space craft consisting of the wheels, floats and related
mechanism that are used by a/c when taking off or landing.

MAIN FUNCTIONS:
1.Support the a/c on ground, water, or snow when stationary or when in motion.

2.provides a means of steering the a/c.

3.Absorbs landing and taxing shocks.

4.Provides means of breaking and parking the a/c.

The landing gear of the a/c consists of MAIN and AUXILIARY unit which may be FIXED or
RETRACTABLE

The main landing gear provides the main support and carries the most stresses during landing,
taxing, rolling, breaking etc. when the a/c is on ground.

COMPONENTS OR UNITS OF THE LANDING GEAR

1. SHOCK STRUTS/SHOCK-ABSORBERS

These absorb the landing shocks and also prevent rebound.

2. WHEELS (TYRES, HUBS AND TUBES).

These enable the a/c to move smoothly on the ground.

3. FLOATS, PONTOONS
These are fitted on the sea plane and amphibians.

4. SKIDS
Skids are fitted mostly on the Helicopters.

5. SKIS.
These are fitted on a/c which operate off snow or ice surfaces
6. TAIL SKID
Fitted on a/c instead of tail wheel S

7. BRAKES
These are used to SLOW DOWN, STOPPING and PARKING the a/c.

8. DOORS (FOR RETRACTABLE LANDING GEARS)

These are used to seal the wheel wells so as to prevent damage and to reduce drag.

9. WHEEL SPATS/PARTS/WHEEL SPEED FAIRINGS

They are used as fairings to reduce drag which may be caused by tyres.

10. POSITION INDICATION SYSTEM

These indicate whether the undercarriage is up,down,or in transit.They also sound or alert the
pilot of a possible wheel- up landing.

11. AUTOMATIC EXTENSION SYSTEM

This will extend the undercarriage in case the pilot forgets to extend the landing gears.

12. STEERING SYSTEM.

This controls the direction of movement of aircraft on ground or water.

MAIN LANDING GEAR AUXILIARY LANDING GEARS

1. WHEELS (MAIN) TAIL WHEEL

2. FLOATS NOSE WHEEL
3. SKIS PONTOONS
4. SHOCKS -STRUTS TALKSKIDS/TAIL BUMPERS
5. BRAKES DOORS
6. WARNING DEVICE OUTRIGGERS
7. DOORS
8. RETRACTING SYSTEM
9. SKIDS (HELICOPTER)
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF A LANDING GEAR:

The design loads which the aircraft landing gear must take:

1. SHOCK LOADS
These are the ultimate loads on touchdown, design for as much as 25 ft./scc

2. DRAG LOADS
These are caused by the following:

(a) violent spin-up of the wheels when the aircraft touches down

(b) application of brakes

3. SIDE LOAD
These are caused by the following:
(a) turns on the ground especially at high speeds

(b) cross-wind landing

4. WEGHT
This should have minimum weight strength /weight ratio.

5. RETRACTIBILITY
Except on light and slow aircraft, the landing gear must be retractable to reduce drag.(retractable
landing gear would be un economical)

CONFIGURATION OF LANDING GEAR (LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT)

1. Tail wheel /TaiI dragger
Up to 1960 the under carriage was the conventional type which is also referred to as Tail wheel
Tail dragger.
. This kind of arrangement of under carriage would give an aircraft a nose up attitude.

Two main wheels are located ahead of the aircraft center of gravity and the tails is supported by
a smaller wheel.
 steering on the ground is done by moving the tail wheel through the connection with rudder
pedals, usually through a spring

Tome tail wheelers have no provision for steering the tail wheel, but the wheel is locked in line
with fuselage for takeoff and landing and then unlocked, making it free to swivel, for taking,
control of the ground is then achieved by differential breaking.

Problems associated with nose-up attitude:

a. Steering is too sensitive
b. Poor pilot view on the ground
c. Un natural sloping of the fuselage which causes tendency of aircraft to ground loop
d. Tendency of the aircraft to spin around on the ground, causing the aircraft to face where it is
coming from on landing.
e. Harsh breaking would cause or result in nosing over.
f. Landing requires more skill for a three point landing.

2. Tri-cycle landing gear

Modern aircraft have tri-cycle type of landing gear.
These are characterized by having a nose wheel assembly and two main under carriage
assemblies.
Steering is provided by a nose wheel through connections to the rudder pedals using wheel
pressures
For larger aircraft they are provided by the steering cylinders to control the direction of nose
wheel.

Advantages of tri-cycle landing gear:

a. This arrangement places the aircraft fuselage in a level attitude when the aircraft is on the
ground

b. pilot has good visibility

c. cabin area is level, loading is easier and passengers find it easy to move inside the cabin

d. Makes aircraft stable on the ground operation and easy to control during take- off and landing.
3. Tandem landing gear
These are commonly used on some military bombers

The nose and Main are located in life under the fuselage and the wings are supported by
Outrigger wheel

TYPES OF UNDER CARRIAGE UNITS

1. Single- one wheel on the axle

2. Double- two wheels on the axle side by side (Double)

3. Tandem- two wheels one behind the other

4. Bogie- two pairs one behind the other

TYPES OF LANDING GEARS

1. Non-retractable (fixed) landing gear

2. Retractable landing gear

CLASSIFICATION OF LANDING GEARS

Landing gear is classified according as;

1. Retractable or Non-retractable /

2. According to wheel arrangement

3. Shock-absorbing or Non-shock absorbing.

SHOCK ABSORBING AND DAMPING

When the aircraft touches down, it is the tyres to touch first and then the shock is absorbed.

The landing impacts and taxing shocks over rough ground is eliminated by the shock-strut

This kind of design is provided in order to prevent these shocks to be extended to the main
structure and consequently to the passengers and the crew.
TYPES OF SHOCK ABSORBERS:
Generally speaking, some aircraft do not actually absorb shocks but rather accept their energy in
some form of elastic medium and return it at a rate and time that the aircraft can accept.

1. Spring steel strut

The spring steel strut can be either Tubular or Flat struts.

These types of spring steel struts accept shocks by flexing outwards and return the shocks in such
a way that it does not cause the aircraft to rebound.

Rebound is limited by the friction between the wheels and the ground with in a normal landing.

2. Rigid struts
These were used on older type of aircraft and all the loads where transmitted to the airframe
structure

The problem with this was that all the loads were transmitted to the structure and the occupants
and consequently could damage the structure

These rigid types can also be seen on helicopters using SKIDS.

3. Rubber in tension (Bungee cord)

Some aircraft use rubber to cushion the shock of landing

These can be in form of rubber dough nut or bungee cord which is a bundle of small stands of
rubber encased in a loosely woven cloth tube.

This accepts both landing and taxing shocks.

When the weight of the aircraft balances with the tension in the rubber, then the aircraft is in
equilibrium
The main parts are;
a. The leg or strut
b. Horizontal strut
c. Bungee (Rubber) chords
d. Rubber blocks
4. Oleo - pneumatic shock-strut
This is also referred to as Air-Oil strut
This type of shock-strut uses hydraulic oil and natural air e.g. nitrogen

Main parts of the 01cc- pneumatic strut:

a. Upper strut (cylinder)

b. Lower strut (with piston) 4.

c. Torque links

d. Piston

e. Charging valve

f. Metering valve / metering pin or metering orifice.

g. Fork.

The upper strut (cylinder) is attached to the aircraft structure

The lower cylinder is free to move up and down into the cylinder (telescope) and moves with the
whc

The two struts are attached to each other by torque link

Torque links

Torsion links SAME

Scissors

Nut crackers

Purpose of torque links:

1. keep the lower strut in alignment

2. Limits the extension of the lower strut

3. Prevents the lower strut from coming out of the upper strut

4. Transmits steering forces

The upper link of the torque link is attached to the cylinder (upper strut) and the lower link is
attache the lower strut (the upper strut is the cylinder and the lower strut has the piston).

Operation of the shock-strut (typical)

The cylinder is divided into two compartments by piston tube and piston itself fits into the
cylinder. A tapered metering pin which is part of the piston sticks through the piston tube -

When the wheels contact the ground on landing, the piston is forced up into the cylinder and
much of ti energy of impact is absorbed by forcing the fluid through the restricted orifice.

The tapered or taper of the pin provides a graduald amount of opposition to the flow and
smoothly absorbs the landing shocks.

When the weight of the aircraft is removed from the landing gear like at take -off the piston
extends th full amount allowed by the torsionltorque links and fluid drains past the metering p[in
into the fluid chamber in the lower strut, hence controlling rebound.

Note:

4\

1. Landing impact / shock is absorbed by telescoping mechanism where the oil is itcing when
flowing to the upper chamber through the orifice.

2. Rebound is controlled by the oil flowing back to the oil chamber when the lower strut ten to
extend out-wards

3. Landing shocks are absorbed further by air being compressed

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
This is the most widely used shock absorber.

CLASSIFICATION OF LANDING GEARS

Landing gear is classified according as;

1. Retractable or Non-retractable

2. According to wheel arrangement

3. Shock-absorbing or Non-shock absorbing.

SHOCK ABSORBING AND DAMPING:

When the aircraft touches down, it is the tyres to touch first and then the shock is absorbed.

The landing impacts and taxing shocks over rough ground is eliminated by the shock-strut

This kind of design is provided in order to prevent these shocks to be extended to the main
structure and

consequently to the passengers and the crew.

TYPES OF SHOCK ABSORBERS:

Generally speaking, some aircraft do not actually absorb shocks but rather accept their energy in
some form of elastic medium and return it at a rate and time that the aircraft can accept.

1. Spring steel strut

The spring steel strut can be either Tubular or Flat struts.

These types of spring steel struts accept shocks by flexing outwards and return the shocks in such
a wa

that it does not cause the aircraft to rebound.

Rebound is limited by the friction between the wheels and the ground with in a normal landing.

2. Rigid struts

These were used on older type of aircraft and all the loads where transmitted to the airframe
structure

The problem with this was that all the loads were transmitted to the structure and the occupants
and

consequently could damage the structure

These rigid types can also be seen on helicopters using SKIDS.

3. Rubber in tension (Bungee cord)

Some aircraft use rubber to cushion the shock of landing

These can be in form of rubber dough nut or bungee cord which is a bundle of small stands of
rubber

encased in a loosely woven cloth tube.

This accepts both landing and taxing shocks.

When the weight of the aircraft balances with the tension in the rubber, then the aircraft is in
equilibriurr

The main parts are

a. The leg or strut

b. Horizontal strut
c. Bungee (Rubber) chords

d. Rubber blocks

4. OIeo - pneumatic shock-strut

This is also referred to as Air-Oil strut

This type of shock-strut uses hydraulic oil and natural air e.g. nitrogen

This is the most widely e.sed shock absorber.

fcain parts of the 01cc- pneumatic strut:

a. Upper strut (cylinder)

b. Lower stmt (with piston) . 1

c. Torque links L

d. Piston

e. Charging valve

f. Metering valve / metering pin or metering orifice.

g. Fork.

The upper strut (cylinder) is attached to the aircraft structure V

The lower cylinder is free to move up and down into the cylinder (telescope) and moves with the
wh

The two struts are attached to each other by torque link

Torque links

V Torsion links s,.. SAME

Scissors

Nut crackers

Purpose of torque links:

1. keep the lower strut in alignment

2. Limits the extension of the lower strut

3. Prevents the lower strut from coming out of the upper strut

4. Transmits steering forces V

The upper link of the torque link is attached to the cylinder (upper strut) and the lower link is
attache the lower strut (the upper strut is the cylinder and the lower strut has the piston).

Operation of the shock-strut (typical) V

The cylinder is divided into two compartments by piston tube and piston itself fits into the
cylinder. A tapered metering pin which is part of the piston sticks through the piston tube

When the wheels contact the ground on landing, the piston is forced up into the cylinder and
much of t energy of impact is absorbed by forcing the fluid through the restricted orifice.

The tapered or taper of the pin provides a gradua(e{ amount of opposition to the flow and
smoothly absorbs the landing shocks.

When the weight of the aircraft is removed from the landing gear like at take -off, the piston
extends tl full amount allowed by the torsionltorque links and fluid drains past the metering p[in
into the fluid chamber in the lower strut, hence controlling rebound.

Note: V

%4-\ -\

1. Landing impact I shock is absorbed by telescoping mechanism where the oil is ntcrin when
flowing to the upper chamber through the orifice.
2. Rebound is controlled by the oil flowing back to the oil chamber when the lower strut ten to
extend outwards

3. Landing shocks are absorbed further by air being compressed

4. When taxing. air acts as a snritrn tfl 11) V

Other types of struts which use separators and flutter valves or small orifice within the piston are
in design.

In the former design oil chamber and air chamber have separate charging salves.

5. Liquid-Spring strut shock- absorber

Liquid-spring strut shock absorber does not have air in it

It uses a synthetic silicon-based compound with molecule so large that they distort considcabiy
under

pressure.

A heavy spring supports the aircraft weight when it is stationary.

Landing shocks:

They are absorbed by the liquid being compressed on touch down and also the liquid flowing
through th valves and piston orifice.

Rebound:

Rebound is controlled by the valve closing and liquid flowing through the restricted orifice.

Advantages of liquid spring strut:

1. It is very compact

2. Well suited for the levered type of strut

3. Piston moves a small distance as compared to oleo-type

4. Large movement of the wheels results in small movement of the piston

LAND(NG GEAR GEOMETRY:

Main undercarriage.

This is attached to the primary structure to ensure adequate load distribution

The main landing gear is attached near the center of gravity to undertake most of the load.

Auxiliary, undercarriage.

These are auxiliary units which may include;

1. Nose-wheel

2. Tail wheel

3. Tail skid

4. Pontoons

5. Outriggers

6. Wing tip floats

The distance between the main under carriage is called TRACK and wider the track, the more
stable tJ aircraft will.

The distance between theose wheel and main wheel centers i called th WHEEL BASE.

TOE-IN

0
This is the deviation of the tire from ahead a straight ahead condition (in ward alignment of the
wheel)

It allows for rearward flexing of the struts due to the drag loads

If an aircraft was not incorporated with some toe-in, during taxing the aircraft would experience
toe o and struts would stretched beyond limits.

The limits of the toe in are specified in the maintenance manual.

TOE.. OUT

This is the deviation of the wheel from straight ahead condition but (out ward outward ahignme
the wheel).

CAMBER

Camber is the inward or outward inclination of the wheel

It allows the flexing of the spring strut and rubber in tension struts due to aircraft weight

When the wheel inclines outwards, then it has positive camber and when inclined inward, it has

negative camber.

The wheels must follow paths parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft

This ensures the following;

I. Smooth movement over the ground

ii. Even tyre wear

iii. Normal stress on the structure

CHECKING TOE-IN OR TOE OUT:

This check should be carried out at empty weight (cabin and fuel tanks empty), so as to obtain
zero in and camber at maximum takeoff weight authorized (M.T.O.W.A).
i ccjr I.

ii.

fr 1

Roll the aircraft and place each wheel on a pair of greased plates (grease between the alumini
plates).

Rock the wings of the aircraft, this will allow wheels and the aircraft to assume their true natu
positions of alignment.

Mount a straight edge on the suitable blocks across the front of the wheels just below the axle
Place large carpenters square against the straight edge so that it touches the wheel just belo the
axle nut.

v. Measure and note the distances between the square and the wheel flange at the front and the re

vi. The difference betiveen the two readings (between the square and the wheel flange at the fror
and rear should) p..

vii. The difference between the two readings should not exced V2 (halO the total Toe-in(check
with manufactures quotations)

viii. Toe-in or toe-out on a spring steel strut can be adjusted by using tapefred shims Letween the
- landing gear leg and the wheel axle.

ix. On other landing gear, Toe-in or Toe out can be adjusted by repositioning the washers
between the torque links of landing gear of oleo-strut.

CHECKING FOR CAMBER

For, Camber, if the top of the wheel leans inwards, the camber is negative and positive if leans
outwards.

Camber can be adjusted by use of shims between the axle and the landing gear leg to give zero-
degree camber at the weight at which the aircraft is most generally operated.

Camber is checked by use of protractor head from combination square set.

Procedure for measuring Camber:

i. Place the protractor head vertically against the wheel flange

ii. Take a vertical reading in degrees

iii. Compare the readings with the limits specified in the maintenance manual.

LANDING GEAR SUPPORT AND BRACING:

Landing gear is generally supported by the aircraft structure

Non retractable landing gear is normally attached to the structure by bolting the landing gear to
structure

directly

Retractable landing gear system must provide for landing gear to move, so the upper shock-strut
is attached to the structure using Trunion fittings.

Owing to drag and side loads, which tend to bend the undercarriage struts it is necessary to
reinforce sufficiently to be able to withstand these loads.

Landing gear bracing:

To brace is to give external reinforcement to the landing gear.

1. Drag strut (see side view)

These are attached to the landing gear and are in line with the longitudinal axis of aircraft- take
up drag loads
2. Side struts

These are perpendicular to the aircraft longitudinal axis as viewed from the rear and front(take
side loads)

3. Trunnions

Support retractable landing gear on the fuselage.

RETRACTABLE AND NON-RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

Non -retractable (Fixed).

These type of landing gears are always fixed in the extended position whether the aircraft is
flying or ground.

Disadvantages:

Fixed landing gears cause a lot of Parasite drag.

Parasite drag is that drag caused by those parts of the aircraft which do not contribute to lift.

In order to reduce this kind of drag on light aircraft, the following can be done;

a. Enclose the wheels in fairings called wheel Pants.

b. Enclose the struts in stream lined fairings to reduce frontal area presented to the airflow.

Retractable landing gear.

This is the type of landing gear which can be retracted and extended

Can be retracted during flight to reduce or during service on jacks

They are retracted in flight to reduce on drag and extended to land or to support the aircraft on
groun

The main advantage is that they:

a. Reduce parasite drag when retracted in flight

b. They also eliminate structural damage of the 1arding gear which can be caused by the high sp
airflow resulting in under carriage blown off.

The landing gear c.an be retracted;

a. Inthe wing

b. In the fuselage

The direction of the retraction can be;

a. Forward

b. Rearward

c. Sideways

d. Combination depending on design

Doors are further provided to cover the wheels to reduce further on the drag and to prevent
damage f foreign object like dust, gravel, stones etc which would find their way into the wheel
well.

10

FUNCTIONS OF THE RETRACTION SYSTEM

1. Retract and extend the landing gear

2. Lock and unlock the 1andin gear

3. Open and lock the landing gear doors

4. Indicate the landing gear position

5. Prevent inadvertent retraction on the ground

6. Providwarning signals to the pilot of the possible wheel-up or bell landing

7. Ensure operatjn the correct sequence.

POWER SOURCE FOR RETRACTION AND EXTENSION

1. Manual system

This is a found mostly on small aircraft as emergency system Cessna 310

Most cases the main retraction system uses electrical power

When the electrical system fails a manual system (emergency) can be operated by the pilot.

The manual system will include the following;

a. Levers

b. Handles

c. Cables, chains, pulleys, torque tubes, push-pull-rods etc.

d. Chains

e. More complicated system will include gear boxes and sprockets

2. Electrical systems

This kind of system is fitted to light and medium aircraft

The power to move the landing gear is provided by electricar motor which can operate the
mechanism through gear box or transmission assembly.

The system is actually electrical mechanical because electrical power drives the mechanical part
of The operation is through actuators and mechanical linkages
The system incorporates limit switches /micro switches /squat switches which automatically cut
off power to the motor when the gear is at the extreme end of its travel.

These switches are called up and down limit switches

Other micro switches are provided to operate the position indicating and warning system and
also the ground flight mode.

3. Hydraulic system

This is the most commonly used system on modern aircraft

Hydraulic power is used to drive actuators or jacks which in turn drive mechanical linkages to
extend o retract the landing eyo(

The main advantah of hydraulic system is that it is capable of transmitting forces and
undiminishing Oi large distance.

11

The power is obtained from the main aircraft hydraulic system and consists of the following;

a. Control lever C

b. Hydraulic actuators/operating cylinders

c. Hydraulic pressure control valves (flow control and pressure control valves)

d. Pipe lines and latches or locks

Operation of the system it its proper operation is governed by a number of valve e.g sequence
valves selector valves, non -return and other control valves.

4. Pneumatic system

The basic principle of operation of pneumatic system is similar to the hydraulic system, the
difference being that compressed air is used to transmit the force instead of hydraulic fluid.

The proper operation of the pneumatic system is achieved by proper maintenance.

O PE RATIO N OF RETRACTION SYSTEM

We have already seen that landing gear can be retracted or extended by different means of power

This can be mechanical, electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic power, mechanical manual.

Retracting the landing gear:

The landing gear selector handle is placed in the gear up positions in the cockpit on the landing
gear control panel.

For electrically operated pump system, a pump will be started by the action of this switch and
fluid w forced into the actuating cylinder and the landing gear will raise.

But the initial movement of the piston in the actuating cylinder will raise the landing gear down
lock that the landing gear can be released and retract.

When all the three wheels are completely retracted up and locked a pressure switch will stop the
pum In some systems, there are no up-locks but the gear is held in its retracted position.by
hydraulic press built in the actuator. But if the pressure drops enough to allow any one of the
wheels to drop away

its up-limit switch, the pump will start and restore pressures

Extending the landing gear

Landing gear selector handle/switch is put in the gear down position

This action will release pressure on the upside of the operating cylinder (actuator)

The landing gear will have a free fall and then pump will start working to build pressure and
ensures gears aren and locked.

ien they all down and locked, the limit switches will shut off the pump.

EMERGENCY EXTENSION SYSTEM

All retractable landing gears must have a means of lowering the landing gear in the event the
main
extension system fails.

They are many methods used to lower the landing gear in emergency situations;

12

i. Mechanical method

ii. Alternate hydraulic oil source

iii. Compressed air

iv. Free-fall technics (automatic extension) - . -

In all cases the emergency extension systems purpose is to release the Up-lock and move
landing ger to down and locked position.

The mechanical method is operated manually by the pilot or crew member through mechanical
linkages which will include the following.

- Hand-crank or level

- Rocker chain

- Sprockets

- Cables and other transmitting units

This manually operated system is commonly employed on small and some medium aircraft e.g
Cessna 310.

On other aircraft alternative hydraulic source can be from an accumulator.

When an emergency lever is selected, store pressure in the accumulator is released to extend
landing - The compressed air emergency system allows the landing gear to be extended in case
the hydraulic syst fails.

The shuttle valve is the system allows the compressed air to enter the actuator (same operating
cylinder from one end and extends landing gear.
The normal hydraulic line will be blocked off by the sliding shuttle valve.

The free-fall (automatic) extension system will allow landing gear to lower regardless of the
landing ge selector handle in the cock pit.

When the aircraft is in the landing configuration and the landing gear is not extended, the system
will automatically release the locks and extend the landing gear.

Landing configuration:

Air speed for landing

Landing gear extended

Throttle setting /power setting

Flap extended for landing

Attitude of the aircraft

NOTE: A manual over-ride is provided to prevent the operation of auto-system during low
speeds take off, and certain training exercise.

13

LIZNDING GEAR SAFETY DEVICES.

These are safety devices or systems when the aircraft is ground or in fligl}t.

a. Safety switches

This provides a means of preventing the retraction of landing gear while the aircraft is on ground
If the aircraft hydraulic system is powered and the landing gear handle is inadequately moved to
the position, the landing gear would retract, and this would cause a lot of damage to the aircraft
To prevent this from happening, a switch connected to the aircraft landing gear is installed where
by t retraction system is completed through the same switch.

When the aircraft is off its weight, the circuit can be completed and retraction is possible
(remember aircraft is off its weight, the lower shock-strut extends outwards).
b. Locking devices:

These are locking devices that can be employed in flight on ground.

i. Mechanical Locks; these are form of locks which form a physical barrier to the move of
landing gear parts.

ii. Hydraulic locks; this kind of locks maintain hydraulic pressure on one side of the pisi the
actuator or operating cylinder

iii. Geometrical locks; these are used to lock the landing gear when the aircraft is on grol these
locks are engaged when the aircraft lands to prevent inadvertent retractier They are fitted by
technician and fitted in part of the struts.

NOTE: These mechanical pins which are fitted in special positions on the strut and always carry
ap flag-and should be removed when the next flight is ready.

Therefore the operation of locks can be either

i. Mechanically operated

ii. Hydraulically operated

iii. Pneumatically operated

iv. Manually (insertion of mechanical pins)

c. position indicators

Landing gear position indicators are also located in cock-pit on the landing gear control panel
The landing gear position indicators will be in form of;

i. Lights

ii. Miniature wheels /silhouette of wheels

iii. Needles

iv. Tabs-with.word up and DOWN

When the lights are employed, the following codes are used example;

I. DOWN AND LOCKED GREEN LIGHT

ii. UP AND LOCKED NO LIGHT

14

Some modern aircraft (large) have landing gear doors open light and also some landi gear
disagreement light.

Other airraft have landing gear DOWN AND LOCKED light on the outside pn eaci landing
gear which can be visible by the persons on ground or Control Tower - ATC.

d. warning system:

The warning system is used to inform or alert pilot if the landing gear is not down and locked
during a

handing attempt. (WHEEL-UP LANDING)

This warning is always audible; some of them can be accompanied by flashing red light.

The sound can be in form of;

i. Horn

ii. Bell

ii. Information reporting system

The warning will sound if the following happen;

a. Power retarded beyond a certain power setting

_b. If the flaps are lowered beyond a specified number of degrees

c. Speed reduce to landing speed

The system is provided with silencing button to be used when the warning is considered a
nuisance

The is important to remove to re-set the buttons for normal operation

There are so many variations from system to system, but they all base on the basic idea of
warning the

pilot that the landing gear is not down and locked position while in the landing configuration.

e. Landing gear doors:

Most aircraft with retractable landing gear are fitted with gear landing doors which seal off the
wheel w and maintain fuselage or main plane contour

Purpose of closing landing gear doors:

1. Eliminate drag that would result from turbulence around the wheel area (streamline)

2. Protect the wheel well and wheels from foreign flying objects (fluid lines and other
components)

3. Avoid high air pressure energy which could lead the doors to flying off.

The doors are normally constructed of rein enforced skin panels and are operated by the
following mea Mechanically by linkages to the landinggear mechanism to hydraulically or
pneumatically by a separat actuator which are controlled by sequence valve to ensure that
novement of the landing gear does not occur before the doors are out of the way.

The operation cycle of the landing gear doors door is; CLOSE OPEN CLOSE.

The lights are operated by micro switches which are in turn operated by contact with part of the
retract svsterr -

15

The individual lights in the cock pit ar normally provided with PRESS TO TST (P.T.T) switches
- which are serviceability test switches
Miniature gears (wheels) or needles tjpe of indication system may be opated electrically or by,
mechanical linkages to the retraction.

f. Nose wheel centering:

The nose wheel is equipped with centering mechanism e.g. centering cam located in the nose
wheel shock-strut.

These cants centers the nose wheel when the strut is extended after take off

The nose wheel will remain center until the weight of aircraft, upon landing contacts the struts
movin cans away from their slots.

When the cans are moved away from their slots, the wheel can now turn as commanded by the
steerii system through rudder pedals

The centering tnechanisuz also allows the landing gear (nose,) to retract into their wheel well as
required without binding on the structure.

g. Nose wheel rotation preventing system.

During retraction, the itose wheel is prevented from rotating because of the following dangers;

- Fire hazard

If the wheels are retracted into their wheels wells when rotating, there is a possibility of structure
cat fire if the wheel came into contact with any structure in the well.

- Gyroscopic precession and rigidity

This is a property posed by a rotating wheel

When a force will be felt 900 away in the direction of rotation

If the wheel is rotating during retraction it might oppose the desired direction to be turned to.

- Bearing wearing very first.

If the wheels for a very long time until it stops on its own, then the bearings will be worn out
very fi which will be uneconomical.

Remedy:

i. The pilot has to apply brakes after take- off especially on the medium and large aircraft.

ii. On some aircraft, the braking system is designed in such a way that if the aircraft takes off ai
gear is being retracted, hydraulic fluidis directed to the brake system to stop the wheel from
rotating. (Remember some aircraft have nose wheel brakes).

iii. On some aircraft nose wheel, an asbestos pad is incorporated in the wheel well to cause frict
and stop the rotating of the wheel since asbestos is a bad conductor of heat.

16

MAINTENANCE OF LANDING GEAR SYSTEM

1. Gear latches

The landing gear latches or up and down locks must be adjusted so that the gar will lock in the
full up- and down position without binding.

The gear must remain locked after the gear handle is moved to the off or neutral position

2. Landing gear door clearance

To check the gear door, jack the aircraft very first

Determine that the main gear is properly adjusted for gear up

The gear can be adjusted by setting the retraction rod end at the doors so that door will pull up
tightly

when the gear is fully up

It should not be lose because it will gap in flight

Check all the rods ends for adequate thread engagement for safety and tightness ofjam (lock) nut.
3. Landing gear retraction check

The aircraft should be jacked first

Determine that the main gear is properly adjusted for full travel from gear up to gear down.

This is accomplished by cycling the gear up and down while watching for looseness, binding and
chaffing of the gear and related parts

The gear should be checked so that thcy pull up tightly when the gear is fully up

Check all gear components for damage, safety, tightness and any general condition rectify
where possible.

4. Emergency extension

It should be given a function check to ensure that if functions properly.

The gear up warning horn, light or any warning sound or signal should be cijecked during the
retraction test follow maintenance.

5. Maintenance of shock-cords.

These must replace periodically because of rubber deterioration

But regular inspection must be carried out according to the maintenance schedule.

According to MIL-C-5651A, the colour codes for the year is repeated in cycles of five years Two
spiral threads are used for the year coding and one thread for the quarter of the year.

Example if inspecting shock cords in 1986 and found that the chord had two yellow threads and
one blue thread spiraling around the sheath, the technicians should know that the cord was
manufactured in 1964

during month of April, May, and June.

YEAR COLOUR QUARTER COLOUR

1960-1965 BLACK 1ST RED

1961-1966 GREEN 2ND BLUE

1962-1967 RED 3RD GREEN

1963-1968 BLUE 4TH YELLOW

1964-1969 YELLOW

1965-1970 BLACK

17

SERVICING THE SHOCK-STRUT

The air-oil (oleo) strut should be maintained at proper strut tube xposure (extension) for proper
pper of the shock- strut

Both the nose and main gear strut will have a specific length of piston tube exposed

The measurements of these valves should be taken when the aircraft is on level ground with
normal fu loading conditions.

(Check with the MM for specifications)

Draining the Shock Strut

The first step to be taken is to clean the top of the strut to remove the dirt, dust and other partic
from around the filler plug.

Place the aircraft onjacks and luck jacks

Place a drip pan under the landing gear to catch spilled oil

Relieve the air pressure from the strut (repress the valve or use key)

When air is out completely, remove the filler plug from the strut
 Push in the strut piston tube (lower strut) until it is fully compressed by pushing up the tyre.

Filling the shock -strut with oil

Get a clean container and pour oil through the filler plug hole until it reaches the bottom of the
filler plug hole.

Install the plug finger-tight, and extend and compress the strut two to three times to remove air
from the housing

Remove the filler plug, then raise the strut to full compression and fill with fluid if needed.

Reinstall filler plug and tighten

After ascertaining that if full with oil, then the next step is to inflate it

Inflate the strut with nitrogen until the correctin extension is obtained(exposed)

Rock the aircraft several times to determine if the gear returns to correct strut position

Take measurement and adjust accordingly

Before replacing valve cap, check the leakages using soap solution

Please always refer to the aircraft maintenance manual for correct valves and limitations

METHODS OF SUSPENDING OLEO- STRUT

1. Articulated or levered suspension

2.. Direct action

FUNCTION CHECK FOR POSITION AND WARNiNG SYSTEM

When checking for landing gear position and warning system, the following are checked

1. Landing gear lights serviceability

2. audible warning horn or any kind sound

3. Time take to retract or extend of landing gear

4. Doors should be sealing property

18 I

Position indicator lights are checked by cycling the landing gear while on jacks a number of
times and checking that lights correspond to the state of gear. e.g when the green1light comes on
the landing gear must be down and locked and the brace struts must be in their over -center
position.

The warning ystem must also function tested periodically according tp the maintenance
schedule or when malfunction reported

This test is done by placing the throttle and flaps in a prescribed minimum position and
checking that the warning comes on.

Adjustment of the micro switches positions may be required to achieve this

On some aircraft the time taken for the gear to extent or retract is specified.

Slow extension or retraction may indicate damage to the system

When the doors are closed, they should seals the wheels well properly without buckling

Improper sealing of doors may be caused by poor adjustment of the rods.

SHIMMY DAMPER /DAMPENER

Shimmy is the rapid side to side movement of the nose wheels as te moves at speeds on the
ground.

The geometry of the nose landing gear makes it possible to shimmy or oscillate back and forth r
certain speeds, sometime violent.

To prevent this kind of undesirable condition, all nose wheel oleo-strut are equipped with
shimmy damper. (Prevents side by side oscillation of the nose wheel).

TYPES OF SHIMMY DAMPERS

1. PISTON- TYPE DAMPER

2. STEER DAMPERS (STEERING CYLINDERS)

3. VANE-TYPE DAMPER

Steer dampers !Steering cylinders

Heavy aircraft normally use the steer dampers which are dual purpose.

a. Used for steering

b. Used to damp shimmys

Large aircraft are steered on ground by directing hydraulic pressure into the cylinder ofa dual
shimmy damper.

Fluid from opposite side of piston in these cylinders is directed back to the system fluid reservoir
through a pressure relief valve that holds a constant pressure on the cylinders to snub any
shimmy.

An accumulator in the line to the relief valve holds pressure on the system when the steering
control valve is in its neutral position.

A small control wheel I steerinj tiller sometimes used by the pilot directs hydraulic fluid under
pressure into one or the other side of the steering cylinders.

19

The piston-type shimmy damper

Relatively small and medium aircraft can use both piston type and vane type shimmy dampers.
This is basically a piston moving into a fluid- filled cylinder. - The piston is provided with small
orifices through which a controlled fluid flow is forced from one si the piston to the other

The restricted or controlled flow of fluid prevents movement of the piston being too rapid, but
has no effect on normal steering.

AIRCRAFT WHEELS

The wheels assembly will consist of the following;

a. Hubs or rims wheel

b. Tyres

c. Brake discs

The wheel assembly is attached to the wheel axle-to support the aircraft on the ground

The wheel is the highly stressed part and its failure can lead to serious damage to the aircraft and
injur personal

Aircraft wheels /hubs can be manufactured from ALUMINIUM ALLOY OR MAGNESIUM

ALLOY by either casting or forging methods.

The bead seat area is the mostly highly strengthened part so that it can bear high loads applied by
the t

TYPES OF WHEELS HUBS

1. ONE- PIECE TYPE

2. SPLIT- TYPE

3. DETACHABLE FLANGE I LOOSE FLANGE TYPE

The One -piece type:

Was used on early aircraft and tyres where installed the same way the tyres are forced on the
auto mole or bicycle wheels.

The spilt-type

This is made Into two halves joined together by high tensile steel bolts and selflocking nuts.

If tubeless tyres are installed into them they must be installed with a seal between them

wheels fitted with tubeless tyres will also have an inflation valve permanently installed in them
(one of the half)
 Wheels for tubed tyres wilLsimply have a hole drilled in one of the valves to permit the
inflation valve on the tube to protrude.

Two bearings, one in each wheel half fit over the axle and permit the wheel to rotate with
minimum friction.

the bearing assembly consists of the bearing cone, roller bearing, retaining cage, bearing ca
outer race

A grease seal cover is installed to hold the grease in bearing and to prevent any dirt or wat
getting into its surface

20

The inboard half;

This in board wheel half will take up the brake disc and the brakes

It can be designed for single disc brake or rotating disc.

CC

The outboard wheel haLf;

This bolts to the inboard half and also holds a shrunk in the bearing cup in which bearing cones
rides It also takes up a seal to protect the roller bearing and their surfaces from water and dirt or
dust, as well a:

retaining the grease in the bearings.

A cap is held in place with retaining ring to cover the end of the axle shaft and bearing.

If the aircraft is fitted with Anti- skid system, this cap is fitted with a bracket to drive the wheel
speed sensor (transducer) which is installed in the axle.

An installation valve is installed in this out board wheel half in case tubeless tyres installation,
and in cas of a tube tyre installation, a hole will be drilled to allow inflation valve to stick out.

The detachable flange type

These are used with low pressure casing and can be flat base or drop-center.

The removable/detachable flange is held to the wheel by locking a ring.

When a brake drum of conventional type is installed on each side, of the wheel, this provides a
dual b .

assembly.

FUSIBLE PLUGS

Two or more fusible plugs are installed in the board half of the wheel ofjet a(Cfor the purpose
of releasing the air from the tyres in the event of an extreme over heat condition; such might
exist

from a heavy braking required during an aborted take- off, t-IC

Rather than allowing the heat to build up the tyres pressure so high that the tyre blows out, the
low-melting point alloy in the center of the plug will melt and harmless(material in center of plug
has low melting point)

The escape of air from the tyre will be gradual rather than spontaneous

WKEEL INSPECTION

(a) In-Situ

i. Check for proper installation of the wheels on the axle

ii. Check for proper installation of the brakes and brake discs

iii. Check for mounting or mating of drive tags between the drive slots rather than mating with
slots

iv. Check for axle nut torque, check for proper torque value from the aircraft maintenance
manual

v. Check general cendition of the wheels.

(b) On-Bench (Off the aircraft)

I. The first thing to do when the wheel assembly is removed from the aircraft is to completely
deflal the tyre-aiways use deflector cap screw

21

ii, Loosening the tyre from the rim using the proper method and tools like bead breakers never us
sharp tools like screw drivers.

iii. Disassemble the tyre by removing the bearing seals and cones fron the valves.

iv. Clean the wheel assembly uing recommended solvents like Stoddard solvent or any othr

approved, for that purpose. use a soft brush to remove stubborn deposits, dont use any scrapper

v. After cleaning, clean the bearing and dry them with compressed air (keep pressure relatively
lo dont rotate dry bearing.

vi. Bearing inspection should be carried out after removing the bearing from their recesses or
fron axle using a puller.

Check for galling, discoloration, chipping scoring, overheating, rust etc.

vii. bearing lubrication should be carried out with specified grease

Some grease types are interchangeable(consult manufacturer)

Grease can be worked into the rollers manually or using pressure packing

Spread alight film of grease on the bearing cups and bearing surfaces

viii. Wheel valves should be inspected. Especially the bead seat area.

- Examine for corrosion, nicks, cracks

- Check for general conditions

The wheel valves can be checked for cracks in bead seat area using non -destructive testing
method e.
- Dye-penetrant

- Fluorescent dye

- Magnetic particle

- Eddy current

- X-ray

- Ultra sonIc

- Oil and chalk

The most recommended method are eddy current and clye-penetrant methods

ix. Wheel bolts are checked for cracks using magnetic particle method.

The most affected areas are around the junction of shank and the head and to the end of threaded:

check for necking of bullets. V

x. Fusible plugs should be checked to ascertain that there are signs of melting.

If one of the plug shows this sign or any deformation, replace all the fusible plugs.

xi. key and key screw should be inspected for play or looseness, cracks or excess wear (keys to tr
rotate V the discs against the friction in the brakes).

xii. Wheel balancing should be carried out to eliminate vibration during rotation.

All wheels having a diameter of more than TEN inches should be statistically balanced when

are built nd balance weights are attached where needed.

Provision is made on the wheel for attachment of these weights (add weights to lighter side).

If the weight were removed for any reason, they should be fitted back in their original positio

Proc edure of wheel balancing;

 After the tire mounted on the wheel, inflated and allowed to take its initial stretch, the wheel
assembly is mounted on A!3ALANCING STAND with the cones of the balancing shaft firmly
ag the bearing cup in the wheel

22

The shaft is then placed on the balancing stand and the wheel assembly is allowed to rotate
until it heavy point comes to rest at the bottom.

Counter balance the wheel assembly with test weights until it is balaflced.

Install the correct weight at specifid position.

Methods of attaching weights to the hub

a. By use of special brackets under the head of the wheel bolt

b. By using cotter pins through holes that were drilled in the rim for that purpose

c. By using lead strips having an adhesive backing are used especially for smaller wheels
(consult th service manual for the correct type of weights).

AIRCRAFT TYRES.

Aircraft tyres are required to absorb a great load imposed on them a.j!.touch braking and
stopping the aircraft, high rotational speeds associated with takeoff arc landing, and also to
provide cushioned ride while resisting heat generation.

Therefore they are manufactured to meet high rigorous demands of their jobs (to accept a variety
of static and dynamic stresses)

Example is that jet transport aircraft tyres which can withstand speeds at landing (landing
speeds) of about 250 mph and well as dynamic and static loads as high as 22-33 tons
respectively. Aircraft tyres are designed to allow maximum deflection of around 32-35 which is
more than twice the motor vehicle tyres,

CONSTRUCTION AIRCRAFT TYRES:

Two different and distinct aircraft tire constructions are produced and provided on the market.
Both nomenclatures describe the differences in casing constniction.

1. The Bias tire (cross-ply construction).

2. The Radial tire.

Tyres for aircraft are made of rubber reinforced it1i steel wire braid and nylon fabric plies.

TYRE CLASSIFICATIONS

Aircraft tyres are classified accordingly to the following;

a. TYPE

b. SIZE

c. PLYRATING

d. TUBE OR TUBELESS

I,

23

Tyre sizes.

Dimensional tolerances are set by the Tire and Rim Association (T&RA) and/or the European
Tyre an

Rim Technical Organization (ETTO). c

bias tire dimensions are for a New tire that has been inflated to the specified pressure for 12
hours minimum.

Radial tire dimensions are for a Grown tire that has been rolled the equivalent of 50 TSO-C
take-off cycles.

TYPES
Nine types of aircraft tyres have been established by united tyre and rim association, but only
three ot these types are of primary concern to day.

Type iii

This is the most popular low pressure tyre found today on piston-powered aircraft characteristics.

i. Large section width to breadth diameters

ii. Low pressure for improved cushioning

iii. I-ugh floatation

iv. Maximum speed usually 160 km/hr. or less

v. Size designation is by section width and rim diameter e.g.

A tyre having a section width of nine inches and which fits on a sixteen inch wheel would be
identifi as tyre (9.00-16) tyre. (W D. Nominal section width - Rim diameter)

Type vii

This type of tyre is standard for jet air craft.

High pressure, nirrow section widths for high speed aircraft.

Tire Size designation is shown as Do x W. (Overall Diameter x Nominal section width) P

Characteristics:

i. Extra-high pressure tyre

ii. High load carrying ability

iii. Narrow sction widths for high speed aircraft.

iv. Wide range ply rating (4-3 8)

v. Size is designated by their outside diameter and section width (Do x W)

A tyre having its outside diameter of 38 inch and section of 13 width will be identified as 38 x13.
Or other;

26 x 6.6

x1Z

L k%._r

24

THREE PART nomenclature:

Used for all recent and newly designed tire sizes, all applications.

Size designation: Do xW D. (Overall Diameter x.Nominal section width Rim diameter).

Bias Size Examples:

27 x 7.75 15

H44.5 x 16.5 21 (1-1 type).

Size designation: Do x W R D.

Radial Size Examples:

50 x 20.0 R 22

1400 x 530 R 23 (metric)

H41 x 16.0 R 20 (H type)

TUBES are sized and identified the same way as the tire size for which they are to be used.

Examples:

6.006

15x6.06
Type viii

This type of tyre is for high performance jet aircraft with extreme take- off and landing speeds

Characteristics

- Extra high inflation pressure

- Low profile

- Designation of size is by outside diameter and section width and rim diameter

For example a tyre designated for a Type viii tyre would be;

3011.50-.14..5

_________ RIM WAMETER

SECTIONAL WIDTH

___________ OUTSIDE DIAMETER

PLY RATING

Ply rating is the number given to the tyre to express its strength characteristics.

It does not specify the actual number of fabric ply in the carcass but relates the tyre maximum
static ba

and inflation pressure.

E.g. 8 PR 3 Ply rating (refers to maximum static load and inflation pressure).

25
TUBE OR TUBE LESS

All aircraft tyres are manufactured as tube or tubeless.

The basic 1ifierence between the types is the iner liner for tubeless tyres whih S that serves as
container for air.

Tubeless tyres will have a mark (TUBELESS) on the sides but tube tyres will have NO MARK.

Tube type tyres will have smooth inside so the tube will not be damaged by chafing against the
inside of the tire

All information pertaining to classification and identification of the tyre will be enclosed on the
side wall:

MAIN PARTS OF THE TYRE:

As already mentioned that aircraft tyres are made from rubberized reinforced with steel wire
braids and nylon fabric plies

Dissecting an airbrafi tyre will show that it is one of the strongest and toughest pneumatic tires
made.

I. Bead

The most important part of the tyre is the bead

Bead wires anchor the tire to the wheel and transfer the load to the wheel.

It anchors the carcass and provides affirm mounting for the tyre on the wheel

Ultimacly all the ground forces on the tyre terminates in the bead

Bead is made of bundles of high strength carbon steel wire.

Rubber pcx strips stream line the round bead bundles, so the fabric will fit smoothly aroun
them.

2. Flippers
These are layers of rubber and fabric enclosed the bead bundles to insulate the carcass plies fro

the bead wit es

Since the greatest amount of heat in the tyre is in bead area, this kind of insulation increases&
durability of the tyre. V

3. The carcass I Casing Ply

The term easing ply and carcass ply are sometimes used interchangeably.

A casing ply consists of fabric cords between two layers of rubber representing an individw

ply.

The casg plies give the tire its primary strength.

Casing p[ies are anchored around bead wires forming ply turn-ups.

MultipV i:!yers of casing plies are bonded together, as necessary, to form the casing and gi4

the tyr ic capability to hold the inflation pressure. V

The .C2 -: is made up of layers or plies of rubber-coated nylon cord fabric

Fabric is cut into strips on base.

Meanir. that the cords of fabric run at angle of 45 to the length of the strip

Each sueccssive ply of fabric is put on in such a way that the chords cross each other at abc

900 so strength of the carcass is balanced.

26

4.. The tread

The tread refers to the part of the tire that comes in contact with the ground, i.e. the wearing
surface on the outer circumfe-ence of the tyre.
The tread rubber compound is formulated to resist wear, abrasion, cutting, cracking, and heat
buildup.

It is made of specially compounded rubber and has a pattern of grooves molded into its surface t.
give the tyre the required tractions characteristics with the type of run way surface the aircraft w
encounter.

It prolongs the life of the casing by protecting the underlying tire structure.

5. Tread Groove:

These are circumferential grooves molded into the tread surface during fabrication.

The depth of these grooves is referred to as Skid.

Purpose of the grooves:

a. Act as a visual indicator of tread wear by allowing easy depth perception of the skid depth to
the bottom of the groove.

b. Provide a mechanism to channel water from between the tire and runway surface.

6. Tread Ribs

These are the rubber between the tread grooves.

Un deli read:

Undertread is the rubber layer between the bottom of the grooves and the top of the reinforcing
Plies on Bias tires nd the top of the protector ply on Radial tires.

For tires designed to be retreaded, it allows for buffing the worn tread and provides the liaison
with the new retread products.

The most familiar types of treads are;

a) Plain treads

It is plain; smooth no brakes or vhose brakes are used as a taxi aid other than slowing down
aircraft on landing.

Currently they are found on very light aircraft and some helicopters.

Water dispensing treads have small holes in the crown and shoulder rubber to prevent aqua
planning.

b) All -weather tread

This is a diamond shaped treads pattern for aircraft operating on grass or hard packed dirt

The same tread type can also be very good for braking action on both hard surfaced and dirt
runways if t tyre has a rib tread in the center and diamonds molds into the shoulders.

.c) Rib tread

This is most popular tread found on aircraft today.

27

Designed especially for use on hard surface runways and gives long tread wear, hood retraction
and exceptional good directional stability.

Advantages of plain tread C 0

It is good on hard surface runway

ii. It has good traction

iii. long tread wear

iv. It has good directional stability

7. Tread Reinforcing Ply

These are single or multiple layers of a special nylon fabric positioned underneath the tread.

These plies help to strengthen and stabilize the crown area by reducing tread distortion under

load and increasing high speed stability.

They also offer resistance of the tread to puncture and cutting which helps protect the casing
body

8. Breakers

These are not always used on all tyres

But they are extra-layers of reinforced e.g nylon cord fabric placed under the tread area

It is considered part of the carcass

9. Bead toe:

This is the inner bead edge closest to the tyre center line.

10. Bead heel

This is the outer bead edge which fits against the wheel flange

11. Inner liner

On tuneless tyre, this is the inner layer of less permeable rubber

It acts as built in rubber tube.

Prevents air from escaping through casing plies

For tube type tyres. a thin rubber liner is used to prevent tube chaffing against the inside ply.

It extends from bead to bead.

12. Sidewall

This is a rubber covering that extends from the tread down to the bead heel to protect the carcaSS
from such injuries as cuts, bruises and exposure to ozone and moisture.

It also provides the surface for tire markings

13. Apex strip.

The apex strip is additional rubber formed around the bead to give counter for anchoring the ply
turn ups.

14. Chafer Rubber

Protective rubber laid over the outer casing plies in the bead area of the tire.

Its purpose is to protect the casing plies from damage when mounting or dismounting and to
reduce the effects of wear and chafing (light abrasion) between the wheel and the tire bead.

15. Near Zero Growth (NZG)

NZG technology is a development by Michelin for radial tires.

This technology uses a newly developed ultra-high tensile composite cord with less elongation
than nylor cords.

28

Tires constructed with NZG cord may use fewer plies to achieve the same tire strength and
capability

As such, NZG tires are lighter in weight and grow less than nylon constructed t i res.

16.. Chifte deflectors . c

Jet aircraft with rear -mounted engines have a problem with water or slush being thrown up b,
nose wheel and entering into the engines, causing damage or flame out.

This is prevented by using nose wheels with chines or deflector molded in the upper side wall
the tyre to deflect the slush or water away from the engine intakes.

NOTE

A tire can have a single chine for dual nose wheel tire configurations or double chine for single
wheel tireconfigurations.

The chine tire is used on some commercial, regional and private jets. It is re-treadable when
specified.
TYRE VENTING

Tubeless tyres have an inner liner to prevent air escape but in actual sense sometimes air escapes

If this seeped. air is entrapped in the body plies, it could expand when the tyre heats up and cause
ply

separation and possibly allow tread to be thrown from the tyre

To prevent this tubeless tyres have vent holes in both their lower sidewalls to allow this air to e

Some air is also. available in the casing cords after manufacture, hence needed to be eliminated.

The holes must be kept open when the tyre is retreaded.

These holes can also release the air which is entrapped between the tyre and the tube when the
tyre a

tube are mounted.

The location of each veil! hole is indicated by a colored paint dot.

A Green color or Gray dot is used for tubeless tires.

A White color dot is used for tube-type tires.

Paint dots are applied to new tires. It is not required that they be refreshed on

retreaded tires.

Notel:

Not all tires require vent holes due to materials, design and fabrication.

This is particularly true for some physicaLly smalLer radial tires used in the General Aviation i

high performance Military applications.

Note 2:
It is normal to see bubbles at the tire vent holes, just above the wheel flange, any time while tli is
inflated.

N0Th3:

Do not identify a tire as leaking solely on the rate of bubbles from the vent holes.

A leaking tire/wheelassembly should be determined by the pressure loss, as measured with a

calibrated gauge, over a period of time. ,

- -c L

- r . .

29

TiRE TERfVlNOLOGY

A New Tire

hhis is a tire that has been stretched t its dimensions by inflatingto hepecified pressure and that
has been placed in service on an aircraft.

Grown tire

Tyre that has been stretched to its maximum dimensions during its service life, as a result of
inflation pressure, heat, and rotational forces.

B or II prefix in the size designation indicates a rim width to section width ratio.

Maximum Outside Diameter.

This is maximum diameter of a new inflated tire measured on the center bf the tread.

Do Nominal overall diameter expressed in inches or millimeters.

Section Width.

This is the overall width at the widest point of a new inflated tire.
The section width dimension does not include the chine for tires with chine.

W Nominal section width expressed in inches or millimeters. V V V

The Construction code is placed between the section width and the rim diameter.

for bias tires. V

R for radial tires. V V

Rim Diameter is the specified rim diameter. V

D = Rim diameter expressed in inches or millimeters. V V V

Static Loaded Radius.

This is the distance between the center of the wheel axle and the flat surface, on which the tire is
bade

when supporting its rated load while inflated to its rated pressure (at ambient temperature). V

Tire Deflection. V

This is the difference between half the outside diameter and the static loaded radius. V

TYRI! INSPECTION:

1. INFLA TION

The greatest enemy of the aircraft tyre is heat, either that jSV generated within the time as It rll
the ground or that from such external source as the brakes or hot runways. V As the tyre rolls its
side wall flexes and cause internal heat V

The tyre is inflated to have a normal flexing for a reasonable amount of time and at the same t
aircraft weight is supported by the air in the tyre. V

Therefore the inflation pressure is critical and should be checked daily and before each fligh Use
a serviceable pressure gauge (manometer) when checking tyre pressure.

(a) Under Inflation V V

i. Causes excess flexing of the tyre which generates htt, and damages the tyres for repe

excess flexing., V V V V

ii. Tyre can disintegrate due to excess heat and flexine V

29

TE TERMlt1OLOGY

A New Tire

his is a tire that has been stretched t its dimensions by inflatingto hpecified pressure and tharha
been placed in service on an aircraft.

Grown tire

Tyre that has been stretched to its maximum dimensions during its service life, as a result of
inflation pressure, heat, and rotational forces.

B or ii prefix in the size designation indicates a rim width to section width ratio.

Maximum Outside Diameter.

This is maximum dianieter of a new inflated tire measured on the center bf the tread.

Do Nominal overall diameter expressed in inches or millimeters.

Section Width.

This is the overall width at the widest point of a new inflated tire.

The section width dimension does not include the chine for tires with chine.

W = Nominal section width expressed in inches or millimeters.

The Construction code is placed between the section width and the rim diameter.

for bias tires.

R for radial tires. V V

Rim Diameter is the specified rim diameter.

D = Rim diameter expressed in inches or millimeters. V V V

Static Loaded Radius.

This is the distance between the center of the wheel axle and the flat surface, on which the tire is
bade

when supporting its rated load while inflated to its rated pressure (at ambient temperature). V

Tire Deflection.

This is the difference between half the outside diameter and the static loaded radius. V

TYR INSPECTION:

1. INFLA TION

The greatest enemy of the aircraft lyre is heat, either that is: generated within the time as Vt roil
the ground or that from such external source as the brakes or hot runways. V V V As the tyre
rolls its side wall flexes and cause internal heat V V V The tyre is inflated to have a normal
flexing for a reasonable amount of time and at the same t aircraft weight is supported bythe air in
the tyre. V V

Therefore the inflation pressure is critical and should becheckd daily and before each Pugh Use
a serviceable pressure gauge (manometer) when checking tyre pressure.

(a) Under Inflation V V -

i. Causes excess flexing of the tyre which generates htt and damages the tyres for repe

excess flexing., V V

ii. Tyre can disintegrate due to excess Vleat and flexing

30

ilL. This causes the un even wear on tyre; with shoulders wearing first
iv. Tires cai creep or slip on the wheeLduring braking; valve sterns on tube-type tircs can
damaged or sheared off and the tire, tube or complete whel assembly can be damaged

(b) Over inflation

Tyre is likely to burst especially during landing

Wear will he uneven especially wearing in the center tread first.

Poor cushioning of the surface loads giving a hard ride.

IL.

Ill..

2. CONDITION OF THE TREAD

i. check the wear on the tread grooves for traction and strength

ii. check for tread depth and wear patterns since the retraction characteristics of the tyre is seriou
affected when the tread is worn

iii. If the tread is worn only to the point that the tread reinforcement is showing, the tyre can be
retreaded but if it is worn into the body plies, then it has gone too far to be saved.

iv. The tyre should be replaced when1-/9 of the tread is left.

v. Some aircraft are made with some marker e bar when the wear reaches the marker tie b

then the tyre needs replacement.

vi. Some military supersonic aircraft.tyres replacement is determined by the number of landings.

other causes of the uneven wear of the tyre are;

- Landing gear wheel misalignment . 4-

- Misalignment of the axle

- Defective brakes
- Damaged strut

-k

vii. Tread Damage is in form of; -

. . k L&-

.. Cuts due to toreign sharp objects

Replace tyre if the cut is V2 of the rib widths

Expose plies will call for tyre replacement #& k14 .Zyre hydroplaning (Aquaplaning) L . -
(1CJ - d

-i \ t\

Burns on the tread all cnll for replacement of the tyre, these are caused by hydroplaning This
hydr planning is caused by tyre braking on the wet run way and the tyre comes in contact with
the surface only at one local area.

Tremendous amount of heat is developed at the point of contact and burns the rubber-replace th

tyre

Damage due to chemicals and fuels oils

Tyres which have come into contact with oil or grease, should be washed with alcohol, then soap
and Vv dried thoroughly.

Tyre flat spottin:

Nylon tyres will develop temporally flat spots under static loads.

H N

a.

32
 No repairs are permitted except by approved repair station V

... The ngineers job is to give primarily judgment as to weather is repairable or not.

Repairs are not recommended for the following. 4 /.V)

l3reaksdueto flexing V

Bead injury beyond chapters V V

Separation o.f plies

Damage that requires re-enforcement

Kinked or broken beads V

Cracks that extend into the plies

Heat damage V

Cracked or deteriorated inner liner

There is however no limit to the number of times the tyre may be retreaded, provided the carcass
has n suffered any of the above damages.

Retread-

Retreading is the process of renewing the trad products of the tire allowing the casings to be i

multiple times. V

Tile crown and shoulder rubber of the tyre is replaced and cured in special designed mold.

Remould (Remold) V

This is a term used where the tyre is similarly probessed but cured in a mould similar to that in
which th lyre was originally made.
Up to 10 remoulds have been canied out on specific Tyres with only 10% decrease in strength
The process involves buffing where by the amount of rubber is removed on a Buffing machine
and this operation provides the opportunity for further inspection of hidden defects.

Recapping-

This is a general term meaning reconditioning of a tire by renewing the tread, or renewing the
tree It on or both side walls. V V

TYPES OF RECAPPING: see page 393

1. TOP CAPPING V

2. FULL CAPPING

3. THREE QUARTER RETREAD V

4. BEAD TO BEAD RETREAD

A retread tyre will be indicated by R and the number of times it has been retreaded will be
indicated by a flgur E. R3. Third time retread shown on the side wall.

A:RFT TYRE MARKtG I TYRE BRANDING:

Markingsare molded into therubber surface during manufacturing an reniain there throughQut
the tires life.

Markings.provide information that describes the tire, its design capabilities, manufacturing
information, and certification.

Tire Markings will vary depending on the market application, whether bias or radial, and reflect

the requirements in place at the time of certification.

Aircraft tyres have markings imprinted on their side walls for identification purposes.

New Tire Markings and descriptions:

New Tire Markings appear on both sidewalls and are to remain on at least one sidewall of the tire
throughout its service life.

Ply Rating (PR) for a given size is an index indicating the maximum load rating in relationship
with the inflation pressure..

NOTE:

Ply rating: .

This is an index number. It may not indicate the actual number of casing plies applied inthe tire
construction.

Load Rating:

This is the maximum static load for a tire, approved by a standardized body, at rated pressure.

Ratings may be expressed in kilograms (kg.) or pounds (lbs.).

Rated Inflation Pressure

This is required to carry the rated load at ambient temperature.

It is not branded onto the tire.

The rated inflation pressure is often provided for an unloaded tire (without any deflection).

Inflatiort pressure is given in Bars or Pounds per Square Inch (psi) (1 Bar 14.5 psi).

Specfied Service In/lation Pressure is required for a tire, at maximum aircraft load, to maintain
the

designed loaded radius.

It is determined by the airplane manufacturer and not branded onto the tire.

A loaded tire;

Will deflect and reduce its internal volume which increases the inflation pressure about 4%.
Speed Rating

This is the maximum allowable speed for which the tire is certified speed ratings are given in
miles per

hour (mph). (Some military tires use knots.)

Molded skid is the depth of the center grooves and is molded into the tread rubber during
manufacturing.

Casing Construction Code Identification

This is used for some radial and bias tires to provide the actual construction.

Radial Example: INCO7NBO9SPI

1 = number of bead wiis for each side of the tire

NCO7 = 7 Nylon cinc ri1i

34

NB09 9 Nylon belt plies

SPI 1 Steel protector ply

Bias Example: N12-IA

N Nylon

12 Casing plies

1 Breaker ply

Modification A

Tread Construction Code Example: F2A

F Fabric

2 reinforcing plies
Modification A

Serial Number

This is a unique identification number for each tire manufactured.

The Michelin Serial Number also provides the fabrication plant and date.

Radial Serial Number Definition.

1211C025

[iascitfth

UExle;1for2Ofl)

3 digits indicating the rufacturing day

in the regorian calendar (in fhis xamle, .

Lthe1 e was

[Ce [ettr related to the facility the dcade see 3 3 8

Bias Serial Number Definition

1211ROQ025

3 iiigits incliLating te manufacturing day inhe

Gregorian caterdar (in this example the tirewa

manufa&ured the 2flth day of2Ot1)

@le.erreltedto the fachy and the decade see 3 3 8

iAque roduction Uentificatiounb

The markings will include information;

LetterR- for retread

Figure 3, R3 for sequence of retread

Customer narn.

Part number

Retn ad level

Serial number

Speed rating

Loading in pounds

Modficatio stare

Date of retread

Ply rating

Retread sl.dd level

Type of retread

Year andrnonth ofretread

The original marking

Manufacturer

Part. Number

Serial Number

Date of znanufacture

Tubeless fTube type

Speed rating
Size

Ply rating

Type of tread

Load rating

Load Rating

Minhnuni Perfonnance Standards

OTHER MARK!NG ON TYRES.

1. GREENIGRAY SPOTS ________* FOR VENTS

2. A RED DOT OR TRIANGLE FOR LIGHT PART OF THE TYRE

.3. TYRE WEAR INDICATORS MARKER BARS

4. TYRE SLIFPI4GE/ CREEP MARKS (use contrasting colours like white, red or orange)

5. SIZE OF THE SLIPPAGE MARK__________ 1 WIDE, 2 LONG

A! RCRAFT TUBES

A great number of aircraft tubes ranging from some of the small type III which is 5.00-5 up to
large VII which is 56 x16 are of the tube type.

35

C.C2is the Federal Administrtio Agcndy (FAA) TechnicaL Standard Order (TSO) uscc to
define 1h mmii .irn performance sandrrds for aircraf tires

o ETSO-Cd2 is the Euroean Aviati6 Shfet Agency (EASA) equivalent of the FAA TSO-C62. Ii
is al used to define the m?nimum performance standards for aircraft tires.

A Part Number (PN)

This is unique manufacturer identification for each aircraft tire size/ply rating/speed rating.
Example:

1. Michelin Bias tire format = XXX-XXX-X.

2. Michelin Radial tire format = MXXXXX, MXXXXXX or MXXXXX-XX.

IS ( Vt4CY \

Retread markings:

a.

b.

C.

.d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

1.5

J.

k.

1.

U.

n.

0.

Construction of aircraft tubes

36

a. Un re enf breed natural rubber for normal application

b. Re -cifored Wt: with a layer of nylon fabric molded to its inside.circumference.

The layer of nylon serves two purposes; -

a. Protect it from chaffing against the rim in case of chaffing

b. Prtect it from heat caused by brake application

Tubes must hold pressure with minimum or no leakage

Normally tube leakages is as a result of puncture or defective inflation valve

All aircraft tubes are made of compounded rubber

Always fit a tube in the right size tyre

If the tube is too small, its splices will be over stressed and it will be weakened.

If thD tube is too large, it will suffer folds and pinching.

TUBE_INSPECTION: V

Tube inspection will include the following; V

a. elasticity

b. cracking V V V

c. chafing V

d. check the valve stern VViIditio V V

e. check valve core for leaks V V

f. check for wrinkles V V

V g. check for thinning V

TYRE AND TUBE REPAIRS:

Tyre sport repairs V V

When considered economical, spot repairs. can be made to take care of the tread injuries such as
c ,snags etc.which are not more than 25% of the actually body plies of the tire. V

- Vulcanized spot repairs are also allowed to fill in tread gouges that do not go deeper than tread
rubber and do not penetrat the cord body (fill with dough compound) is allowed

- Low speed tyre are under 1 60 mph V

- High speed tyres are of over 160 mph V

- Tyres of 4 and 6-ply are not normally repaired because it is an econofriical.

TYRE AND TUBE STORAGE V

a, Keep in dry and cool environment. V - V

b. Keep in a clean vell elevated dark room V V V

c. V Keep out ofdircct sun light V V V. :V

d. Avoid agents like oil, grease, fuels, acids steam pipcs, humidity and any other hydrocarbons

c. Keep avy from source of ozone e.g. fluorescent lights, electric motors, battery chargers, elect:

rnlr pl trr91 prp nce they all create ozor

37

Ozone freaks the molecular bonds, degrading the nibbcr and causing cracks.

a Store tyres vertically on racks with flat surface which is 3-4 wide

b. Change tyres vertical every 2-3 month.

e. Tyres can be stacked horizontallyon level ground limiting the height to 3-4 tyres depending c

size.
Storing tubes;

r1Ul)CS should be kept in their Original cartons

Tubes can also be dusted with talcim powder nd wrapped in heavy paper or scaled plast bags.

Tubes can also be stored in their appropriate size tyres dusted with talcum powder and inflated
just enough to round them off.

Before mounting a tire with a tube inside, always remove the tube from the tire and inspect the
inside of the tire to avoid foreign material which could cause irreparable damage to both the tire
and tube, if not removed.

d.. If tires become contaminated, wash them with denatured alcohol and then with a soap and
watet

solution.

e. Store tires vertically in tire racks.

f. The surface of the tire rack on which the weight of the tire rests should be f1a and, if possible,
71o 10cm (3 to 4 in) wide to prevent permarcnt distortion of the tire.

g. When tires are stored for long term (approximately 1 year or longer), it is recommended thai
tires be rotated periodically to prevent distortion in the ttead area.

If tires must be stacked on top of each other, sidewall to sidewall, they should not be stacked fo
more than 6 months.

The maximum stacking height:

Tires high for tire diameter 40 inches; (1 meter) or greater.

Tires high if tire diameter is less than 40 inches; (1 meter).

SHELF L!1E
Tyres and tubes may he kept in storage for up to seven years from date of manufacture but it is
advisab

to limit the stock so that the storage life should not exceed four years.

After seven years tyres should be returned to the manufacture for assessment.

OPERATING_AND HAN DUNG TIPS

1. WARNINGS:

Aircrt tires must always be inflated with a properly regulated inflation source.

RguIata tha supply line to a pressure no 9reater than 1.5 times the opc-rati inflatia pressure.

Inflathag a tire without a ircssurcrc5uator presents a risk of personal injury

andIor damage to equipment.

38

2. WARN1NGS:

Use a suitable irflation cage when inflating newly mounted tire whc (Ew) assembly.

Any damage to the tire, the wheel, and whl bolts or tmproper proccdre, may cause the
tire/wheel assembly to burst during the inflatiort proccs, wftic may result in serious or fatal
injury.

3. WARNING:

Do not use a mounting lubricant with radial-constructed tires. In-service tire/wheel slippage may
result.

The cf a mounting lubricant is limited to Bias-constructed tires ciiY.

4 WARNING:

Do not use mounting lubricant with magnesium alloy wheels.

FJounting lubricant may damage the wheel.

5. WARNING: -

Remove any manufacturing stickers found on the inner liner.

The label can cause damage to a tube and result in loss of inflation pressure.

6. WARNING

A new tube should be used when installing a new tire.

A used tube will grow in service and may be too large to use in a new tire. a tube that is too large
may cause a fold or crease, which could develop into a split that will cause the release of pressur
Aircraft tires can be expected to grow as much as 12% in service.

In addition, tubes are manufactured slightly smaller than the tire cavity to prevent folds and
wrinkles at installation.

Combining both growth factors, a used tube may be as much as 25% larger than the original si
The excess size of a used tube may cause a fold or crease.

7. All michelin radial aircraft tires are of tubeless design, do not use a tube in an aircraft radial
tire. Do not mount a Michelin radial tire on a tube type vheel, improper assembly may cause
damage the tire.

8. MOUNTING AND DEMOUNTING TOOLS.

Ensure all tools and equipment to be used are serviceable.

Pressure gage

Bead Seater

Bead breaker

Safety inflation cage

Preferably inert gas e.g. Nitrogen (dry air to a lesser extent)

 Air pressure Regulator

9. Confirm that the 0-Rings are of the proper material, as specified by the wheel manufacturer for
the intended application and temperature conditions.

Use a new 0-Ring scat with the correct part number when mounting a tubeless tire.

1 0. When aligning the wheel halves, be careful not to damage the 0-ring in the wheel base which
seals the wheel halves, a damaged 0-ring may allow the assembly to lose pressure.

1. It is normal and acceptable to see a balance pad attached to the interior of some aircraft tires.

39

This pad is applied at the factory and brings tire balance within industryand regulatory siandar
Do not confuse this pad with a repair. ..

2. Some wheel manufacturers mark the light spot on each wheel half. (Refer to the wheel
manufacturers Component Maintenance Manual.)

Wheel halves are assembled with these light spots approximately 180 degrees apart.

13. Align the red balance mark on the lower idewall of the tire with the heavy spot on th heel,
unless otherwise specified by the wheel manufacturer.

NOTE: The red balance mark on the lower sidewall of the tire indicates the light point of the t
balance. The red dot is not required on all tires

14. A properly balanced tire/wheel assembly improves the tires overall wear characteristic In
addition to severe vibration, an unbalanced assembly will cause irregular and localized trea wear
patterns that can reduce the overall performance life of the tire.

1 5. -In the absence of specific whcel markings, align the tires red balance mark with the wheel
inflation valve.

16. In the absence of a tire halance.mark, align the tires serial number with the wheel inflation
valve or wheel light spot.
17. The inflation pressure souice should be located 10 meters (30 feet) away from the saf cage
with a valve, regulator, and pressure gauge installed at that point.

I Non-serviceable tire/wheel assemblies should be transported without inflation pressurc A

damaged assembly could burst, causing damage or personal injury.

I 9. Serviceable tire/wheel assemblies may he transported fully, pressurized in the cargo arc

an aircraft.

20. Always approach a tire/wheel ascmhly mounted on u aircraft from an oblique angle
(direction of the tires shoulder).

21. Confirm that the pressure required is specified for weight on wheels or with the tire

unloaded. (The tire/wheel assembly is not installed on the aircraft or the aircraft is on jacks.) J

loaded tire will have an inflation pressure 4% higher than when unloaded (loaded pressure =

times unloaded pressure).

22. Tires operating on the same axle or bogie should be operated at the same pressure 5 When
tires are operated at unequal pressures the tire with the higher inflation pressure will ca greater
load. This can cause shorter-life on both tires due to casing fatigue or abnormal wear.

1. TAXING

The tyre damage can be prevented by proper handling of the aircraft on the ground during taxi

Avoiding taxing near paved surfaces (edge) is a good practice

Avoid chunk holes on the run way or other foreign objects on the run way can reduce tvre dan

Taxing speed should be kept to a minimum and for aircraft not equipped with nose wheel slee
the taxing run c-an be kept at 25mph.

All personnel should take tii ramps, parking area, taxing strips and runways clean and cieare all
objects that might cause damage.
Result of overheating is normally ir-dicated tackiness and deposit of tyre wiil adhere to whe fIai
and bead seats.

40

2 LRAK1NG AND FCVOTING

. Loqger runs on takeoff (take offruns) and landing (landing runs) are subjecting tyres o rnoie
abrasion from braking, turning and pivoting.

Severe use of brakes can wear flat spots on tires and cause them to be out of balance, rnakn p.
mature recapping and or replacement.

avoiding proInged application of brakes can reduce on tyre wear and damage

prolonged lyre tread life can also he achieved by care full pivoting Of the aircraft(reducing on
sliarp turns)

3. TAKE -OFFS AND LANDINGS

Aircraft tyres are under severe strain on iak.eoff and landing

Tyre damage at the time of landing can be traced to errors in judgment or un fore seen

circumstances.

Smooth landing is one way of reducing tread wear

Delayhig brakes until the aircraft is dfiniie1y settled into its final roll an also reduce o

4. CONDITION OF LANDING FIELD. V

AnQthcr causeof tyre damag.a.ncl wear is the condition of the runways, taxing strips, ramps au

cthr paved suriaces

These if poorly maintained can cause tyre damages and excess wear

Always care, maintain and clean runways and ramps V V

V Eliminate loose objects like bolts, rivets, tools, gravel, etc. from the rur ways.

. FYURQ PLANNING

This is the same as aqua planning

Hydro planning will occur when the aircraft tyres loose contact with the taxi or run way surfac
generally because of film of water between the tyre and the surface.

The result is complete loose of steering capability, controllability, and braking action of the

aircraft.

V -, CVenahp be causdby a,srriahI inount of witer nixing withsome contaminates on the

V When this siruatioi: happens, xtrene heat is built up in a highly localized area of the tyre Vhd

hence lyre damage.

There are tyres specially designed to minimize liydro-planning and this is by proper design or
placement of the grooves in the tread of the tyre so that the Sater can pass under the footprint.
the tyre and the tread can contact the ground.

Some runways of modern construction have cross cuttings to purposely reduce the danger of
hydro-pianning. V V

This again has a draw back in that this kind of cross cuttings create ridges which cause chevron
type of cuttings on the tyre tread-especially with high pressure tyres used on jet aircraft.

S WALL-rNFLATED AIRCRAFT TVRS V V

Some tvrs for small aircraft are manufactured with a. valve in the side wall.

This kind of design eliminates the need for machining the wheel to take conventional valve

40

. BRKNG AND FVOTING

 Lotger runs on takeoff (take offruns) and landing (landing runs) are subjecting tyres rnoie
abrasion from braking, turning and pivoting.

Severe use of brakes can wear flat spots on tires and cause them to be out of balance, rnkn p.
mature recapping and or replacement.

avoiding prolonged application of brakes can reduce on tyre wear and damage

prolonged lyre tread life can also he achieved by care full pivoting Of the aircraft(reducing on
sliarp turns) r

3. TAKE -OFFS AND LANDINGS

Aircraft tyres are under severe strain on takeoff and landing

Tyre damage at the time of landing can be traced to errors in judgment or un fore seen

circumstances.

Smooth landing is one way of reducing tread wear

Delaying brakes until the aircraft is dfipitely sttled into its final roll an also reduce o

VV - V

4. CONDITION OF LANDING FIELD. V V

Anthcr causeof tyre damage and wear is the condition of the runways, taxing strips, ramps au
cthr paved suriaces

These if poorly maintained can cause tyre damages and excess wear

Always care, maintain and clean runways and ramps V V V

V V Eliminate loose objects like bolts, rivets, tools, gravel, etc. from th ,rufl Ways.

. FYURO PLANNING V

This is the same as aqua planning

V Hydro p1anning will occur when the aircraft tyres loose contact with the taxi or run way
surfac

generally because of film of water between the tyre and the surface.

The result is complete loose of steering capability, controllability, and braking action of the

ircraft..

V VV QVenrisp he causedbv asuriall amount of witer ixing ithsom contaminates on I1

V When this situatio: happens, xtrerre heat is built up in a highly localized area of the tyre :d

hence tyre damage.

There are tyres specially designed to minimize liydro-planning and this is by proper design or

placement of the grooves in Il-ic tread of the tyre so that the water can pass under the footprint.

the lyre and the tread can contact the ground.

Some runways of modern construction have cross cuttings to purposely reduce the danger of

hydro-pianning. V

This again has a draw back in that this kind of cross cuttings create ridges which cause chevron

type of cuttings on the tyre tread-especially with high pressure tyres used on jet aircraft.

WI LL NFLAD AIRCRAFT TVRS V V V

Some tvrs for small aircraft are manufactured with a valve in the side wall.

This kin.d of design eliminates the need for machining the wheel to take conventional valve

41

Inflation as well s checking air pressure is accomplished by inetirgnedle through the rubi idewli
waive similar to the way footballs are infiated.

Replacement of these side walls valves is possible

.T,st sc l:nife or scissors and cut out the damaged valve, use a piee of string to insert the nt
valve.

This exercise can he done. N-TU.

TYPES OF V4LVS USED IN A!RCRAFT INNER TUBES

1. The rubber viIve

-. This has a rubber stem and a rubber base cured to the outside surface of the inner tube It is
similar to auto mobile tubes vales

Replacement of these valves can be done by gas service station so long as they have the right for
replacement.

2. l1c.tz vive with rubber base

This 1. s a metal stem and rubber base

Replacement is also possible so long as the same size nd type is available.

3. rtaI valve with fabric re in forced base

ephe rubber base of this valve can be cured on top of the tube or may be cured into the tube.

rmi riOUrriNG

Tubeless tyres -

Most modem aircraft split type wheel which makes it easier to mount the tyre than the single
piece oi detached flange type.

. heins1iing tubeless tyres. care must etaken and manufadtures service instruction mi

- be foowed when mounting and de mounting.

The following information must be known at all times;

- Bolt torque va1t

- iuhrication requirement

- Wheel balancing information

- CJ.earing agent

b. The tyre is inspected, wheel also inspected to ascertain that there are no nicks, cracks scrat
especially in bead seat area and also the bead of tyres is safe

Check the grooves for the 0-ring seal between the wheel halves (hubs)

Examine the signs of corrosion, sins of finish being scratched.

Check to ascertain that the balance weights installed during manufacture are secured in their
locations

Clean the bead seat with isopropyl alcohol.

42

C. .:Chck for thermal fusible plugs for security ntd condition

See the condition of the air valve on the wheel.

-d. Place the in board half of thewheel on a flat surface. avoid scratching surfaces

Jhe tyr to hefltted or.moinwd.must bc.checked for.prsence of word bies on th

side walls -

- Apply a little bit of talcumto the toe or inner edge of the bead to help the bead scat

when the tyre is inflated

Lubricate the 0-ring seal.with.saine grease for the bearings and carefully seal it in tit5

groove.

c. Carefully place the tyre over the iiboar wheel half which was placed on the flat surface
- Ensure that the. tyr,e light, point (red dot) is adjacent the wheel valve er any other rklark to
indicate heavy point of the wheel.

, - At this time place the., outboard wheel valve inside the tyre and line up the bolt holes.

f. apply soi.ie ant-seize compound si,ich as lubtork to the bolt threads and washers and bcarin
surfaces of the nuts.

g; -Drav all the nuts.up.in a crisscross fashion to one half of the reuired torque

- . Use a serviceable torque wrencl to. go back and bring all the nuts to full req torque.

1:.:. place the wheel assembly in a.safety cage nd use clip on chunk to inflate the tyre graduall3

- Adjust thc pressure regulator to the recommended lyre pressure to avoid high. pressure rush.

- Watch to ascea.in tha the beads seat against tile wheel flange (bead area)

NOTE

Nvloi tyres stretches when they are initially inflated, allow them to remain for 1 2hrs to 24hrs
with no 1 applied.

- . Adjust pressure if decrease realized

1f.eprssur.e lose exceeds 5%: jfl .any;2hr .rerld, .the. the wJieei assembly should be .aker
further examination. . . .

Tube-type tyres

Before mouating a tube-type tyre,on the wheel, be sure that both the tube and the tyre arc correct
for thai. installation.

- inspect the wheel for corrosion, scratches and restore any protective oxide film is removed
(use zinc chromate primer)

-. clean bead seat area with damp cloth socked in isopropyl alcohol

b.: Glean the inside of the tyre and ensure that there are no foreign objects
- Dust with talcum powder

The tube can also be slightly dusted with talcum,

. . , - insert the tube into the tyre with valve,sticking. out on the side of the tyre having th

serial number

c. Inflate, the tube just enough to round it off and adjust.it so that the yellow mark on the tube
.ndieatng the heaviest point aligns, with REP DOT Ofl tile tyre indicating the right point.

43

If the tube has no mark, then assume that the valve is the heayy point.

Install the tyre and tube on the outboard vtheel half so that the valve sticks out through the h
iuthe. wheel. (a bit of talcum caibe usd around the toe of the bead to help U: slide ovet the wheel
and seat itself)

c. Now you can place the in board half of the wheel in he tyre, be sure the tube is not pinched

- Lubricate the bolts with anti-seize compound and tighten the nuts criss-cross fashion one half
of the required torque.

- Go back and bring all the nuts to.the recommended valve of torque load. (if the whet

have L impression stamped on the flanges, then they should be 1800 apart.

- Put the tyre in a safety cage and rising a chip-on chunk, gradually bring the air press

to the recommended valve to seat the bead and then deflate the tyre. Re-infiateagair the
recommended pressure.

Note

This infjate cefIate infate procedure allows the tube straighten itself outside the tyre and
this w remove any wrinkles from the tube.
- The air pressure may drop after initial inflation.beeause the plies stretch and at the same time th
may he air trapped betweenthe tyre and the tube

- This air will be out with the first 1 2-24hrs and this pressure can be adjusted to the right vakbL.

TYRE R4LA4CG

Tyres or wheel assemblies are always balanced to reduce vibrations which are annoying
especially dur

takeoff.

A balancing stand is used to balance aircraft-wheel assemblies.

Place the wheel on the shaft on the balancing stand and allow the wheel to rotate.

Any heavy point will be seen by resting at the bottom.

Tyres and wheel assemblies are counter balanced with tet weights unti1 the assembly is
balanced.

Then install the correct amdunt of weigMonthe wheel at the loationidentifled by the test weight.

The width -of the mark represents the maximum circumference iovemen permitted with tubed
tyres

COLD TYRE

A coId tire is generally defined as a tire which is the same temperature as the surrounding air
(ambient temperature).

That is, one that has not rolled (taxied or takeoff/landing) for a minimum of three (3) hours.
When checking tyre pressure at ambient temperature, any tyre which is more than 10% below
loaded inflation pressure should be rejected together with comparison of the tyre on the same
axle. Any tyre between 5% -10% below loaded inflation pressure should be re-inflated to correct
pressure a then checked the next day, and if it is more than 5% low, the tyre should be rejected

HOT TYRE
A hot tise is one that has rolled (taxi) under load on the aircraft and has not been allowed to
cool to

ambient temperature

It may be necessary to check the tyre pressure which is still hot after landing.

The pressure should be checked and compared with others on the same leg

44

Any tyre pressure cf 10% or more below the maximum recommended on the same leg should be
int to maximum pressure, hut should he removed if the same loss occurs during the next check.

AIRCRAFT BRAKES

The purposes of aircraft brakes are:

1. Slowing down the aircraft

2. Stopping the aircraft

3. Parking the airci aft

4. Maneuering (using differential braking)

Brakes must be efficient enough to slow down the aircraft by reducing the rolling sped as
required by the p1k They must develop sufficient force to stop the aircraft in reasonable distance
by absorbing its kinetic energy (c aircraft) and dissipating it inform of heat.

They roust he able to hold on the brakes by use of parking brakes using hand brakes so as to
avoid inadvertenU movement of parked aircraft.

Socrce of power for aircraft brakes

1.. HYDPJJJLTC POWER

2. PNEUMATIC POWER

3. MECHANICALLY OPERATED
1!AJOF CMPONTS OF THE ERKE SYSTEM

1. Rudder pedal (toe pressure)

2. Parking brake handle (lever)

3. Master cylinder-(in case of light aircraft)

4. Brake lines

5. Brake pressure control valves (powered system)

6. Brake discs or drum . s . Y , .r)

c,.,- .k

7. Ant-skid system (powered system) - -

8. Brake cylinders, pistons .

9. Brake lining /pads/shoes

Powered aircraft brake use hydraulic or pneumatic power from the main aircraft power.

Types of arcraft brakes

1. SINGLE -DISC BRAKES

2. DUAL -DISC BRAKES

3. MULT -DISC BRAKES

4. SEGMENTED ROTOR -DiSC BRAKES

5. CARBON BRAKES

6. EXPANDER TUBE BRAKES

Sinqie disc brake

Single disc brakes can be either of fixed or floating disc type..

The fixed vpe can be seen on the Cessna 172 (see fig 10-3 1)

45

The mostpopuiar.of fixed disc brake is the Cleveland and which is bolted to the inside wheel half
It is held for braking action by a piston or pistons installed in the brak cylinder.

The brake cylinder is mounted on the torque plate

The floating disc brake is made of forged steel and has a smoOth surface keyed by steel disc
drive key as to. rotate ith the wheel

The disc is free to move in and out enough to prevent it binding as the brakes are applied. Brake
linings were formerly made of asbestos compound, but because of manufacturing hazards
associated with asbestos, modern brake linings are manufactured in form of other friction
materials

Jaferia!3 of construction

1. Sintered copper and iron .

2. Composite materials embedded with BRASS- COPPER OR COPPER -WOOL

The brass and copper adds or gives the exact required friction characteristics

In order to give the lining the required strength, the following can be done.

Apiece of steel mesh is embedded on the back side of the lining.

The lining may be bounded into a steel cup.

NOTE

When installing the linings be sure that any letterings or steel cup is away from the disc and the
srnoo side should be next to the disc (see fig 10-36)

4dvatrtages of Composite Brake Linings

1. Good coefficient of friction

2. Good wearing capability

3. Good thermal characteristics

4. No health problems during manufacture

5. Lightweight

when it is necessary to increase the capacity of these single dis brakes additional cylinders and
lining pucks may be added (see fig 10-32 ) and pads

Modem single disc brakes have automatic brake adjuster (see fig 10-37)

The purpose of the adjusters is to maintain the gap (spacing) between the brake linings and disc
throughout the life of the brake

Each time the brake is applied and released, the return spring pushes against the head of pin
which pus the piston until the two contacts

Regardless of the wear, the same travel of the piston will be required to apply the brakes

Maintenance of single disc brakes may include bleeding, operational checks, checking lining
wear, checking disc wear or damage and replacement of work lining.

A bleeder valve (screw) is provided on the brake cylinder for bleeding the brakes

Operational checks are made during taxing.

a. Checking braking action for each main wheel they must have equal braking action

b. Equal application of pedal pressure without snnnon P.r

46

c. When brakes are released, brakes should release without any evidence of dragging.

Dual disk Grakes

Dual disc brakes are used on aircraft when more braking friction is desired
It is similar.to single-disc brake except that. the two rotating discs are inthlled because of one.

Multi- disk brakes (fig 9-35)

They are heavy duty brakes designed for use with power brake control valve or power boosted
master

cylinders

In order to increase friction area more discs were adapted, added to form a stack

The stack is keyed to the torque tube rigidly to the under carriages strut.

The alternatng rotating disc were keyed to rotate with the wheel

Application of brakes by hydraulic pressure would force the disc together to provide powerful
and smO

braking action.

The braking force is provided through a series of pistons arranged around the brake unit

The rotating disk are called rotors

The stationary disc are called stators

: Automatic adjusters are installed to give correct clearances between the rotating and stationa,

Modern multi- disc brakes use S!NTERED COPPER AND IRON BASE FRICTION materials
bonded to the steel rotating disc.

Automatic adjusters compensate for the disk wear each time the brake is applied.

. SegrnQnted rotor disc brakes (fig 9-36, 9-37,9-38)

This is,a multidisc brake of modern version used on wide range of medium and heavy aircraft

It is made of several rotating plates (rotors) which are segmented

The unit is made of alternating rotor disc hinged to the wheel and stationary disc (stators) keyed
to the

axle

The stators, back plate, pressure plates have brake linings riveted on them.

The stators have brake linings riveted on both side and back plates have linings only on one side.

Automatic adjusters are threaded into equal spaced holes located in the face of the carrier. The
purpose of the adjusters is to compensate for lining wear by maintaining affixed running cleanti
with the brake in the off position.

Each adjuster is composed of an adjusting clamp, return spring, sleeves nut and clamp holding
down assembly.

The pressure plate and the back plate are non -rotating plate and fitted over the stator drive
sleeves The backing plate is the last unit in the assembly and has linings riveted on it on only one
side.

Operation of segmented rotor disc brakes

When the brakes are applied, the pressure plate moves towards the rotor, the washer moves with
the pressure plate causing the string to compress.

As the piston travel increases and on the pressure plate moves further, the linings then comes
into conta with the rotor segments. as the linings wear, the pressure plate continues to move and
eventually come into direct contact with the adjuster sleeve through the adjuster washer.

47

At Ibis point no further force is applied to the spring, additional travel of the pressure plate
caused the lining war will force the adjuster pin to slide through the adjuster clamp.1

When the brakesare released, the return spring forces the pressure plate to return until it bolts
onthe shoulders of the adjuster pin.
As this cycle is repeated during braking and release of brakes, the adjuster pin will advance
through th adjuster clamp due to lining wear but the running clearance will remain constant.

Advanages of segmented rotor-disc brake:

1. Improved brake cooling

2. Efficient braking action

3. Longer braking action before temperature limit of brakes is reached

4. Increased friction area

The segmented rotor disc brakes are heavy duty brakes adapted for use with high pressure by
hydrau system.

Carbon disc brakes (fig 10-43)

This is also one of the recent developments of multi-disc brakes type which uses disc made of
CARBO

Advantages of carbon disc brakeS,

a. Light weight V

b. Need for long cooling periods after braking is eliminated

C. Disc can absorb tremendous amount of kinetic energy-heat

d. Excellent wear properties

Expander tube brake

This is low-pressure brake with 3600 of braking surface

The main parts are. V

a. Frame

b. Expander tube
c. Brake block

d. Return spring

e. Clearance adjuster V

The expander tube is made of neoprene rubber reinforced with fabric V

It contains a metal nozzle through which fluid enters and leaves the tube.

Brake blocks are made of special brake lining material asbestos compound.

They are strengthened by a backing plate of metal

The brake blocks are held around the frame and are prevented from circumferential niovemen
the torque bar

Brake return springs are semielliptical or half-moon in shape V

Some expander tube brakes have clearance adjusters consisting of a spring loaded piston actin
behind the neoprene diaphragm

48

. When the fluid pressure is less than th spring tension, the clearance adjuster closes off the pass

ihtheinletmainfold.

The tension in the spring can be adjusted by tu.rning the adjusting crew left or right to decrease
increase.

For brakes equipped with adjusters, clearance between the brake block and the drum is usually s
to a minimum of 0.002- 0.015 but exact setting will depend on the particular aircraft.

How to adjust the clearance:

a. Turn the adjuster knob clockwise to decrease

b. Turn the ad] uster knob counter-clock wise to increase clearance but it should kept in mind
that brakes must be applied and released after each setting of the knob to change the pressure in
the. brakes and there by changing the brake clearance

A dvan (ages

1. Lightweight /

2. Few moving parts

Applicable on large & small aircraft e.g. (Piper super cub, Boeing B-29) & others

BRAKE ACTUATiNG SYSTEM

There are generally four types of brake actuating systems

1. INDEPENDENT MASTER CYLINDER

2. POWERBRAKES

3. BOOSTED BRAKES

4. EMERGENCY BRAKE SYSTEM

Independent master cylinder fig 5-12 and fig 1-fl and fig 5-16

As brakes themselves have evolved, so the method of their application.

Earliest drum and shoe brakes were mechanically operated by a flexible steel cable pulling on a
leze inside the brake.

This lever actuated a cam to move the lining agains the drum

The cables were pulled by Johnson bar.

A long lever which, if pulled straight back, applied back and to one side it applied only the brake
on ti side- this system gave pilot some degree of independent braking.

TQ increase the pressure applied to the brake linings, hydraulic cylinders soon replaced the
mechanical type.
Individual master cylinders were used to.apply pressure to the brake cylinder inside the wheels
when th pilot pressed on the brake pedals or pulled back the parking brake lever.

Th6 master cylinder

This is a hydraulic cylinder connected to the pilot pedals, one for each pedal and provides
independent braking, equal braking or differential harking.

49

The i,iain rarts are:

1. Reservoir plus cylinder

2. Piston

3. Piston spring

4. Piston return spring

5. Piston rod plus clevis

6. Body cover

7. Filler plug (with a vent)

8. Compensating sleeve

9. Set screw

10. 0-ring seals

11. Jam nut

Operation of master cylinder

When the brakes are applied, the piston moves down and a small quantity of fluid is displaced
from ti

cylinder to the reservoir until the lock o- seal contacts the piston.
The piston moves down with the compensating sleeve forcing fluid from the cylinder to the
brake uni

(brake cylinder)

When the brakes are released, the piston return spring moves the piston rod up

The o- seal remains in contact with piston because of the pressure applied by the piston spring.

The fluid returns with the piston from the brake unit.

When the compensating sleeve contacts the cover boss and the piston rod continues to move up a
furt

0.040

A small quantity of fluid is displaced from the reservoir to the cylinder during the final
movement Any increase in the volume of the system due to wear of the brake friction pads is
allowed for by the reservoir topping up the cylinders when the brakes are off and lock o-seal
open.

Any pressure or excess volume of fluiddue to expansion is relieved through the compensating
port which is to the reservoir. Compsiting ports V-Shaped

This will prevent the master brake cylinder from locking or causing brakes to drag.

Purpose of the compensator sleeve in master cylinder

1. Permits the brake to be released by allowing th flow of fluid from the brake unit to the reserve

2. Prevents dragging or binding of brakes due to thermal expansion of brake fluid.

3. Replenishes the brake line as required due to brake line wear or any small leakage inn the syst

Parking brake operation.

The parking brake system is by ratchet operated handle-connected to the brake master cylinder
by cab linkage.
i. Fully depress the rudder pedals (brake) and iull the parking breakllevcr fully out an twist ant-
clock wise to vertical position, the piston will lock.

ii. To release parking brakes, apply toe pressure more thati the initial application and t the handle
clock vic nnd nnch Cii1!r

50

iii. : Application of pedal before and after prevents overstraining the cable.

Boostcd brakes system : - (fig 9-32, 10-47) -

- As a ride, power boost brakes are used oi aircraft 1/tat land too fast to employ the iirdepeiidei.
brake System, but too light to require power brake control valves.

- The action of boosted brake master cylinders is similar to the ordinary master cylinder except in
the following ways; V

i. The cylinder is connected to the aircraft main hydraulic system.

ii. The toggle mechanism operates a. spool valve which opens to permit the system pressurc
assist the pilot to move the piston.

Operation boosted brake system. fig 10-47

- As the pilot applies toe pressure, the piston is pulled down, sending the fluid pressure to the
bra]

cylinder: V V

- The tendency is for the toggle mechanism to straighten out moving the spool valve down vars

- Further movement of the piston will cause the valve to open the lower port and allow flowing
LC the top of the piston and forcing the piston further down there by assisting the pilot to apply
pressure. V

- When the pressure on the brakes is released the toggle mechanism returns the valve to its origin
position, venting the top of the piston to the reservoir.
- Simultaneously the compensator poppet valve opens to vent(the brakes) to the reservoir and bra
are released (see page 365 for another type of boosted brakes) fig 9-32

POWER BRAKES fig 10-48,9-28)

- This type is found on large aircraft brake system which cannot be operated by either the master
cylinder or boosted type.

- the pressure to actuate the brake is obtained from the aircraft main hydraulic system

- Because of the weight and size of the aircraft large wheels and brakes are required hence r - tei
fluid displacement and high pressures.

- The following units are fitted to adapt the high pressure of hydraulic system to the special
requirements of the brake system.

1. Check vave (non-return valve)

This prevents loss of brake system:in case of main system failure.

2. Accumu(ator V

This stores a reserve supply of fluid under pressure to cater for minor leakages and also to preve
pressure surges or fluctuations. V

3. Brake control valve

These valves are installed in the system to ensure that braking action is proportional to the press
exerted on the brake pedals without there being a build up pressure in the brake line.(controls or
regulates the volume and pressure of fluid which actuates the brakes)

4. Prsure rellef vavosz

: These valves reliefs excess pressure of the normal pressure

51

/
In a particular design, they are pre-set to Open at 82S psi and connect the system to retu

line

Closing of these valves is at 760 psi -

. Shuttle valve

The purpose of shuttle valve is to isolate the normal brake system from the emergency system.

6. De-boosters (fig 9-3 1)

These are fitted to reduce the main system pressure to a value more suitable for braking action
(pressure reducing valves).

7. Antiskid system:

Operation of power brakes

The pilots pressure on the rudder pedal (toe-pressure) depresses a plunger on the brake contro
valve and opens a spool valve which directs hydraulic pressure to the brakes.

The dc-booster valve operates on principle of differential area to reduce the pressure going to t
brakes.

The de-booster has a valve which opens to replenish the brake line if there should be a leak

Lock- out de-boosters operates on the same principle-except that tO replenish the brake line, a
handle must be pulled manually.

An ant skid system is fitted to prevent lock up of wheels which would cause loss of direction
and braking control.

The ant-skid system senses wheel deceleration and regulates the amount of fluid pressure to th
brakes so as to maintain optimum braking action under all conditions.

Optimum braking friction is reached when the speed of the tire is slightly less than the speed c
aircraft causing the tyre to slip a little without skidding.
 The friction between the tyre and the run way sur.face is affected by the type of the surface,
condition of the surface and condition of the tyre.

THE ANTI - SKID SYSTEM

The purpose of a wheel brake is to bring a rapidly moving aircraft to a stop during ground roll.

Modern high speed aircraft usually have more than one wheel on each side, and all of the braki
on one side are controlled with one pedal

With this arrangement, the pilot has no way to know when one of the wheels begins to skid so
corrective action can be taken to release locked up wheels, the tyre is likely to blow out and co of
the aircraft can be lost.

When the aircraft touches down on water covered runway and the pilot applies brakes, the fricl
on the run way surface is so much less than that generated in the brake that the wheel locks-up
the tyre hydroplanes down the run way, supported on the surface of water in much the same w.
Atwater skier is supported.

All braking action and directional control is lost for a hydroplaning wheel

If the break pressure is held constant after the slip starts and the whel begins to decelerate, th
brake friction will rapidly increase to a point that a wheel will lock-up the tyre will skid over 11
run way and produce very little braking.

52

With the design of the ant skid system, it is ensured that optimumbraking pressure is

- applied under any prevailing condition and restricts maximum pressure to just below the value
that would cause the locking of the wheels.

A good ant-skid or skid control system requires two features: -

1. They must be a form of wheel speed sense-that can defect a change 1. the rate of deceleration,

2, A signal for the pressure to be released before the wheel gets deep in; its skid, also valve to act
fast enough to prevent all of the pressure being released before the next application of the brake.
Operation of anti-skid system:

When the pilot wants to stop the aircraft in the shortest distance possible, it is necessary to
depri the brake pedals all the way to call for maximum braking.

All of the brakes receive maximum pressure but if any wheel should start decelerating at a rate

which would indicate an impending skid, the pressure to brake is dumped into the system
retulT

manifold.

At this time the control circuit measures the amount of time required for the wheel to spin b and
then applies a slightly reduced pressure to the brake a pressure determined by the time required
for the spin up.

if this reduced pressure cause a skid to begin to develop, enough of it is released to allow the w]
to spin back-up

some pressure is maintained in the wheel brake cylinder, however just enough to prevent the
pressure plate from moving all the way back

the application and release process continues with progressively decreasing pressure applied un
the wheel is held in the slip[ area, but not allowed to decelerate fast enough to produce a skid

It produces a proper amount of braking for any run way surface condition, with the pilot having
only to call for maximum braking.

When the aircraft is slowed down below approximately 20mph and there is no further danger ol
skidding, the ant skid system automatically de activates to give the pilot full control of the brak
for maneuvering. And parking. I

As a modern system, the ant-skid system has built in test circuit and at the same time in an ever
failure of the system it may be deactivated by the pilot to give him normal braking but no ant-si
protections

ANTI-SKID SYSETM COMPONENTS

1. wheelspeed sensor (Transducer) (fig 10-71)

The wheel speed sensor also known as transducer can be DC or AC type

It is a variable reluctance AC generator which is driven by the aircraft wheel and it senses the
wheel rotational speed.

It also senses changes in the wheel speed.

It is mounted on each wheel in the wheel axle.

The faster the wheel turns, the higher the frequency of induced current.

The signal from the speed sensor is conveyed to the control box.

2. Control box

This converts the ac signal to de signal which is generated by the wheel speed sensor

It can interrupt their signals as:

i. Developing skid..

ii. Locked wheels

iii. Brake application

iv. Brake release

It analyses all it reads, and then send an appropriate signals to solenoids in the skid control
valves to a required.

3. Control valves

These are solenoid operated

If there is no signal (because there is no wheel skidding) the skid control valve will have no ef
on brake operation
 If a skid develops , either slight or serious a signal is sent to the skid control valve solenoid

The solenoid action lowers the metered pressure in line between the metering and the brake
cylinder dumping fluid into the reservoir return lime whenever the solenoid is energized and
relaxes the brake application.

The pressure flow into the brake lines from the metering valve continues as long as the pilot
depresses the brake pedal, but the flow of fluid is routed to the reservoir instead of to the whee
brakes.

The system is designed to apply enough force to operate just below the skid point and this give
the most efficient braking

The pilot can turn off the operation system of anti-skid system by switch in the cockpit, a red h
will come on when the system is turned off or when there is failure.

FUNCTIONS OF ANT-SKID SYSTEM

1. Normal skid control

Normal skid control comes into play when the wheel rotates slowly down but has not C

to a stop

When this happens the wheel sliding action has just began but has not yet reached a ful.

scale slide

In this situation the skid control valve removes some of the hydraulic pressure to the v..

This permits the wheel to rotate a little faster and stop its skidding.

The skid detection and control of each wheel is completely independent of the others

The wheel skid intensity is measured by the amount of wheel slow down

54

2.. Locked whee skid control

 The locked speed control causes the brake to be fully released when its wheel rocks. A lock
wheel easily occurs on a patch of ice due to lack of tyre friction with the surface.

It will occur if the normal skid control does not prevent the wheel from reaching a full skid. To
release a locked wheel skid, the pressure is bled off longer than in normal skid function.

This action gives the wheel time to regain speed. The locked wheel skid control is out of action
during aircraft speed of less than 15-20 mph.

3. Touchdown protection

The touchdown protection circuit prevents the brakes from being applied during landing appro
even if the brakes are applied.

This prevents the wheels from being locked when tFey contact the run way.

The wheels have a chance to begin rotating before they carry the full weight of the aircraft.

Conditions for skid control valves to permit brake appilcafion

a. The squat switch must signal that the weight of the aircraft is on its wheels

b. The wheel speed sensor senses a wheel speed of over 15-20mph.

4. Fail safe protection

The fail safe protection circuit monitors operation of the skid control system.

It automatically returns the brake system full manual in case of system failure and also turns on
the warning lights.

EMERGENCY BRAKE SYSTEM see fig 10-48

In case of a total hydraulic pressure failure, the emergency system provides a means of
stopping the aircraft during emergency landing

A pneumatic valve located by the pilot and it directs compressed air or nitrogen to the brakes
through a shuttle valve.
 When the pilot turns the emergency handle, he is actually adjusting the regulator controls air
pressure to the brakes.

When the handle is rotated in the direction to release the brakes, the air is exhausted overboard.

Rather than allowing compressed air to enter the wheel cylinders, which would cause o:

require the entire brake system to be bled the emergency air may be directed into the transfer
tube. the air forces hydraulic fluid from this tube into the brake system.

NOSE WHEEL t3RAKES:

Many large transport aircraft e.g B727, A380, A320, MIG-21 have brakes installed on the nose
wheel

. Movement of either left or right brake pedals will actuate the corresponding right or left main
brake.

55

If

BRAKE INSPECTION AND SERVICE:

Brake inspection can be divided into two categories;

1. IN SITU (ON THE AIRCRAFT)

a. Cheek the wear of the lining

b. Check for air in the system check for fluid quantity and type

c. Condition of brake housing

d. Check for condition of seals

e. Bolts and all threaded connections

Check disc condition and wear

Check for condition of automatic adjusters

Condition of torque tubes

Condition of brake housing and pistons

Check for condition.of seals

Bolts and all threaded connections%

7V

er

V_,,I ..

Movement of both brakes pedals will apply both maine fks)

nl)proxirnatcly half the pedal travel.

VV

Nose gear brake application is controlled through the bkdiTfeEftifliiikage.

When the brak pedals are depressed the differential 1sagto the Vfl gear metering valve first
after this valve is opened continu v fThe braice pedals is directed to the nose gear metering valve
and then to the brakes, nose wheel braking is availabh above I 5mpkfrom straight ahead to
approximately 60 of steering

At this point the nose wheel steering brake, outs off sw t-dcl

off nose wheel braking. V

There is no nose wheel braking below 15mph. V

,S1VVi r

..

.) e VT
2..

a.

b.

C.

d.

e.

f.

- Ii,)_;

Ckv.

OFF THE AIRCRAFT (ON BENCH INSPECTION)

Brake LJning Wear :. V

Brake lining wear at a rate that depends on usage, i.e on of landings aitheV degteof braking and
req

frequent inspection to determine if the wear is within limits. V IV .., ..

Wear on good year brakes is usually determined by the length of the rtim pinf the automatic
adjust

Sticks through the bushing V V V

The manufacturer will specify the minimum extension permitted

Brakes without automatic adjusters have the thickness of the litiing omared with No. 4driU

VV

(0.098) diameter. (see fig 10-56) V

V 1...,
 The linings musLbe replaced just before they reach this thickness.

multiple disc brakes can be measured by applying the brales the clearance bet the back of
pressure plate and the edge of the brake linings V

alternatively a gauge can be provided for this purpose (see fig 10-57)

Excessive clearance mean excessive wear in brake unit and the unit should be disassembled an
wear of the disc checked individually. V

56 -

Cleveland brake linings should be replaced when they are worn to thickness of 0.100 or

Checkinqfor1afr in the system:

the presence of air in the brake line is indicate by the sponginess Of the brakes

The air must be expelled by bleeding in order to restore the brake effectiveness

CYLINDER BRAKES (INDEPENDENT BRAKE SYSTEM)

.. -When t brake master cylinder is fully released, there is direct passage from the brake cylinder
throghee-mpensator port to the reservoir and this prevents any pressure to build up in the brake
rcausig brakes to drag.

1. Pressure method

Remove the screw from the bleed valve on the brake cylinder

Connect a pressure pot containing hydraulic fluid under. pressure ensure that there is no

. in the line of the pressure port

V Attach another hose to the masterVcylinder vent and dip the other end into a container f

fluid
 Open the valve of the pressure port to allow fluid under pressure from the port through ti

cylinder and break lines out through the reservoir vent into the container.

Watch for bubbles in the container at the reservoir end and a low the fluid to continue

flowing until no more bubbles arc seen.

V Close the valve on the port and also close the bleeder screw and disconnect the port.

- V Disconnect the hose at the reservoir and check that;there is sufficient fluid in the reservo

- Tax the aircraft to ascertain breaking efficiency.

2. Manual

V V In this method, fluid is forced through the brake line from the normal direction and the
press is provided by pumping on the pedal at the master cylinder.

V V V - V Fit one end of a flexible tube to the bleeder valve screw on the brake cylinder and dip

V opposite end into the container of fluid

= t Ensure the fluid level in the master cylinder reservoir is kept constant by replenishing thr

V:V the plug on the reservoir.

V V An oil can be used for this purpose V

V V Open the bleeder valve on the brake cylinder and pump the master cylinder

V V Observe for bubbles in the fluid container and continue pumping the master cylinder until

V bubbles cease. V

V V Hold the master cylinder depressed and close the bleeder valve on the brake cylinder.

V V V Disconnect the horse from the bleeder valve and replenish the reservoir if necessary.

- V V V V V V Tax the aircraft to ascertain brake efficiency.

57

3LEFDNG OF POWER BRAKES

Remove the bleeder screw from the brake cylinder and install a length of flexible hose

Place the other end of the hose in a clean container of hydraulic fliid

Open the bleeder valve and with hydraulic pressure in the proper operating range, very careful
apply the brakes.

Allow fluid to flow to the container until no more bubbles are seen

Close the bleeder valve, remove the hose and replace the bleeder screw.

. The bleeding procedure is not complete until both the main and emergency or backup systems
free of air.

Run the engine and tax the aircraft to ascertain the breaking efficiency.

CHECKING FLUID QUANTITY AND TYPE

It is important that reservoir be filled with the right amount of fluid and the specified type

If insufficient fluid quantity is filled it will degrade the effectiveness of the brake and also allo
to enter.

Wrong type of fluid will cause damage to the seals as they will be attacked by incompatible flu

Two types of hydraulic fluid commonly used are

i. Phosphate ester-based synthetic fluid such as SKYDROL

ii. Mineral based hydraulic fluid e.g MIL-H-5606 red oil

D.T.D 585 BRITISH EQUIVALENT.

CHECKING THE ENTIRE SYSTEM FOR LEAKS

System leakages are likely to occur at threaded connections, past rubber seals defective castin
 Simply retightening leaking connections may not solve the problem as aleak may be sign of
internal damage

The correct procedure is to turn off the system and check the leaking area thoroughly

Check for proper torque and do not over tighten.

BOLT TORQUE

All aircraft landing gear components are subject to hammering actions.

Check the bolts and nuts for proper torque using serviceable torque wrench

Use a red paint mark across the bolt and nut or bolt and structure

Any break in the paint will show some looseness.

DISC CONDITION

Check disc wear

Check for cracks

Check for warping

Check for grazing and corrosion

I)

58

AUTOMATIC ADJUSTERS

Check return pin visually for bending or other damage and magnetically for cracks.

Check for free movement of adjusters.

TORQUE TUBE

check for burrs

 checkforscratches

check for bending

check for corrosion and general condition

BRAKE HOUSING AND PISTON

Cracks using non- destructive testing

Scratches

Toolmarks

Corrosion

Scratches on pistons

Wear of pistons

CONDITIONS OF SEALS

Check for extrusion

Check for excessive heating

Check for twisting

Check for general deterioration

BRAKE MALFUNCTION AND DAMAGE:

Common malfunctions or problems with brakes during service:

1. Over heating

Brakes are designed to absorb great amount of heat, but during abnormal operation, rejected taK
off or prolonged hash braking and overheating condition-care full inspection must be carried out

3. Dragging
This is a situation on the brakes to continue holding after pressure has been removed off the bn

pedals

If not corrected it leads to overheating and excess wear

It will also affect aircraft take off performance.

Causes of dragging brakes:

a. Air in the system

b. Weak return spring

c. Faulty adjusters

ci. Fitting of new linings (disappears after some few rounds of taxing

ii

4. Chattering and squealing:

. Chattering of brakes result from brakes failing to provide smooth action and instead coming on
off generating vibration and noise

b. At high frequency, this noise is loud and squeals

Causes of chattering

a. Warped and grazed disc

b. Non- parallel disc

c. Un even friction due to the effect of over heating

5. SPOGGY BRAKES

Spongy brakes are caused by air in the brake system

6. LONG PEDAL TRAVEL

4. long pedal travel before brake application can be caused by low fluid level

\ c i.-

See landing gear travel system maintenance from page 400-405.

1. Landing gear rigging and adjustment

2. Landing gear latches adjustment

3. Landing gear door clearance

4. Landing gear side and drag strut adjustment

5. Landing gear retraction check /test

ACCASIONS WHEN TO CARRY OUT LANDING GEAR RETRACTION TEST

1. As called upon by the Maintenance Schedule

2. When performing maintenance work which will affect landing gear linkages and adjustments e
exchange of actuator.

3. After hard landing or over weight landing

4. When malfunctioning of landing gear is reported.

SPECIFIC IPSPECTION TO PERFORM WHEN CARRYING OUT THE RETRACTION

CHECKS

1. Check landing gear for proper retraction and extension

2. Check for lights, switches and warning horn or buzzer for proper operation

3. Check for landing gear door for clearance and freedom of binding

4. Check landing gear leakages for proper operation adjustment and general condition

5. Check for latches and locks for proper operation and adjustment

6. Check for emergency extension system for proper operation.