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variations is demonstrated in a practical broadband test Smallsignal RF designers are very familiar with the
fixture design. classic sparameter [1] characterization and design methods
for smallsignal linear devices. Data is usually available at
INTRODUCTION multiple collector bias voltage and current conditions over
Many first time RF power designers, brought up on a diet a wide range of frequencies. The ease of making these
of smallsignal sparameters, previously used for solving measurements accurately with modern network analyzers
small signal text book problems, assume these same has done a great deal for systemizing smallsignal RF
techniques are applicable to bipolar classC and classAB amplifier design. The availability of software for analyzing
power amplifier design. They consider the best match is and optimizing the performance of broadband amplifiers and
achieved by a simultaneous conjugate match of the input establishing their stable operation has further improved the
and output. However, power amplifiers provide higher power design methodology. However, when the designer is asked
gain and better efficiency at the rated output power if the to step into the high power RF design world, he is
output is purposely mismatched. An added benefit of doing immediately confronted with several possible device
this is potentially unstable devices, conjugately matched, can characterization methods. First of all, lets understand the
be operated stably under these more optimum mismatched term high power. As used in this paper, we are talking about
conditions. RF power amplifier devices with output powers from roughly
More knowledgeable designers, familiar with largesignal one watt to several hundred watts. At these power levels,
impedances, naively assume the published impedances are the smallsignal sparameters lose their usefulness in
independent of operating point. They forever wonder why, determining appropriate source and load reflection
although they have designed their impedance transformation coefficients, to say nothing of the familiar gain and stability
networks to match the device data book impedances, they circles or nonunilateral issues. This is because high power
have to tweak the circuit for optimum performance. This classC RF amplifiers are VERY nonlinear. The industry
is the basis for much of the black magic that surrounds RF standard sparameters are valid only for devices operated
power amplifier design, but the reality is the circuit designer in smallsignal linear conditions. These parameters have
is plagued with a paucity of good design data, and a lack very limited use in high power applications. One exception
of adequate tools to make the initial design foolproof. This is presented by Frost, [2] in using the largesignal
paper intends to enlighten these engineers to the true sparameters as an aid in the stability analysis process.
meaning of largesignal series equivalent device Hejhall, [3] also demonstrates the use of smallsignal
impedances. We will also show that the output impedance sparameters for stability analysis in FET power amplifier
is, for the most part, under the control of the circuit designer, design and shows their utility when largesignal impedances
and the input device impedance can be expected to change are unavailable.
depending upon the designers choice of output matching (or, LargeSignal SParameters
in some cases, intentional mismatching).
The availability of network analyzers and the subsequent
DEFINITIONS ease of measuring smallsignal sparameters has led to a
characterization technique referred to in the literature as
Smallsignal sparameters have gained a great deal of largesignal sparameters. Successful measurement and
acceptance in low power linear amplifier design. usage of these parameters has been reported [4][12].
Unfortunately, progress in largesignal power amplifier However, the authors are not aware of these parameters
design has been less substantial. Techniques have been being used successfully above a few watts of output power.
published over the years, e.g., largesignal sparameters; Measurement of these parameters is usually accomplished
loadpull; and stability analysis using smallsignal by driving the device from a 50 ohm source to achieve a
sparameters, but they have not gained wide spread collector or drain current comparable to that expected in
acceptance for a number of reasons, including the degree actual operation.
REV 0
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Devices with output power ratings above a few watts have These benefits do not come without some labor. In
input reflection coefficient magnitudes very close to one, general, loadpull data is usable only at the operating
requiring drive levels far beyond the capability of a standard conditions at which it is measured. As can be seen in Figure
network analyzer to merely turn the device on, if operated 16, a large set of load impedance points must be presented
in classC. This restriction can be alleviated to some extent, to the device output, in order to construct the power gain
by providing a degree of impedance matching between the and efficiency contours. Changes in bias voltage or output
network analyzer ports and the device, and deembedding power require the retaking of data over the same range
the device from the impedance transforming network. There of load impedance conditions. Without proper equipment this
is also a question of the validity of the S22 and S12 type of characterization is very tedious, time consuming, and
measurements for classC design. If the device is biased prone to errors. With the advent of automated tuners
off, as is normally the case in classC, the measurements measurement of the data is not as time intensive as some
of these two parameters will be in err. Ideally, the transistor of the earlier methods, and computer software can be used
should be operating with drive applied to the input when to manipulate the data and fit the contours. For power
making these measurements. The test signal can then be devices it does require a test fixture with some degree of
applied to the output port and the reverse gain and output impedance matching, and the matching networks must be
reflection coefficient measured with the device at a normal characterized so that the device impedances can be
operating bias. This method is described in more detail by deembedded.
Mazumder [8]. Harmonic loading of the device is a factor If data is available over the whole band, the gain response
not addressed by most largesignal sparameter proponents with frequency can be optimized for flatness and best
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
but plays a significant part in the nonlinear operation of RF efficiency, by selecting a low frequency load line impedance
power amplifiers. on a constant gain circle that compensates for the inherently
In addition, these measurements require EXTREME higher gain of the transistor at lower frequency. Broadband
caution. Making a direct connection of a network analyzer solutions from network design programs i.e. SuperCompact
to a potentially unstable 100+ watt device could be very and Touchstone can be evaluated to assess how much they
hazardous to the network analyzer. Custom built test sets have comprised gain and efficiency throughout the band in
and measurement systems are almost always required. arriving at a broadband match.
Further, this type of characterization gives the designer no
information as to how other parameters, such as efficiency, LargeSignal Series Equivalent Impedances
behave with fundamental load impedance variations. The classic technique of high power device characterization
used by Motorola is that of largesignal series equivalent input
LoadPull
and output impedances as presented by Hejhall [13]. Almost
Another characterization technique is referred to in the every RF power device in Motorolas RF Device Data Book
literature as loadpull [16][24]. This technique results in has a section identifying the devices largesignal series
the graphical presentation of a performance parameter such equivalent input and output impedances. Most often, the
as gain, efficiency or IMD, versus a source or load device output impedance is referred to as the complex
impedance. Although the technique has been known for conjugate of the optimum load impedance into which the
some time, the widespread availability of desktop computers device output operates at a given output power, voltage and
and automatic tuning systems is just now making this method frequency. That is certainly a statement requiring some
more attractive, particularly for higher power devices. The careful thought, especially since the term output impedance
characterization process is conceptually quite simple. A is somewhat misleading. The designer new to high power
variety of load impedances are presented to the device as devices should be aware that this so called output
shown in Figure 16. The performance of the device is impedance has no connection with the S22 smallsignal
measured at each one of these points, and fed into a surface measurement. Rather, as described in [13], it is the conjugate
generating program. (See the appendix for further of the LOAD impedance at the fundamental operating
information). Figure 1 shows an example of how the gain frequency which allowed the transistor to function properly.
of the 15 watt MRF873 varies at 870 MHz with various The designer should also be aware that the characterizations
fundamental frequency load impedances. Figure 2 shows on a devices data sheet are valid for some very specific
how the collector efficiency of this device varies under the conditions of frequency, supply voltage, input or output
same conditions. The influence of output load impedance power, bias levels, harmonic loading and even flange
on input impedance, due to finite reverse transfer, is temperature. The output impedance published in the data
illustrated by the input return loss surface in Figure 3. These sheet is usually the conjugate of the LOAD impedance that
surface plots are converted to contour plots in Figures 415. provides maximum gain at a given output power. Suppose
Now the designer can easily see areas of the reflection the designer is interested in maximum efficiency, not
coefficient plane where the matching network should not be maximum gain. As seen in the loadpull contours the
centered, due to a high degree of variability in a particular fundamental frequency load impedance producing maximum
performance parameter. A method has been proposed by efficiency does not coincide with the maximum gain
Stancliff and Poulin [25] to examine the loadpull impedance. It is up to the device designer to choose which
performance of a device by varying not only the fundamental impedance gets published. One is just as valid as the other.
frequency impedance presented to the device, but also the However, quite frankly, gain is what sells devices. Likewise,
second harmonic impedance as well. This technique can Figures 7, 11 and 15 show how the input return loss, and
provide the designer with extremely useful information about thus the device input impedance, is also a function of the
the devices behavior. load impedance. The input impedance for higher power
2 MOTOROLA
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devices is a much stronger function of load impedance than output power and the collector bias voltage determine the
shown for this small device. operating load line. The output reactance of the device under
Device impedances published by vendors of RF power these conditions is conjugately matched to achieve
transistors should only be used as an approximation for a maximum power transfer, although this condition may be
first cut circuit design. In a broadband amplifier design it is modified, at the expense of gain, to attain higher efficiency.
often difficult to obtain a good match over the full frequency The load line resistance is given approximately by:
range and in certain circumstances the input or output is VCC VCE(sat)RF)2
deliberately mismatched to compensate for the gain RL = (1)
2 * Pout
increase at lower frequencies to provide a level gain
response. Good design would opt for a loadline where the where VCC is the collector supply voltage,
lower gain corresponds to a higher efficiency operating point. Pout is the required peak power,
and VCE(sat)RF is the collectoremitter saturation voltage
MRF873 DEVICE IMPEDANCE COMPARISON FOR under the frequency of operation. The value of this
DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION parameter is particularly difficult to measure, but the normal
range is 1.0 to 2.5 Volts depending on the geometry, epitaxial
Device characterization techniques are not the only
doping and thickness. A good approximate value for 12.5
difference in the way a high power RF device is specified.
Volt devices is 1.5 Volts and for 24 Volt transistors is 2 Volts.
Many devices are specified and characterized for classC
The load line resistance is the optimum load impedance
or AB operation. Common questions when using a device
for the internal collector node of the transistor, neglecting
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
Table 2. SmallSignal SParameter Data for the MRF873 at VCC = 12.5 Vdc
S11 S12 S21 S22
Frequency
(MHz) IC S11 S12 S21 S22
806 50 mA 0.963 172.8 0.006 7.72 0.437 4.95 0.910 163.5
2A 0.877 170.9 0.024 27.9 1.567 12.7 0.697 174.5
838 50 mA 0.961 172.4 0.005 4.12 0.436 11.0 0.928 164.5
2A 0.858 172.7 0.022 17.5 1.639 3.30 0.723 169.9
870 50 mA 0.958 172.3 0.004 8.35 0.435 17.7 0.948 165.4
2A 0.861 175.3 0.018 6.31 1.592 21.7 0.789 166.8
Since classC circuits are biased at cutoff and classAB evaluated. The engineer unfamiliar with RF power devices
at low quiescent current compared to the collector current will probably ask, If the fixture is used to produce a
at peak output power there is a question at which bias point consistent device, what produced the fixture? The answer
to take the sparameters. lies in the device development process.
Below is a comparison of the device impedances During the development of an RF power transistor,
computed from the sparameters at a typical bias current sample devices are typically evaluated in narrowband
for classAB operation and the same measurements at a tuneable fixtures. During this evaluation period, the device
collector current corresponding to operation of the device designer is balancing a multitude of performance parameters
at rated output power under classC conditions. with customer and manufacturing requirements. By the end
This data shows a large shift in the impedances computed of the evaluation period, devices from quite a wide
from the sparameter data introduced by changing the bias distribution will have been constructed. These devices are
point. For this particular transistor, it indicates the then used to design a broadband fixture to be used in
simultaneous conjugate match impedances, taken at a characterization and factory testing of the production part.
collector current more in line with the current under classC A typical broadband fixture and circuit schematic are shown
conditions, are a better match to the conjugate of the classC in Figures 20 and 21 for the MRF873 RF power transistor.
impedances. Comparison of the output simultaneous Broadband performance for this fixture is shown in Figure 25.
conjugate match impedance with the relatively higher Specifications for the device are based on this fixture and
optimum load line impedance from the loadpull the devices that defined it. A portion of these evaluation
measurements, illustrates how the load line has been shifted devices are locked away and referred to as master
to increase the efficiency of the amplifier. A rough calculation engineering correlation units. Motorolas philosophy is that
of the collector efficiency from (Re(Zopt )/[Re(Zopt ) + in the event of a damaged or irreplaceable fixture, these
Re(ZM1)]) gives a value of 68% at 870 MHz, very close to master devices are sufficient to duplicate the fixture. To be
the actual value of 70% from the efficiency contours with sure, there is considerable data taken on the original fixture.
the same loadline. Note maximum power transfer cannot This data is not limited to RF performance but also includes
usually be achieved with a simultaneous conjugate match such information as broadband source and load impedance
because of nonlinear current limiting characteristics of the sweeps. The engineer new to RF power design must
device. understand that the impedances presented in the data sheet
ARE NOT the impedances of the broadband fixture.
CURRENT METHODS OF ENSURING
CONSISTENT DEVICE IMPEDANCES Data Book Impedances
Users of RF power transistors have two main concerns Data book impedances are normally taken at the rated
with regard to the long term consistency of the device, output power and nominal supply voltage. The transistor is
minimum gain requirements and consistent impedances. operated in a test fixture with a range of tuning either by
Most of the recent devices characterized for the land mobile onboard trimming capacitors or external tuners or a
environment utilize a broadband fixture to demonstrate combination of both methods. The impedances seen in the
performance over a range of frequencies. The recently data sheet represent the average of several devices placed
introduced MRF650 goes a step further and specifies gain, in a narrowband fixture and tuned, usually for maximum gain,
efficiency and input return loss at three frequencies of at a specific output power, supply voltage and frequency with
operation in a specified test fixture. Motorola has found over reflected power minimized to at least 25 dB input return
the years that this is the most cost effective way of producing loss. The device is removed and the SOURCE and LOAD
RF power devices with minimum variability. Of course, new impedances at Fc are measured with the reference plane
testing and characterization techniques are constantly being at the device package edge. A piece of information NOT
4 MOTOROLA
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specified on Motorola data sheets (or any other vendors data by external bias tees, and if correctly bypassed, improves
sheet known to the authors) is the impedances at the the stability under mismatch conditions.
harmonic frequencies presented to the device. In most
cases, it is the first shunt capacitance combined with the Automated Tuners
device package series inductance that determines the Automated tuners offer a number of advantages. If used
second harmonic impedance present at the INTERNAL wisely, they can provide inline impedance measurement
collectoremitter terminals. The designer should simply be capability, and allow rapid characterization of a device under
aware that it is possible to have a perfect match at the loadpull conditions. Inline measurement of device
fundamental frequency and NOT get the published impedances makes it practical to measure a sufficient
performance due to improper harmonic terminating number of devices to establish impedance distributions for
impedances. a particular device type. Currently available systems are,
A further point of clarification is the measurement however, still too slow to use in a production environment
technique for these very low impedances. Several for 100% testing of RF transistors. Loadpull characterization
techniques exist for the measurement of the source and load can be performed under custom conditions enabling an
impedances presented to a device. The simplest approach amplifier designer to start the matching network synthesis
is to construct an impedance measuring probe similar to with impedance data representative of the final operating
those shown in Figures 1719. These probes are nothing conditions.
more than a blank device package appropriate for the fixture Automated tuners need to be coupled with some type of
being used, with a short piece of small semirigid 50 ohm
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
6 MOTOROLA
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B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
806 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 806 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
Figure 4. MRF873 Constant Gain Contours Figure 5. MRF873 Constant Efficiency Contours
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
806 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 806 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
838 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 838 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
Figure 8. MRF873 Constant Gain Contours Figure 9. MRF873 Constant Efficiency Contours
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6
B6 B6
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
838 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 838 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
Figure 10. MRF873 Combined Gain Figure 11. MRF873 Constant Input
and Efficiency Contours Return Loss Contours
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B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
Figure 12. MRF873 Constant Gain Contours Figure 13. MRF873 Constant Efficiency Contours
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6 B6
Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms Load Impedance Chart Z0 = 3.0 Ohms
870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts 870 MHz, ClassC, VCE = 12.5 VDC, Pin = 2.4 Watts
Figure 14. MRF873 Combined Gain Figure 15. MRF873 Constant Input
and Efficiency Contours Return Loss Contours
B6 # CDD D
*% CDD
D
D
B6 B6
B6
B6
B6 B6
B6
B6
B6
B6
Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
Figure 16. LoadPull Impedances Presented to Figure 17. Drawing of 1/2 CQ Package Impedance
MRF873 at 870 MHz Measurement Probe Including DeEmbedding
Circuit Model
Figure 18. Photograph of CS12 Impedance Figure 19. Photograph of 1/2 CQ Impedance
Measurement Probe Measurement Probe
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Figure 22. Photograph of BreakApart Test Fixture Figure 23. Photograph of BreakApart Test Fixture
Fully Assembled Setup for Impedance Measurements
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12 MOTOROLA
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device under the proposed operating conditions, and then Pom is the measured power meter reading corrected
permitting the software to synthesize the optimum broadband for directional coupler coupling magnitude,
matching networks. attenuation and meter frequency response.
Using this method, accurate measurement of power and
hence efficiency can be obtained for a system in which the
SuperCompact is a trademark of Compact Software and load impedance is perturbed from the characteristic
Touchstone is a registered trademark of EESof, Inc. impedance of the transmission line power meter
components. Contours can be generated from this grid data
APPENDIX I: by a number of commercially available software packages.
LoadPull Method and Corrections for An alternative system would be to use tuners in place
Power Measurement in of the attenuator/shorted stub combination. The tuners can
Non50 Ohm Environment be either manual or automated. The advantage of the latter
is that with suitable software the deembedded load
Loadpull measurements can employ a variety of test i mpedanc e pres ented to the dev ic e i s av ailable
equipment and methods. For the loadpull measurements
instantaneously. Also, with suitable software, the gain and
described earlier in this paper we used readily available and efficiency circles can be determined by contour following
inexpensive equipment. In addition to the usual equipment techniques in real time, instead of fitting contours to
found on an RF power bench including a computer as the measurements on a grid of load mismatch points [20].
instrument controller, the only additional pieces of equipment
needed are a vector voltmeter, a variety of low attenuation REFERENCES
power attenuators, and a variable length shorted stub.
Figure 24 shows a block diagram of the bench setup. A (1) K. Kurokawa, Power Waves And Scattering Matrix,
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terminating a broadband test fixture with the attenuators and Techniques, 194202, March 1965.
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By varying the value of attenuation, a grid of load (3) R. Hejhall, SmallSignal Parameters Aid FET
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(4) R. J. Chaffin, and W. H. Leighton, LargeSignal
a probe in the device socket to measure this series of load
SParameter Characterization of UHF Power
impedances. A vector voltmeter, with error correction, could
Transistors, Digest of Technical Papers, Proceedings
of course have been used to measure these impedances.
1973 IEEE MTT International Microwave Symposium,
After system calibration, the transistor was operated with
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the drive level adjusted to obtain rated output power under
optimum tuning for maximum gain into a matched load. With (5) L. S. Houselander, H. Y. Chow, and R. Spence,
the drive level fixed at this level, the output power was Transistor Characterization by Effective LargeSignal
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This procedure was repeated at each frequency desired. The Circuits, SC5, 7779, April 1970.
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14 MOTOROLA
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(7) W. H. Leighton, R. J. Chaffin, and J. G. Webb, RF (22) Rodney S. Tucker, RF Characterization of Microwave
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Freescale Semiconductor, Inc...
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1980, pp 406408. 1984.
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